CHAPTER – 6: ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

You can very easily see the structural similarities and variations in the external morphology
of the larger living organisms, both plants and animals. Similarly, if we were to study the
internal structure, we would also find several similarities as well as differences. This
chapter introduces you to the internal structure and functional organisation of higher plants.
The study of the internal structure of plants is called anatomy. Plants have cells as the basic
unit; cells are organised into tissues, and in turn, the tissues are organised into organs.
Different organs in a plant show differences in their internal structure. Within angiosperms,
the monocots and dicots are also seen to be anatomically different. Internal structures also
show adaptations to diverse environments.

6.1 THE TISSUES

Tissue is a group of cells having a common origin and usually performing a common
function. The term tissue in plant anatomy was coined by Nehemiah Grew (1682).
The tissues can be divided into two groups based on the capability of division:

a) Meristematic tissues (undifferentiated) – Cells have the capacity for division, and it
is composed of immature cells.
b) Permanent tissues (differentiated) – Cells lose the capacity to divide, and it is
composed of mature cells.

6.1.1 MERISTEMATIC TISSUES

 Meristem: It is a localised region in which actual cell division occurs.

 The term “meristem” was coined by C.Nageli (1858) and derived from the Greek word
“meristos”, which means ‘divided’ or ‘divisible’.

Meristematic tissues are a group of cells that have the ability to divide, and they are
generally young and immature.

Characteristics of meristematic tissues

 These tissues consist of cells that have the power to divide.

 The protoplasm within the cell is dense, and vacuoles are smaller or absent.
 Cells are isodiametric, compactly arranged without intercellular spaces.
 Nucleus is bigger in size.
 Cells have thin cellulosic cell walls.
 They are highly metabolically active, so reserve food is absent in these cells.
 Colourless proplastids are present in the cells.
 Ergastic (non-living) substances are almost absent. E.g., Resin, Mucilage, Rubber

Classification of meristems

(1) Classification based on origin and development:

Promeristem/Primordial Primary meristem Secondary meristem

meristem

The meristem develops in  They are developed  They develop from

the beginning during the from pro meristem. primary permanent tissue
embryonic stage. It forms  It appears early in the by the process of
the primary meristem. life of a plant. dedifferentiation.
 Contribute to the  It appears later than the
formation of the primary primary meristem.
plant body.  By the activity of
 Cells are always in the secondary meristems,
division phase and form secondary growth takes
primary permanent place.
tissue through
differentiation.
E.g., Embryonic meristem E.g., Apical meristem, E.g., Interfascicular
intercalary meristem cambium, cork cambium of
intrafascicular cambium dicot stem, vascular
cambium and cork cambium
of dicot root.
(2) Classification based on the position in the plant body

Apical meristem Intercalary meristem Lateral meristem

 They occur at the  They are present at the  They occur on the lateral side
tips of roots and base of the internode of of plant organs.
shoots. monocot stems.  The activity of lateral
 They are  It also occurs at the base meristem increases the
responsible for the of leaves. circumference/girth/thickness
increase in length  It occurs between mature of plant organs.
of plant organs. tissues.  All secondary meristems are
 They are  It helps in the elongation lateral meristems.
responsible for of leaves and internodes, Primary lateral meristems:
primary growth. prostrate stems to Intra fascicular
E.g., Root apical become erect. cambium/fascicular cambium.
meristem, Shoot apical  They occur in grasses and This cambium occurs inside the
meristem regenerate parts removed vascular bundles of dicot stems.
by the grazing Secondary lateral meristems:
herbivores. Inter fascicular cambium and
cork cambium (phellogen) of
dicot stem, cork cambium and
vascular cambium of dicot roots.
6.1.2 PERMANENT TISSUES

 Permanent tissues are composed of cells that have lost the power of division temporarily
or permanently.
 The cells of primary and secondary meristems undergo division and differentiation to
produce primary and secondary permanent tissues of the plant body, respectively.

