NECRT Science CLASS 9TH Notes by ORACLE IAS, DEHRADUN

Chapter 1
Matter in Our Surroundings
Facts that Matter

Introduction

 Everything in this universe is made of materials which scientist has names

‘matter’.
 The matter is made up of very small tiny particles. It is not continuous but
is particulate.
 The matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
 Particles of matter have space between them and are continuously moving.
 Particles of matter attract each other.

States of Matter: It has 3 states.

Matter can change its state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas and vice-
versa.

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Effect of temperature: On increasing the heat, the particles gain energy and start
vibrating with greater energy. Due to increased kinetic energy the particles
overcome the force of attraction and a new state is obtained.

Melting point: The temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the
atmospheric pressure is called its melting point.

Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric
pressure is known as its boiling point. Boiling is a bulk phenomenon.

Latent heat of fusion: The amount of heat energy required to change 1 kg of a

solid into liquid at its melting point is called the latent heat of fusion of the solid.

Latent heat of vaporization: The amount of heat energy required to change 1 kg

of a liquid to vapour at atmospheric pressure, at its boiling point is called the latent
heat of vaporization of the liquid.

Effect of change of pressure on the matter: On applying pressure, the particles

of matter can be brought close together and the state of matter can be changed. For
example, CO2 gas can be solidified by applying pressure and lowering temperature.

Evaporation: The phenomenon of changing of a liquid into its vapour state at any
temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation. Evaporation is a surface
phenomenon.

Factors affecting evaporation.

 An increase in surface area increases evaporation.

 An increase in temperature increases the rate of evaporation.
 A decrease in humidity increases the rate of evaporation.
 An increase in wind speed increases the rate of evaporation.
 Evaporation causes a cooling effect.

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Chapter 2
Is Matter Around Us Pure
Facts that Matter

Compounds
The compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements combined
chemically in a definite ratio.

Characteristics:

 The properties of compound differ from those of its constituents.

 Compound has fixed melting point and boiling point.
 Compound is a homogeneous substance.
 Constituent elements can be separated by chemical process.

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Mixtures
It is made up of two or more elements or compounds mixed in any
ratio/proportion.

Properties:

 It may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.

 The properties of constituent substances are retained.
 No new compound is formed.
 Elements can be separated by simple physical processes.
 It does not have a fixed melting and boiling point.

Separation of Mixtures:

Physical and Chemical Change

Solution
It is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

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Different Types of Colloids

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Chapter 3
Atoms and Molecules
Facts that Matter

Law of Chemical Combination

Given by Lavoisier and Joseph L. Proust as follows:
1. Law of conservation of mass: Mass can neither be created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction. e.g., A + B → C + D Reactants →
Products Mass of reactants = Mass of products

2. Law of constant proportion: In a chemical substance the elements are

always present in definite proportions by mass.
E.g., in water, the ratio of the mass of hydrogen to the mass of oxygen is
always 1 : 8 respectively.
These laws lacked explanation. Hence, John Dalton gave his theory about
the matter. He said that the smallest particle of matter is called ‘atom’.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

 Every matter is made up of very small or tiny particles called atoms.

 Atoms are not divisible and cannot be created or destroyed in a
chemical reaction.
 All atoms of a given element are same in size, mass and chemical
properties.
 Atoms of different elements are different in size, mass and chemical
properties.
 Atoms combine in the ratio of a small whole number to form
compounds.
 The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given
compound.

Atom
Atoms are the smallest particles of an element which can take part in a
chemical reaction.
Size of an atom: Atomic radius is measured in nanometres.

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Symbols of atoms:
(a) Symbols for some elements as proposed by Dalton:

(b) Symbols of some common elements:

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Molecule
It is the smallest particle of an element or a compound which can exist
independently.

 Molecules of an element constitute the same type of atoms.

 Molecules may be monoatomic, diatomic or polyatomic.
 Molecules of compounds join together in definite proportions and
constitute a different type of atoms.

Atomicity
The number of atoms constituting a Molecule is known as its atomicity.

Ions
The charged particles (atoms) are called ions, they are formed by attaining
positive charge or negative charge on it.
Negatively charged ion is called anion (Cl ).
–

Positively charged ion is called cation (Na ).

+

Valency
The combining capacity of an element is known as its valency. Valency is
used to find out how the atom of an element will combine with the atom of
another element to form a chemical compound.
(Every atom wants to become stable, to do so it may lose, gain or share
electrons.)

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 If an atom consists of 1, 2 or 3 electrons in its valence shell then its

valency is 1, 2 or 3 respectively,
 If an atom consists of 5, 6 or 7 electrons in the outermost shell, then
it will gain 3, 2 or 1 electron respectively and its valency will be 3, 2
or 1 respectively.
 If an atom has 4 electrons in the outermost shell than it will share
this electron and hence its valency will be 4.
 If an atom has 8 electrons in the outermost electron and hence its
valency will be 0.

Some elements show more than one valency,hence termed as variable

valency.

Chemical Formulae
Rules: (i) The valencies or charges on the ion must balance.
(ii) Metal and non-metal compound should show the name or symbol of the
metal first.
e.g., Na+ Cl– → NaCl
(ii) If a compound consists of polyatomic ions. The ion is enclosed in a bracket before writing the

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number to indicate the ratio.

e.g., [SO4]2- → polyatomic radical
H1+ SO42- → H2SO4

Molecular Mass
It is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the substance. It is expressed in
atomic mass unit (u).

Formula Unit Mass

It is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound. The constituent
particles are ions.

Mole Concept
Definition of mole: It is defined as one mole of any species (atoms, molecules, ions or particles) is
that quantity in number having a mass equal to its atomic or molecular mass in grams.
1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 in number
Molar mass = mass of 1 mole → is always expressed in grams and is also known as gram atomic mass.
lu of hydrogen has → 1 atom of hydrogen 1g of hydrogen has → 1 mole of hydrogen
= 6.022 x 1023 atoms of hydrogen

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Chapter 4
Structure of the Atom
Facts that Matter

 John Dalton assumed that atom is indivisible.

 In 1866 E. Goldstein discovered the presence of new radiations in a
gas discharge tube and called them canal rays. These rays were
positively charged radiations which led to the discovery of sub-
atomic particle called proton.

In 1900 J.J. Thomson discovered the sub-atomic particle—the electron

with a negative charge.

Structure of an Atom

2.Rutherford’s model of an atom

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α-Particles: (+ 2 charge and 4 mass) when fast-moving a-particles are

bombarded on very thin gold foil, following observations were made:

 Most of the α-particles passed straight through the gold foil.

 Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
 One out of 12000 particles appeared to rebound.

Conclusions made by Rutherford based on his observations:

 Most of the space inside the atom is empty because a-particles

passed through the gold foil.
 Very few particles were deflected from their path because +ve
charge of the atom occupies a very little space.
 A very small fraction of a-particles were rebounded back, shows all
+ ve charge and mass of the gold atom is concentrated in a very
small volume within an atom.
 The radius of the nucleus calculated was 105 times less than the
radius of the atom.

