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SAPIENS IAS
BASIS OF LIFE: THE CELL (1.7)

PRADIP SARKAR

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 BASIS OF LIFE: THE CEL BY PRADIP SARKAR

THE CELL
The cell is structural and functional unit of life. It is bounded by a cell –
membrane / plasma membrane. Inside the cell, there are two
compartments; one is membrane bound nucleus containing chromosome,
which have genetic material DNA. The other compartment is cytoplasm
which has several cellular organelles such as mitochondria, Golgi- bodies
ER etc. There are two basic types of cell such as prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cell.

SHAPE & SIZE: The size of the cell varies from the very small cell of
bacteria i.e. 0.2 to 5 to the very large egg of the ostrich (6’’).

STRUCTURE OF A CELL: is described below

Fig. An animal cell

ORGANELLES:

1. PLASMA MEMBRANE (P/M): The cell is bounded by a lipoprotein

membrane. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable.

2. ENDOPLASMIC-RETICULUM (E/R): Endoplasmic reticulum consist of

cisternae tubules and vacuoles by membrane and some ER are attached by
ribosomes are called SER.

3. GOLGI COMPLEX: It consists of a system of smooth membrane bound

tubules called cisternae & vesicles.

4. MITOCHONDRIA: Scattered in the cytoplasm, granular or rod – like

bodies. They are membrane bound organelle having external and internal
membrane. Internal membrane is modified into cristae. Inside the
membrane bound, there is matrix, containing DNA & various enzymes for
cellular respiration. They are popularly called power houses.

5. LYSOSOMES: Are particles consisting of hydrolytic enzymes enclosed

within lipoprotein membranes and they are also known as suicidal bags,
because enzymes cause the breakdown and death of the cell.

6. RIBOSOME: They are non- membranous structure containing proteins

and RNA. They are popularly known as protein factories.

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7. NUCLEUS: Is bounded by double- membrane interrupted by nuclear

pores. It contains chromosomes, which contain DNA- the genetic material.

FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF CELL:

1. Plasma membrane: Selective permeability of molecules and ions,

endocytosis and exocytosis, recognition, antigen specificity etc.

2. RER: Segregation of secretory proteins & their packaging.

SER: Formation of Phospho-lipid, sterol etc.; detoxification, glycogenolysis.

3. GOLGI -COMPLEX: Packaging of secretory proteins.

4. MITOCHONDIYA:

• Production of ATP.

• Lipid formation (lipo - genesis)

• Gluconeogenesis

• Haem formation

• Thermogenesis

• Bone formation

5. LYSOSOME: Responsible for extra-cellular & intra - cellular digestion.

6. RIBOSOME: Protein Synthesis.

7. NUCLEUS:

 DNA produces DNA i. e. Replication.

 DNA containing genes are responsible for protein synthesis.

TYPES OF CELL: There are two types of cells on the basis of development.

PROKARYOTE AND EUKARYOTE: cells in which the nuclear material is

not bounded by definite nuclear membrane are called Prokaryotes. E.g.
Bacteria & blue - green algae. Moreover, they don't have cytoplasmic -
organelles such as ER, Golgi, Mitochondria, Centrioles, lysosomes whereas
in case of Eukaryotes nuclear material is bounded by definite nuclear
membrane and they have all the cellular organelles e.g. Man.

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ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS: There are two types of cells on the basis of
organisms: plant and animal cells. Plant cells do have cell wall, plastid
whereas animal cells lock them and containing centrosome.

CELLS ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTIONS: SOMATIC AND GERMINAL CELLS:

Somatic cells are responsible for bodily characters while germinal or germ
cells are for gamete formations i.e. sperms and ova.

Thus, cell is the basis of life, since it is the structural and functional unit of
organism. Cells of human beings are eukaryotic and animal cells.

THE CHROMOSOME
The condensed form of chromatin is called chromosome. It has various
nomenclatures. The chromosome has a different position which serves a
number or functions. Chromosomes can be classified on various basis. It is
a dynamic entity. It serves many bio-medical purposes.

