CHAPTER 2

SOLAR R ADIATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The sun is the largest member of our solar system. It is a sphere of extremely hot gaseous
matter with a diameter of 1.39 × 109 m and it maintains a distance of 1.495 × 1011 m from
the earth as shown in Figure 2.1. Sun’s high temperature is maintained by enormous nuclear
energy being released by the continuous fusion reaction. The fusion reaction involves four
hydrogen atoms combining to form one helium atom (4 × 1H1 → 2He4 + 26.7 MeV). The sun
as other hot bodies radiates heat energy uniformly in all directions. The radiated heat energy
moves out as electromagnetic waves. The radiated heat energy increases the temperature of
a body on its interception and absorption. This radiated heat energy from the sun is called
solar energy and it provides the energy needed to sustain life in our solar system.

Sun
9 7
1.39 × 10 m 32° 0.275 × 10 m

11
1.495 × 10 m
Figure 2.1 Sun and earth in the solar system.

2.2 RADIATION SPEC TRUM FROM SUN AND EARTH

• Explain the radiation spectrum emitting from the sun and the earth. What do
you understand by irradiance and irradiation?
27
 SOLAR RADIATION 29

Irradiation
It is solar energy per unit surface area which is striking a body over a specified time. Hence
it is integration of solar illumination or irradiance over a specified time (usually an hour or
kilowatt a day). It is measured in kilowatt-hour or kilowatt day per square metre. For example,
if irradiance is 20 kW/m2 for 5 h, irradiation is 20 × 5 = 100 kWh/m2.

2.3 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION AND SOLAR CONSTANT

· Explain (i) extraterrestrial radiation, (ii) solar constant, and (iii) terrestrial
radiation.
or
· Define solar constant. What are the reasons for variation in solar radiation
reaching the earth and that received outside the earth atmosphere?
· Differentiate between beam and diffuse radiation.
or
· Explain (i) beam radiation, (ii) diffuse radiation, (iii) total radiation, and
(iv) airmass.

The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit as shown in Figure 2.3. The earth is
closest to the sun on 21 March and 23 September. The earth is farthest from the sun on
21 June and 22 December. The mean distance of the earth from the sun is 1.495 × 1011 m.
March 21st
g
Sprin Win
te r

December
June 21st Sun 22nd

n
tum
Sum
mer Au

September 23rd
Figure 2.3 Elliptical orbit of earth’s revolution.

The intensity of solar radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere reduces with distance and it
is dependent on the distance between the earth and the sun. In fact, the intensity of solar
radiation reaching outside the earth’s atmospheric varies with the square of the distance
between the centres of the earth and the sun. This is the reason why earth receives 7% more
radiation on 21 March and 23 September as compared to 21 June and 22 December. The
30 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

intensity of solar radiation keeps on attenuating as earth propagates away from the surface
of the sun, but the content of wavelengths in the radiation spectrum does not change.
The earth axis is tilted about 23.45º with respect to earth’s orbit around the sun as shown
in Figure 2.4. Owing to this tilting of earth’s axis, the northern hemisphere of the earth points
towards the sun in the month of June and it points away from the sun in the month of
December. However, earth’s axis remains perpendicular to the imaginary line drawn from the
earth to the sun during the months of September and March. The sun–earth’s distance varies
during earth’s rotation around the sun, thereby varying the solar energy reaching its surface
during revolution, which brings about seasonal changes. The northern hemisphere has summer
when the earth is tilting forwards the sun and winter when the earth is tilting away from the
sun. In the months of September and March, both the hemispheres are at the same distance
from the sun and receive equal sunshine. During the summer, the sun is higher in the sky,
while the sun is lower in the sky during winter for the northern hemisphere.

Normal to elliptic plane

Earth’s
23.5 axis
°

66.5°

Elliptic
plane

Figure 2.4 Inclination of earth’s axis.

Extraterrestrial radiation
Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of the earth is called extraterrestrial radiation.
The extraterrestrial radiation varies based on the change in sun–earth’s distance arising from
earth’s elliptical orbit of rotation. The extraterrestrial radiation is not affected by changes in
atmospheric condition.

Solar constant
It is defined as the energy received from the sun per unit time on a unit surface area
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of solar radiation at the top of earth’s atmosphere
when earth is at its mean distance from the sun. The value of solar constant is taken as
1367 W/m2.
The extraterrestrial radiation can be determined by using solar constant as follows:
2
Iext = Isc ×  Rav  W/m
 R 
 SOLAR RADIATION 31

where Iext is the extraterrestrial radiation,

Isc is the solar constant (1367 W/m2),
Rav is the mean distance between the sun and the earth, and
R is the actual sun–earth distance.
It can also be given as
  360 n   2
Iext = 1 + 0.033 cos    W/m
  365  
where n is the number of days from 1st January.

Terrestrial radiation
When radiation passes through earth’s atmosphere, it is subjected to the mechanism of atmospheric
absorption and scattering depending on atmospheric conditions. Earth’s atmosphere contains
various constituents, suspended dust and solid and liquid particles, such as air molecules,
oxgen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, water vapour and dust. Therefore,
solar radiation or intensity of radiation is depleted during its passage through the atmosphere.
The solar radiation that reaches earth’s surface after passing through earth’s atmosphere is
called terrestrial radiation. The propagation of solar radiation through earth’s atmosphere is
shown in Figure 2.5.

Solar radiation
Extra-
terrestrial
region

Reflected
from atmosphere
Atmosphere
Scattered
(O2, N2, O3, CO2,
and diffuse
CO and dust) Beam radiation radiation

Reflected Terrestrial
radiation region
Earth

Figure 2.5 Extraterrestrial and terrestrial regions with solar radiation.

