AC Circuits

2
Single-phase A.C. Circuits

1. Introduction to alternating current. 2. Generation and equations of alternating voltages and
currents. 3. Alternating voltage and current. 4. Single phase circuits: A.C. through pure ohmic
resistance alone—A.C. through pure inductance alone—A.C. through pure capacitance alone—
Phasor algebra—A.C. series circuits—R-L circuit—R-C. circuit—R-L-C circuit—A.C. parallel
circuits. —Highlights—Objective Type Questions—Theoretical Questions—Exercise.
1. INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT

A.C. means alternating current—The current or voltage which alternates its direction and
magnitude every time. Now a days 95% of the total energy is produced, transmitted and distributed
in A.C. supply.
The reasons are the following :
(i) More voltage can be generated (upto 33000 V) than D.C. (650 V only).
(ii) A.C. voltage can be increased and decreased with the help of a static machine called the
‘transformer’.
(iii) A.C. transmission and distribution is more economical as line material (say copper) can
be saved by transmitting power at higher voltage.
(iv) A.C. motors for the same horse power as of D.C. motors are cheaper, lighter in weight,
require less space and require lesser attention in operation and maintenance.
(v) A.C. can be converted to D.C. (direct current) easily, when and where required but D.C.
cannot be converted to A.C. so easily and it will not be economical.
However, D.C. entails the following merits and hence finds wide applications.
(i) D.C. series motors are most suitable for traction purposes in tramway, railways, crains
and lifts.
(ii) For electroplating, electrolytic and electrochemical processes (battery charging etc.), D.C.
is required.
(iii) Arc lamps for search lights and cinema projectors work on D.C.
(iv) Arc welding is better than on A.C.
(v) Relay and operating time switches, etc., and circuit-breakers, D.C. works more efficiently.
(vi) In rolling mills, paper mills, colliery winding, etc., where fine speed control of speeds in
both directions is required, D.C. motors are required.
2. GENERATION AND EQUATIONS OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents
Alternating voltages may be generated in the following two ways :
1. By rotating a coil in a stationary magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 1.
2. By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil, as shown in Fig. 2.
60
SINGLE-PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS 61
Back
coil Stator
N
Flux
nt Rotor
r re Cut away
Cu
pole
S n N
tio
ta S
f ro
o
+ is
Ax
– Motion
External
connections
Fig. 1. Rotating a coil in a stationary Fig. 2. Rotating a magnetic field

magnetic field. within a stationary coil.
The value of the voltage generated in each case depends upon the following factors :
(i) The number of turns in the coils ;
(ii) The strength of the field ;
(iii) The speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.
O Out of the above two methods the rotating-field method is mostly used in practice.
Equations of Alternating Voltages and

Currents
φmax cos θ Y
Fig. 3 shows a rectangular coil of N turns t= 0
rotating clockwise with an angular velocity ω radians ω
per second in a uniform magnetic field.
Since by Faraday’s law, the voltage is propor-
ωt
tional to the rate at which the conductor its across φmax sin θ
θ=
the magnetic field or to the rate of change of flux link-

il
ages, the shape of the wave of voltage applied to the θ co
external circuit will be determined by the flux distri- X′ φ ma
x O X
φmax
bution in the air gap. For a uniform field between the
poles it is evident that maximum flux will link with
the coil when its plane is in vertical position i.e., per-
pendicular to the direction of flux between the poles.
Also it is obvious that when the plane of coil is hori-
zontal no flux will link with the coil.
Y′
If the position of the coil with reference to the
vertical axis be denoted by θ the flux linking with the Fig. 3. A coil rotating in a magnet field.
coil at any instant, as the coil rotates may be
determined from the relation,
φ = φmax cos θ
= φmax cos ωt ...(i) (∵ θ = ωt)
where, φmax = Maximum flux which can link with the coil, and
t = Time taken by the coil to move through an angle θ from vertical position.
Using Faraday’s law to eqn. (i), in order to determine the voltage equation,
dφ
e= −N (where e is the instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f.)
dt
62 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
d
= −N (φ max cos ωt) = ωN φmax sin ωt
dt
or e = ωNφmax sin θ ...(ii)
As the value of e will be maximum when sin θ = 1,
∴ Emax = ωNφmax
The eqn. (ii) can be written in simpler form as
e = Emax sin θ ...(iii)
Similarly the equation of induced alternating current (instantaneous value) is
i = Imax sin θ (if the load is resistive) ...(iv)
Waveforms. A waveform (or wave-shape) is the shape of a curve obtained by plotting the
instantaneous values of voltage or current as ordinate against time as abscissa.
Fig. 4 (a, b, c, d, e) shows irregular waveforms, but each cycle of current/voltage is an exactly
replica of the previous one. Alternating e.m.fs and currents produced by machines usually both have
positive and negative half waves, the same shape as shown. Fig. 4(f) represents a sine wave of A.C.
This is the simplest possible waveform, and alternators are designed to give as nearly as possible a
sine wave of e.m.f.
e, i e, i e, i
+
p 2p p 2p p 2p
0 t 0 t 0 t
–
(a) (b) (c)
e, i e, i e, i
p 2p p 2p p 2p
0 t 0 t 0 t
(d) (e) (f)
Fig. 4. Waveforms.
O In general, an alternating current or voltage is one the circuit direction of which reverses at
regularly recurring intervals.
O The waves deviating from the standard sine wave are termed as distorted waves.
O Complex waves are those which depart from the ideal sinusoidal form. All alternating complex
waves, which are periodic and have equal positive and negative half cycles can be shown to be
made up of a number of pure sine waves, having different frequencies but all these frequencies
are integral multiples of that of the lowest alternating wave, called the fundamental (or first
harmonic). These waves of higher frequencies are called harmonics.
3. ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

Modern alternators produce an e.m.f. which is for all practical purposes sinusoidal (i.e., a
sine curve), the equation between the e.m.f. and time being
e = Emax sin ωt ...(1)
where, e = Instantaneous voltage ; Emax = Maximum voltage ;
ωt = Angle through which the armature has turned from neutral.
Taking the frequency as f hertz (cycles per second), the value of ω will be 2πf, so that the
equation reads
e = Emax sin (2πf)t.
The graph of the voltage will be as shown in Fig. 5.
+
+ Emax
E.M.F.
Volts
Time
–
–
1 Cycle
Fig. 5. The graph of the sinusoidal voltage.
1. Cycle. One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is
known as a cycle. A cycle may also sometimes be specified in terms of angular measure. In that case,
one complete cycle is said to spread over 360° or 2π radians.
2. Amplitude. The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity, is known
as its amplitude.
3. Frequency (f). The number of cycles/second is called the frequency of the alternating
quantity.
Its unit is hertz (Hz).
4. Time Period (T). The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete the cycle is
1
called its time period. For example, a 50 hertz (Hz) alternating current has a time period of second.
50
Time period is reciprocal of frequency,
i.e., T=
1 FG
or f =
1 IJ ...(2)
f H T K
5. Root mean square (R.M.S.) value. The r.m.s. (or effective) value of an alternating current
is given by that steady (D.C.) current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time
produces the same heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same
circuit for the same time.
R.M.S. value is the value which is taken for power purposes of any description. This value is
obtained by finding the square root of the mean value of the squared ordinates for a cycle or half-
cycle (See Fig. 5).
This is the value which is used for all power, lighting and heating purposes, as in these cases
the power is proportional to the square of the voltage.
Refer to Fig. 5.
The equation of sinusoidal alternating current is given as :

i = Imax sin θ
The mean of squares of the instantaneous values of current over half cycle is
π i2 d θ
I2 = z0 (π − 0)
π π
I2 = 1 1
π z
0
π
i2 dθ =
π z
0
( Imax sin θ)2 dθ
I 2 max π 1 − cos 2θ
=
1
π z
0
I 2 max sin 2 θ dθ =
π
π z FGH
0 2
IJ
dθ
π
K
I 2max I 2 max sin 2θ
=
2π z0
(1 − cos 2θ) dθ =
2π
θ−
2 0
I 2max I 2max I 2max I

= ×π= or I= = max
2π 2 2 2
or I = 0.707 Imax. ...(3)
Note. While solving problems, the values of given current and voltage should always be taken as the
r.m.s. values, unless indicated otherwise.
6. Average or mean value. The average value of an alternating current is expressed by that
steady current which transfers across any circuit the same charge as is transferred by that alternat-
ing current during the same time.
The mean value is only of use in connection with processes where the results depend on the
current only, irrespective of the voltage, such as electroplating or battery charging.
Refer to Fig. 6.
The value of instantaneous current is given by
i = Imax sin θ
+ Imax Iav.
Refer to Fig. 6. The value of instantaneous π 2π
Current
current is given by : O
i = Imax sin θ [θ = ωt] – Imax
1 π
Iav =
(π − 0) z0
idθ
LM Limits are taken from 0 to π, since O Fig. 6

MM only first half cycle is considered. PP
MM For whole cycle, the average value PP
N of sine wave is zero. PQ
π
1 π 1
= .
π z
0
Imax . sin θ dθ = . Imax − cos θ
π
0
1 2
= .I [1 – (– 1)] = .I
π max π max
or Iav = 0.637 Imax. ...(4)
Note. In case of unsymmetrical alternating current viz. half-wave rectified current the average value
must always be taken over the whole cycle.
7. Form and Peak Factors
Form factor. The ratio of r.m.s. (or effective) value to average value is the form factor (Kf ) of
the wave form. It has use in voltage generation and instrument correction factors.
Peak factor. The ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s. value is the peak factor (Kp) of the
wave form.
Form factor (Kf) Peak factor (Kp)

S. No. Wave form r. m. s. value max. value
= =
average value r.m.s. value
1. Sine wave :
Imax
+
–
Time
Fig. 7
Imax 0.707 Imax Imax
R.M.S. value = = 0.707 Imax Kf = = 1.11 Kp = = 1.41
2 0.637 Imax 0.707 Imax
2
Average value = Imax = 0.637 Imax
π
2. Half wave rectified sine wave :

Imax
One cycle
Fig. 8
Imax
R.M.S. value = = 0.5 Imax
2
1 0.5 Imax Imax
Average Value = Imax = 0.318 Imax Kf = = 1.57 Kp = = 2.0
π 0.318 Imax 0.5 Imax
3. Full wave rectified sine wave :

Imax
One cycle
Fig. 9
Imax
R.M.S. value = = 0.707 Imax
2
2 0.707 Imax Imax
Average value = Imax = 0.637 Imax Kf = = 1.11 Kp = = 1.41
π 0.637 Imax 0.707 Imax
Form factor (Kf) Peak factor (Kp)

S. No. Wave form r. m. s. value max. value
= =
average value r.m.s. value
4. Rectangular wave :
Imax
Time
– Imax
Fig. 10
R.M.S. value = Imax
Average value = Imax Kf = 1 Kp = 1
5. Triangular wave :
Imax
Time
Imax
Fig. 11
Imax 0.578 Imax Imax
R.M.S. = = 0.578 Imax Kf = = 1.16 Kp = = 1.73
3 0.5 Imax 0.578 Imax
Imax
Average value = = 0.5 Imax
2
Reasons for using alternating current (or voltage) of sinusoidal form :

An alternating current (or voltage) of sinusoidal form is normally used because of the following
reasons :
(i) Mathematically, it is quite simple.
(ii) Its integrals and differentials both are sinusoidal.
(iii) It lends itself to vector representation.
(iv) A complex waveform can be analysed into a series of sine waves of various frequencies,
and each such component can be dealt with separately.
(v) This waveform is desirable for power generation, transmission and utilisation.
8. Phase and phase angle. The ‘phase’ of an
A.C. wave may be defined as its position with respect
Current
to a reference axis or reference wave and ‘phase angle’

as the angle of lead or lag with respect to the reference
axis or with respect to another wave. π/2 π 3π/2 2π
0
Examples. The phase of current at point L is L
t=0
T T
second where T is the time period or expressed in 4
4
π T
terms of angle θ, it is radian (Fig. 12). Similarly
2 Fig. 12
phase of the rotating coil at the instant shown in Fig. 13 is ωt which is therefore called its phase
angle.
The e.m.fs. induced in both the coils (Fig. 13) will be of the same frequency and of sinusoidal
shape, although the values of instantaneous e.m.f. induced will be different. However, the alternat-
ing e.m.fs. would reach their maximum and zero values at the same time as shown in Fig. 13 (b).
Such alternating voltages or curve are said to in phase with each other.
M
L
M
θ = ωt
X′ X L
O
Y′ t (Second)
(a) (b)
Fig. 13
Refer to Fig. 14. M lags behind L by β and N lags behind L by (α + β) because they reach their
maximum later.
Y
L
M
β L M N
α
N
β
O ωt
X X (α + β )
t (Second)
Y
(b)
(a)
Fig. 14
Example 1. (a) What is the equation of a 25 cycle current sine wave having r.m.s. value of
30 amps ?
(b) A 60 cycle engine-driven alternator has a speed of 1200 r.p.m. How many poles are there in
the alternator ?
Solution. (a) We know that, i = Imax sin ωt

