This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles

for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

Designation: D4896 − 01 (Reapproved 2016)

Standard Guide for

Use of Adhesive-Bonded Single Lap-Joint Specimen Test
Results1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D4896; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

INTRODUCTION

The true strength of an adhesive is a material property independent of the joint geometry, adherend
properties, and load, and is a good starting point for determining an allowable design stress. Allowable
stresses in shear and tension are needed to design safe, efficient, adhesively bonded joints and
structures. The true shear strength, however, cannot be easily determined using single-lap specimens.
Many factors affect the apparent shear strength of an adhesive when measured with a small
laboratory specimen, and in particular, with a single-lap specimen. For example, the failure of a typical
single-lap specimen, is usually controlled by the tensile stress in the adhesive, and not by the shear
stress. The factors that control the tensile stress in lap-joint specimen, and thus, the apparent shear
strength are the size and shape of the specimen, the properties of the adherends, the presence of
internal stresses or flaws, and the changes that take place in the specimen due to adhesive cure and the
environment. Similarly these factors affect the apparent tensile strength of an adhesive in butt-joint test
specimens.
Due to the effects of these factors, the apparent shear strength obtained through measurements on
small laboratory specimens may vary widely from the true shear- or tensile-strength values needed to
determine allowable shear and tension design stresses.
The objectives of this guide are: to develop an appreciation of the factors that influence strength and
other stress measurements that are made with small laboratory test specimens; to foster the acceptable
uses of the widely used thin-adherend single-lap-joint test; and, specifically, to prevent misuse of the
test results.

1. Scope 2. Referenced Documents

1.1 This guide is directed toward the safe and appropriate 2.1 ASTM Standards:2
use of strength values obtained from test methods using D896 Practice for Resistance of Adhesive Bonds to Chemi-
single-lap adhesive joint specimens. cal Reagents
1.2 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded D906 Test Method for Strength Properties of Adhesives in
as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical Plywood Type Construction in Shear by Tension Loading
conversions to SI units that are provided for information only D907 Terminology of Adhesives
and are not considered standard. D1002 Test Method for Apparent Shear Strength of Single-
Lap-Joint Adhesively Bonded Metal Specimens by Ten-
1.3 The discussion focuses on shear strength as measured sion Loading (Metal-to-Metal)
with small thin-adherend, single-lap specimens. Many factors, D1144 Practice for Determining Strength Development of
however, apply to shear modulus, tensile strength, and tensile Adhesive Bonds
modulus measured by small laboratory specimens in general. D1151 Practice for Effect of Moisture and Temperature on
This discussion is limited to single-lap specimens and shear Adhesive Bonds
strength only for simplification. D1183 Practices for Resistance of Adhesives to Cyclic

1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D14 on Adhesives and
2
is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D14.80 on Metal Bonding Adhesives. For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Current edition approved May 1, 2016. Published May 2016. Originally contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
approved in 1989. Last previous edition approved in 2008 as D4896 – 01 (2008)ɛ1. Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
DOI: 10.1520/D4896-01R16. the ASTM website.