From extraterrestrial region, the solar radiation reaches earth’s surface in two ways: (i) a
part of sun’s radiation travels through earth’s atmosphere and its reaches directly, which is
called direct or beam radiation, and (ii) the remaining major part of the solar radiation is
scattered, reflected back into the space or absorbed by earth’s atmosphere. A part of this
radiation may reach earth’s surface. This radiation reaching earth’s surface by the mechanism
of scattering and reflecting, that is, reradiation, is called diffuse or sky radiation. The diffuse
32 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

radiation takes place uniformly in all directions and its intensity does not change with the
orientation of the surface. However, direct or beam radiation depends on the orientation of
the surface. The beam radiation depends on the angle of incident on the surface and its
intensity is maximum when the solar radiation is falling normal to the surface. The solar
radiation propagating normal to its direction is specified by In .

Beam radiation
Solar radiation along the line joining the receiving point and the sun is called beam radiation.
This is radiation has any unique direction.

Diffuse radiation
It is the solar radiation which is scattered by the particles in earth’s atmosphere and this
radiation does not have any unique direction.

Total or global radiation

Total or global radiation at any location on earth’s surface is the sum of beam radiation and
diffuse radiation.

Air mass (m)

The radiation reaching earth’s surface depends on (i) atmospheric conditions and depletion
and (ii) solar attitude. Air mass is the ratio of the path length through the atmosphere which
the solar beam actually traverses up to earth’s surface to the vertical path length through the
atmosphere (minimum height of terrestrial atmosphere).
At sea level, the air mass is unity when the sun is vertically is in the sky (inclination
angle 90º).
Path length travelled by beam radiation
Air mass (m) =
Vertical path length of the atmosphere
AC
= (as shown in Figure 2.6)
AB
= cosec α = sec θz
where α is the inclination angle and
θz is the zenith angle.
m = 1 when θz = 0 and m = 2 when θz = 60º

B Extraterrestrial
C
qz
Atmosphere
A
Earth

Figure 2.6 Concept of air maas.

 SOLAR RADIATION 33

2.4 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

• What do you understand by latitude and longitude?

Any location on the earth can be described by two numbers—latitude and longitude.

Latitude
On a globe of the earth, lines of latitude are circles of different sizes. The largest one is the
circle at equator (circle at equator with centre at earth’s centre) whose latitude is taken as
zero. The circles at the poles have latitude of 90º north and 90º south (or –90º) where these
circles shrink to a point. To specify the latitude of some point “P” on the earth’s surface,
draw the radius OP to the point P from centre O. The elevation angle (λ) of the point P above
the equator is called latitude λ as shown in the Figure 2.7(a). There are 180 circles, of which
90 in each hemisphere specify the latitude of various points on earth’s surface as shown in
Figure 2.7(b). Each degree of latitude is about 111 km apart. Latitude lines run horizontally
and these are parallel.

North pole Latitude 90°

N

l
O
Latitude 0° Latitude 0°
Equator

South Pole
S
Latitude –90°
(a) (b)
Figure 2.7 Concept of latitude. (a) The latitude angle (λ) and (b) 90 latitude
lines in each northern and southern hemisphere.

Longitude
On the globe, vertical lines of constant longitude (meridians) extend from pole to pole similar
to the segment boundaries on peeled orange. Every meridian has to cross the equator and
equator is a circle. Like any circle, it has 360 degrees or divisions. Hence, longitude of a
point is the marked value of that division where its meridian meets the equator circle. The
meridian passing through the Royal Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich, UK had been
chosen as zero longitude. The meridian passing through this location is called prime meridian.
The prime meridian or longitude is considered zero longitude and there are 180 longitude
lines or degrees at cast (+180º) and 180 degrees at west (–180º) of Greenwich. The longitude
lines meet at poles and these have wide separation at the equator (about 111 km). The
longitudinal lines are shown in Figure 2.8. Solar noon is the time when the sun is at the
longitude of the place.
34 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Longitude

Equator

S
Figure 2.8 Concept of longitudinal lines.

2.5 BASIC SUN–EARTH ANGLES

• Explain following angles used in solar radiation analysis:
(a) latitude of location, (b) hour angle, (c) solar azimuth angle, (d) zenith angle
and (e) declination angle.
or
• Explain latitude, declination angle and surface azimuth angle.

Latitude or angle of latitude (l)

The latitude of a location on earth’s surface is the angle made by the radial line joining the
specified location to the centre of earth with the projection of this line on the equatorial plane
as shown in Figure 2.9. The latitude at equator is zero and and it is 90º at poles.

N Radial line

l l can vary from

W O E
0 to 90°
Equatorial
plane
Projection of the
line on equatorial
S plane

Figure 2.9 The angle of latitude.

 SOLAR RADIATION 35

Declination angle (d )
It is the angle made by the line joining the centres of sun and earth with the equatorial plane
as shown in Figure 2.10.

Equatorial
plane
Sun
d Earth

Figure 2.10 Angle of declination.

The angle of declination varies when earth revolves around the sun. It has maximum
value of 23.45º when earth achieves a position in its orbit corresponding to 21 June and it
has minimum value of –23.45º when earth is in orbital position corresponding to 22 December.
The angle of declination is taken positive when it is measured above the equatorial plane in
the northern hemisphere. The angle of declination can be given by

 360 
δ = 23.45 × sin  (284 + n) 
 365 
where n is the number of days counted from 1 January.

