Electrostatic potential and capacitance

Concept of Electrostatic Potential Energy

When an external force does work to move a body from one point to another against a force like spring
force or gravitational force, that work gets stored as potential energy of the body. When the force is
released, the body moves back with an equal amount of kinetic energy.

Thus, like the potential energy of a mass in a gravitational field, we can define electrostatic potential
energy of a charge in an electrostatic field.

Consider the field 𝐸⃗ due to a charge Q placed at the origin. Now, imagine that we bring a test charge q
from a point R to a point P against the repulsive force on it due to the charge Q. The work done against
the electrostatic repulsive force gets stored as potential energy.

At every point in electric field, a particle with charge q possesses a certain electrostatic potential energy.

Electric Potential Energy of a charge q at a point in the electric field is the work done by the external
force in bringing the charge q from infinity to that point.

Electric Potential Energy Difference

Electric potential energy difference between two points is the work required to be done by an external
force in moving (without accelerating) charge q from one point to another. This work depends only on
the initial and final points and is independent of the path taken to go from one point to the other.

Electrostatic Potential

The electrostatic potential at a point is defined as the amount of work done per unit test charge
in moving it from infinity to that point.

𝑊∞𝐴
𝑉𝐴 =
𝑞

The electrostatic potential difference between two points A and B in an electric field is defined
as the amount of work done per unit positive test charge in moving it from point A to B against
the electrostatic force due to the electric field.
Consider a point charge +Q. Let A and B be any two points in the electrostatic field. When a test
charge +q0 is moved from A to B, work has to be done moving against repulsive force exerted
by charge +q then the potential difference between the two points is given as

𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴

𝑊𝐴𝐵
𝑉=
𝑞0

Electric potential at point in an electric field:

To find the electric potential at point B let us consider point A to be at infinity. The electric field
is due to a source charge +Q.

Since the point A is at infinity it actually lies outside the field. Hence the potential at A is zero.

Thus the electrostatic potential difference between points B and A is given as

𝑊∞𝐵
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑞0

𝑊∞𝐵
𝑉𝐵 =
𝑞0

Where 𝑊∞𝐵 is the amount of work done in moving a test charge from infinity to point B.

The electrostatic potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done
per unit positive test charge in moving it from infinity to that point against the electrostatic
force due to the electric field.

The SI unit of electric potential is volt ( V ).

The electrostatic potential difference two points is said to be 1 volt, if 1 joule of work is done in
moving a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the other without acceleration against the
electrostatic force due to electric field.

Since potential difference between two points in an electric field may be defined as the work
done per unit positive charge between two points it is a scalar quantity.
Expression for electric potential due to a point charge:
Consider a point charge +Q , placed at point O. To determine electric potential at point P, we
must calculate the work done to bring a unit positive test charge from ∞ to point P against the
electrostatic force.

𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Suppose the test charge is to be moved through an infinitesimally small displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑥,
against the force, then the small work done to move the test charge from A to B is given as

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑞0 𝐸⃗ ). 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑊 = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠180

𝑑𝑊 = −𝑞𝑜 𝐸 𝑑𝑥

Electric field at point A due to charge +Q, is given as

1 𝑄
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2

Therefore,

1 𝑄
𝑑𝑊 = −𝑞𝑜 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2

1 𝑞𝑜 𝑄
𝑑𝑊 = − 𝑑𝑥
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2

Hence, work done in moving the test charge 𝑞𝑜 from infinity to P is given by

𝑊∞𝑃 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊
∞
 𝑟
1 𝑞𝑜 𝑄
𝑊∞𝑃 = ∫ − 𝑑𝑥
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2
∞

𝑟
1 1
𝑊∞𝑃 = − 𝑞0 𝑄 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
4𝜋𝜀0 ∞𝑥

𝑟
1 𝑥 −1
𝑊∞𝑃 =− 𝑞0 𝑄 | |
4𝜋𝜀0 −1 ∞

1 1𝑟
𝑊∞𝑃 = 𝑞 𝑄| |
4𝜋𝜀0 0 𝑥 ∞

1 1 1
𝑊∞𝑝 = 𝑞0 𝑄 | − |
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 ∞

We know that

𝑊∞𝑃
𝑉𝑃 =
𝑞0

Therefore,

1 1
𝑉𝑃 = 𝑄| |
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Thus, if the distance from point P to point O is given by r, then we have

1 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

The above equation gives the expression for electric potential due to a charge +Q.