Classification of permanent tissues

Permanent tissues are basically of two types:

(i) Simple permanent tissues

a. Parenchyma
b. Collenchyma
c. Sclerenchyma
(ii) Complex permanent tissues
a. Xylem
b. Phloem

6.1.2.1 Simple Permanent Tissues

This tissue is made up of structurally similar types of cells or only one type of cells that
perform a common function. They are of three types:

a. Parenchyma

 It is the first differentiated, living tissue.

 This tissue forms the major component within various organs of plants and is present
in roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds.
 It forms the main bulk of the plant body.
 Cells are thin-walled. The cell wall is made up of pectocellulose, which means it is a
soft tissue.
 The cells of parenchyma are generally isodiametric. They may be spherical, oval,
polygonal or elongated in shape.
 Each cell contains a large central vacuole. So, the main function of a parenchyma cell
is the storage of food.
 Parenchymatous cells may either be closely packed or have small intercellular spaces.

Functions of parenchyma:

 Storage of food: One of the main functions is the storage of food. The parenchymatous
cells store various food materials like carbohydrates, oils, fats, proteins, etc.
 Photosynthesis: Some parenchymatous cells develop chloroplasts in them and perform
photosynthesis. Chloroplasts containing parenchyma are called chlorenchyma.
 Secretion: Some parenchymatous cells secrete substances like resin, nectar, oil, etc.
These cells lie in the resin ducts and other secretory substances and help in the release
of their product from the plant body.
 Aerenchyma: In aquatic plants, the intercellular spaces between the parenchyma cells
are very large and hence, it is called aerenchyma. It provides buoyancy to hydrophytes
(aquatic angiosperms) and it facilitates the gaseous exchange also.

b. Collenchyma

 It is a living mechanical tissue.

 Cells may be oval, spherical or polygonal in shape.
 Intercellular spaces are absent because these cells are closely packed with each other.
At the corners of these cells, thickenings of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin
develop, which provide strength to the walls.
 They occur in layers below the epidermis in dicotyledonous plants. It is found either as
a homogeneous (i.e., continuous) layer or in the form of patches discontinuously.
Collenchyma is absent in monocotyledonous plants, mature/woody plant parts
(after secondary growth in dicot stem) and roots.
 Some of the collenchymatous cells contain chloroplasts and perform photosynthesis
and assimilate the food.

Functions of collenchyma:

 It provides mechanical support to the growing parts of the plant, such as the young
stem and petiole of a leaf.
 It also resists the bending of stems and pulling out and tearing of young leaves due
to the action of wind.
 Due to the presence of chloroplast, the photosynthesis process (assimilation of food)
takes place in the collenchyma.
c. Sclerenchyma
 It is a dead mechanical tissue.
 Cells are generally long, narrow, thick-walled, lignified without protoplast and dead
(cells become dead at maturity)
 It is found in the hypodermis of the monocot stem.
 The cell wall is thick due to heavy deposition of lignin, which makes it strong, rigid and
impermeable to water.
 Walls of the sclerenchymatous cells possess few to numerous pits.

Types of sclerenchyma
On the basis of variation in form, structure, origin and development, sclerenchyma cells are
of two types: (1) Sclereids and (2) Sclerenchymatous fibres.

Type of sclerenchyma Characteristic features

cells
Sclereids  Cells are small, dead, extremely thick-walled and
generally, their ends are not pointed.
 They can be spherical, oval or cylindrical in shape.
 They have pits, and the lumen is almost very small/very
narrow.
Location: Fruit walls of nuts, pulp of guava, pear and
sapota; seed coats of legumes and leaves of tea etc.

Sclerenchymatous  The fibres are thick-walled, elongated and pointed cells.

fibres  They are the longest cells in the plant body.
 Their both ends are pointed (tapering).
Location: Surface of seeds, fruits, etc. coir of coconut and
cotton fibres are surface fibres.

6.1.2.1 Complex Permanent Tissues

The complex tissue is made up of more than one type of cells, and these work together as
a unit. It is heterogeneous. It is also called vascular tissue or conducting tissue. They are of
two types: Xylem and Phloem.