Nuclear Model of an Atom

 Centre → +ve charge → called nucleus. All mass resides in nucleus.

 Electrons → revolve around the nucleus in orbits.

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 Size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the

atoms.

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of the atom: When an electron

undergoes acceleration, it radiates energy. Thus revolving electron would
lose energy and finally fall into the nucleus. Due to this atom should be
highly unstable and hence matter would not exist in the form that we
know.
But we know that atoms are quite stable.
Bohr’s Model of Atom
Postulates of Neil Bohr

 Only special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons are allowed

inside the atom.
 While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate
energy. These orbits are called energy levels.

Orbits or shells are represented by K, L, M, N or the numbers, n = 1, 2, 3,

4

Neutrons
Distribution of electrons in different orbits (Shells) given by Bohr and
Bury: Rules:

 Maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by 2n2 (n =

shell number)
E.g., n = 1 (K shell) 2(1)2 = 2 electron

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 The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the

outermost orbit is 8.
 Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell unless the inner
shells are completely filled.

Definitions

 Valency: The combining capacity of an atom is called its valency,

 Atomic number: It is equal to a number of protons.
 Mass number: It is equal to the sum of protons and neutrons.

Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with same atomic number but a
different mass number, are called isotopes.
Chemical properties → same but Physical properties → different

Applications of isotopes:

 Anisotope of Uranium used as fuel.

 Anisotope of Cobalt is used in the treatment of cancer
 Anisotope of Iodine is used in the treatment of goitre.

Isobars: Atoms of different elements with same mass number but

different atomic numbers are called isobars.

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Chapter 5
The Fundamental Unit of Life
Facts that Matter

The smallest functional unit of life is a cell, discovered by Robert Hooke

in 1665. A cell can independently perform all necessary activities to
sustain life. Hence cell is the basic unit of life.
There are two types of cells plant cell and animal cell. The different cell
organelles and their functions are as follows:

1. Plasma/Cell membrane: This is the outermost covering of the cell that

separates the contents of the cell from its external environment. The
plasma membrane allows or permits the entry and exit of some materials
in and out of the cell so the cell membrane is called a selectively
permeable membrane.

Some substances like CO2 or O2 gases can move across the cell membrane
by a process called diffusion. The movement of water molecules (liquid)
through such a selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis.
Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high water concentration
through a semi-permeable membrane to a region of low water
concentration.
If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than
the cell, the cell will gain water by osmosis. Such a solution is known as a
hypotonic solution.

If the medium has exactly the same water concentration as the cell, there
will be no net movement of water across the cell membrane. Such a
solution is known as an isotonic solution. If the medium has a lower water
concentration then the cell will lose water by osmosis. Such a solution is
known as a hypertonic solution.

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The plasma membrane is flexible and is made up of organic molecules

called lipids and proteins. The flexibility of cell membrane also enables
the cell to engulf in food and other material from its external environment.
Such process is known as endocytosis. It is observed in Amoeba.

2. Cell wall (Protective wall): Plants cells, in addition to the plasma

membrane have another rigid outer covering called cell wall. The cell wall
lies outside the plasma membrane. The plant cell wall is mainly composed
of cellulose. It is a complex substance and provides structural strength to
plant cells. When a living plant loses water through osmosis there is
shrinkage or contraction of contents of the cell away from cell wall. This
phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.

3. Nucleus (Brain of a cell): The nucleus has a double-layered covering

called nuclear membrane. The nuclear membrane has pores which allow
the transfer of material from inside the nucleus to its outside, i.e., to the
cytoplasm.

The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped

structures only when the cell is about to divide.
Chromosomes — contain information for inheritance of features from
parents to next generation in form of DNA [Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid]
molecules. Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein. Functional
segments of DNA are called genes. The nucleus plays a central role in
cellular reproduction.

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Prokaryotic Cells: In some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear material

is not enclosed by nuclear membrane and membrane bound cell organelle
are absent. Such nucleus is called nucleoid and such cells are known as
prokaryotic cell. Such cells have single chromosome.
Eukaryotic Cells: Cells having well defined nucleus and having membrane
bound cell organelle is termed as eukaryotic cell. Such cells have more
than one chromosomes.

4. Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma

membrane. It also contains many specialised cell organelles. Each of these
organelles performs a specific function for the cell.

5. Cell Organelles: Every cell has a membrane around it to keep its

content separate from the external environment. The different components
of cell perform different function and these components are called cell
organelles.
(i) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (Channels, Network for transport):

The ER is a large network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets. It looks

like long tubules or round or oblong bags.
There are two types of ER-Rough endoplasmic reticulum [RER] and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum [SER]. RER has particles called ribosomes
attached to its surface. The ribosomes Endoplasmic Reticulum are the
sites of protein manufacture.

The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important for
cell function. Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell
membrane. This process is known as membrane biogenesis. Some other
proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones.

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The one function of ER is to serve as channels for the transport of

materials between various regions of the cytoplasm or between the
cytoplasm and the nucleus. The ER also functions as a cytoplasmic
framework providing a surface for some of the biochemical activities of
the cell.

(ii) Golgi Apparatus (Packaging): The golgi apparatus, first described by

Camillo Golgi, consists of a system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged
approximately, parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns.
The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and dispatched to
various targets inside and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus. It’s
function include the storage, modification and packages of products in
vesicles. In some cases complex sugar may be made from simple sugar in
the Golgi apparatus. It is also involved in the formation of lysosomes.

(iii) Lysosomes [Suichge bags] (Cleanliness of cell): Lysosomes are a

kind of waste dispatch and disposal system of the cell. Lysosome help to
keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn-out
cell organelles. Foreign materials entering the cells such as bacteria or
food, as well as old organelles, end up in the lysosome, which break them
up into small pieces. They are able to do this because they contain
powerful digestive enzymes capable of breaking down all organic
material. Under abnormal condition, when the cell gets damaged,
lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore
they are also known as “suicide bags”

(iv) Mitochondria (Powerhouse, Energy provider): Mitochondria are

known as powerhouses of the cell. The energy required for various
chemical activities needed for life is released by mitochondria in the form
of ATP [Adenosine Triphosphate] molecules. ATP is known as energy

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currency of the cell. Mitochondria have two membrane coverings instead

of just one. The outer membrane is very porous while the inner membrane
is deeply folded. They are able to make some of their own protein.

(v) Plastids: Plastids are present only in plant cells. There are two types of
plastids chromoplasts and leucoplasts. Chromoplasts are the coloured
plastids present in leaves, flowers and fruits. Plastids containing the
pigment chlorophyll are known as chloroplasts. They are important for
photosynthesis in plants. Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or
orange pigments in addition to chlorophyll. Leucoplasts are found
primarily in organelles in which materials such as starch, oils and protein
granules are stored.

The internal organisation of the plastids consists of numerous membrane

layers embedded in a material called stroma. Plastids are similar to
mitochondria in external structure. Plastids have their own DNA and
ribosomes.

(vi) Vacuoles (Storage): Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid
contents. Vacuoles are small-sized in animal cells while plant cells have
very large vacuoles [50% to 90% cell volume].