Hour angle (w)

The hour angle at any instant is the angle through which the earth has to turn to bring the
meridian of the observer directly in line with sun’s rays. It is an angular measure of time.
It is the angle in degree traced by the sun in 1 h with reference to 12 noon of the location.
The convention of measuring it is that the noon-based calculated local apparent time (LAT)
is positive in afternoon and negative in forenoon as shown in Figure 2.11. The earth completes
one rotation (360º) in 24 h. Hence, 1 h corresponds to 15º of earth’s rotation. As at solar noon

w=0
12 Noon
3 PM 9 AM

w = 45° w = –45°

6 PM 6 AM
w = 90° w = –90°
Figure 2.11 Hour angle is an angular measure of time.
36 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

the sun rays is in line with local meridian or longitude, the hour angle at that instant is zero.
The hour angle can be given as follows:
w = [Solar time – 12] × 15º

Inclination or altitude angle (a )

It is the angle between sun’s ray and its projection on horizontal surface as shown in Figure 2.12.

Vertical
Sun’s ray Normal to
S horizontal plane
North
qz Horizontal
plane
a East
West P
S¢ gs

South
Figure 2.12 Inclination (altitude) angle, solar azimuth angle and zenith angle.

Zenith angle (qz )

It is the angle between sun’s ray and normal to the horizontal plane as shown in Figure 2.12.

Solar azimuth angle (gs)

It is the angle between the projection of sun’s ray to the point on the horizontal plane and
line due south passing through that point. The value of the azimuth angle is taken positive
when it is measure form south towards west.

Angle of incidence (q )
The angle of incidence for any surface is defined as the angle formed between the direction
of the sun ray and the line normal to the surface as shown in the Figure 2.13.

Tilt or slope angle (b )

The tilt angle is the angle between the inclined slope and the horizontal plane as shown in
the Figure 2.13.

Surface azimuth angle (g )

It is the angle in horizontal plane between the line due south and the horizontal projection
of normal to the inclined plane surface. It is taken as positive when measured form south
towards west.
 SOLAR RADIATION 37

Normal
Sun
North Inclined
surface
Normal
q Inclined
surface
West a q
East
P
b b
Horizontal
plane
g Horizontal
plane q = Angle of incidence
b = Tilt angle
South
Figure 2.13 Angle of incidence and tilt angle.

2.6 ANGLE BETWEEN INCIDENT BEAM AND NORMAL TO

INCLINED SURFACE (q)
• What is the expression for the angle of incidence (q) for an inclined surface?
Find the angle of incidence (q) when (i) tilt angle b = 0, (ii) tilt angle b = 90º,
(iii) surface azimuth angle g = 0 and (iv) b = 90º and g = 0º.

The angle of incidence can be given by the following expression.

cos θ = sin λ (sin δ cos β + cos δ cos ω sin β)
+ cos λ (cos δ cos ω cos β – sin δ cos γ sin β)
+ cos δ sin γ sin β sin ω
Case I. Tilt angle β = 0
When tilt angle β is zero, the surface is horizontal. In this condition, the angle of
incidence becomes equal to the zenith angle of the sun (θz). Hence, we have
cos θ = cos θz = cos δ cos λ cos ω + sin δ sin λ
Case II. Tilt angle β = 90º
In this position, the surface is normal to the horizontal plane. Hence, we have
cos θ = sin λ cos δ cos γ cos ω – cos λ sin δ cos γ + cos δ sin γ sin ω
Case III. Surface facing south, that is, γ = 0º
For the inclined surface facing south the angle of incidence can be given as
cos θ = sin λ sin(λ – β) + cos δ cos ω cos(λ – β)
Case IV. β = 90º and γ = 0
In this condition, the vertical surface is facing south. Hence, we have
cos θ = sin λ cos δ cos ω – cos λ sin δ
Solar Thermal Energy Collectors 57
3. They need tracking systems and reflecting surfaces undergo deterioration with the
passage of time.
4. These devices are also subject to similar vibration and movement problems as radar
antenna dishes.
3.1.3. Principles (physical) of Conversion of Solar Energy into Heat—
Green-house Effect
When solar radiation from the sun, in the form of light (a shortwave radiation), reaches
earth, visible sunlight is absorbed on the ground and converted into heat energy but non-
visible light is re-radiated by earth (a longwave radiation). CO2 in atmosphere absorbs this
light and radiates back a part of it to the earth, which results in the increase in temperature. This
whole process is called Green-house effect. Hence, the Greenhouse effect brings about an
accumulation of energy of the ground.
l The name ‘Green-house effect’ related to its first use in green houses, in which it is
possible to grow exotic plants in cold climes through better utilisation of the available
light.
3.1.4. Collection Systems
l Solar thermal collection system:
A solar thermal collection system works in the following manner:
(i) It gathers the heat from the solar radiation and gives it to the heat transport fluid
(also called primary coolant).
(ii) The fluid delivers the heat to the thermal storage tank (viz. boiler steam genera-
tor, heat exchanger etc.).
(iii) The storage system stores heat for a few hours. The heat is released during cloudy
hours and at night.
l Thermal-electric conversion system:
This system receives thermal energy and drives steam turbine generator or gas
turbine generator. The electrical energy is supplied to the electrical load or to the
grid.
l Co-generation plants:
In co-generation plants heat in the form of hot water or steam may also be supplied to the
consumer in addition to the electrical energy. In this case, hot water/steam from the
reservoir may be pumped through outlet pipes to the load side.
3.1.5. Characteristic Features of a Collector System
The characteristic features of a collector system include the following:
1. The type of collector – Focussing or non-focussing.
2. The temperature working fluid attained – Low temperature, medium temperature,
high temperature.
3. Non-tracking type or tracking in one plane or tracking in two planes.
4. Distributed receiver collectors or central receiver collectors.
5. Layout and configuration of collectors in the solar field.
6. Simple and low cost or complex and costly.
l ‘Solar collector cost’ is a significant component of installation cost. Hence it is
important to keep unit cost of collectors low and total surface area of collectors as small
as possible.
 2.3. MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION
It is important to measure solar radiation, owing to the increasing number of solar
heating and cooling applications, and the necessity for accurate solar radiation data to
predict performance.
The following three devices are used for measuring the solar radiations.
1. Pyranometer; 2. Pyrheliometers;
3. Sunshine recorders.
2.3.1. Pyranometer
A pyranometer is a device used to measure the “total hemispherical solar radiation”. The total
solar radiation arriving at the outer edge of the atmosphere is called the ‘solar constant’.
The working principle of this instrument is that sensitive surface is exposed to total
(beam, diffuse and reflected from the earth and surrounding) radiations.
The description of a pyranometer is given below:
Refer to Fig. 2.9.
Construction. It consists of a ‚black surface‛ which receives the beam as well diffuse
radiations which rises heat. A ‚glass dome‛ prevents the loss of radiation received by the
black surface. A ‚thermopile‛ is a temperature sensor, and consists of a number of thermo-
couples connected in series to increase the sensitivity. The ‚supporting stand‛ keeps the
black surface in a proper position.