COMPOSITION & ORGANISATION OF CHROMOSOME:

Chromatin undergoes condensation and de - condensation. The condensed

form of chromatin which is visible under microscope is known as
chromosome. Thus, composition of chromatin is the composition of
chromosome.

COMPOSITION OF CHROMATIN:

Chromatin includes DNA, Histone, non-histone and RNA. Chromatin is

organized in the form of nucleosome which is described below:

Diagram of nucleosome model

The folding of nucleosome leads to condensation, then becomes visible and

called chromosome. But when it unfolds further, it is not seen. This state is
called de-condensation and chromatin. Some chromosomes and some parts
of chromosome remain condensed forever and is called heterochromatin.
E.g. Bar Bodies and the chromosome which are in de-condensed state is
known as Euchromatin.

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NOMENCLATURE OF CHROMOSOMES:

1.CHROMATID:

At metaphase, each chromosome structure called chromatid; each one of

contains a single DNA molecule.

2. CHROMONEMATA:

During prophase the chromosome material becomes visible as very thin

filaments which are called chromonemata and represents chromatids in
early stages of condensation.

3. CHROMOMERES:

These components are like accumulation of chromatin materials that are

sometime visible along interphase chromosome e.g. found in Polytene
chromosome.

DIFFERENT PARTS OF A TYPICAL CHROMOSOMES:

diagram of various parts of a typical chromosome

i) CENTROMERE:

This is the region of chromosome that becomes attached to the spindle

fiber located in the primary constriction.

ii) TELOMERE:

The tip of the chromosome. The structure of DNA at telomere end is

different from other parts of the chromosome.

iii) SECONDARY CONSTRICTION & NUCLEAR ORGANIZER:

Secondary constriction contains nuclear organizer, which is responsible for

18s, 28s and 5.8s rRNA in eukaryotes.

iv) SATELLITE:

It is a rounded body separated from main part of the chromosome by

secondary constriction. They help in identifying chromosomes in a set.

TYPES OF CHROMOSOME:

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CHROMOSOMES ON THE BASIS OF POSITION OF CENTROMERE:

Metacentric, sub-metacentric, acrocentric and telocentric

Draw their diagrams from class note

CHROMOSOMES ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTION:

Autosome & Sex Chromosome:

Autosomes are responsible for bodily characters and they are 44 in no.
Whereas there are XY chromosome in male and XX - chromosome in
female. They are responsible for formation of gametes such as sperms &
ova. Autosomes are responsible for bodily features while sex chromosomes
for sex determination.

CHANGE IN THE ST. & NO. OF CHROMOSOMES:

Chromosomes are not static entity. They show changes in terms of

structure & functions. Structural changes are known as structural
aberration and functional changes are called numerical aberration.
Structural changes include deletion, addition, inversion and translocation
while numerical changes are Aneuploidy & Polyploidy. Aneuploidy includes
Nullisomy, Monosomy, Trisomy & Tetrasomy whereas polyploid includes
euploidy and segmental polyploidy.

Draw the diagrams of structural and numerical aberrations from class

notes

FUNCTIONS:

1. It helps in cell division leading to the growth and reproduction.

2. Chromosome contains DNA which helps in Replication of DNA.

3. During meiosis crossing over takes place which results in the

recombination of gene. It plays a role in adaptation or organic evolution.

4. Chromosome can undergo changes which can be caused by mutations

and these mutations can be acted upon by natural selection leading to
organic evolution.

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Thus, chromosomes are the basis of inheritance which ensures continuity

and diversity of living beings.

STRUCTURE OF DNA
Watson & Creak showed in 1953 that DNA has a double helical structure in
which two polynucleotide chains connected by H - bonds and running in
opposite direction. Each polynucleotide chain consists of several
nucleotides linked by Phosphodiester bond whereas a nucleotide consists
of Nucleoside & a Phosphate group. Nucleoside comprises deoxyribose
sugar & nitrogenous base linked -glycoside bond. This structure of DNA is
universal.