Question

1. Find the potential at a distance of 5m from a point charge of 10pC.

The figure shows variation of
1
potential V(∝ ) with r (blue
𝑟
1
curve) and field E(∝ ) with r
𝑟2
(black curve) for a point
charge Q.

Example 2.1

(a) Calculate the potential at a point P due to a charge of 4 × 10–7C located 9 cm away.

(b) Hence obtain the work done in bringing a charge of 2 × 10–9 C from infinity to the point P. Does the
answer depend on the path along which the charge is brought

Electric potential due to a system of charges: (derivation not included)

Consider a group of point charges q1, q2, q3, …. qn lying at a distance r1, r2, r3 ….. rn
from point P whose electrostatic potential is to be found. To find the net
electrostatic potential at point P we
have to first find the electrostatic
potential at P due to each charge
separately and the algebraically add the
potentials together.

The electric potential at point P due to

charge q1, is given as
1 𝑞1
𝑉1 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1

Similarly the electrostatic potentials at point P due to the charges q2, q3,…. qn will
be given as
 1 𝑞2 1 𝑞3 1 𝑞𝑛
𝑉2 = ; 𝑉3 = ;…………𝑉𝑛 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑛

hence electrostatic potential at point P is

V= V1 + V2 + V3 + …….+ Vn
1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2 1 𝑞3 1 𝑞𝑛
𝑉= + + +⋯+
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑛

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞𝑛
𝑉= ( + + + ⋯+ )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛
𝑛
1 𝑞𝑖
𝑉= ∑
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑖
𝑖=1

2. Find the potential at a distance of 1 m due to a charge of 10pC and -2pC.

3. Find the potential at the center of a square of
side a=2m due to a charge of 2pC and 2pC.

4. Find the potential at the origin due to the charges 1pC and -1pC located at
(0,1) and (2,0).
5. Find the potential at the origin due to the charges 2pC and -10pC located
at (0,3,4) and (0,0,5).
Electric potential at a point due to an electric
dipole: (DERIVATION NOT INCLUDED final
FORMULA IS IMP)

Consider an electric dipole AB having charge –q

at A and +q at B. let O be the centre of the
dipole and P, where electric potential is to be
found, be any point at a distance r from the
point O. let ∠ POB =𝜃
 1 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 cos 2 𝜃)
2

The above equation gives the electric potential due to the dipole at a distance r from its center
in a direction making an angle 𝜃 with the dipole.

Special cases:

1) When point P lies on the axial line of the dipole:

𝜃=0
cos 0 = 1

1 𝑝
∴ 𝑉𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )
2

In case r>>a

1 𝑝
𝑉𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 )

2) When point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole:

𝜃 = 900

Cos 90 = 0

Vequi=0

Example 2.2

6. Two charges 3 × 10–8 C and –2 × 10–8 C are located 15 cm apart. At what

point on the line joining the two charges is the electric potential zero? Take
the potential at infinity to be zero.
Example 2.3

7. Figures (a) and (b) show the field lines of a positive and negative point
charge respectively.
a)Give the signs of the potential difference VP – VQ ; VB – VA .
 (b) Give the sign of the potential energy difference of a small negative charge between
the points Q and P; A and B.
(c) Give the sign of the work done by the field in moving a small positive charge from Q
to P.
(d) Give the sign of the work done by the external agency in moving a small negative
charge from B to A.
(e) Does the kinetic energy of a small negative charge increase or decrease in going from
B to A?