XYLEM – Xylem functions as a conducting tissue for water and minerals from the roots
to the top of plants. It also provides the mechanical strength to the plant parts.
TYPES OF XYLEM

On the basis of origin, xylem tissue can be divided into

(a) Primary xylem

 The xylem that arises early, i.e., during the primary growth of a plant body, is called
the primary xylem.
 On the basis of development, it is divided into two types:
o Protoxylem – The first formed primary xylem is called protoxylem. It has a
vessel with a narrow diameter.
o Metaxylem – The later-formed primary xylem is called the metaxylem. It is
more mature than protoxylem. It has vessels with broad diameters.
Arrangement of primary xylem
 Endarch – The Protoxylem lies towards the centre (pith), and the metaxylem
lies towards the periphery.

 Exarch – The protoxylem lies towards the periphery, and the metaxylem lies
towards the centre.

(b) Secondary xylem

 Xylem, which is formed during secondary growth, is known as secondary xylem.
 It originates from vascular cambium during secondary growth.
  It is not differentiated into protoxylem and metaxylem.

ELEMENTS OF XYLEM

The xylem is a complex tissue that is composed of the following four different kinds of
elements: A. Tracheids, B. Vessels, C. Xylem fibres, and D. Xylem parenchyma.

A. Tracheids:
 They are primitive conducting elements of the xylem.
 They are elongated or tube-like cells with thick and lignified walls and tapering ends.
 These are dead and without protoplasm.
 A cavity (lumen) is always present inside the tracheid which is meant for the transport
of water and minerals through it.
 The tracheids form a long row, placed one above the other and form a continuous
‘channel’ for the conduction of water and minerals from roots to the stems and leaves.
 They are found in all categories of vascular plants, i.e., Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms
and Angiosperms.

Functions of tracheids

 Transport of water and minerals from roots to stems and leaves.

 Due to the presence of thickened and hard walls, they provide mechanical support to
the plant body.
B. Vessels
 They are the advanced conducting elements of the xylem.
 It is a long cylindrical tube-like structure made up of many cells called vessel members.
 Each vessel member has a lignified cell wall and a large central cavity for facilitating
water transport.
 They are also devoid of protoplasm and are dead.
 Vessel members are inter-connected through perforations in the walls.
 The presence of vessels is a characteristic feature of angiosperms.
 Gymnosperms and pteridophytes lack vessels.

Functions of vessels

 Longitudinal water and mineral transport.

 Mechanical support.
C. Xylem Fibres (wood fibres)
 Sclerenchyma fibres, which are present in the xylem, are called as xylary fibres or wood
fibres.
 They have highly thickened walls and obliterated central lumens.
 They are abundantly found in the secondary xylem.
 They are mechanical in function and provide support to the plant organs.
D. Xylem parenchyma
 Cells are living and thin-walled.
 Cell walls are made up of cellulose.
 They have a prominent nucleus and dense cytoplasm.
 They store food materials in the form of reserve foods like starch or fat or other
substances like tannins.
 They help in the radial conduction of water.

PHLOEM – It is a living tissue. It transports the organic materials, usually from leaves to
other parts of the plants like roots, growing tips of stems and leaves, flowers, fruits, etc.

TYPES OF PHLOEM

On the basis of origin, phloem can be divided into two types:

(a) Primary phloem

 The phloem that is formed during the primary growth of the plant body is called
the primary phloem.
 On the basis of development, it is divided into two types:
 o Protophloem – The first formed primary phloem is called protophloem.
It has narrow sieve tubes.
o Metaphloem – The later-formed primary phloem is called metaphloem.
It has bigger sieve tubes.
(b) Secondary phloem – The phloem that is formed during the secondary growth of
the plant body is called the secondary phloem. It is formed by the vascular cambial
ring.

ELEMENTS OF PHLOEM

It is composed of the four elements in angiosperms: A. Sieve tube elements, B.

Companion cells, C. Phloem fibres, and D. Phloem parenchyma.

A. Sieve tube elements

 Sieve tube elements are long, tube-like structures arranged longitudinally and are
associated with the companion cells.
 Their end walls are perforated in a sieve-like manner to form sieve plates.
 A mature sieve element possesses a peripheral cytoplasm and a large vacuole but
lacks a nucleus.
 The function of sieve tubes is controlled by the nucleus of companion cells.
B. Companion cells
 These are specialised parenchymatous cells, which are closely associated with sieve
tube elements.
 The sieve tube elements and companion cells are connected by pit fields present
between longitudinal walls.
 They are only found in angiosperms.
 Companion cells help in maintaining the pressure gradient in the sieve tubes.