In plant cells, vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and
rigidity to the cell. In Amoeba, the food’vacuole contain the food items
that is consumed it and contractile vacuoles expels excess water and some
wastes from the cell.

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Chapter 6
Tissues
Facts that Matter

Tissues
Group of cells having a common origin and similar function are termed as
tissues.
A. Plant tissues: On the basis of the dividing capacity, plant tissues are of
two types:

1. Meristematic tissues
2. Permanent tissues

1. Meristematic tissues: Consist of actively-dividing cells. Meristematic

tissues are of three types:

 Apical meristem: Present at the growing tips of stems and roots.

Important function: To increase the length of stems and roots.

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 Intercalary meristem: Present at the base of leaves or internodes.

Important function: For the longitudinal growth of plants.
 Lateral meristem: Present on the lateral sides of the stems and
roots. Important function: To increase the thickness of stems and
roots.

2. Permanent tissues: Formed from meristematic tissues, the cells in the

tissue loose the ability to divider Permanent tissues are divided into two
categories:

 Simple permanent tissue: Consist of only one type of cells.

Types of simple permanent tissues:
 Parenchyma: Composed of unspecialised living cells with
relatively thin cell walls, intercellular space, present in soft
parts of the plant. Their main function is storage.
 Collenchyma: Composed of living and elongated cells with
cell walls irregularly thickened at the comers. No intercellular
space. It provides mechanical support and elasticity to plant. It
helps in bending of leaves and stems.
 Sclerenchyma: Composed of long, narrow, and thick-walled
cells. This tissue is made up of dead cells and there are no
intercellular spaces. Sclerenchyma cells are dead, present in
seeds, nuts, the husk of a coconut, fibres of jute etc.
 Complex permanent tissue: Made up of more than one type of
cells (Conducting tissues.)
Types of complex permanent tissues:
 Xylem: Conducts water and minerals from the roots to the
different parts of the plant.
Composed of four different types of cells—tracheids, vessels,
xylem parenchyma and xylem fibres.
 Phloem: Conducts food material from the leaves to the
different parts of the plant.
Composed of four different types of cells—sieve tubes,
companion cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.
Protective tissue: It is made of a single layer of cells. E.g.,
epidermis. The epidermis of the leaf bears stomata.

B. Animal tissues: Animal tissues are classified into four types based on
the functions they perform:

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1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscular
4. Nervous

1. Epithelial tissues: Form the covering of the external surfaces,

internal cavities and organs of the animal body. Various types of
epithelial tissues are:
 Simple squamous epithelium: Single layer of flat cells.
Location in the human body: Lining of the mouth,
oesophagus, lung, alveoli, etc.
 Cuboidal epithelium: Consists of cube like cells.
Location in the human body: Lining of the kidney tubules and
ducts of the salivary glands. It’s function is secretion and
absorption.
 Columnar epithelium: Consists of elongated or column-like
cells.
Location in the human body: Inner lining of the intestine and
gut. Its function is of secretion and absorption.
2. Connective tissues: Specialised to connect various body organs.
Various types of connective tissues:, are:
 Areolar tissue: Found in the skin and muscles, around the
blood vessels, nerves, etc.
 Adipose tissue: Acts as the storage site of fats; found between
the internal organs and below the skin; acts as an insulator for
the body.
 Dense regular connective tissue: Main components are
tendons and ligaments; tendons connect muscles to bones,
while ligaments connect two bones together.
 Skeletal tissue: Main components of skeletal tissues are
cartilage and bone.
 Fluid tissue: Blood is the vascular tissue present in animals.
3. Muscular tissues: Main function of muscular tissues is to provide
movement to the body. Muscular tissues are of three types:
 Striated muscles or skeletal muscles or voluntary
muscles: Cells are cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate.
 Smooth muscles or involuntary muscles: Cells are long,
spindle-shaped and possess a single nucleus.

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Cardiac muscles or involuntary muscles: Cells are


cylindrical, branched and uninucleate.
4. Nervous tissues: Present in the brain, spinal cord and nerves.
 Neuron: Cells of the nervous tissue.
 A neuron: consists of a cell body, an axon and a dendrite.

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Chapter 7
Diversity in Living Organisms
Facts that Matter

Diversity: This earth is full of organisms of various shapes and sizes. The
largest Phylum of animal kingdom alone contains over a million species.
There are varieties of plants, right from small grasses to tall Eucalyptus
trees. This variety in living beings is called diversity.

Biodiversity: The variety of animals and plants living in a given

geographical area is called biodiversity of that geographical area.
Need for a System of Classification: Because of the huge diversity in
living beings it becomes very difficult task to study each of them one by
one. To make their study easier animals and plants were categorized in
groups and sub¬groups. Thus the system of classification started.

Classification by Aristotle: Aristotle classified animals according to their

living environment. So he categorized them as either aquatic or terrestrial.

Drawbacks of Aristotle’s Classification: Both in sea as well as on land

we can find animals and plants. Moreover, there are very small animals,
like sea-horse, along with large animals, like whale. So, this was not a
good basis of classification.

Basis of Classification
(a) Presence or Absence of Nucleus in Cells
Prokaryotes: Those organisms which have cells without well defined
nucleus are called prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes: Those organisms which have cells with well defined nucleus
are Called eukaryotes. Presence of nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles gives better efficiency to cells.

(b) Number of Cells in an Organism

Unicellular: Those organisms having single cell are termed as unicellular

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organisms. In them the single cell is responsible for carrying out all
necessary functions to maintain life.
Multicellular: Those organisms having more than one cell are called
multicellular organisms. Because of more number of cells there can be
some division of labour to gain more efficiency.

(c) Mode of Nutrition

Autotrophs: Organisms producing their own food are called autotrophs.
All green plants are autotrophs. They have a pigment (chlorophyll) in
green parts which facilitates photosynthesis.
Heterotrophs: Organisms dependent on either plants or animals are called
heterotrophs.They don’t have chlorophylls. All animals, fungi and certain
bacteria and protozoa belong to this group.

(d) Level of Organisation in Body

In multicellular organisms which are small, like hydra particular group of
cells are assigned a particular function. But in larger organisms, tissues
group to form an organ, which in turn make organ system. For example, in
human beings there are separate systems for performing specific tasks.

Even in larger plants there is separate root system for conduction of water
and minerals, leaf for photosynthesis and flowers for reproduction. Based
on these characters organisms can be further classified into various sub-
groups.

Evolutionary Relationship or Phylogenetic Relationship

Charles Darwin wrote a book “Origin of Species’ in 1859 and gave his
theories of evolution. As per his theories all organisms have evolved from
unicellular organisms. Primitive body designs came early in evolutionary
history leading to more complex designs. This gave rise to such a huge
diversity in life forms. Because of common ancestry, all organisms are
related. The closer evolutionary relation between two organisms is also
one of the basis of classification of organisms.

The Hierarchy of Classification—Groups

Biologists, such as Ernst Haeckel (1894), Robert Whittaker (1959) and
Carl Woese (1977) have tried to classify all living organisms into broad
categories, called kingdoms.