= Imax sin 2πft (∵ ω = 2πf)
= 30 × 2 . sin (2π × 25 × t)
FG∵ R.M.S. value
=
1 IJ
H Max. value 2 K
= 42.42 sin 157 t. (Ans.)
Np
(b) Using the relation, f=
120
where, f = frequency, N = speed in r.p.m., and
p = No. of poles
1200 p
∴ 60 = or p = 6. (Ans.)
120
Example 2. An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50 Hz has an
r.m.s. value of 40 A. Find :
(i) The instantaneous value 0.0025 seconds after passing through maximum positive value,
and
(ii) The time measured from a maximum value when the instantaneous current is 14.14 A.
Solution. Imax = 2 × 40 = 56.56 A
ω = 2πf = 2π × 50 = 100π radians
(i) i = Imax cos ωt ... after +ve maximum value
= 56.56 cos 100 πt
= 56.56 cos (100π × 0.0025) ...(t = 0.0025 s ...given)
= 56.56 cos 45° (Taking π = 180°)
= 40 A. (Ans.)
(ii) 14.14 = 56.56 cos (100 × 180 × t)
14.14
or = cos (100 × 180 × t)
56.56
or cos–1 (0.25) = 100 × 180 × t
75.5° = 100 × 180 × t
∴ t = 0.00419 s. (Ans.)
Example 3. A sinusoidal alternating voltage of 50 Hz has an r.m.s. value of 200 V. Write
down the equation for the instantaneous value and find this value 0.0125 sec. after passing through
a positive maximum value. At what time measured from a positive maximum value will the instanta-
neous voltage be 141.4 volts ?
Solution. Refer to Fig. 15.
Volts
282.2
Vmax = 2 × 200 = 282.2 volts
141.4
ω = 2πf = 2π × 50 = 100 π rad/sec.
∴ Equation for the instantaneous voltage.
M
V = Vmax sin ωt (with reference to point O) O
L N
= 282.2 sin 100 πt ...(i) 60°
225°
Since the time (0.0125 sec.) is given from the
θ 200
point L (i.e., from positive maximum value) the equa-
tion (i) when referred to point L can be written as
Fig. 15
v = 282.2 sin (90° + 100 πt)
= 282.2 cos 100 πt
Hence instantaneous value of the voltage 0.0125 sec. after passing through + ve maximum
value,
v = 282.2 cos (100 π × 0.0125) ...(angle in radians)
= 282.2 cos (100 × 180 × 0.0125) ...(angle in degrees)
= 282.2 cos 225° = 280.2 × −

FG 1IJ
H 2K
= – 200 V (point M). (Ans.)
Also v= 141.4 V
∴ 141.4 = 282.2 cos (100 × 180 × t)
or 0.5 = cos (100 × 180 × t)
or –1
cos (0.5) = 100 × 180 × t
or 60° = 100 × 180 × t
1
or t= sec. (point N). (Ans.)
300
Example 4. (a) What is the peak value of a sinusoidal alternating current of 4.78 r.m.s.
amps ?
(b) What is the r.m.s. value of a rectangular wave with an amplitude of 9.87 volts ?
(c) What is the average value over half a cycle of a sinusoidal alternating current whose r.m.s.
value is 31 A ?
Solution. (a) Peak value, Imax = 2 × 4.78 = 6.76 A. (Ans.)
(b) Refer to Fig. 16. If the first half-cycle is divided into n
equal parts each of value V, then
1/2
FV 2
+ V 2 + V 2 + ...... I
r.m.s. value = G JK
H n
= V = 9.87 volts. (Ans.)
(c) Ir.m.s. = 31 A
Ir.m.s.
Iav = Fig. 16
form factor
31
= = 27.93 A. (Ans.)
1.11
Example 5. The graph in Fig. 17 shows the variation of voltage with time. Use the graph to
calculate the average and r.m.s. value of the voltage. What is the frequency of the voltage ? What
would be the r.m.s. value of sine wave having the same peak value ?
As the graph is symmetrical about time axis, considering only the positive half cycle.
0 + 10 + 20 + 40 + 100 + 120 + 100 + 40 + 20 + 10
Average value, Vav =
10
= 46 V. (Ans.)
02 + 102 + 202 + 402 + 1002 + 1202 + 1002 + 402 + 202 + 102

R.M.S. value, V=
10
0 + 100 + 400 + 1600 + 10000 + 14400 + 10000 + 1600 + 400 + 100
=
10
38600
= = 3860 = 62.1 V. (Ans.)
10
Fig. 17
Since the time period ‘T’ is 20 millisec.

1 1
∴ Frequency ‘f ’ = = = 50 Hz. (Ans.)
T 20 × 10−3
R.M.S. value of a sine wave of the same peak value
= 0.707 × 120 = 84.84 V. (Ans.)
Example 6. Prove that if a D.C. current of Iamps. is superposed in a conductor by an A.C.
3
current of max. value I amps, the r.m.s. value of the resultant is I.
2
Solution. Let the A.C. current be i = I sin θ where i is the instantaneous value of the A.C.
current and I the D.C. current.
The r.m.s. value of (I + i) over one complete cycle is,
1 2π
=
2π
1
z0
2π
(I + I sin θ)2 dθ
= I
2π z 0
2π
( I + 2 sin θ + sin 2 θ)
RS 1 FG 1 − cos 2θ IJ UV
= I
T 2π z 0
1 + 2 sin θ +
H 2 KW
2π
1 θ sin 2θ
= I θ − 2 cos θ + −
2π 2 4 0
1
= I (2π − 2 + π + 2)
2π
3
= I. . (Ans.)
2
Example 7. A resultant current wave is made up of two components : a 4A D.C. component

and a 50 Hz A.C. component, which is of sinusoidal waveform and which has a maximum value of
4A.
(i) Sketch the resultant wave.
(ii) Write an analytical expression for the current wave, reckoning t = 0 at a point where the
A.C. component is at zero value and where di/dt is positive.
(iii) What is the average value of the resultant current over a cycle ?
(iv) What is the effective or r.m.s. value of the resultant current ?
Solution. (i) Sketch of the resultant wave :
The two current components and the result-
ant current wave are shown in Fig. 18. (Ans.)
(ii) Analytical expression. The instantane-
ous value of the resultant current is given by
i = (4 + 4 sin ωt) = (4 + 4 sin θ). (Ans.)
(iii) Average value. Since the average value
of the alternating current over one complete cycle is
zero, hence the average value of the resultant cur-
rent is equal to the value of D.C. component i.e.,
4A (Ans.)
(iv) Effective or r.m.s. value :
Mean value of i2 over complete cycle is Fig. 18
1 2π 1 2π
=
2π
1
z 0
2π
i2dθ =
2π z
0
(4 + 4 sin θ)2 dθ
=
2π
1
z 0
2π
(16 + 32 sin θ + 16 sin2 θ) dθ
LM16 + 32 sin θ + 16 FG 1 − cos 2θ IJ OP dθ

=
2π
1 2π
z 0 N H 2 KQ
=
2π 0
1
zF (24 + 32 sin θ − 8 cos 2θ) dθ
sin 2 θ
2π
IJ
= 24 θ − 32 cos θ − 8 ×
GH
2π 2 0
K
1 48π
= [(48π − 32 cos 2π − 4 sin 4π) − (− 32)] = = 24 A
2π 2π
∴ R.M.S. value, I=24 = 4.9 A. (Ans.)
Example 8. Determine the average and effective values of the saw-tooth waveform shown in
Fig. 19.
Fig. 19

Since the voltage increases linearly, therefore,
60 + 0
Vav = = 30 V. (Ans.)
2
The slope, for the internal 0 < t < 2 is given by :
60
Slope = = 30
2
∴ Instantaneous voltage, v = 30t volts
The r.m.s. or effective value of the voltage,
2
1 T 1 2 2 t3
or
V 2
r.m.s. =
T z
0
Vr.m.s = 34.64 V. (Ans.)

v2 dt =
2 z
0
(30 t)2 dt = 450
z
0
t 2 dt = 450
3
0
= 1200
Example. 9. Determine the r.m.s. and average values of the waveform shown in Fig. 20.
y
M
30
P
15
L Q N
y
t
T 2T
Time
Fig. 20
MN 30 − 15 15
The slope the curve =
LM = =
LN T T
Now consider the function y at any time ‘t’. We have,
PQ MN 15
∴ = =
LQ LN T
y − 15 15 15 FG IJ
or = or y = 15 + t
t T T H K
This gives the equation for the function for one cycle.
1 LM15 + FG 15 IJ tOP dt = 1 L15 dt + 15 . t . dtO
T T
Yav =
T z N H T K Q T MN
0 z
T0
PQ
2 T
1 L 15t O
or Yav = M
T MN
15 t +
2T PQ
P = T1 15 T + 7.5 T = 22.5. (Ans.)
0
2
1 T 1 RS15 + FG 15 IJ tUV dt
T
Mean square value =
T z
0
y dt = 2
T z
T HTK W
0
=
1
T z FGH
T
0
225 +
225 t 2
T 2
+
450
T
. t dt
T
I
JK
1 225 t3 450 t 2
= 225 t + +
T 3T2 2T
0
1
= | 225 T + 75 T + 225 T | = 525
T
∴ R.M.S. value =525 = 22.9. (Ans.)
Example 10. Find the r.m.s. and average value of the trapezoidal current wave-form shown
in the Fig. 21.
Fig. 21
3T
Solution. Refer to Fig. 21. The equation of the current for 0 < t < can be found from the
20
relation,
i Imax 20 Imax
= or i = .t
t (3 T 20) 3T
3T 7T
The equation of the current for <t< is given by i = Imax. Remembering that ∆OLP is
20 20
identical with MQN,
1 LM 3T / 20 7T / 20 OP
R.M.S. value of current, Ir.m.s. =
(T 2)
2
Nz
0
i2 dt +
z 3T / 20
2
Imax dt
Q
L |F 20 I
2 M R IJ 2
3T / 20 U| 7T / 20 OP
= 2 SG
T M |H 3 T
N T
max
K z
0
t2 dt + Imax
V|
W
2
z
3T / 20
dt
PQ
LR
2 M |F 20 I IJ 2
t3
3T / 20 U| 7T / 20 OP
= 2 SG
T M |H 3 T
max
K 3
V| + I 2
max t
PPQ
MN T 0 W 3T / 20
=
2 L
M2 × 4009TI
2
max
×
27
T 3 + Imax
2
×
7T 3T
−
FG IJ OP
T MN 2
3 × 8000 20 20 H K PQ
2
=
T
e2
0.1 Imax T + 0.2 Imax
2
T = 0.6 Imax
2
= 0.775 Imax. (Ans.) j
Average value of current,
1LM 3T / 20 7T / 20 OP 2 LM 3T / 20
FG 20 I IJ t dt + I 7T / 20 OP
Iav =
T 2N2
z 0
idt +
z
3T / 20
Imax dt =
Q T
2
N z0 H 3T K
max
max z
3T / 20
dt
Q
L
2 M F 20 I 2
IJ t 3T / 20 OP 7T / 20
= 2G max
+I t max
T M H 3T K 2 PQ 3T / 20
N
2 L F 20 I IJ × 1 FG 3T IJ + I FG 7T − 3T IJ OP
2
max
= M2 G
T MN H 3T K 2 H 20 K max
H 20 20 K PQ
=
2 L F 20 I
M2 G max IJ × 1 FG 9T IJ + I × T OP
2
max
T MN H 3T K 2 H 400 K 5 PQ
2
Iav = 0.15 Imax × T + 0.2 Imax × T = 0.7 Imax. (Ans.)
T
Example 11. A half wave single anode rectifier has a voltage given by 100 sin ωt applied to it.
Estimate the average value on the d.c. side.
Solution. The wave form on the d.c. side is as shown in Fig. 22.
Mean/Average d.c. voltage will be :
1 π
Iav =
2π z
0
100 sin θ . dθ
π
100 LM OP 0 π 2π 3π
= − cos θ
2π MN PQ Fig. 22
0
= 31.83 V. (Ans.)
Example 12. Calculate from the first principles, the reading which would be indicated by a
hot-wire ammeter in a circuit whose current waveform is given by 10 sin ωt + 3 sin 3ωt + 2 sin 5ωt.
Solution. The expression for instantaneous current is :
i = 10 sin ωt + 3 sin 3ωt + 2 sin 5ωt
The hot-wire ammeter will read the “r.m.s. value” of the wave form.
Now i2 = (10 sin ωt + 3 sin 3ωt + 2 sin 5ωt)2
1 2π
∴ R.M.S. value of the current =
2π z0
i2 d (ωt)
2π 1/2
LM 1 OP
=
N 2π z0
[(10 sin ωt + 3 sin 3ωt + 2 sin 5ωt)2 d(ωt)]
Q
L1 2π
= M
N 2π z0
{102 sin2 ωt + 32 sin2 3ωt + 22 sin2 5ωt + 2 × 10 × 3 sin ωt sin 3ωt
1/2
O
+ 2 × 10 × 2 sin ωt sin 5ωt + 2 × 3 × 2 sin 3ωt . sin 5ωt} d(ωt) P
PQ
1/2
L1 2π R|S 10 2
(1 − cos 2ωt) 32 22 U|V OP
=M
MN 2π z
0 |T 2
+
2
(1 − cos 6ωt) +
2
(1 − cos 10ωt) + * etc. d(ωt)
|W PQ
LM *All the terms containing the product of two sines when integrated OP
MM over the range 0 to 2π disappear. This is easily seen by splitting such PP
MM terms into the difference of two cosines. PP
N Q
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
L 1 (10
=M
2
+ 32 + 22 )
. 2π
OP F 10
=G
2
+ 32 + 2 2 I =
FG 113 IJ
MN 2π 2 PQ H 2 JK H2K
= (56.5)1/2 = 7.52. (Ans.)
Example 13. Four branches A, B, C, D in an A.C. circuit meet at a junction point P. The
currents in branches A, B, C flow towards P while the current in branch D flows away from P. The
currents in branches A, B and C are
iA = 20 sin 628t
iB = 15 sin (628t – π/6)
iC = 25 sin (628t + π/3)
Find an expression for the instantaneous value of current in branch D, and calculate (i) its
frequency, and (ii) the heat (watts) that it would produce when flowing in a resistance of 5 ohms.
Solution.
Analytical method. Let the current flowing in the branch D be, iD = ID sin (628t + φ)
ΣH = IAmax cos φ1 + IBmax cos φ2 + ICmax cos φ3 + IDmax cos φ
= 20 cos 0° + 15 cos (– π/6) + 25 cos π/3 + IDmax cos φ
3 1
+ 25 × + IDmax cos φ
= 20 + 15 ×
2 2
= 20 + 13 + 12.5 + IDmax cos φ = 45.5 + IDmax cos φ
ΣV = IAmax sin φ1 + IBmax sin φ2 + ICmax sin φ3 + IDmax sin φ
= 20 sin 0° + 15 sin (– π/6) + 25 sin π/3 + IDmax sin φ
1 3
+ 25 × + IDmax sin φ
= 0 – 15 ×
2 2
= – 7.5 + 21.65 + IDmax sin φ = 14.15 + IDmax sin φ
Since all the currents are meeting at point P,
∴ ΣH = 0
i.e., 45.5 + IDmax cos φ = 0 or IDmax × cos φ = – 45.5 ...(i)
and ΣV = 0
i.e., 14.15 + IDmax sin φ = 0 or IDmax × sin φ = – 14.15 ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii), IDmax = (– 45.5) + (– 14.15)2 = 47.6 A.
2
− 14.15
φ = tan–1
= 197° or 3.44°
− 45.5
Hence the current in branch D follows the relation,
iD = 47.6 sin (678 t + 3.44). (Ans.)
ω 628
(i) Frequency = = = 100 Hz. (Ans.)
2π 2π
2 2
(ii) Heat produced =
FG I Dmax IJ × R=
FG 47.6 IJ × 5 = 5620 W. (Ans.)
H 2 K H 2K
4. SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS

The study of circuits involves three basic types of units (R, L, C i.e., resistance, reactance and
capacitance respectively) and four possible series combination of them. The latter, in turn, may be
arranged in many kinds of parallel, series-parallel, parallel-series or other complex circuits.
4.1. A.C. Through Pure Ohmic Resistance Alone
The circuit containing a pure resistance R is shown in Fig. 23 (a). Let the applied voltage be
given by the equation,
v = Vmax sin θ = Vmax sin ωt ...(i)
Power
wave
+ +
P
v i p Vmax Imax
Vmax Imax
2
2π
0 π
t
i = Imax sin ωt
(c) v = Vmax sin ωt
Fig. 23. A.C. through pure ohmic resistance alone.
Then the instantaneous value of current flowing through the resistance R will be,
v Vmax sin ωt
i= = ...(ii)
R R
The value of current will be maximum
when sin ωt = 1 or (ωt = 90°)
Vmax
∴ Imax =
R
Substituting this value in eqn. (ii), we get
i = Imax sin ωt ...(iii)
Comparing (i) and (iii), we find that alternating voltage and current are in phase with each
other as shown in Fig. 23 (b), also shown vectorially in Fig. 23 (c).
Power. Refer to Fig. 23 (c)

Instantaneous power,
p = vi = Vmax sin ωt × Imax sin ωt = Vmax Imax sin2 ωt
Vmax Imax V I
= × 2 sin 2 ωt = max max (1 − cos 2 ωt)
2 2
Vmax Imax Vmax Imax
= . − . cos 2ωt
2 2 2 2
(Constant part) (Fluctuating part)
Vmax Imax
For a complete cycle the average of . cos 2 ωt is zero.
2 2
Hence, power for the whole cycle,
Vmax
I
P= . max = Vr.m.s . Ir.m.s.
2 2
or P = VI watt
where V = R.M.S. value of applied voltage, and
I = R.M.S. value of the current.
It may be observed from the Fig. 23 (c) that no part of the power cycle at any time becomes
negative. In other words the power in a purely resistive circuit never becomes zero.
Hence in pure resistive circuit we have :
1. Current is in phase with the voltage.
V
2. Current I = where I and V are r.m.s. values of current and voltage.
R
3. Power in the circuit, P = VI = I2R.
4.2. A.C. Through Pure Inductance Alone
Fig. 24 (a) shows the circuit containing a pure inductance of L henry.
v = Vmax sin ωt
(a)
Fig. 24 (a)
Let the alternating voltage applied across the circuit be given by the equation,
v = Vmax sin ωt ...(i)
Whenever an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, a back e.m.f. is produced
due to the self-inductance of the coil. This back e.m.f. opposes the rise or fall of the current through
the coil. Since there is no ohmic drop in this case, therefore, the applied voltage has to overcome this
induced e.m.f. only. Thus at every step,
Power
wave
v + p Vmax Imax
v = Vmax sin ωt v i p i′ + 2
π π 2π
i = Imax (sin ωt – ) 0
v i 2
t
–
π 1 t –
2
(b) (c)
Fig. 24 (b), (c). A.C. through pure inductance alone. Resultant power zero.
di
v= L
dt
di
or Vmax sin ωt = L
dt
Vmax
or di = sin ωt dt
L
Integrating both sides, we get
Vmax
z z
di =
L
Vmax
sin ωt dt
cos ωt
FG Vmax IJπ LM OP
or i= − = sin ωt −
L ω H ωL K2 N Q
Vmax π LM OP
or i= sin ωt − ...(ii)
XL 2 N Q
where XL = ωL (opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by a pure inductances) and is
called Inductive reactance. It is given in ohms if L is in henry and ω is in radian/second.
FG π
IJ
The value of current will be maximum when sin ωt − =1
H 2K
Vmax
∴ Imax =
XL
FG π IJ
i = Imax sin ωt − ...(iii)
H 2 K
FG π IJ
Instantaneous power, p = vi = Vmax sin ωt × Imax sin ωt −
H 2 K
= – Vmax Imax sin ωt . cos ωt
Vmax Imax
= − × 2 sin ωt cos ωt
2
Vmax Imax
= − . . sin 2ωt
2 2
Vmax Imax 2π
∴ Power for the whole cycle, P= −
2 2 0 z
sin 2ωt = 0
Hence average power consumed in a pure inductive circuit is zero.

Hence in a pure inductive circuit, we have :
V V V
1. Current I = = = amp.
X L ωL 2πfL
2. Current always lags behind the voltage by 90°.
3. Average power consumed is zero.
Variation of XL and f :
Since XL = ωL = 2πfL, and here if L is constant, then
XL ∝ f
Fig. 25, shows the variation. As frequency is increased XL
increases and the current taken by the circuit decreases. Fig. 25. Variation of XL with f.
4.3. A.C. Through Pure Capacitance Alone
The circuit containing a pure capacitor of capacitance C farad is shown in Fig. 26 (a). Let the
alternating voltage applied across the circuit be given by the equation,
v = Vmax sin ωt
v i
π t
2
π
i = Imax sin (ωt + )
2
(b)
Fig. 26. A.C. through pure capacitance alone. Resultant power is zero.
v = Vmax sin ωt ...(i)
Charge on the capacitor at any instant,
q=Cv
Current through the circuit,

dq d
i= = (CVmax sin ωt) = ω CVmax cos ωt
dt dt
V πFG IJ
or i = max sin ωt +
1/ωC 2 H K
∴ i=
Vmax F πI
sin G ωt + J ...(ii)
XC H 2K
1
The denominator XC = (opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by a pure
ωC
capacitor) is known as capacitive reactance.
It is given in ohms if C is in farad and ω in radian/second.
FG π
IJ
The value of current will be maximum when sin ωt + =1
H 2K
Vmax
∴ Imax =
XC
FG π IJ
i = Imax sin ωt + ...(iii)
H 2 K
Instantaneous power,
FG π IJ
p = vi = Vmax sin ωt × Imax sin ωt + H K
2
Vmax Imax
= Vmax Imax sin ωt cos ωt = . sin 2ωt
2 2
Vmax Imax 2π
Power for the whole cycle =
2
.
2 0 z sin 2 ωt = 0
This fact is graphically illustrated in Fig. 26 (c). It may be noted that, during the first quarter
cycle, what so ever power or energy is supplied by the source is stored in the electric field set-up
between the capacitor plates. During the next quarter cycle, the electric field collapses and the
power or energy stored in the field is returned to the source. The process is repeated in each alterna-
tion and this circuit does not absorb any power.
Hence in a pure capacitive circuit, we have
V
1. I = = V × 2 πfC amps.
XC
2. Current always leads the applied voltage by 90°.
3. Power consumed is zero.
Variation of XC and f :
1
Since XC = and if C is kept constant, than
2πfC
1
XC ∝
f
Fig. 27 shows the variation. As the frequency increases XC
decreases, so the current increases. Fig. 27
4.4. Phasor Algebra

The following are the methods of representing vector
quantities :
1. Symbolic notation 2. Trigonometrical form
3. Exponential form 4. Polar form.
A vector as shown in Fig. 28 may be described in the
above forms as follows :
1. Symbolic notation :
E = a + jb
2. Trigonometrical form :
E= a2 + b2 (cos θ + j sin θ) Fig. 28
= a2 + b2 (cos θ ± j sin θ) ......in general
3. Exponential form : E= a2 × b2 e+jθ
= a2 + b2 e±jθ ......in general
4. Polar form : E= a2 + b2 ∠ θ
= a2 + b2 ∠ ± θ ......in general
Significance of operator j. The letter j used in the above expressions is a symbol of an
operation. It is used to indicate the counter-clockwise rotation of a vector through 90°. It is assigned
a value of − 1 . The double operation of j on a vector rotates it counter-clockwise (CCW) through
180° and hence reverses its sense because, j × j = j2 = (− 1)2 = – 1.