Fig. 2.9. Pyranometer.

Working: When the pyranometer is exposed to sun, it starts receiving the radiations. As
a result, the surface temperature starts rising due to absorption of the radiation. The
increase in the temperature of the absorbing surface is detected by the thermopile. The
thermopile generates a thermo emf which is proportional to the radiations absorbed; this thermo
emf is calibrated in terms of the received radiations. This will measure the global solar
radiations.

2.3.2. Pyrheliometer
 2.3.3. Sunshine Recorder
A sunshine recorder is a device used to measure
the “hours of bright sunshine in a day”.
The description of a sunshine recorder is
given below:
Refer to Fig. 2.11.
Construction: It consist of a ‚glass-sphere‛
installed in a section of ‚spherical metal bowl‛
having grooves for holding a recorder card strip”
and the glass sphere.
Working. The glass-sphere, which acts as a
convex lens, focusses the sun’s rays/beams to Fig. 2.11. Sunshine recorder.
a point on the card strip held in a groove in the spherical bowl mounted concentrically with
the sphere.
Whenever there is a bright sunshine, the image formed is intense enough to burn a spot on the
card strip. Through the day, the sun moves across the sky, the image moves along the strip.
Thus a burnt space whose length is proportional to the duration of sunshine is obtained on the
strip.
 SOLAR ENERGY 75

The hot brine solution from the bottom of solar pond is taken out without disturbing the
brine gradient existing in the solar pond. This solution is taken to heat exchanger to remove
heat from the brine solution by evaporating a refrigerant in the evaporator. These vapours are
used to run a turbine which is coupled to a generator to generate power. The refrigerant
vapours exiting from the outlet of the turbine are condensed to liquid state in a condenser
and pumped to heat exchanger. Solar pond electric power plant is shown in Figure 3.18.

Solar pond
hot brine
Refrigerant
vapour

Turbine Generator
Heat
Cold exchanger
brine

P
Refrigerant liquid
Condenser
Pump
Figure 3.18 Layout of a solar pond electric power plant.

3.5 SOLAR WATER HEATER

• With the help of a neat sketch, explain the working of a solar water heater.
or
• Describe a solar water heating system.

A small capacity water heating system with natural circulation is as shown in Figure 3.19.
It is suitable to supply hot water for domestic purposes. It has two main components which
include (i) flat plate collector to convert solar radiation into heat energy and (ii) water storage
tank to store hot water. The tank is located above the level of collector. Heat is transferred
to the water in the solar collector and hot water rises to flow in the water tank. The hot water
enters the top of the water tank and cold water from the water tank moves out from the
bottom of the tank so as to enter the inlet of the collector. The natural circulation of water
is established from the collector to water tank and then from water tank to the collector. The
hot water for use is withdrawn from the top of tank, which is replaced by cold water entering
at the bottom of the tank. Water heating system is also provided with an auxiliary heating
system so that the system can also work during cloudy and rainy days when sufficient solar
radiation is unavailable.
76 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Hot water
Hot water
for use
Storage
tank

Cold water

Flat plate
collector Cold
water

Figure 3.19 Small capacity water heating system with natural circulation.

3.6 SOLAR THERMAL PUMP

• Explain the working of the solar thermal water pump with the help of a neat
sketch.
or
• What are the features of solar energy which make it attractive for water pumping
in irrigation?
or
• Explain the working of solar pumping.

Solar pumping utilizes the mechanical power generated by the solar radiation to run the water
pump. Solar energy offers several beneficial features which make its utilisation in irrigation
pumping quite attractive. The features are as follows:
(i) The need for pumping arises most during the summer months when solar radiation is
intense.
(ii) Pumping can be carried out intermittently without any problem.
(iii) Surplus pumped water can be stored in a reservoir or tank.
(iv) The requirement of water decreases during periods of low radiations when solar pumping
decreases. Evaporation losses reduce during cloudy days. Rainwater is also available
during rainy days.
(v) There is relatively inexpensive running and maintenance cost.
The solar pump is similar to solar heat engine working in low-temperature range. The
source of heat is a solar collector. The heat is transported to a heat exchanger where heat is
transferred to a refrigerant of low boiling point. The refrigerant evaporates and high-pressure
vapour is taken to a turbine to do useful mechanical work by running the solar pump as
shown in the Figure 3.20. The outlet refrigerant vapour from turbine is condensed and taken
to heat exchanger using feed pump for reuse.
 58 Non-Conventional Energy Sources and Utilisation
l ‘Flat plate collectors’ are used for low temperature applications only. They are not
economical for high temperature applications. They are not suitable for high
temperature applications and solar electric power plants.
3.1.6. Factors Adversely Affecting Collector System’s Efficiency
The following factors which adversely affect the efficiency of a collector system are: Shadow,
Cosine loss, Dust etc.
1. Shadow factor:
When the angle of elevation of the sun is less than 15° (i.e. around sunrise and sunset),
the shadows of some of the neighbouring collector panels fall on the collector’s surface.
The shadow effect is reduced with the increase of sun’s elevation angle.
The shadow factor is given as:
Collector’s surface receiving light
Shadow factor =
Total collector’s surface