NUCLEOSIDE:

Nucleoside comprises of Deoxyribose sugar and nitrogenous base - Purines

and Pyrimidines.

DEOXYRIBOSE SUGAR:

fig: deoxyribose sugar

NITROGENOUS BASE: PURINES & PYRIMIDINES

There are two types of purines - Adenine & Guanine and two types
Pyrimidine - cytosine & thymine.

Draw the diagram of nucleosides: sugar + nitrogenous base

Structure of Purines & Pyrimidines facilitates their close association or

stacking which stabilizes double standard DNA.

NUCLEOTIDE: Nucleoside + Phosphate group.

Draw the diagram of nucleotides

These nucleotides or monomeric units are held in a polymeric form by – 3’

→ 5’, phosphor-diester bridges; constituting a single strand which is called
Nucleic acids or polynucleotide chain.

Fig. A Segment of Polynucleotide Chain

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The polymers as depicted possess a direction. One end has a 5’ hydroxyl or

phosphate terminal while the other end has 3’ phosphate or hydroxyl
terminal. This polarity has importance for biological functions.

STRUCTURE OF DNA BY WATSON & CRICK: Described in the following

way:

Draw the structure of DNA

FEATURES OF DNA:

1. No. of Adenine molecule is always equal to no. of Thymine molecule.

2. No. of Cytosine molecule is always equal to no. of Guanine molecule.

3. No. of Adenine molecule may not be equal to Guanine molecule & vice -
versa.

4. Two chains are coiled about the same axis in such a way that they can
separate from one another only by uncoiling and lateral separation would
not be possible.

5. Nitrogenous bases are set in a plane right angle to the long - axis.

Thus, structure of DNA is universal from virus to human beings which

suggest that all living beings evolved from common ancestor.

REPLICATION OF DNA
Replication means production of exact copy of DNA from pre - existing one.
It occurs in S-phase of cell cycle through semi-conservative method. A set of
raw materials is required for the process of replication. It is a well-
regulated process and serves many biomedical purposes.

OCCURRENCE: In the S-phase of inter-phase of cell-cycle.

Draw the diagram of cell cycle with focus on S-phase

SEMI-CONSERVATIVE REPLICATION: According to Meselson & Stahl,

replication is semi-conservative which is as follows:

Draw the diagram of semi-conservative replication

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RAW MATRIALS FOR REPLICATION:

DNA replication requires a DNA template, an RNA primer, deoxyribose

sugar, four nitrogenous bases (Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and thymine) a
phosphate group & a set of enzyme & mg ++.

ENZYMES INVOLVED IN REPLICATION: Enzymes common to both

prokaryotes and eukaryotes:

ENZYMES FUNCTIONS

1. HELIX- DEST ABILIZING PROTIENS: opens duplicate at A=t rich region.

2. HELICASE (Dna-B): unwinding of DNA.

3. Dna – C: It helps Dna –B in binding at the ORI site.

4. Single strand binding protein (SSB): binds single stranded DNA and
prevents reannealing.

5. TOPOISOMERASE – (i): relaxes negative supercoiling.

6. TOPOISOMERASE – (ii): separate DNA strands by uncoiling or gyrating.

7. LIGASE: Fill up the nick in the DNA or joining DNA.

8. RNA Primase: synthesis of RNA- primer

SPECIFIC ENZYMES: For prokaryotic and eukaryotic replication:

DNA POLYMERASE Functions

Prokaryotes eukaryotes

I α In gap filling & digestion of RNA primer and synthesis of lagging

strand.
ε proof reading & repairing.
II
β DNA repairing.
γ synthesis of mitochondrial DNA.
III delta synthesis of DNA on the leading and lagging strands.

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PROCESS OF REPLICATION:

ORIGIN OF REPLICATION & UNWINDING OF DNA: As follows;

Draw the diagram of process of replication of DNA

INITIATION:

The initiation of DNA synthesis requires primer by a short length of RNA 

(10 - 200 bp) long.

