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SOLAR ENERGY BASICS

Introduction:

1. Solar energy can be converted directly or indirectly in to other forms of energy.

2. In-exhaustible source of useful energy.
3. Major drawbacks to the extensive application of S.E
1. The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the earths
surface and
2. The large area required to collect the energy at useful rate.
4. Experiments are under way to use this energy.
5. Energy is radiated by the sun as electromagnetic waves of which 99% have wave lengths
in the range of 0.2 to 4.0 µm
6. Solar energy reaches the top of the earth atmosphere consists of about
1. 8% Ultraviolet radiation (short wave length, less than 0.39µm )
2. 46% visible light (0.39 to 0.78µm) and
46% Infrared radiation (long wave length more than 0.78µm

Solar Constant:

1. The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heating being generated by various kinds
of fusion reactions.
2. Sun diameter is 1.39X106 km, while earth is 1.27X104 km.
3. Mean distance between sun and earth is 1.50X108 km
4. The beam of radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel.
5. The brightness of the sun varies fro its centre to its edge. For calculations, it is customary
to assume that the brightness all over the solar disc is uniform.
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6. Radiation coming from the sun approximately-57620K.

7. The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called the solar
constant ISC. This is the amount energy received in unit time on unit area perpendicular to
the sun’s direction at mean distance of the earth from the sun. The rate of arrival of solar
radiation varies throughout the year.
8. Solar constant is an average from which actual values vary up to about 3% in either
direction.

9. NASA has expressed solar constant in three common units

1. 1.353KW/ m2 or 1353 W/m2

2. 116.5 langleys (calories/cm2) per hour, or

1165/kcal/m2/hr (1 langley=1cal/cm2) solar radiation received in one day.

3. 429.2 Btu/ square feet/hr.

10. The distance b/w the earth and sun varies a little through the year. Because of this
variation, the extra terrestrial (out side the atmosphere )flux also varies. The earth is
closest to the sun in the summer and farthest away in the winter.
11. The variation in the distance produces a nearly sinusoidal variation in the intensity of
solar radiation ‘ I’ that reaches the earth approximately,
I/Isc = 1+0.033 COS (360(n-2))/365 (or)

= 1+ 0.033 COS (360 x n)/365

SOL AR RA DI AT I ON AT E AR T H’S SU
RF AC E

The solar radiation that penetrates the earth’s atmosphere and reaches the surface differs in both
amount and character from radiation at the top of the atmosphere. The radiation entering the
atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules, and a part of the radiation is reflected back into the
space by clouds. Part of the solar radiation is scattered by droplets in clouds by atmospheric
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molecules and dust particles. Oxygen and ozone absorb nearly all the ultraviolet radiation
whereas CO2 and H2O vapour absorb some energy from infrared range.

1. Part of the radiation is reflected back into the space, especially by clouds.
2. Oxygen and ozone absorbs nearly all the ultraviolet radiation and water vapour and CO2
absorb some of the energy in the infrared range.
3. Some part of the solar energy radiation is scatted by droplets in the clouds by
atmospheric molecules, and by dust particles.

Beam radiation:

• Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly
from the sun is called ‘ direct radiation’ or ‘ Beam radiation’.
• It is the radiation which produces a shadow when interrupted by an opaque object.
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Diffusion radiation:

Diffuse radiation is that solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has been
changed by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere

1. The total solar radiation received at any point on the earth’s surface is the sum of the
direct and diffuse radiation. This referred to in a general sense as the insolation at that
point.
2. The insolation is defined as the total solar radiation energy received on a horizontal
surface of unit area on ground in unit time.
3. The insolation at a given location on the earth surface depends on the altitude of the
sun in the sky. The altitude is the angle between the sun’s direction and the horizontal)
4. Since the sun’s altitude changes with the date and time of the day and with the
geographic latitude at which the observations are made, the rate of arrival of solar
radiation on the ground is variable quantity even in the time.

SOME DEFINITIONS

1.Sun at zenithIt is the position of the sun directly over head.

2.Air massIt is the path length of radiation through the atmosphere to the length of path and
when the sun is at the zenith. Air mass = cos (altitude angle) except for very low solar altitude
angles.

3.Solar angles Let θ = Angle between an incident beam radiation I and the normal to the plane
surface.Then, radiation intensity normal to the surface is I = I cosθ

Where θ = Incident angle,Latitude, ∅l

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It is the angle made by the radial line joining the location to the centre of earth with the
projection of the line on the equatorial plane, denoted by ∅l . It is also given by the angular
distance north or south of the equator measured from the centre of the earth.