Electric field as gradient of potential

Consider a point charge +q placed at point O. suppose that V and V +dV are the electrostatic
potentials at points P and Q, whose distance from charge +q are r and r-dr respectively. Further
suppose a test charge q0 is moved by an infinitesimally small displacement⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟, from P to Q,
then

𝑑𝑊
(𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉) − 𝑉 =
𝑞0
𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑉 = ……..(1)
𝑞0

If 𝐸⃗ is the electric field at point P due to charge +q placed at point O, then the test charge q o
experiences a force of 𝑞0 𝐸⃗ and external force required to move the test charge without
acceleration against the electric field 𝐸⃗ is given as

𝐹 = −𝑞0 𝐸⃗

Therefore, the small work done in moving the test charge through that small displacement is
given as

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 = (−𝑞0 𝐸⃗ ). ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑊 = −𝑞0 𝐸𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑊
= −𝐸 𝑑𝑟
𝑞𝑜
From equation 1

𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸 𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑉
𝐸= −
𝑑𝑟
Therefore, electric field at a point is equal to the negative gradient of the electrostatic potential
at that point.

The negative sign indicates that the direction of 𝐸⃗ is always in the direction of decrease of
electric potential.

5. An electric field is given as 𝐸⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂. Find the potential difference between two
points A and B(VA-VB) whose position vectors are given by ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟𝐴 = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ and
𝑟𝐵 = 2𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 3𝑘.
⃗⃗⃗ ̂

Electric potential gradient is a vector quantity unlike the electric potential, with its direction
opposite to the direction to 𝑬⃗.

SI unit of potential gradient is volt metre-1 (V m-1)

Equipotential surfaces

Any surface which has same electrostatic potential at every point, is called an equipotential
surface.

In an electric field if all the points of the same potential are joined, an equipotential surface will
be obtained. Thus if 𝐸⃗ is the electric field at a point on an equipotential surface and a test
charge q0 is to be moved from one to another on the surface, then

𝑞0 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 0

Therefore 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 0

⃗⃗⃗ . Which means, electric lines of force are always

Therefore 𝐸⃗ is perpendicular to 𝑑𝑙
perpendicular to the equipotential surface.

Properties of equipotential surface:

1. No work is done in moving a test charge over an equipotential surface.

Work done in moving a test charge is given as
 𝑊𝐴𝐵
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑞0

But on an equipotential surface VA=VB

𝑊𝐴𝐵
∴ =0
𝑞0

∴ 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 0

2. Electric field is always at right angles to the equipotential surface.

3. The equipotential surfaces help to distinguish between regions of strong field from the
regions of weak field.
𝑑𝑉
𝐸=−
𝑑𝑟
1
𝑑𝑟 ∝
𝐸
The equipotential surfaces are closer together where the electric field is stronger, and
farther apart when the field is weak.
4. The equipotential surface tells us the direction of the electric field.
5. No two equipotential surfaces intersect each other

The equipotential surfaces for various cases:

For uniform electric field In an isolated point charge:

Two like charges A dipole

Electric potential energy

The energy possessed by a group of point charges due to their positions is called electric
potential energy of the charge system.

When point charges are infinite distances apart the electrical potential energy is zero. Since the
two fields do not interact with which other. But as the charge is brought closer towards its
respective position, an external work has to be done. This work done is stored in the form of
energy called the electrostatic potential energy.

Thus electric potential energy of a system of charges is the work done in bringing the charges
from infinity to their respective positions.

Potential energy of a system of two point charges:

Consider 2 point charges q1 and q2 with their position vectors⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟1and⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑟2 . Suppose both the
charges are initially at infinity. To bring the first charge from infinity to that position, no work
has to be done as there is no external field. This charge q1 now produces a potential around it.
Thus to bring charge q2 from infinity to the position ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟2 work has to be done against charge q1.

W = q2 x potential at r2 due to q1
1 𝑞1
𝑊 = 𝑞2 × 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟12

Where, r12 is the distance between q1 and q2.