Role of RNA primer:

Laying down of the 1st bp is more subject to error than the addition of
subsequent bp since RNA primer is removed by Polymerase-I and then
replaced by DNA-segment, any errors in the initial stage of synthesis is
eliminated.

ELONGATION:

Reproduction grows on both the stand in 5’ → 3’ direction simultaneously.

In this direction, the single enzyme DNA polymerase -iii replicates one
stand (leading strand) in a continuous manner & replicates (lagging strand)
discontinuously.

When the two strands unwind at - the reproduction fork, the leading strand
faces the DNA - pol. 3 in a correct 5’ → 3’ direction, so that synthesis of
along continuous complementary strand takes place. On the lagging strand,
it is not possible therefore, reproduction proceeds in a discontinuous way
synthesizing short segments of DNA fragments. These segments are then
joined by the action of DNA ligase.

TERMINATION: Termination occurs when replication bubbles meet each

other. There are no particular termination sites.

Draw the diagram of replication termination

REGULATION OF REPLICATION: It is a tightly regulated process so that

appropriate no. of cells constituting each tissue are produced during
development and throughout life. Hence control of the initiation stage is
primary mechanism for regulating cellular DNA - Replication. It is done by
specific proteins called S-phase cyclin dependent kinase (CDK).

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IMPORTANCE OF REPLICATION: Replication ensures growth,

reproduction, repairing, regeneration and better adaptation.

In case replication fails to be regulated, it can cause uncontrolled growth of

cells or cancer.

Thus, replication is an important event in the cell - cycle which ensures

genetic stability, continuity of cell and in turn continuity of life.

CELL DIVISION
MITOSIS
Mitosis means division of somatic and germ-cells in order to produce two
cells from a single one having similar genetic constituents. It involves
(Karyokinesis) followed by cytokinesis. The former consists of four phases
including Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase & Telophase which can be
further subdivided conveniently. Mitosis performs several bio-medical
functions.

INTERPHASE-NUCLEUS: As given below:

Diagram of interphase nucleus

The chromosomes are not visible during the period, but material of
chromosomes can be invisible and called as chromatin.

PROPHASE: Described below:

Draw the diagram of early, mid and late prophase

Nucleolus is seen during early prophase. They start disorganizing in the

mid prophase and finally disappear in the late prophase.

The centriole divides into two in early prophase and starts moving towards
the pole during mid - prophase and come to pole during late prophase.
Many spindle fibers appear in between the centrioles and they are
originating from them in a radiating fashion.

The chromosome material condenses to give rise to long thread like

appearance in the nucleus in definite manner, known as chromosome.
During mid-prophase, the thread become more condensed, shorter and

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thicker which later on during late prophase seem to split longitudinally to

give rise to two chromatids or chromosome.

The nuclear membrane start disintegrating during late prophase, so that

nucleoplasm can mix up with the cytoplasm.

2. METAPHASE: As shown below

Draw the diagram of metaphase

The nuclear membrane disintegrates completely so that the nucleoplasm

mixes completely which cytoplasm. Chromosomes show highest state of
condensation and chromosomes form the equatorial plate which are the
distinctive features of metaphase.

3. ANAPHASE: As shown below

Draw the diagram of anaphase

The centromere duplicates during S phase and surrounding the centromere

is a portion on which spindle fibers get attached which is known as raw
anaphase. During the late-anaphase three types of spindle fibers can be
recognized including chromosomal, continuous and zonal fibers.

4. TELOPHASE: As shown below

Draw the diagrams of telophase

During late-telophase the chromatid at the pole appears in group with the
initiation of nuclear membrane formation which is completing towards the
end of Telophase. The nucleolus starts reorganizing.

Now cytoplasm divides equally to form two cells by the process of

cytokinesis as described below:

Draw the diagrams of cytokinesis

Cell furrow starts at equator from all sides, which completed very soon to
divide the cytoplasm into the two daughter cells almost equally.

The nuclear membrane is well organized involving dispersed chromatin

materials, formed by chromatids by the process of de - condensation.