Latitude ,hour angle w, and sun’s declination

1. If P is the location on the earth’s surface and O is the centre of the earth, the ∅l is
given by the angle between the line OP and projection of OP on the equatorial plane.
As a method of convention, the latitude will be measured as +ve for the northern
hemisphere.
2. ii) Declination (δ)
3. It is the angular distance of sun’s rays north or south of the equator. It is the angle
between the line extending from the centre of the sun to the centre of the earth and the
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projection of this line upon the earth’s equatorial plane. Declination varies between
23.5 oon June 22 to 23.5o on December 22.

Variation of sun’s declination

4.The declination in degrees for any given day may be given by Cooper’s equation.
δ (in degrees) = 23.45 sin⁡〖360/365(284+n)〗 where n is the day of the year
e.g.: March 22 is the 31 + 29 + 22 = 82nd day ∴ n = 82
5. Hour angle (ω)
It is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring the meridian of a point directly in
line with the sun’s rays. The hour angle is equivalent to 15o per hour.
6.It is measured from noon based on the solar local time (LST) or local apparent time,
being positive in the morning an negative in the afternoon. It is the angle measured in the
earth’s equatorial plane, between the projection of OP and the projection of O line from
the centre of the sun to the centre of the earth
7. Altitude angle (α) It is the vertical angle between the projection of the sun’s rays on the
horizontal plane and the direction of sun’s rays passing through the point.
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8) Zenith angle (θZ)

It is the angle between the sun’s rays and a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane through the
point P. i.e., the angle between the beam from the sun and the vertical. Zenith angle is
complimentary angle of sun’s altitude angle.

θZ =π/2- α

9) Solar azimuth angle (γS)

It is the solar angle in degrees along the horizon cost or west of north or it is the horizontal angle
measured from the north to the horizontal projection of sun’s rays. It is considered +ve when
measured west wise.
In terms of basic angles, cos⁡〖θ_Z 〗 = cos∅.cosω.cosδ+sin∅.sinδ
cos γS = secα(cos∅.sinδ-cosδ.sin∅.cosω)
sinγS = secα.cosδ.sinω

If north latitudes are considered positive and south latitudes negative, the declination will be
positive for summer period between the vernal equinox and autumnal equinox and negative at
other times

10) The slope (s)

it is the angle made by the plane surfaces with the horizontal. It is considered positive for
surfaces slopping towards the south and negative for surface slopping towards the north.

11) Surface azimuth angle (γ)

It is the angle of deviation of the normal to the surface from the local meridian, the zero point
being south, east positive and west negative.

Fig. Surface azimuth angle and slope defined

12) Incident angle (θ)

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It is the angle being measured from a plane and is equal to the angle between the beam of rays
and normal to the plane. It is expressed as

cosθ=sin∅l(sinδ.cos⁡〖s+cosδ.cos〗 γ.cosω.sin⁡s )

+ cos∅l (cos∂.cosω.cos⁡〖s-sinδ.cosγ.sin⁡s 〗 )

+cosδ.sinγ.sinω.sin⁡〖s)〗----------------------------------------- (1)

Where ∅l = Latitude (North positive)

δ= Declination (North positive)

ω= Hour angle (Positive between solar mid night and noon, otherwise negative)

Hour angle is mathematically expressed as,

ω = 15(12 - LST) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)

Note:

At solar noon, ω = 0 and each hour angle is 15o with morning positive and afternoon negative

For vertical surfaces s = 90o in equation 1 above

cos⁡〖θ=sin⁡〖∅.cosδ.cosγ.cosω-cos∅.sinδ.cosγ+cosδ.sinγ.sinω〗 〗------------- (3)

For horizontal
cosθZ surfaces s= oo, θ= θZ in equation above
= sinδ.cos∅+cosδ.cos∅.cosω
= sin∝----------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4)

For surfacing facing due south, γ = 0; θ= θt(tilted)

cos⁡θt = sin∅(sinδ.cos⁡〖s+cosδ.cosω.sin⁡〖s)〗 〗

= cos∅(cosδ.cosω.cos⁡〖s-sinδ.sins〗)

= sinδ sin⁡(∅-s)+cosδcosω cos⁡(∅-s)--------------------------------------- (5)

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For vertical surfaces facing due south, s = 90 ;γ=0

cosθZ = sin∅cosδcosω-cos∅sinδ------------------------------------------------------ (6)

13) Day Length

At the time of sun rise or sunset, θZ= 90o substituting in equation (4), sun rise hour angle ωs is
given by,
cosω_(s )= (sin∅.sinδ)/(cos∅.cosδ)= -tan∅.tanδ
ωs = cos^(-1)⁡〖(-tan∅.tanδ)〗
At 15o of the hour angle = 1hour, day length

td1 = 2ωs/15= 2/15 cos^(-1)⁡〖(-tan∅.tanδ)〗------------------------------------------------------- (7)

Note:

For hour angle at the time of sun rise or sunset on an inclined surface θZ=90o, from equation (5),
ω¬st= cos^(-1)⁡〖(-tan⁡(∅-s)tanδ)〗
Hence day length

td= 2/15 cos^(-1)⁡〖(-tan⁡(∅-s.tanδ)〗-------------------------------------------------------------- (8)

14) Local Solar Time

It is also known as local apparent time which is the time used for calculating the hour angle. The
local solar time is obtained from the standard time observed on a clock by making two
corrections.

