DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS

Introduction
A pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials above the
natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the
subgrade. The pavement should be able to provide a surface of acceptable riding quality,
adequate skid resistance, favourable light reflecting characteristics and low noise pollution.
The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stress due to the wheel load are sufficiently
reduced so that they will not exceed the bearing capacity of the subgrade. There are generally
two types of highway pavements namely:
Flexible pavement or bituminous pavement or black top pavement
Rigid pavement or cement concrete pavement or white surface pavement

COMPARISON OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT & RIGID PAVEMENT

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RIGID PAVEMENT
Have low flexural strength Have more flexural strength
Load is transferred by grain to grain contact No such phenomenon of grain to grain load
transfer exists
Surfacing cannot be laid directly on the sub Surfacing can be directly laid on the sub
grade but a sub base is needed grade
No thermal stresses are induced Thermal stresses are induced
expansion joints are not needed expansion joints are needed
Design life 10-15 years Design life 20-30 years
Initial cost of construction is low Initial cost of construction is high
Maintenance cost is high Less maintenance cost
Road can be used for traffic within 24 hours Road cannot be used until 14 days of curing
Damaged by Oils and Certain Chemicals No Damage by Oils and other chemicals
Requirements of a pavement
 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-
grade soil.
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed on it.
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles
 Smooth surface to provide a comfortable ride to road users even at high speeds
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reduced visibility
 Impervious surface so that the sub-grade soil is well protected
 Long design life with low maintenance cost
Flexible pavements
The transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain transfer through the
points of contact in the granular structure. Flexible pavement is based on the principle that the
wheel load of vehicles is dissipated to the natural soil through successive layers of granular
materials. Highest quality material is placed on the top. The components of the pavement from
the top are surface course, base course and sub base course. The strength of sub grade decides
the thickness of flexible pavement.

The wheel load on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area and the stresses decreases
with depth. With this characteristic, flexible pavements usually have many layers. The top
has to be of the best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress in addition to wear and
tear. The lower layers will experience lesser magnitude of stress and less quality material can
be used.
Rigid pavements

Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide
skid resistance.
Tack Coat: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted
with water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin,
uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.
Prime Coat: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent
surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two
layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms
a water tight surface.
Binder course: This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose
is to distribute load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates having
less asphalt and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the
surface course by the binder course results in more economical design.
Base course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder
course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage
It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.
Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the
primary functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion
of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open graded, then
the sub-base course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course
A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a
high quality, stiff sub- grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base course.
In such situations, sub- base course may not be provided.
Sub-grade: The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses
from the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be
compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

Important pavement surface characteristics are

Friction
Pavement unevenness
Light reflecting characteristics
Drainage of surface water
i. Friction
Skidding – When the path travelled along the road surface is more than the circumferential
movement of the wheels due to their rotation. Skidding occurs when the wheels slide without
revolving.
Slipping - When a wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along
the road.

Factors affecting the friction or skid resistance

•Types of pavement surface
•Roughness of pavement
•Condition of the pavement: wet or dry
•Type and condition of tyre
•Speed of the vehicle
•Brake efficiency
•Load and tyre pressure
•Temperature of tyre and pavement

ii. Pavement unevenness

 Higher operating speed are possible on even surface than uneven surface.
 It affects,
Vehicle operation cost
Comfort and safety
Fuel consumption
Wear and tear of tyres and other moving parts
Unevenness of pavement surface may be caused by
i. In adequate compaction of the fill, subgrade and pavement layers.
ii. Un-scientific construction practices including the use of boulder stones and bricks as
soiling course over loose subgrade soil.
iii. Use of inferior pavement material.
iv. Improper surface and subsurface drainage.
v. Improper construction machinery.
vi. Poor maintenance

iii. Light reflecting characteristics

 Night visibility very much depends upon the light reflecting characteristics of the
pavement surface
 The glare caused by the reflection of head light is high on wet pavement surface than
on dry pavement particularly in case of black top pavement or flexible pavement.
 Light coloured or white pavement or rigid pavement surface give good visibility at night
particularly during the rain, and produces glare or eye strain during bright sunlight.