Its value is less than 0.1 when the angle of elevation of sun is less than 15° and 1
during noon when angle of sun’s elevation angle is nearly 90°.
2. Cosine loss factor:
When the collector’s surface receives the sun rays perpendicularly, maximum power
collection is realised. If the angle between the perpendicular to collector’s surface and the
direction of sun ray is q, the area of sun beam intercepted by the collector’s surface is
proportional to cos q. Hence solar power collected in proportional to cos q (Fig. 3.2).

Fig. 3.2. Exhibiting cos q loss.

l In case of fixed type collector panels cosine loss varies due to the daily variation and
seasonal variation of the direction of sun rays.
3. Reflective loss factor:
The glass surface of the collector and the surface of the reflector collect dust, dirt and
moisture. As a result, the reflector surface gets rusted, deformed and looses the shine.
Hence, with the passage of time, the collector’s efficiency is reduced significantly. Thus, to
prevent the loss, daily maintenance, seasonal maintenance and yearly overhaul (change
of seals, cleaning after dismantling) should be undertaken.

3.2 TYPES OF COLLECTORS

A. Solar collectors are broadly classified into the following types:
1. “Non-concentrating” or “Flat-plate type solar collector”.
In such collectors, the area of a collector to grasp the solar radiation is equal to the
absorber plate and has concentration ratio of 1.
Solar Thermal Energy Collectors 59
2. “Concentrating” or “Focusing type solar collector”.
In these collectors, the area of collector is kept less than the aperture through which the
radiation passes, to concentrate the solar flux and has high concentration ratio.
B. Solar collectors may be categorised as follows:
1. Flat-plate collectors
2. Evacuated collectors
3. Solar ponds
4. Stationary concentrators
5. Linear-focus collectors
6. Point-focus collectors
7. Central receivers.
l One of the disadvantages of concentrating solar collectors is the need to align the
collector’s aperture with the sun’s direct beam. This not only consumes power but
also increases costs and the risk of failure. A single axis, tracking, time-focus, solar
collector may use a number of “tracking mechanisms”.

3.3 FLAT-PLATE COLLECTORS (FPC)

3.3.1. Description
Fig. 3.3 shows a Flat Plate Collector which consists of four essential components:
1. An absorber plate. It intercepts and absorbs solar radiation. This plate is usually
metallic (copper, aluminium or steel), although plastics have been used in some low
temperature applications. In most cases it is coated with a material to enhance the absorption
of solar radiation. The coating may also be tailored to minimise the amount of infrared radiation
emitted.
A heat transport fluid (usually air or water) is used to extract the energy collected and
passes over, under or through passages which form an integral part of the plate.

Fig. 3.3. Flat-plate solar collector.