1 𝑞2 𝑞1
𝑊=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12

This work is stored as potential energy. Given as

1 𝑞2 𝑞1
𝑈=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12

The potential energy of a system of three charges Consider a system of three charges q1, q2,
and q3 located at r1, r2, and r3 respectively. Thus the total potential energy of the system of
1 𝑞 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞2 𝑞3
three charges will be given as: 𝑈 = 4𝜋𝜀 ( 𝑟1 + + )
0 12 𝑟13 𝑟23
Potential energy in an external field:

Potential energy of a single charge:

The work done in bringing a charge q from infinity to the point P in the external field is qV. This
work is stored in the form of potential energy of q. If the point P has a position vector r relative
to some origin, then the potential energy of q at r in an external field is qV(r).

where V(r) is the external potential at the point r.

example: if an electron with charge q =e=1.6 x10-19C is accelerated by a potential difference of

∆𝑉=1 volt, it would gain energy of q∆𝑉=1.6 x10-19 J. This unit of energy is defined as 1 electron-
volt or 1eV, i.e. 1 eV=1.6 x10-19J

Definition: 1eV is the energy gained by an electron in moving through a potential difference of
one volt.

Potential energy of a system of two charges:

Consider a system of two charges q1 and q2 located at r1 and r2 respectively, in an external field.
The work done to bring charge q1 from infinity to the point r1is

𝑊 = 𝑞1 𝑉(𝑟1 )

The work done to bring charge q2 from infinity to r2 is

1 𝑞2 𝑞1
𝑊 = 𝑞1 𝑉(𝑟2 ) +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12

Thus, the net potential energy of a system of two charges in an external field is the net work
done to bring the charges q1 and q2 from infinity to their respective positions. Thus, the net
potential energy is given

1 𝑞2 𝑞1
𝑈 = 𝑞1 𝑉(𝑟1 ) + 𝑞1 𝑉(𝑟2 ) +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12

6. Four identical charges q are placed at the corners of a square of side a. Find the
potential energy of one of the charges due to the remaining.
7. Four identical charges q are placed at the corners of a square of side a. Find the
potential energy of the charge system.
8. Three equal charges q are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side a.
a) Find the potential energy of the charge system.
b) Calculate the work done to decrease the sides of a triangle to a/2.
 9. Three particles, each having a charge of 10 µC, are placed at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle of side 10cm. Find the work done in pulling them apart to infinite
separations.
10. (a)Determine the electrostatic potential energy of a system consisting of two charges 7C
and –2 C (and with no external field) placed at (–9 cm, 0, 0) and (9 cm, 0, 0) respectively.
(b) How much work is required to separate the two charges infinitely away from each
other?
(c) Suppose that the same system of charges is now placed in an external electric field
E = A (1/r2); A = 9 × 105 C m–2. What would the electrostatic energy of the configuration
be?

Expression for potential energy of a dipole in an external electric field: Consider an electric
dipole having dipole moment p placed along a direction making an angle 𝜃 with the direction of
an external uniform electric field E. Thus, the torque acting on the dipole is given as
𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

If the dipole is rotated through an infinitesimally small angle d𝜃 against the torque acting on it,
then the small work done is

𝑑𝑊 = 𝜏𝑑𝜃 = 𝑝𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃

Therefore, the work done in rotating the dipole from 𝜃1 to 𝜃2 is given as

𝜃2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝜃1

𝜃
𝑊 = 𝑝𝐸 ∫𝜃 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
1

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑊 = 𝑝𝐸|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 |

This work done is stored in the dipole as its potential energy. Therefore, when an electric dipole
is rotated in an electric field the potential energy stored in it is given as

𝑈 = 𝑝𝐸|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 |

Considering the initial orientation of the dipole to be perpendicular with the external electric
field and 𝜃 be the angle by which it is rotated, then the potential energy of the dipole is given as

𝑈 = 𝑝𝐸|𝑐𝑜𝑠900 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃|
𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Conductors, insulators and dielectrics:

In a metal, the outer (valence electrons) are free to move within the metal, but are not free to
leave the metal. The free electrons collide with each other and with the ions, and move
randomly in different directions. In an external electric field, they drift against the direction of
the field. The positive ions made up of the nuclei and the bound electrons remain held in their
fixed positions.