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 Whittaker’s Five Kingdom Classification:

 Monera
 Protista
 Fungi
 Plantae
 Animalia.
 Further Levels of Classification Beyond Kingdom
 Phylum (for animals)/Division (for plants)
 Class
 Order
 Family
 Genus
 Species

Thus, by separating organisms on the basis of a hierarchy of characteristics

into smaller and smaller groups, we arrive at the basic unit of
classification, which is a ‘species’. Broadly, a species includes all
organisms that are similar enough to breed and perpetuate.

 Monera
 These organisms do not have a defined nucleus or organelles
and are unicellular.
 Cell walls present in some organisms of this group.
 Nutrition: Autotrophic or heterotrophic
 Examples: Bacteria and blue-green algae
 Protista
 Unicellular eukaryotic organisms.
 Locomotion: By Jair-like cilia or whip-like flagella for moving
around in some members.
 Nutrition: Autotrophic or heterotrophic.
 Examples: Algae, protozoans {Plasmodium, Entamoeba)
 Fungi
 Heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms.
 Nutrition: Saprophytic they use decaying organic materials as
food.
 Lichens: Some fungi live in a symbiotic relationship with
cyanobacteria. They are called lichens. The algal part provides food
and the fungal part provides minerals and substratum.
 Plantae
 Multicellular eukaryotes with cell walls.

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Nutrition: Autotrophs use chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

 • Animalia
 Multicellular eukaryotes without cell walls.
 Nutrition Heterotrophs.

Classification of Kingdom Plantae

Thallophyta or Algae: Plants that do not have well-differentiated body

design fall in this group. The plants in this group are commonly called
algae. These plants are predominantly aquatic. Examples are Spirogyra,
Ulothrix, Cladophora and Chora.

Bryophyta: These are called the amphibians of the plant kingdom. The
plant body is commonly differentiated to form stem and leaf-like
structures. However, there is no specialized tissue for the conduction of
water and other substances from one part of the plant body to another.
Examples are moss (Funaria) and Marchantia.

Pteridophyta: The plant body is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves
and has specialized tissue for the conduction of water and other substances
from one part of the plant body to another. Some examples are MarsUea,

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ferns and horse-tails.

Gymnosperms: The plants of this group bear naked seeds and are usually
perennial, evergreen and woody. Examples are pines and deodar.

Angiosperms: This word is made from two Greek words: angio means
covered and sperma—means seed. The seeds develop inside an organ
which is modified to become a fruit. These are also called flowering
plants. Plant embryos in seeds have structures called cotyledons.

Cotyledons: Cotyledons are called ‘seed leaves’ because in many

instances they emerge and become green when the seed germinates.
The angiosperms are divided into two groups on the basis of the number of
cotyledons present in the seed.

 Monocotyledonous: Seeds have a single cotyledon.

 Dicotyledonous: Seeds have two cotyledons.

Classification of Kingdom Animalia: Kingdom Animalia is further

classified into several following phylum. Each phylum has it own classes,
sub-classes orders, families, etc.

1. Porifera
 These are non-motile animals attached to some solid support
which comprises of spicules of calcium carbonate, silica.
 There are holes or “pores’, all over the body. These lead to a
canal system that helps in circulating water throughout the
body to bring in food and oxygen.
 Animals are covered with a hard outside layer or skeleton
which comprises of spicules of calcium carbonate, silica.

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 They have very minimal differentiation and division into

tissues.
 Examples: Sponges
2. Coelenterata
 Aquatic animals.
 There is a cavity in the body hence the name Coelenterate
(coelom means cavity).
 Body is made of two layers of cells.
 Examples: Hydra, Jellyfish
3. Platyhelminthes
 The body is bilaterally symmetrical, meaning that the left and
the right halves of the body have the same design.
 There are three layers of cells from which differentiated
tissues can be made, which is why such animals are called
triploblastic.
 There is no true internal body cavity or coelom, in which well
developed
organs can be accommodated.
 The body is flattened dorsiventrally, meaning from top to
bottom, which is why these animals are called flatworms.
 They are either free-living or parasitic.
 Examples: Planaria, Liver fluke
4. Nematoda
 Body is bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
 Body is cylindrical rather than flattened.
 False body cavity or a pseudocoelom, is present.
 These are very familiar as parasitic worms causing diseases,
such as the worms causing elephantiasis (filarial worms) or
the worms in the intestines (roundworm or pinworms).
 Examples: Ascaris, Wucheraria
5. Annelida
 These are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
 True body cavity present.
 Body is divided into many ring like segments, hence the name
annelida.
 Examples: Earthworms, Leech
6. Arthropoda
 The largest group of animals.
 These are bilaterally symmetrical and segmented.

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There is an open circulatory system, and so the blood does not


flow in well defined blood vessels.
 They have jointed legs (the word ‘arthropod’ means jointed
legs’).
 Examples: Ants, Cockroach, Grasshopper, Scorpions
7. Mollusca
 These are bilaterally symmetrical.
 Reduced coelomic cavity.
 The soft body is covered with a hard shell made of calcium
carbonate.
 Examples: Snails, Mussels.
8. Echinodermata
 In Greek, echino means hedgehog, and derma means skin.
Thus, these are spiny skinned organisms.
 Exclusively free-living marine animals.
 Triploblastic animals with coelom.
 They have a peculiar water-driven tube system that they use
for moving around.
 Skeleton made of calcium carbonate.
 Examples: Starfish and Sea urchins
9. Protochordata
 These animals are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and
have a coelom.
 In addition, they show a new feature of body design, namely a
notochord, at least at some stages during their lives.
 The notochord is a long rod-like support structure
(chord*string) that runs along the back of the animal
separating the nervous tissue from the gut. It provides a place
for muscles to attach for ease of movement.

Examples: Balanoglossus, Herdemarda and Amphioxus.

10. Vertebrata
These animals have a true vertebral column and internal skeleton,
allowing a completely different distribution of muscle attachment
points to be used for movement. Vertebrates are bilaterally
symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomic and segmented, with complex

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differentiation of body tissues and organs. All chordates possess the

following features:
 Notochord
 Dorsal nerve cord
 Triploblastic
 Paired gill pouches
 Coelomate

Vertebrates are grouped into five classes:

1. Pisces
 Body is streamlined and has fins and tail for swimming.
 Skin is covered with scales.
 Skeleton can be made of bone or cartilage.
 Intake’ of oxygen is by gills.
 Cold-blooded animals.
 The two-chambered heart is present.
 Examples: Fishes like Rohu, Tuna, Shark
2. Amphibia
 They are adapted to live both on land and water.
 Respiration is through either gills or lungs.
 The three-chambered heart is present.
 Examples: Frogs, Toads, Salamander
3. Reptilia
 These are crawling animals.
 Skin is rough and modified to withstand extreme temperatures.
 The heart is three chambered in most, while four-chambered in
crocodiles.
 Cold-blooded animals.
 Examples: Lizards, Turtles, Snakes
4. Aves
 Body is covered with feathers and forelimbs are modified for
flying.
 Breathing through lungs.
 Warms blooded animals.
 The four-chambered heart is present.
 Examples: Sparrow, Eagle, Crow, Parrot
5. Mammalia
 Mammary glands are present which produce milk to nurture
young ones.