In general, each successive multiplication of j, rotates
the phasor further by 90° as given below (Refer to Fig. 29) 90°
jV
j= −1
...90° CCW rotation from OX-axis
2 180° O V 0°
X
j2 = e −1 j =–1 2
j V = –V
3
j3 = e −1 j =− −1=− j
3
j V = – jV 270°
4 Fig. 29
j4 = e −1 j =+1
...360° CCW rotation from X-axis
It should also be noted that,
1 j j
= 2 = = − j.
j j −1
Example 14. Write the equivalent potential and polar forms of vector 6 + j8. Also illustrate
the vector by means of diagram.
Solution. Refer to Fig. 30. A

10∠53.1°
8
62 + 82 = 10, tan θ =
j53.1°
Magnitude of the vector = = 10 e
6
∴ θ = tan
−1 FG 8 IJ = 53.1° j8
H 6K
∴ Exponential form = 10 e j 53.1°. (Ans.)
The angle may also be expressed in radians. O 6
Polar form = 10 ∠ 53.1°. (Ans.) Fig. 30
The vector is illustrated by means of diagram in Fig. 30.
Example 15. A vector is represented by 30e–j2π/3. Write down the various equivalent forms of
the vector and illustrate by means of a vector diagram, the magnitude and position of the above
vector.
Solution. Refer to Fig. 31. Draw the vector in a
2π 2 × 180
direction making an angle of = = 120° in the
3 3
clockwise direction (since the angle is negative).
(i) Rectangular form :
a = 30 cos (– 120°) = – 15
b = 30 sin (– 120°) = – 25.98
∴ Expression is = (– 15 – j 25.98). (Ans.)
(ii) Polar form = 30 ∠ – 120°. (Ans.)
Addition and subtraction of vector quantities : Fig. 31
For addition and subtraction of vector quantities
rectangular form is best suited. Consider two voltage phasors
represented as :
V1 = a1 + jb1 and V2 = a2 + jb2
Addition. V = V1 + V2 = (a1 + jb1) + (a2 + jb2) = (a1 + a2) + j (b1 + b2)
The magnitude of the resultant vector V = (a1 + a2 )2 + (b1 + b2 )2
The position of V with respect to X-axis is θ = tan–1

Fb +b I
1 2
GH a + a JK
1 2
Subtraction. V = V1 − V2 = (a1 + jb1) – (a2 + jb2) = (a1 – a2) + j(b1 – b2)
The magnitude of the resultant vector V = (a1 − a2 )2 + (b1 − b2 )2
The position of V with respect to X-axis is θ = tan–1

Fb −b I
1 2
GH a − a JK
1 2
Multiplication and division of vector quantities :

It the vectors are represented in the polar exponential form, their multiplication and division
becomes very easy and simple.
Consider two voltage phasors represented as
V1 = a1 + jb1 = V1∠θ1, where θ1 = tan–1

Fb I
1
GH a JK
1
V2 = a2 + jb2 = V2∠θ2, where θ2 = tan–1

Fb I
2
GH a JK
2
Multiplication. When the phasor quantities are represented in polar form, while multiply-
ing their magnitudes are multiplied and their angles added algebraically,
i.e, V1 × V2 = V1∠θ1 × V2 ∠θ2 = V1V2 ∠(θ1 + θ2)
Division. In this case, the magnitudes of phasor quantities (expressed in polar from) are
divided and their angles subtracted algebraically
V1 V1∠θ1 V
i.e. = = 1 ∠(θ1 – θ2).
V2 V2∠θ2 V2
Example 16. Perform the following operation and express the final result in polar form :
10 ∠30° + 16 ∠– 30°.
Solution. 10 ∠30° = 10 (cos 30° + j sin 30°) = 8.66 + j5
16∠–30° = 16 [cos (– 30°) + j sin (– 30°)] = 13.86 – j8
∴ 10∠30° + 16∠– 30° = (8.66 + j5) + (13.86 – j8) = 22.52 – j3
= ( 22.522 + 32 )tan–1 (– 3/22.52)
= 22.72 tan–1 (– 3/22.52) = 22.72 ∠–7.6°. (Ans.)
Example 17. Subtract the following given vectors from one another.
A = 15 + j26 and B = – 19.75 – j7.18.
Solution. A − B = C = (15 + j26) – (– 19.75 – j7.18) = 34.75 + j33.18
∴ Magnitude of C = 34.752 + 33.182 = 48
Slope of C = tan–1 (33.18/34.75) = 43.68°

∴ C = 48 ∠43.68°. (Ans.)
AB
Example 18. Perform the operation and express the final result in polar form for the
C
vectors given below :
A = 10 + j10 ; B = 15∠– 120° ; C = 5 + j0°.
Solution. Rearranging vectors A and in polar form, we have
A = 10 + j10 = 102 + 102 tan–1 (10/10) = 14.14 ∠45°
C = 5 + j0 = 52 + 02 tan–1 (0/5) = 5∠0°
AB 14.14 ∠ 45° × 15 ∠ − 120° 14.14 × 15
∴ = = ∠(45° – 120° – 0°)
C 5∠0° 5
= 42.42∠ – 75°. (Ans.)
Example 19. The instantaneous values of two currents i1 and i2 are given as :
FG π IJ FG π IJ
i1 = 5 sin ωt + and i2 = 2.5 cos ωt −
H 4 K H 2 K
Find the r.m.s. value of i1 + i2 using complex number representation.
Solution. Given : i1 =
FG π IJ ,
5 sin ωt +
H 4K
i2
F πI L F πIO
= 2.5 cos G ωt − J = 2.5 sin M90° + G ωt − J P = 2.5 sin ωt
H 2K N H 2K Q
∴ I1(max) = 5 (cos 45° + j sin 45°) = (3.53 + j3.53)
I2(max) = 2.5 (cos 0° + j sin 0°) = (2.5 + j0)
The maximum value of resultant current is
Imax = (3.53 + j3.53) + (2.5 + j0) = 6.03 + j3.53 = 6.987 ∠30.34°
6.987
∴ R.M.S. value = = 4.94 A. (Ans.)
2
Conjugate complex numbers
Two numbers are said to be conjugate if they differ only in the algebraic sign of their quadrature
components. Accordingly, the numbers (a + jb) and (a – jb) are conjugate.
O The sum of two conjugate numbers gives in-phase or active component and their difference
gives quadrature or reactive component.
i.e. (a + jb) + (a – jb) = 2a (i.e., active component), and
(a + jb) – (a – jb) = j2b (i.e., reactive component).
The resultant is the sum of two vertical components only.
O The resultant arising out of the multiplication of two conjugate numbers contains no
quadrature component.
i.e., (a + jb) × (a – jb) = a2 – j2b2 = a2 + b2
The conjugate of a complex number is used to determine the apparent power of an A.C. circuit
in complex form.
Power and roots of vectors/phasors
The powers and roots of vectors can be found conveniently in polar form. If the vector are not,
in polar form, these should be converted into polar form before carrying out the algebraic operations,
as mentioned below.
Powers. Consider a vector phasor quantity represented in polar form as A = A∠θ,
Then ( A )n = An∠(n × θ)
Example. Suppose it is required to find cube of the vector 4∠12°
Then, (4∠12°)3 = (4)3 ∠ (3 × 12°) = 64 ∠36°
Roots. Consider a vector (phasor) quantity represented in polar form as ( A )1/n = (A)1/n ∠θ/n.
Example. Suppose it is required to find cube root of 125 ∠60°
Then, (125 ∠60°)1/3 = (125)1/3 ∠60°/3 = 5∠20°.
The 120° operator
In case of 3-phase work, where voltage vectors are displaced by
120° from one another (Fig. 32) it is convenient to use an operator,
which rotates a vector/phasor through 120° toward or backwards with-
out altering its length. This operator is ‘a’ and any operator which is
multiplied by ‘a’ remains unaltered in magnitude but is rotated in CCW
(counter-clockwise) direction by 120°.
∴ a = 1 ∠120°
In cartesian form, a = cos 120° + j sin 120°
Fig. 32
= – 0.5 + j 0.866
Similarly, a2 = 1 ∠120° × 1 ∠120° = 1 ∠240° = cos 240° + j sin 240° = – 0.5 – j 0.866
Hence the operator ‘a’ will rotate the in CCW by 240° which is the same as rotating the vector
in CW(clock-wise) direction by 120°.
∴ a2 = 1 ∠– 120°
Similarly a3 = 1 ∠360° = 1 (Numerically, a is equivalent to
the cube root of unity.)
4.5. A.C. Series Circuits
Under this heading we shall discuss R-L, R-C and R-L-C series circuits.
4.5.1. R-L circuit (Resistance and inductance in series)
Fig. 33 (a) shows a pure resistance R and a pure inductive coil of inductance L connected in
series. Such a circuit is known as R-L circuit (usually met a cross in practice).
VL
VR 90°
I I
R L
VR = IR VL = IXL
I
V
v = Vmax sin ωt
(a) Circuit diagram
Z
XL = ωL
φ
A
R B
(c) Impedance triangle
sφ
φ I co
I
Is
in
φ
(e) Resolution of I
Fig. 33. R-L circuit (Resistance and inductance in series).

Let V = R.M.S. value of the applied voltage,

I = R.M.S. value of the resultant current,
VR = IR = Voltage drop across R(in phase with I), and
VL = IXL = Voltage drop across L (coil), ahead of I by 90°.
The voltage drop VR and VL and shown in voltage triangle OAB in Fig. 33 (b), I being taken as
the reference vector in the phasor diagram. Vector OA represents ohmic drop VR and AB represents
inductive drop VL. Vector OB represents the applied voltage V which is the vector sum of the two
(i.e., VR and VL).
∴ V= VR 2 + VL2 = ( IR)2 + ( IX L )2 = I ( R2 + X L 2 )
V V
or I= =
R + (XL)
2 2 Z
where Z = R2 + X L2 (total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by R-L series cir-
cuit) is known as impedance of the circuit.
As seen from the “impedance triangle” ABC [Fig. 33 (c)],
Z2 = R2 + XL2
i.e., (Impedance) = (Resistance)2 + (Inductive reactance)2
2
From Fig. 33 (b) it is evident that voltage V leads the current by an angle φ such that,
VL IX L X L ωL Inductive reactance
tan φ = = = = =
VR IR R R Resistance
∴ φ = tan–1
FG IJ
X L
RH K
The same is illustrated graphically in Fig. 33 (d).
In other words I lags V by an angle φ.
R
Power factor, cos φ = [From Fig. 33 (c)]
Z
Thus, if the applied voltage is given by v = Vmax sin ωt, then current equation is given as,
i = Imax sin (ωt – φ),
Vmax
where Imax =
Z
In the Fig. 33 (e), I has been shown resolved into two components, I cos φ along V and I sin φ
in quadrature (i.e., perpendicular) with V.
Mean power consumed by the circuit
= V × I cos φ (i.e., component of I which is in phase with V
i.e., P = V I cos φ (= r.m.s. voltage × r.m.s. current × cos φ)
The term ‘cos φ’ is called the power factor =

FG R IJ of the circuit
H ZK
It may noted that :
— In A.C. circuit the product of r.m.s. volts and r.m.s. amperes gives volt-amperes (i.e., VA)
and not true power in watts. True power (W) = volt-amperes (VA) × power factor
or Watts = VA (Apparent power) × cos φ
— The power consumed is due to ohmic resistance only since pure inductance consumes no
power.
R V
i.e. P = V I cos φ = V I × = IR = I × IR = I2R, watts
Z Z
V
(∵ cos φ = R/Z and
= I)
Z
This shows that power is actually consumed in resistance only ; the inductor does not con-
sume any power.
The power consumed in R-L circuit is shown graphically in Fig. 33 (f).
Thus in R-L circuit we have :
1. Impedance, Z = R2 + X L2 (where XL = ωL = 2π × f L)
V
2. Current, I =
Z
3. Power factor, cos φ =

R FG = True power = W IJ
Z H Apparent power VA K
[or angle of lag, φ = cos–1 (R/Z)]
FG
4. Power consumed, P = V I cos φ = IZ × I ×
R
= I2 R
IJ
H Z K
Symbolic Notation :
Z = R + j XL
The numerical value of impedance vector = R2 + X L2

The phase angle with the reference axis, φ = tan–1 (XL/R).
In polar form : Z = Z∠φ° .
Apparent, Active (True or real) and Reactive Power :

Every circuit current has two components : (i) Active component and (ii) Reactive component.
“Active component” consumes power in the circuit while “reactive component” is responsible
for the field which lags or leads the main current from the voltage.
In Fig. 34. active component is Iactive = I cos φ, and reactive component is Ireactive = I sin φ
Fig. 34. Active and reactive components Fig. 35. Apparent, true and reactive power.
of circuit current I.
So, I= ( Iactive )2 + ( Ireactive )2

Refer to Fig. 35.