2. Transparent covers. These are one or more sheets of solar radiation transmitting
materials and are placed above the absorber plate. They allow solar energy to reach the
absorber plate while reducing convection, conduction and re-radiation heat losses.
3. Insulation beneath the absorber plate. It minimises and protects the absorbing
surface from heat losses.
4. Box-like structure. It contains the above components and keeps them in position.
 60 Non-Conventional Energy Sources and Utilisation
l Various types of flat-plate collectors have been designed and studied. These
include tube in plate, corrugated type, spiral wound type etc. Other criteria is single
exposure, double exposure or exposure and reflector type. The collector utilizes sheets
of any of the highly conducting material viz. copper, aluminium, or galvanized
iron. The sheets are painted dead black for increasing the absorptivity. The sheets are
provided with one or more glass or plastic covers with air gap in between to reduce
the heat transfer losses. The sides which are not exposed to solar radiation are well
insulated. The whole assembly is fixed in airtight wooden box which is mounted
on simple device to give the desired angle of inclination. The dimensions of collectors
should be such as to make their handling easy. The collector will absorb the
sun energy (direct as well as diffused) and transfer it to the fluid (air, water or oil)
flowing within the collector.
Basically, a flat-plate collector is effective most of time, reliable for good many
years and also inexpensive.
l Use of flat mirrors in the flat-plate collectors improves the output, permitting higher
temperatures of operation. Side mirrors are used either at north and south edges or at
east and west edges of the collector or a combination of both. The mirrors may be of
reversible or non-reversible type.
Materials for flat-plate collectors:
1. Absorber plate: Copper, Aluminium, Steel, Brass, Silver etc.
2. Insulation: Crown white wool, Glass wool, Expanded polystrene, foam etc.
3. Cover plate: Glass, Teflon, Tedlar, Marlex etc.
3.3.2. Selective Absorber Coatings/Surfaces
In order to reduce thermal losses from the absorber plate of a solar heating panel,
an efficient way is to use selective absorber coatings. An ideal selective coating is a perfect
absorber of solar radiation as well as a perfect reflector of thermal radiation. A selective coating,
thus, increases the temperature of an absorbing surface.
A “selective surface” has a high absorptance for shortwave radiation (less than 2.5 mm)
and low emittance of longwave radiation (more than 2.5 mm).
A selective surface should possess the following characteristics:
(i) Its properties should not change with use; (ii) It should be of reasonable cost; (iii) It
should be able to withstand the temperature levels associated with the absorber plate surface
of a collector over extended period of time; (iv) It should be able to withstand atmospheric
corrosion and oxidation.
Some selective coatings are:
(i) Black chrome; (ii) Black nickel; (iii) Black copper; (iv) Silver foil; (v) Enersorb (non-
selective); (vi) Nextel (non-selective).
3.3.3. Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Flat-plate Collectors
Advantages:
1. Both beam and diffuse solar radiations are used.
2. Require little maintenance.
3. The orientation of the sun is not required (i.e. no tracking device needed)
4. Mechanically simpler than the focusing collectors.
Solar Thermal Energy Collectors 61
Disadvantages:
1. Low temperature is achieved.
2. Heavy in weight.
3. Large heat losses by conduction due to large area.
Applications:
1. Used in solar water heating.
2. Used in solar heating and cooling.
3. Used in low temperature power generation.
3.3.4. Evacuated Collectors
Planar solar collectors of evacuated type often achieve efficiencies with an output temperature
of above 80°C. In these devices a vacuum occupies the space between the absorber and the aperture
cover. The absorber may consist of a heat pipe that is thermally bonded to collecting this,
possibly in an evacuated glass tube.
Efficiencies in excess of 40% or an output temperature of 200°C can be reached
(Collins and Duff, 1983).
3.3.5. Performance Analysis of Flat-plate Collector
Analysis:
Consider an object exposed to sun radiations of intensity I, per unit area at the surface
of the body. These radiations will partly be absorbed by the body, while the remaining will
be partly transmitted and rest reflected. If we take the incident radiations equal to unity,
then the absorbed, reflected, and transmitted parts of energy will add up to unity. These
parts are called absorption coefficient, reflection coefficient and transmission coefficient and
represented by the symbols a, r and t respectively.
Using the above symbols we can write
a+r+t = 1 ...(3.1)
The absorbed part of the solar radiations, which is equal to a, is responsible for
increasing the temperature of the body. However, the body also loses energy by conduction,
convection and radiation. The equilibrium temperature of the body will be that at which the
heat loses from the body are equal to the absorbed radiations.
For analysis purposes, if we represent the body by a flat a plate and assume that the
convection and conduction losses are negligible to begin with, then at equilibrium temperature
the absorbed solar radiations should be equal to the radiation losses from the flat plate.
The radiation losses are equal to esT4, where e and T are the emission coefficient and
absolute temperature respectively of a flat plate and s is the Boltzman’s constant.
Therefore, at equilibrium
aI = esT4 ...(3.2)
αI
or, = sT4 ...(3.3)
ε
From equation (3.3), it is evident that comparatively higher equilibrium temperature
α
will be obtained where the quantity i.e., the ratio of absorption coefficient to emission
ε
coefficient of the flat plate is more. However, this has been demonstrated by an equation
obtained under idealised condition. In the realistic conditions too, its nature will remain the
same, but it will get modified by other influencing factors.
84 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

3.13 SOLAR DISTILLATION

• What do you understand by solar distillation?

The process to convert saline water into pure water using solar radiation is called solar
distillation. A solar device used for this purpose is called solar still. A solar still consists of
a shallow blackened basin filled with saline or brackish water to be distilled. It is covered
with sloping transparent roof as shown in Figure 3.28. The sun rays can pass through transparent
roof and these rays are absorbed by the blackened surface of the basin, thereby increasing

Transparent sloping roof

Water vapour Condensed

due to solar water vapour
heating

Basin

Saline or
brackish water Condensate
channel
Blackened
surface of basin
Distilled
water
Figure 3.28 Working of a solar still.

the temperature of water. The water in basin evaporates due to solar heat and rises to the roof.
The water vapour cools down and condenses at the undersurface of the roof. The water drops
or condensed water slip down along the sloping roof. The condensed water is collected by
the condensate channel and drained out from the solar still.

3.14 SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANTS

• Describe the working of a solar power plant.

The solar thermal power plants can use different systems, such as
(i) Low temperature solar power plant using flat plate collectors
(ii) Low temperature solar power plant using solar pond
(iii) Medium temperature solar power plant using focussing collectors
(iv) High temperature solar power plant which can be
• Distributed collector system called solar farms
• Central receiver system or tower power plant
74 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Cl = Specific heat of liquid

T2 = Final temperature
Q3 = 3.55 (50 – 32) = 63.99
Energy storage per kg = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
= 13.65 + 250 + 63.99
= 327.64 kJ

3.4 SOLAR POND

• With the help of schematic diagram, explain the working of solar pond electric
power plant.
or
• What is meant by solar pond? Explain.
or
• Describe a working of solar power plant.
or
• Explain the principle of working of solar pond.

Principle. In ordinary pond, when water is heated up by the sun rays, the heated water rises
to the top of the pond. The hot water loses heat to the atmosphere, and so the net temperature
at the top of the pond remains nearly at atmospheric temperature. The solar pond technology
ensures that heated brine water remains at the bottom of the pond due to more brine concentration
and density in it.
The solar pond serves the dual purpose of a large flat collector and a thermal storage
system. It consists of a large size brine pond (depth of about 1 m) which has salt concentration
gradient in such a way that the most concentrated and dense part of the brine solution is at
the bottom of the pond and brine concentration gradually reduces from bottom to top of the
pond based on the variation of brine solution density. A solar pond has three zones as shown
in Figure 3.17. The top zone is surface zone which has the least salt content and its temperature
is the atmospheric temperature. The bottom zone has the maximum salt content and it has
a high temperature (70–85°C). This is the zone that collects and stores the solar energy as
heat energy. In between these two zones there is the gradient non-convective zone.

rs rs ts ts Atmospheric
temperature
Height

Height

Top zone
70–80°C
rb Non-convective zone tb
rb Bottom zone tb
Density Temperature
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.17 The concept of solar pond. (a) Variation of density, (b) The three zones in the
pond, (c) Variation of temperature.
 SOLAR ENERGY 75

The hot brine solution from the bottom of solar pond is taken out without disturbing the
brine gradient existing in the solar pond. This solution is taken to heat exchanger to remove
heat from the brine solution by evaporating a refrigerant in the evaporator. These vapours are
used to run a turbine which is coupled to a generator to generate power. The refrigerant
vapours exiting from the outlet of the turbine are condensed to liquid state in a condenser
and pumped to heat exchanger. Solar pond electric power plant is shown in Figure 3.18.