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 D4896 − 01 (2016)
Laboratory Aging Conditions 3.4 strain—the unit change due to force, in the size or shape
D1780 Practice for Conducting Creep Tests of Metal-to- of a body referred to its original size or shape. Strain is a
Metal Adhesives nondimensional quantity, but is frequently expressed in inches
D2294 Test Method for Creep Properties of Adhesives in per inch, centimeters per centimeter, etc. (Refer to Terminol-
Shear by Tension Loading (Metal-to-Metal) ogy E6 for specific notes.)
D2295 Test Method for Strength Properties of Adhesives in 3.4.1 linear (tensile or compressive) strain—the change per
Shear by Tension Loading at Elevated Temperatures unit length due to force in an original linear dimension.
(Metal-to-Metal) 3.4.2 shear strain—the tangent of the angular change, due to
D2339 Test Method for Strength Properties of Adhesives in force, between two lines originally perpendicular to each other
Two-Ply Wood Construction in Shear by Tension Loading through a point in a body.
D2919 Test Method for Determining Durability of Adhesive 3.5 stress—the intensity at a point in a body of the internal
Joints Stressed in Shear by Tension Loading forces or components of force that act on a given plane through
D3163 Test Method for Determining Strength of Adhesively the point. Stress is expressed as force per unit of area
Bonded Rigid Plastic Lap-Shear Joints in Shear by Ten- (pounds-force per square inch, newtons per square millimetre,
sion Loading etc.).
D3164 Test Method for Strength Properties of Adhesively
Bonded Plastic Lap-Shear Sandwich Joints in Shear by NOTE 1—As used in tension, compression, or shear tests prescribed in
product specifications, stress is calculated on the basis of the original
Tension Loading dimensions of the cross section of the specimen.
D3165 Test Method for Strength Properties of Adhesives in
Shear by Tension Loading of Single-Lap-Joint Laminated 3.5.1 normal stress—the stress component perpendicular to
Assemblies the plane on which the forces act. Normal stress may be either:
D3166 Test Method for Fatigue Properties of Adhesives in 3.5.1.1 compressive stress—normal stress due to forces
Shear by Tension Loading (Metal/Metal) directed toward the plane on which they act, or
D3434 Test Method for Multiple-Cycle Accelerated Aging 3.5.1.2 tensile stress—normal stress due to forces directed
Test (Automatic Boil Test) for Exterior Wet Use Wood away from the plane on which they act.
Adhesives 3.5.1.2.1 Discussion—In single-lap specimen testing, the
D3528 Test Method for Strength Properties of Double Lap plane on which the forces act is the bondline. Tensile stress is
Shear Adhesive Joints by Tension Loading sometimes used interchangeably, although incorrectly, with
D3632 Test Method for Accelerated Aging of Adhesive peel or cleavage stress. Peel and cleavage involve complex
Joints by the Oxygen-Pressure Method tensile, compressive, and shear stress distributions, not just
D3983 Test Method for Measuring Strength and Shear tensile stress.
Modulus of Nonrigid Adhesives by the Thick-Adherend 3.5.2 shear stress—the stress component tangential to the
Tensile-Lap Specimen plane on which the forces act.
D4027 Test Method for Measuring Shear Properties of 3.6 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
Structural Adhesives by the Modified-Rail Test 3.6.1 allowable design stress—a stress to which a material
D4562 Test Method for Shear Strength of Adhesives Using can be subjected under service conditions with low probability
Pin-and-Collar Specimen of mechanical failure within the design lifetime.
D5868 Test Method for Lap Shear Adhesion for Fiber 3.6.1.1 Discussion—Allowable design stress is obtained
Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Bonding usually by multiplying the true shear strength of the material
E6 Terminology Relating to Methods of Mechanical Testing (or close approximation thereof) by various adjustment factors
E229 Test Method for Shear Strength and Shear Modulus of for manufacturing quality control, load and environmental
Structural Adhesives (Withdrawn 2003)3 effects, and safety.
3.6.2 apparent shear strength—(in testing a single-lap
3. Terminology specimen) the nominal shear stress at failure without regard for
3.1 Definitions: the effects of geometric and material effects on the nominal
3.1.1 The following terms are defined in accordance with shear stress. Often called the lap-shear or tensile-shear
Terminologies D907 and E6. strength.
3.2 creep—the time-dependent increase in strain in a solid 3.6.3 average stress—(in adhesive testing) the stress calcu-
resulting from force. lated by simple elastic theory as the load applied to the joint
3.3 shear strength—the maximum shear stress which a divided by the bond area without taking into account the effects
material is capable of sustaining. Shear strength is calculated on the stress produced by geometric discontinuities such as
from the maximum load during a shear or torsion test and is holes, fillets, grooves, inclusions, etc.
based on the original dimensions of the cross section of the 3.6.3.1 Discussion—The average shear and tensile stresses
specimen. (See apparent and true shear strength). are denoted by τavg and σavg respectively. (See 5.3.1.) (Average
stress is the same as the preferred but less common term,
nominal stress, as defined in Terminology E6.)
3
The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on 3.6.4 cleavage stress—(in adhesive testing) a term used to
www.astm.org. describe the complex distribution of normal and shear stresses