(i) Apparent power (S). It is given by the product of r.m.s. values of applied voltage and
circuit current.
∴ S = V I = (I × Z) . I = I2Z volt-amperes (VA)
(ii) Active or true or real power (P or W). It is the power which is actually dissipated in
the circuit resistance.
P = I2R = V I cos φ watts
(iii) Reactive power (Q). A pure inductor and a pure capacitor do not consume any power,
since in a half cycle what so ever power is received from the source by these components the same is
returned to the source. This power which flows back and forth (i.e., in both directions in the circuit)
or reacts upon itself is called “reactive power.”
It may be noted that the current in phase with the voltage produces active or true or real power
while the current 90° out of phase with the voltage contributes to reactive power.
In a R-L circuit , reactive power which is the power developed in the inductive reactance of
the circuit, is given as :
Q = I2 XL = I2Z sin φ = I . (IZ) sin φ
= VI sin φ volt-amperes-reactive (VAR)
These three powers are shown in Fig. 35
Relation between VA, W and VR
W = VA cos φ ...(i)
VAR = VA sin φ ...(ii)
W
∴ VA = ...[From (i)]
cos φ
VAR
and, VA = ...[From (ii)]
sin φ
W True power
Power factor (p.f.) = =
VA Apparent power
The larger bigger units of apparent, true and reactive power are kVA (or MVA), kW(or MW)
and kVAR (or MVAR) respectively.
The power factor depends on the reactive power component. If it is made equal to the active
power component, the power factor becomes unity.
Example 20. A coil takes 2.5 amps. when connected across 200 volt 50 Hz mains. The power
consumed by the coil is found to be 400 watts. Find the inductance and the power factor of the coil.
Solution. Current taken by the coil, I = 2.5 A
Applied voltage, V = 200 volts
Power consumed, P = 400 W
We know that P = VI cos φ
400
or 400 = 200 × 2.5 × cos φ or cos φ = = 0.8
200 × 2.5
Hence power factor of coil is 0.8. (Ans.)
V 200
Impedance of the coil, Z= = = 80 Ω
I 2.5
XL
Also = sin φ
Z
∴ XL = Z sin φ
= 80 sin φ = 80 1 − cos2 φ
= 80 1 − 0.82 = 80 × 0.6 = 48 Ω
But XL = 2πfL
XL 48
∴ L= = = 0.1529 H (henry). (Ans.)
2πf 2π × 50
Example 21. A 100 V, 80 W lamp is to be operated on 230 volts, 50 Hz A.C. supply. Calculate
the inductance of the choke required to be connected in series with lamp for its operation. The lamp
can be taken as equivalent to a non inductive resistance.
Solution. Current through the lamp when connected across 100 V supply,
W 80
I== = 0.8 A
V 100
V 100
Resistance of the lamp, R= = = 125 Ω
I 0.8
If a choke of inductance L henry is connected in series with the lamp to operate it on 230 V,
the current through the choke will also be 0.8 A.
The impedance of the circuit when choke is connected in series with the lamp,
V 230
Z= = = 287.5 Ω
I 0.8
Reactance of choke coil, XL = Z 2 − R2 = 287.52 − 1252 = 258.5 Ω
But XL = 2πfL
XL 258.5
or L= = = 0.825 H
2πf 2π × 50
Hence inductance of choke coil, L = 0.825 H. (Ans.)
Example 22. A coil has a resistance of 5 Ω and an inductance of 31.8 mH. Calculate the
current taken by the coil and power factor when connected to 200 V, 50 Hz supply.
Draw the vector diagram.
If a non-inductive resistance of 10 Ω is then connected in series with coil, calculate the new
value of current and its power factor.
Solution. R=5Ω
L = 31.8 mH or 0.0318 H
∴ XL = 2πfL
= 2π × 50 × 0.0318 = 10 Ω
R (= 5Ω) L (=31.8 mH)
1Z
V= VL = IXL
φ
VR = IR I
200V, 50 Hz
(a) R-L circuit (b) Vector/phasor diagram
Fig. 36
Impedance of the coil, Z= R2 + X L 2
= 52 + 102 = 11.18 Ω
V 200
∴ Current taken by the coil, =I= = 17.9 A. (Ans.)
Z 11.18
R 5
Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.4475. (Ans.)
Z 11.18
Fig. 36 (b) shows the vector diagram.
When non-inductive resistance of 10 Ω is connected in series with the coil :
Total resistance in the circuit, R′ = 5 + 10 = 15 Ω
Reactance in the circuit, XL′ = XL = 10 Ω
Impedance of the circuit, Z′ = R′ 2 + X ′ L 2 = 152 + 102 = 18 Ω

V 200
Current through the circuit, =
I′ = = 11.11 A. (Ans.)
Z′ 18
R′ 15
Power factor of the circuit, cos φ = = = 0.833. (Ans.)
Z ′ 18
Example 23. A current of 5A flows through a non-inductive resistance in series with a chok-
ing coil when supplied at 250 V, 50 Hz. If the voltage across the resistance is 125 V and across the coil
200 V, calculate :
(i) Impedance, reactance and resistance of the coil,
(ii) The power absorbed by the coil,
(iii) The total power.
125
Solution. Non-inductive resistance connected in series with coil = = 25 Ω
5
Refer to Fig. 37 (b).
Fig. 37
BC2 + CD2 = (200)2 = 40000 ...(i)

(125 + BC)2 + CD2 = (250)2 = 62500 ...(ii)
Subtracting eqn. (i) from eqn. (ii), we get
(125 + BC)2 – BC2 = 62500 – 40000 = 22500
15625 + BC2 + 250BC – BC2 = 22500
∴ BC = 27.5 V ; CD = (200)2 − (27.5)2 = 198.1 V
200
(i) Coil impedance, Z= = 40 Ω. (Ans.)
5
VR = IR = BC = 27.5 or 5R = 27.5
27.5
R= = 5.5 Ω (Ans.)
5
Also, VL = IXL = CD = 198.1
198.1
∴ XL = = 39.62 Ω. (Ans.)
5
(ii) Power absorbed by the coil,
P = I2R = 52 × 5.5 = 137.5 W. (Ans.)
AC
(iii) The total power = VI cos φ = 250 × 5 ×
AD
(125 + 27.5)
= 250 × 5 × = 762.5 W. (Ans.)
250
The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 37 (b). (Ans.)
Example 24. An iron-cored coil has a D.C. resistance of 6 ohms. When it is connected
to 230 V, 50 Hz mains, the current taken is 3.5 A at a power factor of 0.5. Determine :
(i) Effective resistance of the coil.
(ii) Inductance of the coil.
(iii) Resistance which represents the effect of the iron loss.
Solution. Given : D.C. resistance (True resistance), R = 6 Ω ; supply voltage = 230 V,
f = 50 Hz, I = 3.5 A ; p.f. = 0.5.
(i) Effective resistance of the coil, Re :
Total power consumed by the iron-cored choke coil,
P = Power loss in ohmic resistance + Iron loss in core = I2R + Pi
P Pi P
or =R+ , where is known as effective resistance of the coil.
I2 I2 I2
P VI cos φ 230 × 3.5 × 0.5
∴ Effective resistance, Re = = = = 32.86 Ω. (Ans.)
I2 I2 (3.5)2
(ii) Inductance of the coil, L :
V 230
Impedance of the coil, Z= = = 65.7 Ω
I 3.5
Inductive reactance of the coil,
XL = Z 2 − Re2 = (65.7)2 − (32.86)2 = 56.9 Ω
XL 56.9
∴ L= = = 0.1811 H. (Ans.)
2πf 2π × 50
(iii) Resistance representing iron loss :
P Pi
Since 2
=R+
I I2
Effective resistance, Re = True resistance + Resistance representing iron loss
32.86 = 6 + Resistance representing iron loss
∴ Resistance representing iron loss = 32.86 – 6 = 26.86 Ω. (Ans.)
Example 25. Three coils connected in series across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply have the following
parameters :
R1 = 18 Ω, L1 = 0.012 H ; R2 = 12 Ω, L2 = 0.036 H ; R3 = 3.6 Ω, L3 = 0.072 H
Determine the potential drop and phase angle for each coil.
Solution. Fig. 38. shows the circuit diagram.
Total resistance in the circuit, R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 18 + 12 + 3.6 = 33.6 Ω
Total inductance in the circuit, L = L1 + L2 + L3 = 0.012 + 0.036 + 0.072 = 0.12 H
Impedance of coil-1, Z1 = R12 + (2πf L1)2 = (18)2 + (2π × 50 × 0.012)2 = 18.39 Ω
Impedance of coil-2, Z2 = R22 + (2π f2 L2 )2 = (12)2 + (2π × 50 × 0.036)2 = 16.49 Ω
Fig. 38. Circuit diagram.
Impedance of coil–3, Z3 = R32 + (2π f L3 )2 = (3.6)2 + (2π × 50 × 0.072)2 = 22.90 Ω
Impedance of the whole circuit, Z = R2 + (2π f L)2 = (33.6)2 + (2π × 50 × 0.12)2 = 50.5 Ω
V 100
Current through the circuit, I = = = 1.98 A
Z 50.5
Potential drop across coil–1, V1 = IZ1 = 1.98 × 18.39 = 36.41 V (Ans.)
Phase angle of coil–1, φ1, cos–1 (R1/Z1) = cos–1 (18/18.39) = 11.82°. (Ans.)
Phase angle of coil–2, φ2 = cos–1 (R2/Z2) = cos–1(12/16.49) = 43.3°. (Ans.)
Phase angle of coil–3, φ3 = cos–1 (R3/Z3) = cos–1(3.6/22.90) = 80.96°. (Ans.)
Example 26. An alternating voltage of (176 + j132) is applied to a circuit and the current in
the circuit is given by (6.6 + j 8.8) A. Determine :
(i) Values of elements of the circuit.
(ii) Power factor of the circuit.
(iii) Power consumed.
Solution. Given : Supply voltage, V = 176 + j132 = 220 ∠36.87°
Circuit current, I = 6.6 + j 8.8 = 11 ∠53.13°
(i) Values of elements of the circuit, R, C :

V 220 ∠36.87°
Circuit impedance, Z = = = 20 ∠–16.26°
I 11 ∠53.13°
= 20 [cos (– 16.26°) + sin (– 16.26°)]
= 20 (0.96 – j 0.28) = (19.2 – j5.6) Ω
∴ R = 19.2 Ω (Ans.)
1 1
XC = 5.6 Ω or C = = F = 568.4 µF. (Ans.)
2πf XC 2π × 50 × 5.6
(ii) Power factor of the circuit ; cos φ :
R 19.2
=
cos φ = = 0.96 (leading). (Ans.)
Z 20
(iii) Power (true) consumed, P :
Apparent power, S =V ×I
= 220 ∠36.87° × 11 ∠–53.13° = 2420 ∠– 16.26°
= 2323.2 – j 677.6
∴ True power, P = 2323.2 W. (Ans.)
(Alternatively : P = VI cos φ = 220 × 11 × 0.96 = 2323.2 W).
Example 27. In a circuit, the equations for instantaneous voltage and current are given by,
FG 2π IJ
v = 141.4 sin ωt − , volt and
H 3 K
π FG IJ
i = 7.07 sin ωt − , amp, where ω = 314 rad/sec.
2 H K
(i) Sketch a neat phasor diagram for the circuit
(ii) Use polar notation to calculate impedance with phase angle.
(iii) Calculate average power.
(iv) Calculate the instantaneous power at the instant t = 0
FG 2π IJ πFG IJ
Solution. Given : v = 141.4 sin ωt − , and i = 7.07 sin ωt − , where ω = 314 rad/s.
H 3 K 2 H K
(i) Phasor diagram :
From the voltage equation, it is seen that the voltage lags behind the reference quantity by
2π 180 π
rad or 2 × = 120°. Similarly, current lags behind the reference quantity by rad or
3 3 2
180
= 90°. Between themselves, voltage lags behind the current by (120° – 90°) = 30° as shown
2
in Fig. 39 (b).
(ii) Impedance with phase angle (polar notation)
Vmax 141.4
V= = = 100 V ;
2 2
I 7.07
I = max = = 5A.
2 2
∴ V = 100 ∠– 120° and I = 5 ∠– 90°
V 100 ∠ − 120°
∴ Z= = = 20 ∠– 30° Ω (Ans.)
I 5 ∠ − 90°
Fig. 39
(iii) Average power :

Average power = VI cos φ
= 100 × 5 × cos 30° = 433 W. (Ans.)
(iv) Instantaneous power at t = 0 :
At t = 0 ; v = 141.4 sin (0 – 120°) = – 122.45 V
i = 7.07 sin (0 – 90°) = – 7.07 A
∴ Instantaneous power at t = 0,
p = vi = (– 122.45) × (– 7.07) = 865.7 W. (Ans.)
Example 28. A voltage e(t) = 100 sin 314 t is applied to a series circuit consisting of 10 ohms
resistance, 0.0318 henry inductance and a capacitor of 63.6 µF. Determine :
(i) Expression for i(t).
(ii) Phase angle between voltage and current.
(iii) Power factor.
(iv) Active power consumed.
(v) Peak value of pulsating energy.
Soution. Given : e(t) = 100 sin 314 t, R = 10 Ω, L = 0.0318 H, C = 63.6 µF = 63.6 × 10–6 F.
p
cos φ
+ +
VmaxImax
VmaxImax
2
2
v i p
VmaxImax
0 π
π 2π
2 – –
Fig. 40
1 1
Here ω = 314 rad/s ; XL = ωL = 314 × 0.0318 = 10 Ω ; XC = = = 50 Ω ;
ωC 314 × 63.6 × 10− 6
X = XL – XC = 10 – 50 = – 40 Ω (capacitive)
V (100/ 2 ) ∠0°
Z = 10 – j40 = 41.2 ∠–76° ; I = = = 1.716 ∠76°
Z 41.2 ∠ − 76°
Imax = I × 2 = 1.716 × 2 = 2.43 A
(i) Expression for i(t) :
i(t) = 2.43 sin (314 t + 76°). (Ans.)
(ii) Phase angle between voltage and current, φ :
φ = 76° with current leading.
(iii) Power factor, cos φ :
cos φ = cos 76° = 0.24 (lead). (Ans.)
(iv) Active power consumed, P :
P = VI cos φ = (100/ 2 ) (2.43/ 2 ) × 0.24 = 29.16 W. (Ans.)
(v) Peak value of pulsating energy :
Refer to Fig. 40. The peak value of pulsating energy
Vmax Imax Vmax Imax
= + cos φ
2 2
Vmax Imax 100 × 2.43
= (1 + cos φ) = (1 + 0.24) = 150.66 W. (Ans.)
2 2
4.5.2. R-C circuit (Resistance and capacitance in series)
Fig. 41 (a) shows a pure resistance R (ohms) and a pure capacitor of capacitance C (farads)
connected in series. Such a circuit is known as R-C circuit.
Let, V = R.M.S. value of the applied voltage,
I = R.M.S. value of the resultant current,
VR = IR = Voltage drop across R (in phase with I), and
VC = IXC = Voltage drop across C, lagging I by 90°.
I
VR
I VC VR A
O I
R C f
VR = IR VC = IXC
I I V VC = IXC
=I
Z
V
v = Vmax sin wt B
(a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram
(I leads V by angle f)
p Power curve
v
R B i
A v i p
φ
0 2π
π
Z XC θ
φ
C
(c) Impedance triangle (d) Power curve
Fig. 41. R-C circuit (Resistance and capacitance in series).