In electrolytic conductors, the charge carriers are both positive and negative ion.

The materials which do not have free electrons in them are unable to conduct electricity
through them and are termed as insulators.

Dielectric materials do not conduct electricity through them, but on applying electric field,
induced charges are produced on its faces. The valence electrons in the atoms of a dielectric
are tightly bound and cannot to be easily detached.

Behaviour of a conductor in electrostatic field:

1. Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero. (give reason)

In the static situation, when there is no current inside or on the surface of the conductor, the
electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.

Explanation: if E ≠ 0 inside a conductor, the electric field would exert force on the conduction
electrons. Thus current would always exist inside a conductor, which is not true. Hence E = 0
inside the conductor.

2. At the surface of a charged conductor, the electrostatic field must be normal to the
surface at every point (give reason)

If 𝐸⃗ were not normal to the surface, it would have some non-zero component along the
surface. Free charges on the surface of the conductor would then experience force and move.
This is not possible in static situation. Therefore, 𝐸⃗ should not have any tangential components.
Thus at the surface of a charged conductor, the electrostatic field must be normal to the
surface at every point.

3. The interior of the conductor can have no excess charge in the static situation.

On a closed surface S bounding the volume element V, electrostatic field is zero. Thus, the total
electrostatic flux through S is zero. Hence by Gauss’ law there is no net charge inside the
conductor.
 4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and has
same value (as inside) on its surface.

Since E=0 inside the conductor and no tangential component on the surface, no work is done in
moving a small test charge within the conductor and on the surface of the conductor. Thus
there is no potential difference inside or on the surface on the conductor.

5. Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor

Where  is the surface charge density and 𝑛̂ is a unit vector normal to the surface in the
outward direction.
For  > 0, electric field is normal to the surface outward; for  < 0, electric field is normal to the
surface inward.

6. Electrostatic shielding
Consider a conductor with a cavity, with no charges inside the cavity. The electric field inside
the cavity is zero, whatever be the size and shape of the cavity and whatever be the charge on
the conductor and the external fields in which it might be placed.
Even if the conductor is charged or charges are induced on a neutral conductor by an external
field, all charges reside only on the outer surface of a conductor with cavity.
Whatever be the charge and field configuration outside, any cavity in a conductor remains
shielded from outside electric influence: the field inside the cavity is always zero. This is known
as electrostatic shielding. The effect can be made use of in protecting sensitive instruments
from outside electrical influence.
Dielectrics and Polarisation
Dielectrics are non-conducting substances. In contrast to conductors, they have no charge
carriers.
When a conductor is placed in an external electric field, the free electrons move towards positive
of the external field. Thus an induced electric field is produced which opposes the external field
within the conductor.
This happens until, in the static situation, the two fields cancel each other and the net
electrostatic field in the conductor is zero.

In a dielectric, this free movement of charges is not possible. Here the external field induces
dipole moment by stretching or re-orienting molecules of the dielectric. The collective effect of
all the molecular dipole moments is net charges on the surface of the dielectric which produce a
field that opposes the external field. Unlike in a conductor, however, the opposing field so
induced does not exactly cancel the external field. It only reduces it.
The extent of the effect depends on the nature of the dielectric. The molecules of a substance
may be polar or non-polar.

In a non-polar molecule, the centres of positive and negative charges coincide. The molecule
then has no permanent (or intrinsic) dipole moment. Examples of non-polar molecules are
oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2) molecules which, because of their symmetry, have no dipole
moment.

A polar molecule is one in which the centres of positive and negative charges are separated
(even when there is no external field). Such molecules have a permanent dipole moment. An
ionic molecule such as HCl, or a molecule of water (H2O) are examples of polar molecules.