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 D4896 − 01 (2016)
present in an adhesive when a prying force is applied at one thickness to overlap length ratio of less than 1:5 is a reasonable
end of a joint between two rigid adherends. approximation of a thin adherend for epoxy-steel joints (1 and
3.6.5 peel stress—(in adhesive testing) a term used to 2).
describe the complex distribution of normal and shear stresses 3.6.11 true shear strength—the maximum uniform shear
present in an adhesive when a flexible adherend is stripped stress which a material is capable of sustaining in the absence
from a rigid adherend or another flexible adherend. of all normal stresses.
3.6.6 single-lap specimen—(in adhesive testing) a specimen 4. Significance and Use
made by bonding the overlapped edges of two sheets or strips
of material, or by grooving a laminated assembly, as shown in 4.1 Single-lap specimens are economical, practical, and
Test Methods D2339 and D3165. In testing, a single-lap easy to make. They are the most widely used specimens for
specimen is usually loaded in tension at the ends. development, evaluation, and comparative studies involving
adhesives and bonded products, including manufacturing qual-
NOTE 2—In the past this specimen has been referred to commonly as ity control.
the tensile-shear- or the lap-shear-specimen. These names imply that this
is a shear dominated joint, and that the measured strength is the shear 4.2 Special specimens and test methods have been devel-
strength of the adhesive. This is not true for most uses of such specimens. oped that yield accurate estimates of the true shear strength of
(An exception would be where the adhesive being evaluated is so low in adhesives. These methods eliminate or minimize many of the
strength as not to induce any bending in the adherends.) It is recom- deficiencies of the thin-adherend single-lap specimens, but are
mended that, henceforth, this specimen be referred to as a single-lap
specimen. more difficult to make and test. (See Test Methods D3983,
D4027, D4562, and E229.)
3.6.7 stress concentration—a localized area of higher than
average stress near a geometric discontinuity in a joint or 4.3 The misuse of strength values obtained from such Test
member (such as a notch, hole, void, or crack); or near a Methods or Practices as D906, D1002, D1144, D1151, D1183,
material discontinuity (such as a bonded joint or weld) when D1780, D2294, D2295, D2339, D3163, D3164, D3165,
the joint or member is under load. D3434, D3528, D3632, and D5868, as allowable design-stress
3.6.7.1 Discussion—In adhesive testing, the most common values for structural joints could lead to product failure,
and important discontinuities are the ends of the bonded property damage, and human injury.
adherends and the interfaces between the adhesive and adher- 5. Considerations for the Analysis of Small Single-Lap
ends. Specimen Test Results
3.6.8 stress concentration factor—the ratio of the stress at a 5.1 The true shear strength of an adhesive can be deter-
point in a stress concentration to the average stress. mined only if normal stresses are entirely absent. These
3.6.9 thick adherend—(in adhesive testing) an adherend conditions can be approached under special conditions, but not
used in a single-lap specimen that does not bend significantly in single-lap specimens made with the thin adherends normally
when a load is applied, resulting in relatively lower tension/ used in manufacturing and in most standard test specimens. In
normal stress at the ends of the overlap; and, more uniform most cases the tensile stress in the adhesive controls joint
normal and shear stress distributions in the adhesive compared failure. As a consequence the single-lap specimen strength is
to a joint made with thin adherends and placed under the same unrelated to, and an unreliable measure of, the true shear
load. strength of an adhesive (1 and 2).
3.6.9.1 Discussion—A thick adherend for a typical epoxy 5.2 Changes in adhesive volume during cure, the size of the
adhesive and steel joint is at least 0.25 in. (6.36 mm) thick joint, the modulus of the adherends, and temperature or
when the overlap is 0.50 in. (12.7 mm), based on finite element moisture shifts after cure, all affect the magnitude of the
analysis and mechanical tests (1 and 2).4 Objective criteria for stresses imposed on an adhesive in service. The thermal
determining whether or not an adherend is thick are given in conductivity and permeability of the adherends affect the
Test Method D3983. extent of thermal or moisture softening and the rate of chemical
3.6.10 thin adherend—(in adhesive testing) an adherend degradation of the adhesive in service. Therefore, in addition to
used in a single-lap specimen that bends significantly, causing the problems stated in 5.1, the average stress at failure of small
significant tension/normal stresses in the adhesive at the ends single-lap specimens after a given exposure is an unreliable
of the overlap and nonuniform shear and normal stress distri- measure of an adhesive’s environmental resistance in any other
butions in the adhesive when a load is applied. joint, especially a much larger structural joint.
3.6.10.1 Discussion—The bending of the adherends, the 5.3 Factors Affecting Apparent Shear Strength:
tension-normal stresses, and the nonuniform stress distribu- 5.3.1 Specimen geometry, material properties, and load are
tions are continuous functions of the adhesive modulus and factors affecting apparent shear strength. The shear and normal
thickness, the adherend modulus, and the joint overlap length stresses at any point in a single-lap specimen are described
as described more fully in Test Method D3983. An adherend mathematically in the classic linear-elastic analysis of Goland
and Reissner (3). Modern finite element analysis has proven
the Goland and Reissner analysis to be accurate except at the
4
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of very ends of the overlap (1). Both the Goland and Reissner and
this guide. finite element analyses show that both the normal and shear