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 Skin is covered with hairs and has sweat glands and sebaceous
glands.
 Warm-blooded animals with four-chambered heart.
 Most animals are viviparous (giving birth to live young ones),
some are oviparous (producing eggs).
 Examples: Man, Horse, Kangaroo, Lion

Conventions for writing the scientific names:

1. The name of the genus begins with a capital letter.

2. The name of the species begins with a small letter.
3. When printed, the scientific name is given in italics.
4. When written by hand, the genus name and the species name have to
be underlined separately.

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Chapter 8
Motion
Facts that Matter

An object is said to be in motion when its position changes with time.

We describe the location of an object by specifying a reference point.

Motion is relative. The total path covered by an object is said to be the
distance travelled by it.

The shortest path/distance measured from the initial to the final position of
an object is known as the displacement.

Uniform motion: When an object covers equal distances in equal

intervals of time, it is said to be in uniform motion.

Non-uniform motion: Motions where objects cover unequal distances in

equal intervals of time.

Speed: The distance travelled by an object in unit time is referred to as

speed. Its unit is m/s.

Average speed: For non-uniform motion, the average speed of an object is

obtained by dividing the total distance travelled by an object by the total
time taken.

Velocity: Velocity is the speed of an object moving indefinite direction.

S.I. unit is m/s.

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Acceleration: Change in the velocity of an object per unit time.

Graphical representation of motions

(i) Distance-time graph
For a distance-time graph, time is taken on x-axis and distance is taken on
the y-axis.
[Note: All independent quantities are taken along the x-axis and dependent
quantities are taken along the y-axis.]

(ii) Velocity-time graph

Equation of motion by graphical methods

(i)velocity-time relation:

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(ii) The equation for position-time relation:

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(iii) Equation for position-velocity relation:

Uniform circular motion: When a body moves in a circular path with

uniform speed, its . motion is called uniform circular motion.

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Chapter 9
Force and Laws of Motion
Facts that Matter

Force: It is a push or pulls on an object that produces an acceleration in

the body on which it acts. S.I. unit of force is Newton.

A force can do three things on a body.

 It can change the speed of the body.

 It can change the direction of motion of a body.
 It can change the shape of a body.

Balanced forces: Forces are said to be balanced forces if they nullify one
another and their resultant force is zero.

Frictional force: The force that always opposes the motion of objects is
called a force of friction.

The second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum of an object

is proportional to the applied unbalanced force in the direction of the force.

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Mathematically,

Momentum: The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and

velocity and has the same direction as that of the velocity. Its S.I. unit is kg
m/s.

1 Newton: A force of one Newton produces an acceleration of 1 m/s 2 on

an object of mass 1 kg.
IN. = 1 kg m/s2 (F = ma)

Third law of motion: To every action, there is an equal and opposite

reaction and they act on two different bodies.

Conservation of momentum: If the external force on a system is zero, the

momentum of the system remains constant i.e., in an isolated system, the
total momentum remains conserved.

Suppose A and B are two balls, they have mass mA and and initial
velocities uA and uB as shown in above figure before collision. The two
bodies collide and force is exerted by each body. There is change in their
velocities due to collision.

Unbalanced forces: When two opposite forces acting on a body, move a

body in the direction of the greater force or forces which brings motion in
a body are called as unbalanced forces.

First law of motion: An object remains in a state of rest or of uniform

motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external unbalanced
force.

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Inertia: The natural tendency of an object to resist a change in their state

of rest or of uniform motion is called inertia.
The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia.
Its S.I. unit is kg.
A body with greater mass has greater inertia.
(mAuA + mAuB) is the total momentum of the two balls A and B before
collision and (mAvA + mBvB) is their total momentum after the collision.
The sum of momenta of the two objects before collision is equal to the
sum of momentum after the collision, provided there is no external
unbalanced force acting on them.
This is known as the law of conservation of momentum.

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Chapter 10
Gravitation
Facts that Matter

The universal law of gravitation: Every object in the universe attracts every other
object with a force which is proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The force is along the line joining the centres of two objects.

Let two objects A and B of masses M and m lie at a distance of d from each other
as shown in the figure.

Let F be the force of attraction between the law of gravitation

G is called a universal constant because its value does not depend on the nature of intervening
medium or temperature or any other physical variable.
S.I. unit of G = Nm2/kg2
Value of G = 6.673 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2 (Found by Henry Cavendish)

Importance of universal law of gravitation

Universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena like :

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 the force that binds us to the earth.

 the motion of moon around the earth.
 the motion of planets around the sun.
 the tides due to the moon and the sun.

Freefall
When an object falls down towards the earth under the gravitational force alone,
we say the object is in free fall.
The velocity of a freely falling body changes and is said to be accelerated.
This acceleration is called acceleration due to gravity, denoted by ’g’. Unit is m/s 2.

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The motion of objects under the influence of gravity ‘g’ does not depend on the
mass of the body. All objects small, big, heavy, light, hollow or solid fall at the
same rate.

The three equation of motion viz.

If an object is just let fall from a height then in that as u = 0 and a = g = 9.8 m/s -2.

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If an object is projected vertically upward with an initial velocity u, then a = – g =

– 9.8 ms-2 and the object will go to a maximum height h where its final velocity
becomes zero (i.e., v = 0).

Mass: Mass of an object is the measure of its inertia. It is the matter present in it. It
remains the same everywhere in the universe.
Weight: The force of attraction of the earth on the object is known as the weight of
the object. It’s S.I. unit is Newton.
W=mxg

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Chapter 11
Work, Power and Energy
Facts that Matter

Work: When a force acts on an object and the object shows displacement,
the force has done work on the object.
Two conditions need to be satisfied for work to be done:
(i) A force should act on object
(a) The object must be displaced
Work = Force x Displacement Unit of workdone = Joule = Newton x
metre 1 Joule work is said to be done when 1 Newton force is applied on
an object and it shows the displacement by 1 meter.

Energy
The capacity of a body to do work is called the energy of the body.
Unit of energy = Joules 1KJ = 1000 J

Forms of Energy: The various forms of energy are potential energy,

kinetic energy, heat energy, chemical energy, electrical energy and light
energy.

Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a body due to its motion. Kinetic

energy of an object increases with its speed.

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Kinetic energy of body moving with a certain velocity = work done on it

to make it acquire that velocity

Derivation
Let an object of mass m, move with uniform velocity u, let us displace it
by s, due to constant force F, acting on it

Potential Energy
The energy possessed by a body due to its position or shape is called its
potential energy.
shape

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Gravitational Potential Energy: (GP)

When an object is raised through a height, work is said to be done on it
against gravity.
The energy possessed by such an object is called the gravitational potential
energy.
GPE = work is done in raising a body from the ground to a point against
gravity.
Derivation

Consider a body with mass m, raised through a height h, from the ground,
Force required to raise the object = weight of object mg.
The object gains energy to the work done on it.