Voltage drops VR and VL are shown in voltage triangle OAB in Fig. 41 (b) I being taken as the
reference vector in the phasor diagram. Vector OA represents ohmic drop VR and AB represents the
capacitive drop VC. Vector OB represents the applied voltage V, which is the vector sum of the VR
and VC)
∴ V= VR2 + VC 2 = ( IR)2 + ( IXC )2 = I R2 + XC 2
V V
or I= =
R2 + XC 2 Z
where Z = R2 + XC 2 (total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by R-C series
circuit) is known as the impedance of the circuit.
As seen from the ‘‘impedance triangle” ABC [Fig. 41 (c)],
Z2 = R2 + XC2
i.e., (Impedance)2 = (Resistance)2 + (Capacitive reactance)2
From Fig. 41 (b) it is evident that I leads the voltage V by an angle φ such that,
V IXC X (1/ωC) Capacitive reactance
tan φ = C = = C = =
VR IR R R Resistance
∴ φ = tan–1
FG X IJ
C
H RK
The same is illustrated graphically in Fig. 41 (d).
In other words I leads VR by an angle φ.
R
Power factor, cos φ = [From Fig. 41 (c)]
Z
Power. Refer to Fig. 41 (d),
Instantaneous power, p = vi = Vmax sin ωt × Imax sin (ωt + φ)
V I
= max max × 2 sin (ωt + φ) sin ωt
2
Vmax Imax
= × [cos φ – cos (2 ωt + φ)]
2 2
Average power consumed in the circuit over a complete cycle,
Vmax Imax Vmax Imax
P = Average of . cos φ – Average of . cos (2ωt + φ)
2 2 2 2
Vmax Imax
or P= . cos φ – zero,
2 2
or P = Vr.m.s. × Ir.m.s. cos φ = VI cos φ
where cos φ is the power factor of the circuit :
R
Alternatively, P = VI cos φ = IZ × I ×
= I2R
Z
This shows that power is actually consumed in resistance only ; the capacitor does not con-
sume any power.
Thus in R-C circuit, we have :
1. Impedance, Z = R2 + XC 2
FG where X C =
1
=
1 IJ
H ωC 2πf , C being in farad K
V
2. Current, I =
Z

R FG
=
True power
=
W IJ
Z H Apparent power VA K
[or angle of lead, φ = cos–1 (R/Z)]
4. Power consumed, P = VI cos φ (= I2R).
Example 29. A capacitance of 20 µF and a resistance of 100 ohms are connected in series
across 120 V, 60 Hz mains. Determine the average power expended in the circuit.
Also draw the vector diagram.
Solution. R = 100 Ω
C = 20 µF = 20 × 10–6 F (farad)
Fig. 42
1 1
Capacitive reactance, XC = = = 159 Ω
2πfC 2π × 50 × 20 × 10−6
Impedance of the circuit, Z= R2 + XC 2 = 1002 + 1502 = 188 Ω
V 120
Current through the circuit I== = 0.638 A
Z 188
R 100
Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.532
Z 188
Average power expended in the circuit,
Pav = VI cos φ
= 120 × 0.638 × 0.532 = 40.75 W. (Ans.)
Fig. 42 (b) shows the vector/phasor diagram.
Example 30. A voltage v = 100 sin 314t – 50 cos 314t, is applied to a circuit having R = 20 Ω
in series with C = 100 µF. Obtain expression for instantaneous current, r.m.s. value of current and the
power in the circuit.
Solution. Given : v = 100 sin 314t – 50 cos 314t ; R = 20 Ω ; C = 100 µF.
The R-C circuit and the phasor diagram for the given instantaneous voltage are shown in
Figs. 43 and 44 respectively.
Fig. 43 Fig. 44
Resultant voltage, Vmax(R) = (100)2 + (50)2 = 111.8 V
Phase angle with the horizontal, θ = tan–1 −

50FG IJ
= – 26.56°
100H K
∴ v = 111.8 sin (314t – 26.56°)
Now, ωt = 314 t or ω = 314
1 1
∴ Capacitive reactance, XC = = = 31.85 Ω
ωC 314 × 100 × 10 −6
Circuit impedance, Z= R2 + XC 2 = (20)2 + (31. 85)2 = 37.6 Ω
Vmax 111. 8
Maximum value of current, Imax = = = 2.97 A
Z 37 . 6
Phase difference between voltage and current,
φ = cos–1
FG R IJ = cos FG 20 IJ = 57.86° (leading)
–1
H ZK H 37 . 6 K
∴ Instantaneous value of current
i = 2.97 sin (314t – 26.56° + 57.86°) = 2.97 sin (314t + 31.3°)
i = 2.97 [sin 314t . cos 31.3° + cos 314t . sin 31.3°]
or i = 2.54 sin 314t + 1.54 cos 314t. (Ans.)
I 2 . 97
RMS value of the current, I = max = = 2.1 A. (Ans.)
2 2
Power in the circuit, P = VI cos φ
Vmax( R) 111. 8
= × I cos φ = × 2.1 × cos (57.86°) = 88.32 W (Ans.)
2 2
Example 31. A two element series circuit is connected across an A.C. source e = 200 2
sin (ωt + 20°) V. The current in the circuit then is found to be i = 10 2 cos (314 t – 25°) A. Determine
parameters of the circuit.
Solution. Given : e = 200 2 sin (ωt + 20°)
i = 10 2 cos (314 t – 25°)
Parameters of the circuit, cos φ, R, XC and C :

The current i can be written as,
i = 10 2 sin (314 t – 25° + 90°) = 10 2 sin (314 t + 65°)
It is seen that applied voltage leads by 20° and current leads by 65° with regards to the
reference quantity, their mutual difference is 65° – 20° = 45°.
Hence, p.f. cos φ = cos 45° = 0.707 (lead). (Ans.)
Now, Vmax = 200 2 and Imax = 10 2
Vmax 200 2
∴ Z= = = 20 Ω
Imax 10 2
∴ R = Z cos φ = 20 × 0.707 = 14.14 Ω. (Ans.)
XC = Z sin φ = 20 × 0.707 = 14.14 Ω . (Ans.)
1 1
Also, XC = = = 14.14
ωC 2π f C
314
where f= = 50 Hz
2π
1
∴ XC = 14.14 =
2π × 50 × C
1
or C= F = 225.1 µF. (Ans.)
14 . 14 × 2π × 50
Hence the given circuit is an R-C circuit.
4.5.3. R-L-C circuit (Resistance, inductance and capacitance in series)
Fig. 45 shows a R-L-C circuit.
VL
I
VR
I I VC
R L C VL
VR VL VC
= IR =IXL =IXC Z Z
I I V=I (VL – VC) (XL – XC)
φ
I
V VR = IR R
VC
(a) R-L-C Circuit Phasor diagram Impedance triangle
(b) XL > XC
VL
VR = IR R
φ I φ
(VC – VL)
V=I (XC – XL)
Z Z
VC
Phasor diagram Impedance triangle
(c) XC > XL
Fig. 45. Resistance, inductance and capacitance in series.

Important formulae :
1. Impedance, Z= R2 + ( X L − X C )2
LMwhere X L = 2πfL, L in henry and XC =
1
, C in farad
OP
N 2πfC Q
V
2. Current, I=
Z
R
Z
LMangle of lag (when X L > XC ) or lead (when XC > X L ), φ = cos−1
R OP
N Z Q
4. Power consumed = VI cos φ (= I2R)
Resonance in R-L-C circuits
Refer to Fig. 45 (a).
Fig. 46. Reactance (X) v/s frequency (f). Fig. 47. Current in R-L-C circuit v/s frequency.
The frequency of the voltage which gives the maximum value of the current in the circuit is
called resonant frequency, and the circuit is said to be resonant.
At resonance, XL = XC (i.e., Z = R)
1
i.e., 2 πfr L =
2π fr C
1
fr = ...(5)
2π LC
where fr = Resonance frequency in Hz ; L = Inductance in henry ; and C = Capacitance in farad.
Fig. 46 shows variation of XL, XC and X (total reactance = XL – XC) with variation of
frequency f.
Fig. 47 shows the variation of current (I) with frequency (f).
At series resonance, it is seen that :
1. Net reactance of the circuit is zero i.e., XL – XC = 0 or X = 0.
2. The impedance of the circuit is minimum and equal to the resistance (R) of the circuit
FG i. e., I = V IJ . Consequently circuit admittance is maximum.
H RK
3. The current drawn is maximum (i.e., Ir = Imax).
4. The phase angle between the current and voltage is zero ; the power factor is unity.
1
5. The resonant frequency is given by fr = ; if the frequency is below the resonant
2π LC
frequency the net reactance in the circuit is capacitive and if the frequency is above the resonant
frequency, the net reactance in the circuit is inductive.
6. Although VL = VC, yet Vcoil is greater than VC because of its resistance.
Half power frequencies, Bandwidth and Selectivity
Half power (cut-off) frequencies :
The half power frequencies are those frequen-
cies at which the power dissipation in the circuit is
half of the power dissipation at resonant frequency fr.
They are the corresponding frequencies f1 and f2 at
the value of current I = Ir / 2 ; where Ir is the current
at resonance in R-L-C series circuit (Refer to Fig. 48).
Hence power, Pr drawn by the circuit at the
resonance is
Pr = Ir2R ...(6)
2
Power in the circuit at f1 =
FG I IJ r
R=
1 2
Ir R
Fig. 48
H 2K 2
(= half the power at resonance)
2
Power in the circuit at f2 =G
F I IJ r
R=
1 2
Ir R (= half the power at resonance)
H 2K 2
R
Also, f1 = fr –
4πL
R
f2 = fr +
4πL
R
f2 – f1 =
2πL
Bandwidth and Selectivity :
The difference (f2 – f1) is called the bandwidth (Bhp) of the resonant network.
The ratio of the bandwidth to the resonance frequency is defined as the selectivity of the
circuit.
When frequency is varied in R-L-C circuit, the selectivity becomes
*( f2 − f1) 1
= ...(7)
fr Q
where Qr is the quality factor of the resonant circuit.
*Relation between bandwidth and quality factor in series resonant conditions :
A series R-L-C circuit is considered. The resonant frequency and angular frequency are ex-
pressed by fr and ωr respectively. In the above circuit, the current (I) can be described as follows :
V
I=
2
1
R2 + ωL −
FG IJ
ωC H K
where V, R, L and C are the source voltage, resistance, inductance and capacitance of the circuit
respectively.
The current, at a power, half of the maximum power developed at resonant frequency, is
1 V
Ir , where I is the series resonant current i.e. .
2 r R
According to the definition of bandwidth,
1 V V
=
2 R FG 1 IJ 2
R2 + ωL −
H ωC K
2 2
or FG
R2 + ωL −
1 IJ = 2R or
FG
R2 = ωL −
1 IJ
H ωC K H ωC K
1
or ωL − = ± R.
ωC
According to Fig. 48
1 1
ω2 L − =R ...(i) ω 1L − =−R ...(ii)
ω 2C ω 1C
Adding equations (i) and (ii), we get
(ω 1 + ω 2 ) L −
F 1 1
+
1 I =0
GH C ω1 ω2
JK
1 Fω + ω I =0
or (ω 1 + ω )L − G
2
1 2
JK
CH ωω 1 2
1
Since ω 1 + ω 2 ≠ 0 , ω 1ω 2 = .
LC
1
Again ω r =
2
, [ωr is the angular frequency at resonant condition.]
LC
Subtracting equations (i) and (ii), we have
1 ω2 − ω1
F I
L(ω 2 − ω 1) + GH = 2R JK
C ω 2ω 1
1 (ω 2 − ω 1) 2 R
or (ω 2 − ω 1) + =
LC ω 2ω 1 L
or (ω 2 − ω 1) + ω 1ω 2 .
(ω 2 − ω 1) 2 R
= ∵ ω 1ω 2 =
1 LM OP
ω 1ω 2 L LC N Q
R
or ω2 − ω1 =
b g
L
ω2 − ω1 R
or =
ω0 ω0 L
[ω0 is the angular frequency at resonant condition]
1
or ω2 − ω1 = ω0 ×
ω0 L
R
ω0 ω L LM OP
or ω2 − ω 1 = ∵ Q= 1
Q R N Q
fr
or f2 − f1 = [∵ ω = 2πf]
Q
fr
or Bandwidth at series resonant condition = .
Q
LMQ = ω = ω r r
=
ωr ω L
= r =
L
=
1 L OP
MN bandwidth ω − ω 2 1 R/ L R R LC R C PQ
Q-factor of a resonant series circuit :
The Q-factor of an R-L-C series circuit can be defined in the following different ways :
(i) Q-factor is defined as the voltage magnification in the circuit at the time of resonance.
V
Since at resonance current is maximum i.e., Ir = , the voltage across either coil or capaci-
R
tor = Ir XLr or Ir XCr and supply voltage, V = Ir R.
V I X X ω L Reactance
∴ Voltage magnification = Lr = r Lr = Lr = r =
V Ir R R R Resistance
VCr Ir × Cr XCr Reactance 1
or = = = =
V Ir R R Resistance ω r CR
ω L 2πfr L
∴ Q-factor = r = = tan θ ...[8(a)]
R R
where θ is the circuit power factor angle of the coil.
(At resonance, circuit phase angle θ = 0, and Q = tan θ = 0)
(ii) The Q-factor may also be defined as under :
maximum stored energy
Q-factor = 2π ...... in the circuit
energy dissipated per cycle
1 1
LIr 2 L( 2 I )2 F IJ
2 I 2 × 2πfr L ω r L 1 F∵ 1 I
= 2π 2 = 2π 2 2 = = = GH GH Tr = JK
I RTr I R(1/ fr ) I 2
R R ω r CR K fr
1 1
But resonant frequency, fr = or 2πfr =
2π LC LC
Putting this value in eqn. 8(a), we get
2πfr L L 1 1 L
Q-factor = = × = ...[8(b)]
R R LC R C
In series resonance, higher quality factor i.e., Q-factor means higher voltage magnification as
well as higher selectivity of the tuning coil.
Example 32. A resistance 12 Ω, an inductance of 0.15 H and a capacitance of 100 µF are
connected in series across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate :
(i) The current.
(ii) The phase difference between current and the supply voltage.
(iii) Power consumed.
Draw the vector diagram of supply voltage and the line current.
Solution. Given : R = 12 Ω, L = 0.15 H or XL = 2πfL
= 2π × 50 × 0.15 = 47.1 Ω
C = 100 µF = 100 × 10–6F
1 1
or XC = = = 31.8 Ω
2πfC 2π × 50 × 100 × 10−6
R L C
12 Ω 0.15 H 100 µF
V (IXL – IXC)
φ
I
VR = IR
IXC
100 V, 50 Hz.
(a) R-L-C circuit (b) Vector/phasor diagram