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During cell division, all the nuclear and cytoplasmic constituents are
equally divided between two daughter cells e.g. ER, Mitochondria,
Lysosome but Golgi - apparatus becomes fragmented which are produced
de nova in the daughter cells.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS:

1. Mitosis helps in growth, repair, regeneration of the body and also better
adaptation.

2. In case mitosis fails, it can lead to the development of tumor or cancer.

Thus, mitosis is an important event in the cell cycle which ensures genetic
stability, continuity of cell and thereby continuity of life.

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a special type of cell division found in germ cells in sexually
reproducing organisms. It involves Meiotic - I and Meiotic – II. Prophase - I
of Meiotic - I is a very elaborate process. Meiosis leads to reduction in the
number of chromosomes, recombination of genes etc. which are bio -
medically important.

INTERPHASE NUCLEUS:

Draw the diagram of interphase nucleus

MEIOSIS-I:

POPHASE- I

i.) PRELEPTONEMA: In the early prophase of meiosis; when chromosomes

are very thin and difficult to observe.

ii.) LEPTONEMA: Appear to be single and have chromomeres with bead

like structure as follows:

diagram of leptonema

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Chromosomes have become more apparent. Frequently leptotene

chromosome has definite polarization and form loops, whose ends are
attached to the nuclear envelop at the point near the centrioles. This
peculiar arrangement is often called bouquet.

iii.) ZYGONEMA: Pairing of homologous chromosomes and synaptonemal

complex. The homologous chromosomes become aligned and undergo
pairing in a process, often called synapsis of chromosomes.

Draw the diagram zygonema

Synaptonemal complex is protein in nature. It helps stabilizes the pairing of

homologous chromosomes and facilitates crossing over and recombination
of genes.

iv.) PACHINEMA: Crossing over & recombination between homologous

chromatids.

Draw the diagram of pachynema

The pairing of chromosome reaches its completion which started at

Zygonema. Experimental evidence suggests that during Pachynema two of
the chromatids of the homologous exchange segments. Pachynema,
Leptonema and Zygonema may last only an hour or two.

v.) DIPLONEMA: Reduction in the number of chiasmata

draw the diagram of diplonema

Synaptonemal complex no longer observed. Diplonema is the long - lasting

period; in the 5th month of pre-natal life e.g. human oocytes have reached
the stage of Diplonema and remain in it for many nears; until ovulation
occurs. In case of Amphibia, chromosomes appear as a special
configuration Lamb rush- chromosome. It is related to intensive RNA
synthesis.

vi.) DIAKINESIS: Nucleolus disappears. Number of chiasmata diminishes.

By the end of diakinesis; in general, the homologous are held together only
at their ends i. e. telomerization.

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Draw the diagram of diakinesis

METAPHASE - I:

draw the diagram of metaphase-I

In Metaphase - I condensation of chromosome is maximum. The nuclear

envelop disappears and the spindle micro - tubules become attached to the
kinetochores.

ANAPHASE-I: separation of homologous pairs

Draw the diagram of anaphase-I

TELOPHASE-I: chromosomes reach the poles, nuclear membrane and

nucleolus reappear.

Draw the diagram of telophase-I

Following Telophase is cytokinesis and there is a short interphase after it

but there is no replication of DNA. The result of the 1st meiotic division is
the formation of two haploid cells.

MEIOTIC - II: Separation of sister chromatids. It is as like as mitotic

division as follows:

Draw the diagram of meiotic-II

Each of the four nuclei of telophase - II has one chromatid containing one
DNA and each nucleus has a haploid no. of chromosomes.

SIGNIFICANCE MEIOSIS:

1. Restoration of species-specific chromosome no.

2. Meiotic division results in recombination of genes through crossing over.

It may play a role in evolution or better adaptation.

Thus, meiosis is a reduction division in sexually reproducing organisms

which ensures species-specific chromosome number from generation to
generation and better adaptation.
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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OR GENE EXPRESSION

Protein is synthesized from DNA through the production of mRNA or RNAs.
It requires enzymes and other than enzymes. It is well regulated process. It
includes two broad steps such as transcription and translation. In case of
eukaryotes, there is post transcription processing. Protein Synthesis serves
several bio-medical functions.