In an external electric field, the positive and negative charges of a

non-polar molecule are displaced in opposite directions.
The dielectric is said to be polarised by the external field.
In case of polar molecules a net dipole moment develops in
presence of an external field.
In the absence of any external field, the different permanent
dipoles are oriented randomly due to thermal agitation; so the
total dipole moment is zero.
In either case, whether polar or non-polar, a dielectric develops a
net dipole moment in the presence of an external field. The dipole
moment per unit volume is called polarisation and is denoted by P.
𝑃 = 𝜒𝑒 𝐸
Where 𝜒𝑒 is a constant characteristic of the dielectric and is known
as the electric susceptibility of the dielectric medium.
Capacitors and capacitance
A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator. The conductors have
charges, say Q1 and Q2, and potentialsV1 and V2. Usually, the two conductors have charges Q
and – Q, with potential difference V = V1 – V2 between them.
Q is called the charge of the capacitor, though this, in fact, is the charge on one of the
conductors – the total charge of the capacitor is zero.

V is proportional to Q, and the ratio Q/V is a constant

𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
The constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor. C is independent of Q or V, as stated
above.
The capacitance C depends only on
1. the geometrical configuration (shape, size, separation) of the system of two
conductors.
2. the nature of the insulator (dielectric) separating the two conductors.

The SI unit of capacitance is 1 farad (=1 coulomb volt-1) or 1 F = 1 C V–1.

A capacitor with fixed capacitance is symbolically shown as ---||---, while the one with variable
capacitance is shown as .
The above Equation shows that for large C, V is small for a given Q. This means a capacitor
with large capacitance can hold large amount of charge Q at a relatively small V.

The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand without break-down (of its
insulating property) is called its dielectric strength; for air it is about 3 × 106 Vm–1. For a
separation between conductors of the order of 1 cm or so, this field corresponds to a potential
difference of 3 × 104 V between the conductors. Thus, for a capacitor to store a large amount of
charge without leaking, its capacitance should be high enough so that the potential difference
and hence the electric field do not exceed the break-down limits.

The Parallel Plate Capacitor

A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting plates separated by a
small distance. We first take the intervening medium between the plates to be vacuum. Let A be
the area of each plate and d the separation between them. The two plates have charges Q and –
Q. Since d is much smaller than the linear dimension of the plates (d2 << A), we can use the result
on electric field by an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface charge density. Plate 1 has surface
charge density σ = Q/A and plate 2 has a surface charge density –σ.
 The electric field in different regions is:
Outer region I (region above the plate 1),
𝜎 𝜎
𝐸= − =0
2𝜀0 2𝜀0

Outer region II (region below plate 2)

𝜎 𝜎
𝐸= − =0
2𝜀0 2𝜀0

However, in the region between the plates the

electric fields due to the two charged plates add up,
giving
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝑄
𝐸 = 2𝜀 + 2𝜀 = 𝜀 =𝜀
0 0 0 0𝐴

The direction of electric field is from the positive to the negative plate. Thus, the electric field is
localised between the two plates and is uniform throughout.
For plates with finite area, this will not be true near the outer boundaries of the plates. The field
lines bend outward at the edges – an effect called ‘fringing of the field’. By the same token, σ will
not be strictly uniform on the entire plate.
However, for d2 << A, these effects can be ignored in the regions sufficiently far from the edges,
and the field there is given by the above equation. Now for uniform electric field, potential
difference is simply the electric field times the distance between the plates, that is,
𝑄
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = 𝑑
𝜀0 𝐴
The capacitance C of the parallel plate capacitor is then
𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶= =
𝑉 𝑑
Which, depends only on the geometry of the system.