Solar pond
hot brine
Refrigerant
vapour

Turbine Generator
Heat
Cold exchanger
brine

P
Refrigerant liquid
Condenser
Pump
Figure 3.18 Layout of a solar pond electric power plant.

3.5 SOLAR WATER HEATER

• With the help of a neat sketch, explain the working of a solar water heater.
or
• Describe a solar water heating system.

A small capacity water heating system with natural circulation is as shown in Figure 3.19.
It is suitable to supply hot water for domestic purposes. It has two main components which
include (i) flat plate collector to convert solar radiation into heat energy and (ii) water storage
tank to store hot water. The tank is located above the level of collector. Heat is transferred
to the water in the solar collector and hot water rises to flow in the water tank. The hot water
enters the top of the water tank and cold water from the water tank moves out from the
bottom of the tank so as to enter the inlet of the collector. The natural circulation of water
is established from the collector to water tank and then from water tank to the collector. The
hot water for use is withdrawn from the top of tank, which is replaced by cold water entering
at the bottom of the tank. Water heating system is also provided with an auxiliary heating
system so that the system can also work during cloudy and rainy days when sufficient solar
radiation is unavailable.
CHAPTER 4
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Photovoltaic (PV) system is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar
radiation into direct electricity with the help of semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic
effect. The photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels constructed of a number of
solar cells made-up of a photovoltaic material. Owing to the growing demand for renewable
energy sources, the technology of manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has
improved considerably in recent times. Driven by advances in technology and increase in
production of solar cells, the cost of solar cells has declined considerably. The cost of
electricity from photovoltaic is currently competitive with what is produced by conventional
methods. More than 100 countries use solar photovoltaic technology. Solar photovoltaic
power generation with a capacity of 40,000 MW has been installed worldwide. After the
1960, the silicon solar cell has become the standard energy source for application in space.

4.2 SOLAR CELL FUNDAMENTALS

· What do you understand by (i) Valence band, (ii) Conduction band, and
(iii) Forbidden band?

The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons. The band
occupied by valence electrons is called valence band. The highest permitted band is called
the conduction band, which is at higher energy level than the valence band. The electrons in
this band move freely. The energy gap in between the conduction band and the valence band
is called forbidden band as electrons cannot exist in this band (Figure 4.1).
87
88 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Conduction band

Energy level
Forbidden band

increasing
Valence band

Inner filled band

Figure 4.1 Energy level of electrons.

· How do you differentiate between a conductor, an insulator and a semiconductor?

No forbidden band exists between the valence band and the conduction band in a conductor.
The electrons can move easily from valence band to conduction band. However, forbidden
band exists both in insulator and semiconductor. The forbidden band in insulator is more
wide (more energy gap between valence and conduction bands) compared to semiconductor.
Insulator cannot conduct electricity owing to wide energy gap existing between valence and
conduction bands (Figure 4.2).

Conduction band
Conduction band
Conduction band
Forbidden band Forbidden band
Valence band
Valence Valence band
band
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.2 Difference between a conductor, a semiconductor and an insulator. (a) Overlapping of bands
in conductors (b) Narrow gap in between bands in semiconductors (c) Wide gap in between
bands in insulator.

4.2.1 Semiconductors
· What are n-type semiconductors?

An n-type semiconductor is formed when

+4 Ge
arsenic impurity (valence 5) is introduced Free electron
into a pure germanium (valence 4). of arsenic
Arsenic atom forms four covalent bonds
Ge +4 +5 +4 Ge
with neighbouring germanium atoms and
the fifth electron of arsenic atom remains As
free. Therefore, impure germanium atom +4 Ge
has excess of electrons which act as charge
carries. Such semiconductors are called
n-type semiconductors. Figure 4.3 An n-type semiconductor.
 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM 89

· What are p-type semiconductors?

If aluminium (valency 3) is introduced as impurity

+4 Ge
in pure germanium (valency 4), then only three
electrons are available in aluminium atom to form Hole
the covalent bond with germanium atoms. There Ge +4 +3 +4 Ge
is one electron short for forming fourth bond
which appears empty space in the structure. Empty Al
space is called hole. Hence, impure germanium +4 Ge
has an excess of holes which act as charge carriers.
Such semiconductors are called p-type Figure 4.4 A p-type semiconductor.
semiconductors.
· What happens when p-n junction is formed?

An n-type semiconductor has free electrons as charge carriers while a p-type semiconductor
has free holes as charge carriers. When p-n junction is formed, electrons from the n-type
semiconductor and holes from the p-type semiconductor tend to diffuse to their opposite
sides.
· What is the depletion layer in p-n junction?

Near p-n junction, holes from p-region and electrons from n-region diffuse to opposite sides
where they meet opposite carriers and get cancelled. As a result, a thin layer is formed at the
junction which is free from all charge carriers. This layer is called the depletion layer.

p-n junction

p-type n-type

Excess Excess
holes Depletion layer electrons

Figure 4.5 Depletion layer.