CENTRAL DOGMA: As follows:

Transcription Translation

DNA- - - ------------------>mRNA -------- - ----------> Protein

TRANSCRIPTION: process of synthesis of RNAs from the DNA template in

a complementary manner.

Requirements:

It includes a DNA template stand (3’- 5’), Ribose Sugar, nitrogenous bases
such as A, G, C & U, a divalent metal ions Zn++ and RNA polymerase.

In prokaryotes all types of RNA are produced by the same enzyme i.e. RNA
Polymerase, whereas in eukaryotes have three different polymerases:

1. RNA Polymerase – I → Transcribes rRNA

2. RNA Polymerase-II → Transcribes mRNA
3. RNA Polymerase-III → Transcribes tRNA.

PROKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION COUPLED WITH TRANSLATION:

Fig. Coupling of Transcription to Translation

This phenomenon is the result of absence of nucleus, no RNA - processing,

same direction of synthesis of RNA & polypeptide chain (5’ → 3 ') and
shorter lifespan of mRNA in prokaryotes.

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PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION: RNA or mRNA synthesis involves steps

like initiation, elongation and termination.

INITIATION: The steps of initiation is described below:

Draw stepwise diagrams of transcription initiation

ELONGATION: Successive residues are added to the nascent RNA molecule

according to the base pair rule of Watson & Crick in the 5’ - 3’ direction.

TERMINATION: Termination of the synthesized RNA molecule in bacteria

is signaled by a sequence in the template strand of DNA molecule which is
recognized by the protein called Rho factor. It disrupts the nascent RNA -
DNA complex. The completed RNA chain and RNA - Pol. are released from
the template. RNA polymerase is further used for mRNA synthesis.

Draw the diagram of transcription termination

REGULATION OF TRANSCRIPTION IN EUKARYOTES & PROKARYOTES:

Regulation of Transcription in Prokaryotic can be explained by OPERON

model including Lac operon and Tryptophan operon. In Eukaryotes, there
are many factors which are responsible for regulation e.g. GTF (General
Transcription factor), which regulates the step of initiation and Activators
& Coactivators - which regulate the rate of transcription. Transcription is
regulated so that proteins are not synthesized unnecessarily. Thus, it
ensures conservation of energy since protein synthesis is an energy
consuming process.

RNA PROCESSING:

In case of prokaryotes, only rRNA and tRNA are processed. Initially they are
produced with several unnecessary base sequences or large precursor.
Unnecessary bases are cleaved - off or large precursor are made into
smaller one. Similar processing occurs in case of Eukaryotic rRNA and
tRNA.

There is no processing of mRNA in prokaryotic organisms. However, it is

processed in Eukaryotic elaborately. It is as follows:

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1. Removal of extra segment from the beginning or end of precursors.

2. Terminal addition of poly – A tail at the 3’ end and a 7-methyl guanosine

cap at the 5’ end of the Eukaryotic mRNA. Guanosine cap protects mRNA
from the action of phosphatases and nucleases. Poly – A tail has a role in
translation.

3. SPLICING - Excision of intron in spliceosome. In splicing, introns are

eliminated by ribozyme and exons are ligated by ligase and thereby mRNA
can produce a correct protein.

TRANSLATION:

COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR TRANSLATION:

1. Ribosomes: draw the diagram of RIBOSOME

2. mRNA:

mRNA contains codon which are three adjoining bases. Codons are comma
less, degenerate, non – overlapping, universal and non - ambiguous. There
are 64 codons of which two are initiation codons AUG or GUG & there are 3
termination codon UAA or UAG or UGA. Thus 61 codons code for amino
acids

3.t- RNA: draw the diagram of t-RNA.

It brings amino acids to ribosomes attached to mRNA by the action of

Amino – Acyl t-RNA synthetase. There are 55 tRNA in Eukaryotes.