iv. Drainage
Drainage is the most important factor in determining the technical performance of a road. When
roads fail, it is often due to inadequacies in drainage. Failure can happen suddenly as the case
of slip failure (parts of cutting or embankment breaking off), or more slowly, as when water
penetrates into the road pavement and sub-grade, weakens them to the extent they are no longer
strong enough to support traffic. Water is drained from the carriageway and shoulders by virtue
of the cross-fall or transverse slope and longitudinal grade. Such water is either allowed to flow
down the face of the side slope (for small embankments) or collected at the edge of the shoulder
by the use of kerbs, dykes or paved ditches and carried longitudinally for disposal at a
convenient place. The water from the roadway and surrounding areas is drained away by use
of roadside ditches, mitre drains or cut-off drains. These usually carry the water for disposal at
a convenient place or to a bridge or culvert inlets.
Drainage problems can be grouped into two general categories: surface and subsurface.
• Surface drainage deals with collection, transportation and disposal of surface water on the
roadway and near the roadway. The water is usually either runoff from rainfall or from streams
bordering or crossing the road reserve.
• Subsurface drainage is concerned with water in pavement layers and underlying soils. It deals
with the interception and control of such water which may flow laterally under the influence
of gravity or rise vertically by capillary action to soften the foundation soils.

Proper drainage design is thus an essential feature of overall highway design and planning. In
drawing up a drainage plan information concerning the following factors is essential.
• Hydrological consideration such as maximum rainfall and intensity, rate of runoff and nature
and amount of stream flow.
• Characteristics of the drainage basin (area to be drained) such as size, shape, general slope,
nature and type of vegetation and land use (existing and future).
• Nature and type of basin soils including their permeability and tendency to erode.

Control of seepage flow

There are two methods of dealing with condition of seepage flow. If the seepage zone is narrow
and within 0.6 to 1.0m from the surface then the usual procedure is to install an intercepting
drain in the impermeable strata underlying the seepage zone as shown below.

If the seepage zone is wider or the impermeable strata is at a considerable depth below the
surface, it is generally impracticable to construct the drainage trench sufficiently deep to
intercept all the seepage water. In this case, the intercepting drain is usually well above the
impervious strata, leading to a partial interception of seepage zone.
Where a road is on sloping ground, longitudinal drains may not be capable of intercepting all
the seepage water. In such cases it may be necessary to install transverse intercepting drains
too.
Design life
The major requirement linked to the design life is that there shall be no need for major
improvements during this period. Internationally, a design life of 20 – 30 years has in the past
often been used for new road projects. A number of countries have however adopted at longer
planning horizon in their infrastructure development planning. 60 years planning period is now
being used in some European countries. A design life of 30 years is adopted for the
development of national roads in Zimbabwe. For district roads, a design life of 15-20 years is
recommended.

Design of flexible pavements (Using the SATCC Pavement Design Manual)

The SATCC Pavement Design Guide is intended to provide a simple and easily applied method
for determining an appropriate pavement structure for the expected design criteria. It is based
on the use of a comprehensive design catalogue which enables the pavement designer to rapidly
select possible structural configurations that should meet the design criteria. The guide is not
for either concrete or gravel roads. This guide is not for design trafficking of more than 30
million equivalent standard axles and the guide also does not specifically cover existing
subgrade conditions for which the nominal California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is less than 2 per
cent.

The Design Process

The flexible pavement design process is defined in 5 steps as indicated below.
i. Estimate the expected design life
ii. Estimating the cumulative traffic loading expected during the design life.
iii. Defining the strength of the subgrade (soil) over which the road will be built.
iv. Defining the nominal operating climate (wet or dry).
v. Determining any practical aspects which will influence the design selection.
vi. Selecting possible pavement structures.

i. Estimate the expected design life

The design life is the period during which the road is expected to carry traffic at a
satisfactory level of service, without requiring major rehabilitation or repair work. It is
implicit, however, that certain maintenance work will be carried out throughout this
period in order to meet the expected design life. This maintenance work is primarily to
keep the pavement in a satisfactory serviceable condition, and would include routine
 maintenance tasks and periodic resealing as necessary. Absence of this type of
maintenance would almost certainly lead to premature failure (earlier than the design
life) and significant loss of the initial investment. A maximum design life of 20 years
is recommended for these pavements, at which stage the road would be expected to
need strengthening but would still have a good residual strength (and value).
Conversely, a minimum design life of 10 years is recommended as a practical limit for
economic justification in most cases. The selection of design life will depend on a
number of factors and uncertainties, and must be specified by the designer based on all
available information, but most times should be either 15 or 20 years. The following
table guides the selection of the design life.
Design data reliability Importance/Level of service
Low High
Low 10-15 years 15 years
High 10-20 years 15-20 years

ii. Estimating the design traffic class.