Fig. 49
(i) The current, I : Z= R2 + ( X L − X C )2
= 122 + (47 . 1 − 31. 8)2 = 19.43 Ω

V 100
Current, I= = = 5.15 A. (Ans.)
Z 19 . 43
(ii) Phase difference, φ :
R LM X − XC OP
φ = cos–1 or tan −1 L
Z N R Q
= cos–1
12 LM
or tan −1
15 . 3 O
P = 52° (lag)
19 . 43 N 12 . 0 Q
Hence current lags supply voltage by 52°. (Ans.)
(iii) Power consumed, P :
P = VI cos φ
= 100 × 5.15 × cos 52° = 371.1 W. (Ans.)
Fig. 49 (a), (b) show the circuit and vector/phasor diagrams respectively.
Example 33. For the circuit shown in Fig. 50 find the values of (i) current I, (ii) V1 and V2 and
(iii) p.f.
Solution. Refer to Fig. 50
(a) Series circuit (b) Vector diagram

Fig. 50
R = 10 + 20 = 30 Ω
L = 0.05 + 0.1 = 0.15 H
∴ XL = 2πfL = 2π × 50 × 0.15 = 47.1 Ω
1 1
XC = = = 63.7 Ω
2πfC 2π × 50 × 10−6 × 50
X = 47.1 – 63.7 = – 16.6 Ω
Z= R2 + X 2 = (30)2 + (− 16 . 6)2 = 34.3 Ω
V 200
(i) I= = = 5.83 A. (Ans.)
Z 34 . 3
(ii) XL1 = 2π × 50 × 0.05 = 15.7 Ω
Z1 = 102 + 15 . 72 = 18.6 Ω
∴ V1 = IZ1 = 5.83 × 18.6 = 108.4 V. (Ans.)
φ1 = cos–1 (10/18.6) = 57.5° (lag)
XL2 = 2π × 50 × 0.1 = 31.4 Ω
X= 31.4 – 63.7 = – 32.3 Ω
Z2 = 202 + (− 32 . 3)2 = 38 Ω
∴ V2 = IZ2 = 5.83 × 38 = 221.5 V. (Ans.)
φ2 = cos–1 (20/38) = 58.2° (lead)
R 30
(iii) Combined p.f. = cos φ = = = 0.875 (lead)
Z 34 . 3
Vector diagram is shown in Fig. 50 (b).
Example 34. For the circuit shown in Fig. 51. Calculate :
(i) Current ; (ii) Voltage drops V1, V2 and V3 ;
(iii) Power absorbed by each importance ; (iv) Total power absorbed by the circuit.
Take voltage vector along the reference axis.
Fig. 51
Solution. Z1 = (8 + j6) Ω ; Z2 = (12 – j16) Ω ; Z3 = (8 + j0)

Z = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 = (8 + j6) + (12 – j16) + (8 + j0) = (28 – j10) Ω
Taking V = V ∠0° = 200∠0° = (200 + j0)
V 100 200(28 + j 10) 100(28 + j 10)
∴ I= = = =
Z (28 − j 10) (28 − j 10)(28 + j 10) (28)2 + (10)2
200(28 + j 10)
= = 3.17 + j1.13
884
(i) Magnitude of current = (3 . 17)2 + (1. 13)2 = 3.36 A. (Ans.)

(ii) V1 = IZ1 = (3.17 + j1.13)(8 + j6)
= 3.17 × 8 + 3.17 × j6 + 8 × j1.13 + j1.13 × j6
= 25.36 + j19.02 + j9.04 – 6.78 = 18.58 + j28.06. (Ans.)
V2 = IZ2 = (3.17 + j1.13)(12 – j16)
= 38.04 – j50.72 + j13.56 + 18.08 = 56.12 – j37.16. (Ans.)
V3 = IZ3 = (3.17 + j1.13)(8 + j0) = 25.36 + j9.04. (Ans.)
[V = V1 + V2 + V3 = (18.58 + j28.06) + (56.12 – j37.16)
+ (25.36 + j9.04) = 100 + j0 (check)]
Example 35. Fig. 52 shows a circuit connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine the
following :
(i) Current drawn (ii) Voltages V1 and V2
(iii) Power factor.
Draw also the phasor diagram.
Fig. 52

Given : R1 = 18 Ω, L1 = 0.048 H ; R2 = 12 Ω, L2 = 0.012 H ; C = 120 µF = 120 × 10–6 F.
∴ XL1 = 2πfL1 = 2π × 50 × 0.048 = 15.08 Ω ; XL2 = 2πfL2 = 2π × 50 × 0.012 = 3.77 Ω
1 1
XC2 = = = 26 . 53 Ω
2πfC 2π × 50 × 120 × 10−6
Impedance, Z1 = R1 + jXL1 = 18 + j15.08 = 23.48 ∠39.96°
Impedance, Z2 = R2 + jXL2 – jXC = 12 + j3.77 – j26.53 = 12 – j22.76 = 25.73 ∠– 62.2°
Total impedance, Z = Z1 + Z2 = (18 + j15.08) + (12 – j22.76) = 30 – j7.68 = 30.97 ∠–14.36°

Current drawn, I :
Taking supply voltage as reference vector, V = V∠0° = 230∠0°.

V 230∠0°
Current, I = = = 7.43 ∠ 14.36°A. (Ans.)
Z 30 . 97∠ − 14 . 36°
Voltages V1 and V2 :
Voltage, V1 = IZ1 = 7.43 ∠14.36° × 23.48 ∠39.96°
= 7.43 × 23.48 ∠(14.36° + 39.96°)
= 174.46 ∠54.32° V. (Ans.)
Voltage V2 = IZ2 = 7.43 ∠14.36° × 25.73 ∠– 62.2°
= 7.43 × 25.73 ∠(14.36° – 62.2°)
= 191.2 ∠– 47.84°. (Ans.)
Phase angle between supply voltage and current
i.e., V and I, φ = 14.36° (lead)
Power factor, cos φ :
cos φ = cos (14.36°)
= 0.9687 (leading). (Ans.)
[ V = V1 + V2 = 174.46 ∠54.32° Fig. 53
+ 191.2 ∠– 47.84° = 230 ∠0° (check)]

Example 36. A circuit consisting of a coil having an inductance of 0.25 H and a resistance of
3 Ω is arranged in series with a capacitor of capacitance 20 µF. Calculate at what frequency resonance
will take place and current flow if an alternating voltage of 40 V at the resonant frequency is applied
to the circuit. Find also the voltage across the capacitor.
1
Solution. Resonant frequency, fr = [L in henry, C in farad]
2π LC
1
= = 71.2 Hz. (Ans.)
2π 0 . 25 × 20 × 10−6
V 40
At the resonant frequency, Ir (or Imax) = = = 13.33 A. (Ans.)
R 3
Voltage across the capacitor, Vc = IXc
13 . 33
= (where C is in farad)
2πfC
13 . 33
= = 1489.8 V. (Ans.)
2π × 71. 2 × 20 × 10−6
Example 37. A coil of inductance 0.64 H and resistance 40 Ω is connected in series with a
capacitor of capacitance 12 µF.
Estimate :
(i) The frequency at which resonance will occur.
(ii) The voltage across the coil and capacitor, respectively and also the supply voltage when a
current of 1.5 A at the resonant frequency is flowing.
(iii) The three voltages in (ii) with a current of 1.5 A flowing at a frequency of 50 Hz.
1
Solution. (i) fr = [L is in henry, C is in farad]
2π LC
1
= = 57.4 Hz. (Ans.)
2π 0 . 64 × 12 × 10 −6
(ii) At resonance the supply voltage = IR
= 1.5 × 40 = 60 V. (Ans.)
Voltage across the coil = I R2 + X L 2
= 1.5 402+ (2π × 57 . 4 × 0 . 64)2 = 351.4 V. (Ans.)