Note: Special types of cells are attached to the sieve cells in gymnosperms and in
pteridophytes in place of companion cells. These cells are called albuminous
cells/Strasburger cells.

C. Phloem Parenchyma
 It is made up of elongated, tapering cylindrical cells and has dense cytoplasm and
nucleus.
  The cell wall is composed of cellulose and has pits through which plasmodesmata
connections exist between the cells.
 It stores food material and other substances like resins, latex and mucilage.
 The main function of phloem parenchyma is the storage of food material, and the
function of phloem rays (ray parenchyma) is the conduction of food in the radial
direction.
D. Phloem fibres/Bast fibres
 These are made up of sclerenchymatous cells.
 These are much elongated and unbranched and have pointed needle-like apices.
 The cell wall of phloem fibres is quite thick.
 These fibres are generally not found in primary phloem but are found in the
secondary phloem.
 These fibres provide mechanical support to sieve elements.
 At maturity fibres lose their protoplasm and become dead.

6.2 THE TISSUE SYSTEM

Tissue System

Epidermal Tissue Ground Tissue Vascular Tissue

System System System

6.2.1 EPIDERMAL TISSUE SYSTEM

 It forms the outermost covering of the whole plant body.

 It comprises epidermal cells, stomata and the epidermal appendages – trichomes and
root hairs.

6.2.1.1 EPIDERMIS

 It is usually single layered outermost covering of the primary plant body.

 They are parenchymatous with a small amount of cytoplasm lining the cell wall and a
large vacuole.
 The outer side of the epidermis is often covered with a thick waxy layer called the
cuticle, which prevents the loss of water. Cuticle is absent in roots.

6.2.1.2 STOMATA

 They are the structures present in the epidermis of leaves and young stem.
 They regulate the process of transpiration and gaseous exchange

 Each stoma is composed of two bean shaped (dicots) or dumb-bell shaped

(grasses/monocots) called as guard cells.
 The outer wall of guard cells is thin, and the inner walls are highly thickened.
 Guard cells possess chloroplasts and regulate the opening and closing of stomata.
 In the vicinity (surrounding) of guard cells, generally by two or more subsidiary cells
present between the two guard cells, an opening is present known as a stomatal pore
or stomatal aperture.
 Stomatal apparatus = Stomatal aperture + guard cells + subsidiary cells

6.2.1.3 EPIDERMAL APPENDAGES

 Root hairs – They are unicellular elongations of the epidermal cells that helps absorb
water and minerals from the soil
 Trichomes – Epidermal hairs on the stem are called trichomes. In the shoot system,
trichomes are usually multicellular. They may be branched or unbranched and soft or
stiff. They have a secretory function. They help in preventing water loss due to
transpiration.
6.2.2. THE GROUND TISSUE SYSTEM

 It is the largest tissue system.

 It includes hypodermis, general cortex, endodermis, pericycle and medullary rays (pith
rays), and pith.
 It consists of simple tissues such as parenchyma, collenchyma & sclerenchyma.
 In leaves, the ground tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast-containing cells and is
called mesophyll.

6.2.3 THE VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEM

The vascular system consists of complex tissues, the xylem and the phloem. The xylem and
phloem together constitute vascular bundles.

Types of Vascular Bundles

a) Radial vascular bundles – When the xylem and phloem are present separately on
different radii in an alternate manner, then vascular bundles are called radial
vascular bundles. E.g., Dicot root, monocot root.
b) Conjoint vascular bundles – Here, the xylem and phloem are present on the same
radius and combined into a bundle. They are of two types:
a. Conjoint collateral – Here xylem and phloem are present on the same radius
and phloem is present towards the periphery.
i. Open – If cambium is present in between xylem and phloem. E.g.,
Dicot stem
ii. Closed – When cambium is absent in between xylem and phloem.
E.g., Monocot stem
b.