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 D4896 − 01 (2016)
stress concentration factors increase toward the ends of the shear- and tensile-stress concentrations are controlled by the
overlap (Fig. 1). Usually the tensile stress concentration is following geometric-, material-, and load-parameters, as
higher and is the dominant factor in failure. This means that shown by Goland and Reissner (3):
peak stresses, and in particular the peak tensile stresses cause 5.3.2.1 adhesive shear modulus,
failure, not the average shear stress across the bonded area. 5.3.2.2 adhesive layer thickness,
Thus the strength of a single-lap specimen, or the apparent 5.3.2.3 adherend tensile modulus,
shear strength of the adhesive, is simply the average shear 5.3.2.4 adherend thickness,
stress that happens to exist in the joint when the stress 5.3.2.5 adherend Poisson’s ratio,
concentrations reach a critical level and the joint fails. It is not 5.3.2.6 overlap (joint) length, and
the true shear strength of the adhesive. 5.3.2.7 tensile stress in adherends away from the joint.
5.3.2 In addition to the problem of determining the true 5.3.2.8 A change in any of these parameters from the values
shear strength of the adhesive with a single-lap specimen, both of the test specimen will change the stress concentrations and
consequently the average shear stress at failure as described in
5.3.1. The apparent shear strength measured with a single-lap
specimen, therefore, cannot be assumed to predict the strength
of joints that differ in any way from that specimen.
5.4 Internal Stresses and Flaws:
5.4.1 When an adhesive hardens (polymerizes), it shrinks
volumetrically through solvent loss or through additional
crosslinking. In bonding, the shrinkage is restrained by the
adherends causing internal stresses to arise within the adhesive.
Internal stress affects the adhesive’s resistance to an externally
applied stress, and it may reduce the apparent shear strength
(4). The amount of the apparent shear strength reduction
depends on; the amount of internal stress, the bonding
conditions, the adhesive layer thickness, and the properties of
the adherends. The apparent shear strength of an adhesive
obtained from a given small single-lap specimen, therefore,
may differ from that obtained from a joint made with different
adherends or by a different bonding process.
5.4.2 Bondline flaws are potential sites for crack initiation.
The effect of edge flaws vary with joint geometry and the
adherend properties (5). In short single-lap specimens, as in
most small joints, even small flaws are likely to be of a critical
size for crack initiation because they are more likely to be
present in an area of high stress concentration. On the other
hand, longer structural single-lap joints may be quite insensi-
tive to moderate flaws in the lightly stressed center region (6).
Conclusions about the effects of flaw size and location cannot
be drawn from short specimen tests alone.
5.5 Environmental Effects:
5.5.1 Long-term effects:
5.5.1.1 Bonded joints often fail by chemical degradation of
the adhesive or adherends progressing inward from exposed
edges (7), or by crack growth inward from the edges (5, 8).
Short single-lap test specimens and other small joints with a
τ = actual adhesive shear stress at a point
τavg = average (nominal) adhesive shear stress in the joint high ratio of bond-edge-to-bond-area are more sensitive to a
σ = actual adhesive normal stress at a point chemically or physically harsh environment than large joints
Ea = adhesive modulus because the effective bond area diminishes more rapidly than in
E = adherend modulus
η = adhesive layer thickness full-scale joints. Small specimens are particularly sensitive in
t = adherend thickness stressed-durability tests and may give results that are overly
υ = adhesive Poisson’s ratio conservative.
! = overlap length
Z = location of a point along the overlap length 5.5.1.2 Thermal degradation, as well as hydrolytic degrada-
p = tensile stress in the adherends away from the joint tion are not limited to the joint perimeter, especially if the
adherends are porous. In these cases, differences in the prop-
FIG. 1 Variation of the shear and normal stress concentration
factors (τ/τavg, and σ/τavg respectively) along a single-lap
erties of the adherends used in small test specimens, and those
specimen with the parameters that affect their magnitude at a used in larger structural joints may affect the adhesive’s
given point. (Adapted from Guess, Allred, and Gerstle, (2)) performance. Chemical differences may directly affect the