Work done in both the cases (i) and (ii) is same as a body is raised from

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position A to B, even if the path taken is different but the height attained is
the same.

Mechanical Energy: The sum of kinetic energy and potential energy is

called mechanical energy.

Law of Conservation of Energy:

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed
from one form to another. The total energy before and after transformation
remains the same.

Potential energy + Kinetic energy = Constant (Mechanical energy)

A body of mass ‘m’ is raised to height ‘h’ at A its potential energy is
maximum and kinetic energy is 0 as it is stationary.
When body falls at B, h is decreasing hence potential energy decreases and
V is increasing hence kinetic energy is increasing.
When the body is about to reach the ground level, h = 0, v will be
maximum hence kinetic energy –> potential energy
Decrease in potential energy = Increase in kinetic energy
This shows the continual transformation of gravitational potential energy
into kinetic energy.

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Power

Commercial Unit of Energy

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Chapter 12
Sound
Facts that Matter

A sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our

ears.

Propagation of Sound: Sound is produced by vibrating objects.

Medium: The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is

called a medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas. Air is the most common
medium for sound propagation.

Wave: A wave is a disturbance that moves through a medium when the

particles of the medium set neighbouring particles into motion. They in
turn produce similar motion in others. The particles of the medium do not
move forward themselves, but the disturbance is carried forward. This is
what happens during propagation of sound in a medium, hence sound can
be visualised as a wave. Sound waves are characterised by the motion of
particles in the medium and are called mechanical waves.

When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and compresses the air
in front of it creating a region of high pressure. This region is called a
compression (C), as shown in following figure. This compression starts to
move away from the vibrating object. When the vibrating object moves
backwards, it creates a region of low pressure called rarefaction (R).

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As the object moves back and forth rapidly, a series of compressions and
rarefactions is created in the air. These make the sound wave that
propagates through the medium. Compression is the region of high
pressure and rarefaction is the region of low pressure.

Experiment to show Sound needs a medium:

Activity:

 Take and electric bell and airtight jar.

 Fit the bell inside the jar and attach to battery.
 With air still in jar ring the bell.
 Now take out air by vaccumization.
 Ring the bell again.

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Observation: Sound of bell can be heard when air is inside the jar. When
air is taken out then sound cannot be heard.

Conclusion: This shows that presence of medium is necessary for

propagation of sound waves.

Properties of Sound Waves:

Frequency: Number of oscillations of sound waves is called its frequency.

The number of peak and troughs per unit of time will give frequency. It is
represented by v (nu) and its SI unit is Hertz (Hz).
Time Period: The time taken to complete one oscillation is called its time
period. Its unit is second and is represented by T.

Relation of frequency and time period:

v = 1/T

Amplitude: The magnitude of the maximum disturbance in the medium

on either side of the mean value is called the amplitude of the wave. It is
usually represented by the letter A. Its unit is meter.

Softness or Loudness of Sound: If the amplitude is smaller then the

sound will be softer and if it is larger then sound will be louder. Higher
amplitude helps the sound wave is travelling faster.

Speed of sound: It is the distance which compression or a rarefaction

travels per unit of time.

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So, Speed = Wavelength Frequency

The speed of the sound remains almost the same for all frequencies in a
given medium under the same physical condition.
Speed of Sound in Different Media at 25° C.

Reflection of Sound: Sound reflects off a surface in the same way as light
reflects and follows same rules of reflection. The incident sound and the
reflected sound make equal angles with the normal and all three are in the
same plane.

Echo: In bigger monuments and in large empty halls you can hear
reflections of your sound after you speak something. This effect is known
as echo. The sensation of sound persists in our brain for 0.1 seconds, so to
hear echo the time difference between original sound and reflected sound
should be more than that.
As you know speed of sound in air is = 344 m/s And 344 x 0.1 = 34.4
metre

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So, the minimum distance required to hear an echo from a reflecting wall
or surface should be half of 34.4, means it should be 17.2 metres.

Reverberation: Repeated reflections of sound results in persistence of

sound and is called reverberation.

Use of Reverberation of Sound: Following instruments use this property

of sound:

1. Megaphones, Shehanais, Trumpets

2. Stethoscope
3. Curved dome of concert halls

Range of Hearing in humans:

From 20 Hz to 20000 Hz
Sounds below 20 Hz are called infrasonic.
Sounds above 20000 Hz are called ultrasonic.

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Chapter 13
Why Do we Fall ill
Facts that Matter

Introduction
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.

Basic conditions for good health:

 Proper balanced and nutritious diet.

 Personal hygiene.
 Clean environment and surroundings.
 Healthy air, no pollution in the surrounding.
 Regular exercise.
 Proper rest.
 Good standard of living and economic status.

Disease: when the body is not at ease i.e., comfortable then it is said to
have a disease.
When there is a disease, the functioning or appearance of one or more
systems of the body changes.
Depending on the duration—disease is classified as acute or chronic.

Acute disease: Diseases that last for only short period of time, e.g.,
headache, common cold etc.

Chronic disease: Diseases that last for long time,’ are called chronic
diseases, e.g., elephantiasis, tuberculosis, etc.

Causes of diseases: Immediate cause and contributory cause.

Immediate cause: The organisms that enter our body and causes disease
is called immediate cause. For example, virus, bacteria, protozoa etc.

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Contributory cause: The secondary factors which led these organisms

enter our body are called as contributory cause. For example, dirty water,
unclear
surroundings, contaminated food, improper nourishment, poverty, poor
standard of living etc.
Diseases may be due to infectious and non-infectious causes.

(a) Infectious causes: Diseases where microbes are the immediate causes
are called infections diseases. The infection spreads from one person to
another.

(b) Non-infectious causes: Some diseases that do not spread in the

community, but remains internal are called non-infectious diseases.
Example, cancer, genetic abnormalities, high blood pressure etc.

Infectious diseases (Communicable diseases): When a disease causing

organism enters our body it causes infection, it multiplies and grows in the
body called host and micro-organisms multiplies in the host body.

Infectious diseases spread through:

 Air: Causes air-borne diseases due to bacteria, virus e.g., common

cold, influenza, measles, tuberculosis.
 Food and water: Is caused due to contaminated food and water that
contains bacteria, virus, worm etc. Example, cholera, typhoid and
hepatitis.
 Contact: Many diseases spread by contact of infected person with
the healthy person. Examples, fungal infection, scabies etc.
AIDS and syphilis spread due to sexual contact.
 Body fluids: Body fluids like blood, semen, mother milk when
infected can also cause disease. Example, AIDS.

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Antibiotics: These are the chemicals (medicine, drugs) that block

biochemical pathways important for bacteria. They are used for diseases
caused by bacteria.

Inflammation: When an active immune system release many cells to the

affected tissue to heat-off the disease-causing microbes it is called
inflammation. Local effects caused on body due to inflammation are—
swelling, pain, fever and redness.

Principles of treatment

 To reduce the effects of the diseases.

 To kill the cause of the disease i.e., to kill the microbes like bacteria
fungi, protozoa.