The first correction takes into account the difference in longitude between a location and a
meridian on which the standard time is based. For every degree difference in longitude this
difference is 4 minutes.

The second correction takes into account time correction arising due to small perturbations in
earth’s orbit and rate of rotation.
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LST = Standard time ±4(Standard time longitude – Longitude of location) + Equation of time
correction.

Note:- The –ve sign is applied for eastern hemisphere.

General points:

4. The smaller the sun’s altitude, the greater the thickness of atmosphere through which
the solar radiation must pass and reach the ground.
5. As a result of absorption and scattering, the insolation is less when sun is low in the
sky than when it is higher.
6. Scattering occurs diffuse radiation constitutes a larger fraction of the total received.
7. On a clear, cloudless day, about 10 to 20% of the insolation is from diffuse radiation,
proportion increases upto 100% when the sun is completely obscured by clouds.
8. When the humidity is high, insolation as high as 50% of the insolation on a clear day
at same time and place.
9. Insolation is not isotropic (from the observer point of view)

Solar Radiation Data:

1. Solar radiation data are available in several forms and should include the following
information.
1. Whether they are instantaneous measurements or values integrated over
some period of time
2. The time or time period of the measurements
3. Whether the measurements are of beam, diffuse or total radiation and the
instrument used.
4. The receiving surface orientation
5. If averaged, the period over which they averaged.
2. Solar radiation received on the surface of the earth are measured by solarimeter, which
give readings for instantaneous measurement at rate throughout the day for total radiation
on a horizontal surface.
3. 1 langley =1 cal/cm2
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4. In Calcutta =680 langleys = 680 cal/cm2/day

Solar Radiation measurement Data:

1. India lies between latitude 70 and 370N , and receives an annual average intensity of solar
radiation between 16700-29260 kj/m2/day (400-700 cal/cm2/day)
2. Peak values are measured in April or May
3. Peak values in Rajasthan and Gujarat are 25100 kj/m2/day (600 cal/cm2/day)
4. During monsoon and winter daily solar radiation decreases to about 16700 KJ/m2/day
(400 cal/cm2/day)
5. The annual daily diffuse radiation received over the whole country is observed to be
about 7300 kj/m2/day (175 cal/cm2/day)
6. The Minimum values of diffuse radiation, measured over many parts of the country
during November and December are between 3135-4180 Kj/m2/day (75-100 cal/cm2/day)
7. Maximum values in july are 12550 kj/m2/day (300 cal/cm2/day) (in Gujarat)

Estimation of average solar radiation

Monthly average horizontal solar radiation was given by angstrom is H av = Ho’ (a’+b’(n/N))

Thermoelectric Pyranometer

Measures solar irradiance from 300-4000 nm

Sensor: Blackened copper constantan thermopile covered with two concentric glass
domes which are transparent to radiation from 300-4000 nm.
Generated emf by thermopile is proportional to incident radiation. The typical value is
approximately 5 micro Volts/watt/sq. metre
Used for instantaneous measurement and continuous recording of Global, Diffused,
Reflected Solar irradiance.

Pyranometer (Installation View)

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The Angstrom Pyrheliometer

Measures direct solar irradiance from 300-4000 nm at normal incidence.

Sensor: Two blackened identical mangnin strips in thermal contact with thermocouples
but electrically insulated.
Sensor mounted in a long metallic tube to collimate the beam and minimize the effect of
scattered irradiance.
Shutter provided to shield one of the strips alternately.
The heating by direct irradiation received by the exposed strip is compensated by
electrically heating the shielded strip.
Electrical power required for heating the shielded strip is proportional to incident
irradiance.
Used for instantaneous measurement of direct solar irradiance, is capable of very high
accuracy and has very high stability. When used with coloured glass broad band pass
filter we get spectral distribution of direct solar irradiance.
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Thermoelectric pyrheliometer on solar tracker

Measures direct solar irradiance from 300-4000 nm at normal incidence.

Sensor: Blackened copper constantan thermopile.
Sensor mounted in a long metallic tube to collimate the incident beam.
Solar tracker maintains the pyrheliometer always directed towards the sun.
Generated emf by the thermopile is proportional to incident irradiance. (Approx. 5 micro
volts/watt/sq. metre)
Used for instantaneous measurements and continuous recording of direct solar irradiance.
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Thermoelectric Pyrheliometer with Heliosta1