4. Protein Factors: It includes initiation factor like IF1, IF2, IF3, elongation
factor like EFTU, EFTS to EFTS and EF. G. and termination factor like R1 and
R2.

5. ATP and GTPs: are sources of energy.

6. AMINO ACIDS: There are 20 amino acids which are responsible for
formation of all kinds of proteins in different combinations.

PROCESS OF TRANSLATION:

INITIATION: as given below

Draw stepwise diagram of initiation

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ELONGATION: as given below

Draw stepwise diagrams of elongation

 Peptide bond is formed by the enzyme peptide transferase present in

the larger ribosomal sub-unit.
 The movement of ribosome is done by EF. G or Translocase.
 To incorporate one amino acid one ATP and two GTP required.
 Protein synthesis is an energy consuming process. Thus, it should be
regulated in order to prevent wastage of energy.

TERMINATION: The termination of the poly peptide chains occurs when

the 70s ribosome carrying the peptidyl t-RNA reaches the termination
codon UAA or UAG or UGA located at the end of each cistron (coding
region). Chain termination leads to release of free - polypeptide chain and
to the dissociation of ribosomal unit into 30s and 50s subunit. The chain
termination codons are UAA- UAG & UGA unlike all other triplets; these
codons are not recognized by tRNA but rather by special proteins i.e.
releasing factors – R1 or R2. R1 is specially for UAA and UAG whereas R2 is
specific for UAA and UGA.

SIGNIFICANCE PROTEIN SYNTHESIS:

1. Synthesized proteins can be useful for structural and functional aspects

of cell or body. E.g. Integral proteins of plasma membrane, 0Keratin etc.
Functional proteins like enzymes, Ig, Albumin etc.

2. When a mutated protein is produced it can be selected by nature which

can result in better adaptation or organic evolution.

3. Mutated proteins can cause several diseases which are hereditary in

nature e.g., sickle cell anemia.

Thus, the process of protein synthesis is universal i.e. same process is seen
from bacteria to the most advanced forms of human being which indicates
that all living beings evolved from common ancestors.

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THE GENE
Genes are located in various loci of chromosomes. They duplicate through
the process of replication and act through the synthesis of protein, which is
a well-regulated process. Not all genes are DNA. Genes are responsible for
recombination, mutation and protein synthesis. There are some genes in
Eukaryotes which are interrupted by non-coding region.

IN ALMOST ALL CASES GENES ARE DNA:

Genes of almost all organisms are DNA. However, there are some organism
have RNA as genetic material e.g. Retro virus such as HIV virus.

VARIOUS FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF GENE: As given below:

1) Recon: Unit of recombination. Rearrangement of genes during meiosis

causes variation. It may be helpful for organic evolution.

2) Muton: Unit of mutation. Change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene is

called Mutation. They can cause diseases as well as can be selected by
nature, resulting, in organic evolution.

3) Cistron: It is a unit of function or coding region of protein synthesis

which has structural and functional role for a cell.

NO. OF GENES:

It varies from cell - to - cell e. g. Polyoma or SV - 40 viruses have 5 - 10

genes.

• In E. Coli there are 4000 genes.

• In case of human being ~ 30,000 according to Human genome project.

DUPLICATION OF GENES: Genes are segment of DNA, so replication of

DNA leads to duplication of genes.

ACTION OF GENE: Gene acts through synthesis of Protein which is shown

in the following manner. Regulation of Gene can be explained by the
OPERON model, given by Jacob & Monod.

LOCATION OF GENES: Genes are located within the chromosome. This

position is called locus. Since chromosomes exist in homologous pair each

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 BASIS OF LIFE: THE CEL BY PRADIP SARKAR

cell contains two forms of a gene which are found in pairs, alternative
forms of a pair of genes are called Alleles.

SPLIT GENE: are those genes in which coding regions or exons are
interrupted by non-coding regions or introns. Split genes are
characteristics of Eukaryotes and is not found in prokaryotic cell. However,
recently some bacteriophages (T4) has shown the presence of introns.

Thus, genes are responsible for heredity which is done through the
synthesis of proteins.

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