Principles of Prevention

 General method
 Specific method

General ways of preventing infections relate to preventing exposure.

Prevention of exposure can be done tin following ways:

 For air borne infections—valid -visiting public place, cover your

nose and mouth while coughing.
 for water borne infections- Drink, clean and boiled thinking water.
 For vector borne infections Keep the surroundings clean, do not keep
any puddle of water open in the surrounding as it allows the
breeding of mosquitoes.
 Self immune system that can (fight off and kill microbes when it
enters our body.
 Availability of proper and sufficient -food for everyone.

Specific ways: 1% (giving vaccines, a childhood immunisation that its

given to the children for (preventing infectious diseases.

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Chapter 14
Natural Resources
Facts that Matter

Life exists on earth due to its ambient temperature, water, food and energy
from the sun.

Lithosphere: The outer crust of the earth is called the lithosphere.

Hydrosphere: Sum of all water bodies is called hydrosphere.

Atmosphere: Air that covers the earth is called the atmosphere.

Biosphere: The life-supporting zone of the earth where the atmosphere,

hydrosphere and lithosphere interact and make life possible is called
biosphere.
It consists of biotic components-living things and abiotic components-non-
living things like air, water and soil

Air: It is a mixture of many gases like oxygen, nitrogen, carbon-dioxide,

water vapour and other gases.

 Nitrogen is used by plants for protein synthesis.

 Oxygen sustains life used for respiration, combustion.
 Carbon-dioxide used by plants for preparing food by photosynthesis.

Water vapour: provides moisture.

Atmosphere: Acts as a protective blanket around the earth. Maintains the

temperature on the surface of earth. Winds are caused due to uneven
heating of atmosphere, these winds maintains the pressure difference and
causes cold and hot air, sea and land breeze, brings rain etc.

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Rain: The clouds formed due to the evaporation of water condenses and
precipitates as rain.

Water: Various sources of water are available i.e., surface water,

underground water, snow, ice-bergs, water vapour in the atmosphere.

Use of Water

 Water is used for transportation.

 Sustain life
 Used by plants and animals for life-processes. Water available for
drinking should be conserved and used wisely.

Soil: Soil is formed by a very slow process i.e., by weathering of rocks. It

consists of various nutrients. Plants grow in the soil, many microbe’s
homes is soil.

Varieties of soil types are available

 Sandy soil
 Loamy Soil
 Clayey Soil
 Black soil
 Red soil
 Alluvial soil
 Laterite soil.

Temperature: Temperature and light is also required for all biotic

components.

Pollution: Contamination of natural sources with unwanted substances.

 Air Pollution: Air contaminated with smoke, fumes, dust, pollen

grain, etc.
 Water Pollution: Water contaminated by sewage, industrial waste,
excreta, chemicals, fertilizers etc.

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 Soil Pollution: Soil gets contaminated with fertilizers, pesticides,

garbage, chemicals etc.

Bio-geo-chemical Cycles: A constant interaction between biotic and

abiotic components of the biosphere makes a system and these flow of
components form a cycle called bio-geo-chemical cycle.

Water Cycle: Water from various sources evaporates, condenses and

again precipitates as rain, falls on the land, flows back in the sea and river
is known as water cycle.

Nitrogen Cycle:

Nitrogen from the atmosphere is fixed by the process of nitrification.

Nitrification is done by nitrogen fixing bacteria e.g. Rhizobium present in

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soil, these compounds of nitrogen are absorbed by plants. The fixation is

also done by atmosphere or industries. In atmosphere, during lightning,
high temperatures and pressures created in air converts nitrogen into
oxides of nitrogen, which dissolves in water forming nitric and nitrous
acids and is then used by life forms.

Plants contain nitrogen in the form of proteins or other complex

compounds. Plants are eaten by animals. When die bacteria present in soil
act on and convert plants and animals various compounds of nitrogen into
nitrites and nitrifies. Another group of bacteria convert these nitrates and
nitrites into free, elemental nitrogen, this process is called denitrification.

Carbon Cycle: Carbon is present in the compound form in atmosphere ie.,

CO2, carbonates in water which forms limestone.
CO2 is taken by plants during photosynthesis to form organic compounds
like glucose, carbohydrates, these plants are further eaten by animals, and
decomposition gives CO2 back to the atmosphere. Plants and animals
which get buried under the earth and does not decompose form coal and
petroleum respectively.
Animals and plants also release CO2 back to the atmosphere during
respiration.

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Chapter 15
Improvement in Food Resources
Facts that Matter

Food supplies proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals, all of

which we require for body development, growth and health.

Different crops require different climatic conditions, temperature and

photoperiods for their growth and completion of their life cycle.
Photoperiods are related to the duration of sunlight. Growth of plants and
flowers are dependent on sunlight.

Successful crop production depends upon many factors such as:

 Understanding how crops grow and develop.

 Effect of various nutrients, climate, water on the growth of the plant.
 Modification and management of each factor for increasing the yield
of the crop.

The crops which are grown in rainy season (the kharif season, from June
to October) are called as kharif crops.
Example: Paddy, soyabean, pigeon pea, maize, cotton, green gram and
black gram are kharif crops.

The crops which are grown in winter season (the rabi season, from
November to April) are called rabi crops.
Example: Wheat grain, peas, mustard and linseed are rabi crops.

Crop variety improvement: It can be done either by hybridisation or by

introducing a gene.

 Crop improvement by hybridisation: Hybridisation refers to crossing

between genetically dissimilar plants. This crossing may be
intervarietal (between different varieties), interspecific (between two

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different species of the same genus) or intergeneric (between

different genera).
 Crop improvement by introducing a gene: This provides the desired
characteristics and results in genetically modified crops.
 Cultivation practices and crop yield are related to weather, soil
quality and availability of water. Since weather conditions such as
drought and flood situations are unpredictable, varieties that can be
grown in diverse climatic conditions are useful.

The factors for which variety of improvement is done are:

 Higher yield: To increase the productivity of the crop per acre.

 Improved quality: The quality of crop products vary from crop to
crop. E.g., the protein quality is important in pulses, oil quality in
oilseeds, preserving quality in fruits and vegetables.
 Biotic and abiotic resistance: Biotic factors are the diseases, insects
and nematodes while abiotic factors are the drought, salinity,
waterlogging, heat, cold and frost which affect the crop productivity.
Varieties resistant to these factors (stresses) can be improved to
increase crop production.
 Change in maturity duration: Shorter maturity period of crop
reduces the cost of crop production and makes the variety
economical. Uniform maturity makes the harvesting process easy
and reduces losses during harvesting.
 Wider adaptability: It allows the crops to be grown under different
climatic conditions in different areas.
 Desirable agronomic characteristics: It increases productivity, for
example, tallness and profuse branching are desirable characters for
fodder crops; while dwarfness is desired in cereals, so that less
nutrients are consumed by these crops.