The pavement design process requires the estimation of the average daily number of
ESAs on one lane at the opening of the new road to traffic, which is then projected and
cumulated over the design period to give the design traffic loading. To do this,

1. Estimate the numbers of vehicles in different categories (normal categories

comprise of light and heavy vehicles) that comprise the baseline AADT. This is
defined as the total annual traffic summed for both directions and divided by
365. This should be derived from available traffic count data, and should take
cognisance of the possibility for diverted traffic (existing traffic that changes
from another route) and generated traffic (additional traffic generated from the
development).
2. Forecast the one-directional cumulative traffic flow (this depends on the
directional spit ratio) for each category expected over the design life.
3. Determine the cumulative growth factor at a selected growth rate and
cumulating the total over the design period. Growth rates will normally be in
 the range of 2 to 15 per cent per annum, and selected values should be based on
all available indicators including historical data, and socio-economic trends.
(𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝑹)𝑷 − 𝟏
𝑪𝑮𝑭 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝑹

CGF- cumulative growth factor in a vehicle category for one direction

R- average assumed growth rate, per cent per annum
P- design period (years)

4. Use static axle load data to determine average vehicle damage factors (ESAs
per vehicle class). These are determined from converting the surveyed axle
loads to ESAs/vehicle classification, and then deriving a representative average
value. In some cases, there will be distinct differences in each direction and
separate vehicle damage factors for each direction should be derived. The
following formula is used for converting real axle loads to ESAs.
DF = (P/80)n
DF = Damage factor (load equivalency factor in ESAs)
P = axle load (kN)
n= relative damage exponent
The table below indicates recommended n values to be used for the pavements using
the SATCC Design Guide.
Pavement base/subbase Recommended n
Granular/granular 4
Granular/cemented 3
Cemented/cemented 4.5
Bituminous/granular 4
Bituminous/cemented 4

The total ESAs in each direction are the sum of the ESAs from each vehicle Category.

5. Estimating the cumulative traffic loading expected during the design life.
The following formula is used to determine the design traffic loading for the
different vehicle categories.
 %𝐠𝐞 𝐇𝐕
𝑵𝑫𝑻 = 𝟑𝟔𝟓 × 𝑨𝑨𝑫𝑻 × 𝑫𝑭 × × 𝑳𝑫𝑭 × 𝑪𝑮𝑭 × 𝑵𝑯𝑽𝑨𝑮
𝟏𝟎𝟎

The total value (summation of the individual category design traffic loadings) is then
used to determine the Traffic Class Designation based on the following table.

Traffic Class Designation

Traffic Class Designation
Traffic T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
ranges <0.3 0.3-0.7 0.7-1.5 1.5-3.0 3.0-6.0 6.0-10 10.0- 17.0-
(million 17.0 30.0
ESAs)
If calculated design values are very close to the boundaries of a traffic class, the values
used in the forecasts should be reviewed and sensitivity analyses carried out to
determine which category is most appropriate.
NB: For design trafficking greater than 30 million ESAs, other design standards
should be adopted.

iii. Defining the strength of the subgrade (soil) over which the road will be built.
Apart from traffic loading, the subgrade strength is the other most important factor
which governs the pavement structural configuration. This determination of the soil
strength can be based on geological and soil property assessments, in conjunction with
other physical assessments such as the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) test or in
situ bearing tests, or any other means that allows realistic delineation. The classification
of the soil is based in terms of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) to represent realistic
conditions for design. In practice this means determining the CBR strength for the
wettest moisture condition likely to occur during the design life, at the density expected
to be achieved in the field. The soil classification is as follows.