Effect Of Dielectric On Capacitance

If the intervening medium between the plates of the capacitor is now filled with a dielectric
with dielectric constant K such that k>1. then,
𝜎 𝑄
𝑉= 𝑑= 𝑑
𝜀0 𝐾 𝐴𝜀0 𝐾
The capacitance C, with dielectric between the plates, is then
𝑄 𝐴𝜀0 𝐾
𝐶= =
𝑉 𝑑
The product ε0K is called the permittivity of the medium and is denoted by ε
ε = ε0 K
For vacuum K = 1 and ε = ε0; ε0 is called the permittivity of the vacuum.
The dimensionless ratio
 𝜀
𝐾=
𝜀0
is called the dielectric constant of the substance. From the equation it is clear that K is greater
than 1.
𝐶
𝐾=
𝐶0
Thus, the dielectric constant of a substance is the factor (>1) by which the capacitance increases
from its vacuum value, when the dielectric is inserted fully between the plates of a capacitor.

Combination Of Capacitors
We can combine several capacitors of capacitance C1, C2,…, Cn to obtain a system with some
effective capacitance C. The effective capacitance depends on the way the individual capacitors
are combined. Two simple possibilities are discussed below.
Capacitors in series
The total potential drop V across the combination is the sum of the potential drops V1 and V2
across C1 and C2, respectively.
V = V1 + V2
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉= +
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑉 1 1
= +
𝑄 𝐶1 𝐶2

Now we can regard the combination as an effective capacitor with charge Q and potential
difference V. The effective capacitance of the combination is
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
Comparing the two equations we have
1 1 1
= +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2
Thus, the general formula for effective capacitance of a series combination of n capacitors:
1 1 1 1
= + +. . +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛
Capacitors in parallel
In this case, the same potential difference is applied across both the capacitors. But the plate
charges (±Q1) on capacitor 1 and the plate charges (±Q2) on the capacitor 2 are not necessarily
the same:
Q1 = C1V, Q2 = C2V
The equivalent capacitor is one with charge
Q = Q1 + Q2
and potential difference V.
Q = CV = C1V + C2V
The effective capacitance C is,
C = C1 + C2
The general formula for effective capacitance C for parallel combination of n capacitors follows
similarly,
Q = Q1 + Q2 + ... + Qn
i.e., CV = C1V + C2V + ... CnV
which gives
C = C1 + C2 + ... Cn

Energy Stored In A Capacitor

A capacitor, as we have seen above, is a system of two conductors with charge Q and –Q. To
determine the energy stored in this configuration, consider initially two uncharged conductors
1 and 2. Imagine next a process of transferring charge from conductor 2 to conductor 1 bit by
bit, so that at the end, conductor 1 gets charge Q. By charge conservation, conductor 2 has
charge –Q at the end.

In transferring positive charge from conductor 2 to conductor 1, work will be done externally,
since at any stage conductor 1 is at a higher potential than conductor 2. To calculate the total
work done, we first calculate the work done in a small step involving transfer of an infinitesimal
amount of charge. Consider the intermediate situation when the conductors 1 and 2 have
charges Q′ and –Q′ respectively. At this stage, the potential difference V′ between conductors 1
to 2 is Q′/C, where C is the capacitance of the system. Next imagine that a small charge δ Q′ is
transferred from conductor 2 to 1. Work done in this step (δ W′ ), resulting in charge Q′ on

conductor 1 increasing to Q′+ δ Q′, is given by

Since δ Q′ can be made as small as we like, we have

The total work done (W) is given as

We can write the final result, in different ways

Since electrostatic force is conservative, this work is stored in the form of potential energy of
the system. For the same reason, the final result for potential energy is independent of the
manner in which the charge configuration of the capacitor is built up. When the capacitor
discharges, this stored-up energy is released. It is possible to view the potential energy of the
capacitor as ‘stored’ in the electric field between the plates. To see this, consider for simplicity,
a parallel plate capacitor [of area A(of each plate) and separation d between the plates].
 1 𝑄2 (𝐴𝜎)2 𝑑
Energy stored in the capacitor = 2 =
𝐶 2 𝐴𝜀0

The surface charge density σ is related to the electric field E between the plates,

Energy stored in the capacitor

Note that Ad is the volume of the region between the plates (where electric field alone exists).
If we define energy density as energy stored per unit volume of space.
Energy density of electric field is

This is the equation for Energy density of an electric field in general and holds true for electric
field due to any configuration of charges.