Plant nutrients: Nutrients are supplied to plants by air, water and soil.
There are sixteen nutrients which are essential for plants. Air supplies
carbon and oxygen; hydrogen comes from water and soil supplies the other
thirteen nutrients to plants. Amongst these thirteen nutrients, six are
required in large quantities and are therefore called macro-nutrients. The
other seven nutrients are used by plants in small quantities and are
therefore called micro-nutrients.

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Nutrients supplied by air, water and soil

Manure: Manure contains large quantities of organic matter and also

supplies small quantities of nutrients to the soil. Manure is prepared by the
decomposition of animal excreta and plant waste. Manure helps in
enriching soil with nutrients and organic matter and increasing soil
fertility. On the basis of the kind of biological waste used to make manure,
it can be classified into three types:
(i) Compost (ii) Vermicompost (iii) Green manure.

(i) Compost: It can be farm waste material such as livestock excreta (cow
dung etc.), vegetable waste, animal refuse, domestic waste, sewage waste,
straw, eradicated weeds,etc. This material is decomposed in pits and this
process of decomposition is also called composting. This compost is rich
in organic matter and nutrients.

(ii) Vermicompost: The compost which is made by the decomposition of

plant
and animal refuse with the help of redworm is called vermicompost.

(iii) Green manure: Prior to the sowing of the crop seeds, some plants
like sun hemp or guar are grown and then mulched by ploughing them into
the soil. These green plants thus turn into green manure which helps in
enriching the soil in nitrogen and phosphorus.

Fertilizers: Fertilizers are commercially produced plant nutrients.

Fertilizers supply nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. They are used to
ensure good vegetative growth (leaves, branches and flowers), giving rise
to healthy plants. Fertilizers are an important factor in the higher yields of
high-cost farming.

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Organic farming: It is a farming system with minimal or no use of

chemicals as fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, etc. and with a maximum
input of organic manures, recycled farm-wastes (straw and livestock
excreta), use of bio-agents such as culture of blue-green algae in
preparation of biofertilizers, neem leaves or turmeric specifically in grain
storage as bio-pesticides with healthy cropping systems [mixed cropping
inter-cropping and crop rotation]. These cropping systems are beneficial in
insect, pest and weed control besides providing nutrients.

Irrigation: Proper irrigation is very important for the success of crops.

Ensuring that the crop gets water at the right stages during their growing
season, can increase the expected*yield of a crop. Different kinds of
irrigation systems include wells, canals, rivers and tanks.

 Wells: These are of two types namely dug wells and tube wells. In a
dug well, water is collected from water bearing strata. Tube wells
can tap water from the deeper strata. From these wells, water is
lifted by pumps for irrigation.
 River lift system: In areas where canal flow is insufficient or
irregular axle to inadequate reservoir release, the lift system is more
rational. Water is directly drawn from the rivers for supplementing
irrigation in areas close to rivers.
 Tanks: These are small storage reservoirs, which intercept and store
the run-off of smaller catchment areas.

Cropping patterns: It includes different ways of growing crops so as to

get the maximum benefit. These different ways include the following:
Mixed cropping: Mixed cropping is growing two or more crops
simultaneously on the same piece of land, for example, wheat + gram, or
wheat + mustard, or groundnut + sunflower. This reduces disease risk and
gives some insurance against failure of one of the crops.

Inter-cropping: It involves growing two or more crops simultaneously on

the same field in definite proportion or pattern. A few rows of one crop
alternate with a few rows of a second crop, for example, soyabean +
maize, or finger millet (bajra) + cowpea (lobia). The crops are selected
such that their nutrient requirements are different. This ensures maximum
utilisation of the nutrients supplied, and also prevents pests and diseases

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from spreading to all the plants belonging to one crop in a field. This way,
both crops can give better returns.

Crop rotation: The growing of different crops on a piece of land in a

pre¬planned succession is known as crop rotation. Depending upon the
duration, crop rotation is done for different crop combinations. The
availability of moisture and irrigation facilities decide the choice of the
crop to be cultivated after one harvest. If crop rotation is done properly
then two or three crops can be grown in a,year with good harvest.

The food requirements of dairy animals are of two types: (a)

maintenance requirement which is the food required to support the animals
to live a healthy life, and (b) milk producing requirement, which is the
type of food required during the lactation period.

Weeds: Weeds are unwanted plants in the cultivated field, for example,
Xanthium (gokhroo), Parthenium (gazar ghas) and Cyprinus rotundus
(motha). They compete for food, space and light. Weeds take up nutrients
and reduce the growth of the crop. Therefore, removal of weeds from
cultivated fields during the early stages of crop growth is essential for a
good harvest.

Methods of weed control: The most effective method is mechanical

removal. Preventive methods such as proper seed bed preparation, finely
sowing of crops, inter-cropping and crop-rotation also help in weed
control.

Insect pests: Generally insect pests attack the plants in three ways:

 They cut the root, stem and leaf,

 they suck the cell sap from various parts of the plant, and
 They bore into stem and fruits. They thus affect the health of the
crop and reduce yields.

Preventive measures against pest include:

 The use of disease resistant varieties.

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 Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field.

 Summer ploughing: In this method, fields are ploughed deep in
summers to destroy both pests as well as weeds.

Animal husbandry is the scientific management of animal livestock. It

includes various aspects such as feeding, breeding and disease control.
Animal-based farming includes cattle, goat, sheep, poultry and fish
farming.

Milk-producing females are called milch animals (dairy animals), while

the one used for farm labour are called draught animals.

Animal feed includes:

 Roughage, which is large, fibre and

 Concentration which are low in fibre and contain relatively high
levels of protein and other nutrients.

The improved poultry breeds are developed for the following

desirable traits:

 Number and quality, of chicks.

 Dwarf broiler parent for commercial chick production.
 Summer adaptation capacity.
 Low maintenance requirements.
 Reduction in the size of the egg-laying bird with the ability to utilise
more fibrous cheaper diets formulated using agricultural by-
products.

Production of poultry birds: For good production of poultry birds, good

management practices are important. These include maintenance of
temperature and hygenic conditions in housing and poultry feed, as well as
prevention and control of diseases and pests.

The housing, nutritional and environmental requirements of broilers are

somewhere different from those of egg layers. The ration (daily food
requirement) for broilers is protein rich with adequate fat. The level of
vitamins A and K is kept high in the poultry feeds.

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Fish Production: There are two ways of obtaining fish. One is from
natural resources, which is called capture fishing. The other way is by fish
farming, which is called culture fishery.

Popular marine fish varieties include Pomphret, mackerel, tuna, sardines

and Bombay duck. Marine fish of high economic value includes mullets,
bhetki pearl spots, prawns, mussels and oysters.

As marine fish stocks get further depleted, the demand for more fish can
only be met by culture fisheries, a practice called mariculture.

Fish resources are of two types:

 Freshwater resources such as canals, ponds, reservoirs and rivers.

 Brackish water resources (where sea water and fresh water mix
together) such as estuaries and lagoons.

More extensive fish farming can be done in composite fish culture

systems. Both local and imported fish species are used in such systems.

In such a system, a combination of five or six species is used in a single

fish pond. These species are selected so that they do not compete for food
among them having different types of food habits. As a result, the food
available in all parts of the pond is used.

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