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 D4896 − 01 (2016)
nature or rate of the degradation reaction. Differences in joints may be designed to limit plastic flow to the ends of the
permeability may indirectly affect the reaction by controlling overlap (6). In the center of a structural single-lap joint, the
the rate of diffusion of reactants into, or reaction products away adhesive should be only lightly stressed and still lie within the
from the adhesive layer. elastic range. This elastic region in the center of the joint may
5.5.1.3 In view of the arguments in 5.5.1.1 and 5.5.1.2, prevent the accumulation of creep strain which would other-
small single-lap specimens can be used for rapid, economical wise lead to creep rupture (6) or fatigue failure (10).
comparisons of the relative durability of adhesives and bonding 5.6.2 For the above reasons, conclusions about the dead-
processes provided that the specimen has been properly ana- load or fatigue resistance of an adhesive derived from short
lyzed and is well understood. Also, if these conditions are met, single-lap specimens cannot be assumed to predict the behavior
the single-lap specimen can be quite useful for establishing of a longer structural single-lap joint bonded with the same
threshold levels for stress in stressed-durability testing (7). adhesive.
Extrapolation of the actual service life of structural joints from
6. Acceptable Uses of Thin-Adherend, Single-Lap
short-term accelerated tests of small specimens, however, must
Specimen Tests
be approached very cautiously. The results must be carefully
studied to ensure that the degradation mechanism is the same 6.1 Single-lap tests, like those described in Test Methods
in the small specimen as would be expected in the structural D906, D1002, D2339, D3163, D3164, D3165, and D3528, are
joint. not suitable for determining the true shear strength of an
5.5.2 Short-Term Effects: adhesive. The apparent shear strength measured with a single-
5.5.2.1 Changes in temperature and moisture directly affect lap specimen is not suitable for determining allowable design
the strength and other mechanical properties of adhesives. stresses, nor is it suitable for designing structural joints that
When the external environment changes, the thermal differ in any manner from the joints tested without thorough
conductance, moisture permeability of the adhesive and analysis and understanding of the joint and adhesive behaviors.
adherends, the thickness of adherends, and the width of the 6.2 Single-lap tests may be used for comparing and select-
joint affect how fast the environment changes in the interior of ing adhesives or bonding processes for susceptibility to fatigue
the bondline. Different adherends or joint geometries will and environmental changes (11), but such comparisons must be
result in different amounts of delay, thus producing different made with great caution since different adhesives may respond
apparent shear strengths under otherwise similar environmental differently in different joints.
conditions.
6.3 Single-lap tests can be used in research and develop-
5.5.2.2 The normal variation of temperature and moisture in ment to provide the justification for further, more expensive
the service environment causes the adherends and the adhesive testing needed to establish the acceptability of an adhesive for
to swell and shrink (4, 9). The adherends and adhesive are structural joints (11).
likely to have different thermal and moisture coefficients of
expansion. Even in small specimens, short-term environmental 6.4 Single-lap tests can be used to monitor the quality of
changes can induce internal stresses or chemical changes in the materials and the control of bonding processes.
adhesive that permanently affect the apparent shear strength 7. Tests for Developing Adhesive Design-Shear Stresses
and other mechanical properties of the adhesive (7, 8). The
problem of predicting joint behavior in a changing environ- 7.1 Allowable design stresses for adhesives in shear should
ment is even more difficult if a different type of adherend is be developed under the supervision of an engineer with
used in a larger structural joint than was used in the small knowledge of adhesive behavior, using tests such as Test
specimen. Method E229, D3983, or D4027, to obtain quantitative data for
5.5.2.3 For the reasons outlined in 5.5.2.1, and 5.5.2.2, the design. It must be recognized, however, that even these tests
short-term effects of variation of temperature and moisture on suffer unrealistic effects of some of the factors discussed above
an adhesive’s strength determined with small specimens cannot because they themselves are not realistic configurations of
be assumed to directly predict the performance of structural structural joints. Supplementary testing of realistic structural
joints bonded with the same adhesive unless those effects can elements or components is required to determine flaw
be measured and the results properly interpreted (7). tolerance, fatigue and creep resistance, and environmental
effects. In extraordinary circumstances, testing a full-scale
5.6 Elastic Strain Reserve: bonded structure may be warranted to identify hidden configu-
5.6.1 In short single-lap specimens, the adherends are usu- ration or design faults that would adversely affect long-term
ally stronger than the adhesive joint, thus causing failure to performance (7), or that might be required for final-design
occur in the adhesive. If the adhesive is not brittle, plastic flow verification and for aircraft certification (11).
occurs when the stress in an adhesive exceeds the elastic limit.
Plastic deformation may occur throughout the adhesive layer in 8. Keywords
short single-lap specimens at failure. But longer structural 8.1 shear strength; single-lap joint; tension loading