Subgrade Classification
Subgrade Class designation
Subgrade S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
CBR ranges 2 3-4 5-7 8-14 15-29 30+
(%)
The result of incorrect subgrade classification can have significant effects, particularly
for poorer subgrade materials with CBR values of 5 per cent and less. If the subgrade
strength is seriously overestimated (ie, the support is actually weaker than assumed),
there is a high likelihood of local premature failures and unsatisfactory performance.
Conversely, if the subgrade strength is underestimated (ie, the support is stronger than
assumed), then the pavement structure selected will be thicker, stronger and more
expensive than needed.
NB: READ ON THE DCP TEST TO DETERMINE SOIL STRENGTH (through
determination of soil CBR values).

Recommended minimum subgrade depth meeting design strength

Subgrade class designation
Min S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
depth 250 250 350 450 550 650
(mm)

It should be clearly understood that the minimum depths indicated above are not depths
to which re-compaction and reworking would be anticipated. Rather, they are the depths
to which the Engineer should confirm that the nominal subgrade strength is available.
In general unnecessary working of the subgrade should be avoided and limited to rolling
prior to constructing overlying layers.

Subgrade CBR less than two per cent

In these cases, which must be treated according to the specific situation, some of the
possible approaches include:
• In situ treatment with lime (for clayey materials).
• Removal and replacement with better quality material.
• Use of geo-fabrics.
• Construction of a pioneer layer (for highly expansive material and marshy areas) or
rock fill.
These conditions are often encountered in low-lying, wet and swampy areas, and
treatment should ideally be based on past proven practice for similar conditions. The
use of geofabrics, usually in accordance with specialist advice from the manufacturer,
 can be extremely effective in situations where other approaches are inappropriate (for
example, where better quality materials are either not readily available, or would tend
to displace downwards). When appropriately treated, the design for the overlying
pavement can then be based on the re-evaluated subgrade support condition.

iv. Defining the nominal operating climate (wet or dry).

The SATCC design catalogue includes specific pavement structures for either
nominally wet or nominally dry regions, in order to simplify the selection of appropriate
pavements. Factors which will have an influence on the selection, apart from broad
climatic considerations, also include drainage and maintenance regimes that are
anticipated for the road. It is a basic fact that, for any road, the frequent ingress of water
to the pavement layers will result in unwanted deterioration under trafficking. The rate
and degree of such deterioration will also depend therefore on the level of trafficking.
Selection of pavement structures from the catalogue for dry regions is appropriate
where annual rainfall is less than 250 mm and there is no likelihood of moisture ingress
due to factors such as significant flooding (in low-lying flood plain areas, or in tidal
basins, for example), underground springs or wells, or any other detrimental conditions.
In regions of higher rainfall, where rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year
and no distinct rainy season conditions apply, the Engineer may deem the dry region
catalogue to be appropriate. In such cases, it should be confirmed that there are not
periods in which conditions will lead to significant possibility of moisture ingress to
the pavement. It should be noted that long periods of light rain (or heavy fog), with
heavy truck traffic, can cause serious damage of thin surfacings specially. It is unlikely
that regions with rainfall more than 500 mm per annum would be regarded as dry
regions for design purposes. Any regions which do not comply with the above must
be regarded as being predominantly wet.

v. Determining any practical aspects which will influence the design selection.
The earlier sections have provided guidance to the designer in selecting the design
parameters of traffic class, subgrade support classification and nominal conditions.
These are the primary factors used in entering the design catalogue as provided by
Charts to determine appropriate structures. Until now, however, no consideration has
been given to other factors which will have a practical influence on finalising possible
pavement structures. Most significant of these is the availability, in terms of both
 quantity and quality, of materials for road construction. Other factors include the
general topography, and the use of established local methods for road layer
construction. Each of these will affect the final selection of a pavement.

vi. Selecting possible pavement structures.

Example:
You have been tasked to design a rural road for a new development in the Matabeleland
North Province in Zimbabwe. The following information has already been provided to
you after the planning phase of the roadway development.

AADT 2400
Directional split (2-way DF) 50/50
Traffic Growth Rate 2%
Proportion of Heavy Vehicles 15%
DF 0.5
Average Weight of Heavy Vehicle 1.5ESA’s
Average weight of Light Vehicles 0.8ESA’s
Design life 15years
Subgrade Strength, CBR 5%
Lane distribution factor 1

For the above given design parameters, determine the thickness of the granular layers to
be provided for the roadway development.
(15 marks)