· What is the potential barrier at the p-n junction?

Electrons diffuse into p-region and holes diffuse into n-region. Such diffusion sets up a
potential difference across the junction, thereby stopping further diffusion of holes and electrons
into n-region and p-region, respectively. This electric field opposing the movement of carriers
is called the potential barrier. Hence, some electromotive force (e.m.f.) in way of battery
(forward biased) is required to move these charge carriers against the potential difference.
90 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

4.2.2 Photovoltaic Effect

· What do you understand by photovoltaic effect?
or
· What is the principle of solar photovoltaic?

Photovoltaic effect is a process in which two dissimilar materials in close contact produce
an electrical charge when struck by light or any other radiant energy. When light strikes
crystals such as silicon or germanium (p-n junction) in which electrons are usually not free
to move from n-region to p-region due to the potential barrier, the light provides the energy
(e.m.f.) needed to free some electrons from the bound condition depending on the absorption
of solar energy (Figure 4.6). Free electrons cross the junction between two dissimilar crystals
more easily in one direction than in the other, giving one side of the junction a negative
charge, and this results in a negative voltage with respect to the other side, as in the case of
a battery in which one electrode has negative voltage with respect to the other. The photovoltaic
effect can continue to provide voltage and current as long as light falls on the junction of two
materials.
· What is solar power?

Solar power is the production of electricity directly from sunlight. The solar photovoltaic
(PV) power is produced using photovoltaic effect so that when sunlight strikes a solar voltaic
cell, it releases electrons from the p-n junction of the cell and pushes these electrons across
a potential barrier or electric field at the junction. These electrons then travel through an
external circuit to return to their usual state and in this process create electric power.

( ) e–
Radiation
e+ ( )

Junction
p-type region
n-type region

n-type region
p-type region

Figure 4.6 Generation of ‘‘emf’’ across junction to move the charge carriers.

The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which a PV or solar cell
converts sunlight into electricity. Sunlight is composed of energy packets called photons.
 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM 91

These photons contain different amounts of energy that correspond to different wavelengths
of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected, absorbed or
can pass through the p-n junction. The absorbed photons in the p-n junction generate electricity.
A solar cell is essentially a p-n junction with a large surface area. The n-type material
is kept thin to allow light to pass through it and strike the p-n junction. The light travels in
packets of energy called photons. The generation of electric current takes place inside the
depletion zone of the p-n junction. The depletion zone as explained previously is the area
around the p-n junction where the electrons from the n-region diffuse into the holes of the
p-region. When a photon of light is absorbed by one of these atems in n-region of silicon,
it will dislodge an electron from any atom, thereby creating a free electron and hole pair. The
free electron and hole pair has sufficient energy to jump out of the depletion zone. If a wire
is connected from the cathode at n-type silicon to an anode of p-type silicon, electrons flow
through the wire. The electron is attracted to the positive charge of p-type material and
travels through the external load (bulb or resistance), thereby creating a flow of electric
current. The hole created by the dislodged electron is attracted to the negative charge of the
n-type material and travels to “back electrical contact”. As the electron reaches the p-type
silicon from the “back electrical contact”, it combines with the hole, thereby restoring the
electrical neutrality (Figure 4.7).

Photon in
sunlight
e–
e–
Contact e– n-type silicon

Depletion zone
+
e
e– p-type silicon
Neutralise e– e+
by combining e+
e– Back electrical
contact
Figure 4.7 Photon generating pairs of electron and hole to move electric
current in the external circuit.

4.3 SOLAR CELL, MODULE, PANEL AND ARRAY

4.3.1 Solar Cell
· Explain the construction of a solar cell.

The solar cell consists of (i) p-type silicon material layer, (ii) n-type silicon material layer,
(iii) front metallic grid and (iv) opaque back metal contact as shown in Figure 4.8.
104 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

4.6.5 Hybrid Solar PV System

• What do you understand by hybrid solar PV system?

The hybrid solar PV system is designed to provide electric power by some other means
besides solar electricity. It is difficult and uneconomical to provide all of the power from only
solar PV system. It may be more economical to meet the power requirement by some other
means, such as windmills, fuel cells and diesel or petrol generators. The best hybrid solar
PV system is the one in which no amount of solar PV generated power is wasted.

4.6.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of PV System

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of PV system over conventional
power system?

Advantages are as follows:

(i) It directly converts solar energy to electric power without any use of moving parts.
(ii) It is more reliable, durable and maintenance free.
(iii) It works without any noise.
(iv) It is non-polluting.
(v) It has long lifespan.
(vi) It can be located near the point of load and requires no distribution system.
Disadvantages are as follows:
(i) It has high cost of installation.
(ii) It has low efficiency.
(iii) It requires a large area for installation to produce sufficient power.
(iv) Its output is intermittent, thereby requiring some means to store energy to use during
non-sunshine hours.

4.6.7 Solar PV System and Cost

• Write down your comments on cost reduction of solar cells.

There is gradual reduction in the cost of solar PV system due to (i) development of new
improved techniques to produce solar cells and (ii) increase in the production volume. Cost
reduction has been achieved by innovative manufacturing techniques used in thin film solar
cells. These techniques have speeded up manufacturing process, reduced material wastage
and helped to produce large size cells. Cost reduction has also been effected by the development
of thin film devices, thereby requiring much less quantity of materials and less costly materials.
The use of solar concentrators to focus the sun’s rays in solar PV system has also helped in
the cost reduction. The cost of solar power generation is reduced from the earlier cost of
several thousand dollars per peak watt to the present cost of about one dollar per watt.