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 D4896 − 01 (2016)
REFERENCES

(1) Anderson, G. P., DeVries, K. L., and Sharon, G., “Evaluation of (7) McMillan, J. C.,“Durability Test Methods for Aerospace Bonding,”
Adhesive Test Methods,” In Adhesive Joints: Formation, Chapter 7, Developments in Adhesives-2, A. J. Kinloch (ed.), Applied
Characteristics, and Testing, K. L. Mittal (ed.), Plenum Press, 1984. Science Publishers, 1981.
(2) Guess, T. R., Allred, R. E., and Gerstle, F. P. Jr., “Comparison of Lap (8) Romanko, J., and Knauss, W. G., “Fatigue Mechanisms in Bonded
Shear Specimens,” Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol 5(2): Joints,” Chapter 5, Developments in Adhesives, A. J. Kinloch (ed.),
84–93, 1977. Applied Science Publishers, 1981.
(3) Goland, M., and Reissner, E., “The Stresses in Cemented Joints,” (9) Hughes, E. J., Boutilier, J., and Rutherford, J. L., “The Effect of
Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol 11: A17–A27, 1944. Moisture on the Dimensional Stability of Adhesively Bonded Joints,”
(4) Sargent, J. P., “The Dimensional Stability of Epoxy Adhesive Joints,” In Adhesive Joints: Formation, Characteristics, and Testing, K. L.
In Adhesive Joints: Formation, Characteristics, and Testing, K. L.
Mittal (ed.), Plenum Press, 1984.
Mittal (ed.), Plenum Press, 1984.
(10) Althof, W., “Effects of Low Cycle Loading on Shear Stressed
(5) Wang, S. S., and Yau, J. F., “Interface Cracks in Adhesively Bonded
Bondliness,” In Adhesive Joints: Formation, Characteristics, and
Lap-Shear Joints,” International Journal of Fracture, Vol 19:
295–309, 1982. Testing, K. L. Mittal (ed.), Plenum Press, 1984.
(6) Hart-Smith, L. J.,“Further Developments in the Design and Analysis (11) Arnold, D. B., “Mechanical Test Methods for Aerospace Bonding,”
of Adhesive-Bonded Structural Joints,” Joining Composite Materials, Chapter 6, Developments in Adhesives-2, A. J. Kinloch (ed.), Applied
ASTM STP 749, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1981. Science Publishers, 1981.

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