Voltage across the capacitor = IXC
1
=I× [C in µF]
2πfC
1. 5
= = 346.6 V. (Ans.)
2π × 57 . 4 × 12 × 10−6
(iii) At 50 Hz :
Voltage across the coil = I R2 + X L 2
= 1.5 402 + (2π × 50 × 0 . 64)2 = 307.5 V. (Ans.)
Voltage across the capacitor = IXC
1. 5 ~ 398 V. (Ans.)
=
2π × 50 × 12 × 10−6
Voltage across the entire circuit,
V = I R2 + ( X L − XC )2
2
R| F I U|V
= 1.5 (40)2 + (2π × 50 × 0 . 64) −
S|
T GH 2π × 50 ×112 × 10 −6 JK |W
= 1.5 (40)2 + (− 64 . 2)2 = 113.5 V. (Ans.)
Example 38. A coil having an inductance of 50 mH and resistance 10 Ω is connected in series
with a 25 µF capacitor across a 200 V A.C. supply. Calculate :
(i) Resonance frequency of the circuit ;
(ii) Current flowing at resonance ;
(iii) Value of Q by using different data.
1 1
Solution. (i) fr = = = 142.3 Hz. (Ans.)
2π LC 2π 50 × 10 −3
× 25 × 10−6
V 200
(ii) Imax = = = 20 A. (Ans.)
R 10
1 L 1 50 × 10−3
(iii) Q= = = 4.47. (Ans.)
R C 10 25 × 10−6
Example 39. A series R-L-C series circuit consists of R = 800 Ω, L = 80 mH and C = 8 pico-
farad. The applied voltage across the circuit is 100 V. Determine :
(i) Resonant frequency of the circuit.
(ii) Q-factor of the circuit at the resonant frequency.
(iii) Bandwidth of the resonant circuit.
(iv) Frequencies at which the half power points occur.
(v) Bandwidth of the circuit.
Solution. Given : R = 800 Ω ; L = 80 mH = 0.08 H ; C = 8 × 10–12 F ; V = 100 volts.
(i) Resonant frequency of the circuit, fr :
1 1
fr = = = 198.94 kHz. (Ans.)
2π LC 2π 0 . 08 × 8 × 10−12
(ii) Q-factor at the resonant frequency :

1 L 1 0 . 08
(Q-factor)resonant frequency == = 125. (Ans.)
R C 800 8 × 10−12
(iii) Bandwidth of the resonant circuit ; Bhp ;
R 800
Bhp == = 1591.5 Hz. (Ans.)
2πL 2π × 0 . 08
f 198 . 94 kHz
Also, Bhp = r = = 1.5915 kHz =1591.5 Hz ...as above
Q 125
(iv) Frequencies at which the half power points occur, ω1, ω2 :
R 800 1
f1 = fr – = 198.94 (kHz) – × (kHz) = 198.14 kHz. (Ans.)
4πL 4 π × 0 . 08 1000
R 800 1
f2 = fr + = 198.94 + × = 199.74 kHz. (Ans.)
4πL 4 π × 0 . 08 1000
(v) Bandwidth of the resonant circuit :
Bandwidth = f2 – f1 = 199.74 – 198.14 = 1.6 kHz. (Ans.)
Example 40. A series R-L-C circuit consists of R = 20 Ω, L = 20 mH and C = 0.5 µF. If the
circuit is connected to a 20 V variable frequency supply calculate the following :
(i) Resonant frequency fr .
(ii) Resonance circuit Q-factor using L/C ratio.
(iii) Half-power bandwidth, using fr and Q-factor.
(iv) Half-power bandwidth using the general formula for any bandwidth.
(v) Half-power bandwidth using the given component values.
(vi) Maximum power dissipated at fr.
Solution. Given : R = 20 Ω ; L = 20 mH = 0.02 H ; C = 0.5 × 10–6 F ; V = 20 volts.
1
(i) Resonant frequency, fr =
2π LC
1
= = 1591 Hz. (Ans.)
2π 0 . 02 × 0 . 5 × 10−6
1 L 1 0 . 02
(ii) Q-factor = = = 10. (Ans.)
R C 20 0 . 5 × 10−6
FG
L fr 1591
IJ
(iii) Half-power bandwidth using ratio , Bhp = = = 159.1 Hz. (Ans.)
CH Q-factor K10
(iv) Half-power bandwidth (using the general formula),
frQ 1591 × tan 45°
Bhp = = = 159.1 Hz. (Ans.)
(Q)resonance 10
(∵ At half power points, Q = tan θ = tan 45° = 1)
(v) Half-power bandwidth (using component values),
R 20
Bhp = = = 1591.5. (Ans.)
2πL 2π × 0 . 02
(vi) Maximum power dissipated at fr,
2
FG V IJ V 2 (20)2
Pr = Ir2 R = R= = = 20 W. (Ans.)
H RK R 20
4.6. A.C. Parallel Circuits

4.6.1. Introduction
Now-a-days, owing to multiple system of transmission and distribution, we come across par-
allel circuits (i.e., impedances joined in parallel) more often. Practically all lighting and power cir-
cuits are constant voltage circuits with the loads connected in parallel. In a parallel A.C. circuit (like
parallel D.C. circuit) the voltage is the same across each branch.
4.6.2. Methods for solving A.C. parallel circuits
The following three methods are available to solve such circuits :
1. Phasor or vector method
2. Admittance method
3. Vector algebra (symbolic method or j-method)
1. Vector or phasor method
Consider a parallel circuit consisting of two branches of impedances Z1(R1, L) and Z2(R2, C)
respectively, and connected in parallel across an alternating voltage V volts (r.m.s.), as shown in
Fig. 54 (a). Since the two branches are connected in parallel therefore, the voltage across each
branch is the same and equal to supply voltage V but currents through them will be different.
I2
I2 cos f2
I2 sin f2
I1 R1 L
f2 I1 cos f1
V
f
f1 (I1 sin f1 – I2 sin f2)
I2 R2 C
I2 cos f2 I
I I I1 sin f1
I1
V
Fig. 54. Single-phase parallel circuit—Phasor method.
Branch-1 Impedance, Z1 = R12 + X L 2

V
Current, I1 = ;
Z1
Power factor, cos φ1 =

R1
or φ1 = cos −1
R1
;
F I
Z1 Z1
GH JK
Current, I1 lags behind the applied voltage by φ1.
Branch-2 Impedance, Z2 = R22 + XC 2 ;
V
Current, I2 = ;
Z2
Power factor, cos φ2 =

R2
or φ2 = cos −1
FR I2
Z2
GH Z JK
2
Current I2 leads V by φ2 [Fig. 54 (b)]

Resultant current I, which is phasor sum of I1 and I2, can be determined either by using
parallelogram law of phasors, as shown in Fig. 54 (b) or by resolving branch currents I1 and I2 along
X-axis and Y-axis and then determining the resultant of these components analytically.
Component of resultant current I along X-axis
= Sum of components of branch currents I1 and I2 along X-axis
or I cos φ = I1 cos φ2 + I2 cos φ2
Similarly, component of resultant current I along Y-axis
= Sum of components of branch currents I1 and I2 along Y-axis
or I sin φ = – I1 sin φ1 + I2 sin φ2
∴ I= ( I1 cos φ1 + I2 cos φ2 )2 + ( I2 sin φ 2 − I1 sin φ1)2 ...(9)
I sin φ2 − I1 sin φ1 Y - component
and tan φ = 2 = ...[9(a)]
I1 cos φ1 + I2 cos φ2 X- component
If tan φ is +ve, then current I will lead the applied voltage V, if φ is –ve current I will lag
behind the applied voltage V.
Power factor of the whole circuit is given by,
I1 cos φ 1 + I2 cos φ 2 X- component
cos φ = = ...[9(b)]
I I
Admittance (denoted by symbol Y) of a circuit is defined as the reciprocal of its impedance.
1 I r.m.s. amperes
∴ Y= = or Y=
Z V r.m.s. volts
The unit of admittance is siemens (S). The old unit was mho ( ).
As the impedance Z of a circuit has two components R and X (See Fig. 55), similarly, shown in
Fig. 56, admittance Y also has two components G (conductance-X-component) and B (susceptance-Y-
component).
Fig. 55 Fig. 56
1 R R R
Obviously, G = Y cos φ = . = =
Z Z Z 2 R2 + X 2
1 X X X
Similarly, B = Y sin φ = . = =
Z Z Z 2 R2 + X 2
∴ Admittance, Y = G 2 + B2 just as Z = R2 + X 2
The units of G, B and Y are in Siemens. Here, we shall consider capacitive susceptance as +ve
and inductive capacitance as –ve.
Application of admittance method in solution of single-phase parallel circuits :

Refer to Fig. 57. Determine conductance and susceptance of individual branches from the
relations I R L 1 1 1
R X
G = 2 and B = 2 I2 R2 L2
Z Z
Taking B as +ve if X is capacitive and as –ve if X is induc-
tive. Let the conductances of the three branches of circuit shown I3 R3
C
in Fig. 57 be G1, G2 and G3 respectively and susceptances be B1,
I I
B2 and B3 respectively. Total conductance is found by merely
adding the conductances of three branches. Similarly, total
susceptance is found by algebraically adding the individual
susceptances of different branches.
V
∴ Total conductance, G = G1 + G2 + G3
and, total susceptance, B = B1 + B2 + B3 Fig. 57. Admittance method.
∴ Total admittance Y= G +B 2 2
...(10)
Total current, I = VY ...(11)
G
Power factor, cos φ = ...(12)
Y
3. Complex or Phasor algebra
Consider the parallel circuit shown in Fig. 58 in which two impedances Z1 and Z2 , being in
parallel, have the same potential difference across them
Z1



I1 R1 X1 I1 R1 jXL
I2 R2 X2 I2 R2 –jXC



I I I I
Z2
V V
Fig. 58 Fig. 59
V V
Now, I1 = and I2 =
Z1 Z2
V V
and current I = I1 + I2 = +
Z1 Z2
=V
F1 +
1 I= V (Y + Y2 ) = VY ...(13)
GH Z1 Z2
JK
where Y (= total admittance) = Y1 + Y2 ...(14)
It may be noted that the admittances are added in parallel branches, whereas impedances
are added for branches in series.
It is most important to remember that admittances and impedances being complex quantities
must be added in complex form.
Let us now consider the two parallel branches shown in Fig. 59, we have
1 1 R1 − jX L
Y1 = = =
Z1 R1 + jX L ( R1 + jX L )( R1 − jX L )
R1 − jX L R1 XL
= = − j = G1 − jB1
R12 + XL 2
R12 + XL 2
R12 + X L2
R1
where G1 = ...Conductance of upper branch,
R2 + X L 2
XL
B1 = – ...Susceptance of upper branch.
R12 + X L2
1 1 ( R2 + jXC )
Similarly, Y2 = = =
Z2 R2 − jXC ( R2 − jXC )( R2 + jXC )
R2 + jXC R2 XC
= = + j = G2 + jB2
R22 + XC 2
R2 + XC
2 2
R2 + XC 2
2
Total admittance Y = Y1 + Y2 = (G – jB1) + (G2 + jB2) = (G1 + G2) – j(B1 – B2) = G – jB
Y = (G1 + G2 )2 + ( B1 − B2 )2 ...(15)
and φ = tan −1
FB −B I
1 2
...(16)
GH G + G JK
1 2
For admittance the polar form is :
Y = Y∠φ° , where φ is as given above
Y = G 2 + B2 ∠ tan −1
FG B IJ
H GK
Total current I = V Y ; I1 = V Y1 and I2 = V Y2
If V = V∠0° and Y = Y∠φ then I = V Y = V∠0° × Y∠φ = VY∠φ
In general, i.e., V = V∠α and Y = Y∠β , then
I = V Y = V∠α × Y∠β = VY∠(α + β) ...(17)

Thus, it is worth noting that when vector algebra is multiplied by admittance either in com-
plex (rectangular) or polar form, the result is vector current in its proper phase relationship with
respect to the voltage, irrespective of the axis to which the voltage may have been referred to.
Example 41. A resistance of 60 Ω, an inductance of 0.18 H and a capacitance of 120 µF are
connected in parallel across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate :
(i) Current in each path.
(ii) Resultant current.
(iii) Phase angle between the resultant current and the supply voltage.
(iv) Power factor of the circuit.
Solution. Given : R = 60 Ω ; L = 0.18 H ; C = 120 µF = 120 × 10–6 F, V = 100 volts, 50 Hz.

∴ Inductance reactance, XL = 2πfL = 2π × 50 × 0.18 = 56.55 Ω, and
1 1
capacitance reactance, XC = = = 26 . 53 Ω
2πfC 2π × 50 × 120 × 10−6
(i) Current in each path :
Current through reactance,
V 100
I1 =
= = 1.67 A in phase with voltage V. (Ans.)
R 60
Current through inductance,
V 100
I2 = = = 1.77 A lagging behind voltage V by 90°. (Ans.)
X L 56 . 55
I1 60 W I3 =
3.77 A
R
I2 0.18 H I = 2.6 A
L I3 – I2
I3 120 mF =2A
f
I I V
C I1 = 1.67 A
I2 = 1.77 A
100 V, 50 Hz
Fig. 60
Current through capacitance,
V 100
I3 = = = 3.77 A leading the voltage V by 90°. (Ans.)
XC 26 . 53
The circuit and phasor diagrams are shown in Fig. 60 (a) and (b) respectively.
(ii) Resultant current, I :
Resultant current, I = ( I1)2 + ( I3 − I2 )2 = (1. 67)2 + (3 . 77 − 1. 77)2 = 6 A. (Ans.)

(iii) Phase angle between the resultant current and the supply voltage, φ :
φ = tan–1
FI 3 − I2 I = tan FG 2 IJ = 50.14° (lead).
–1 (Ans.)
GH I1
JK H 1. 67 K
(iv) Power factor of the circuit, cos φ :
cos φ = cos 50.14° = 0.641 (lead). (Ans.)
Example 42. Determine the r.m.s. value of current in each branch and total current of the
circuit shown in Fig. 61. Draw the phasor diagram.
Solution. Refer to Fig. 61 (a).
(a) Parallel circuit (b) Phasor diagram

Fig. 61
Branch No. 1 :
R1 = 15 Ω, X1 = 2π × f × L = 2π × 50 × 0.05 = 15.7 Ω
Z1 = R12 + X12 = 152 + 15 . 72 = 21.71 Ω
V 212
I1 = = = 9.76 A
Z1 21. 71
R 15
cos φ1 = 1 = = 0.691 [or φ1 = cos–1 (0.691) = 46.3° (lagging)]
Z1 21. 71
sin φ1 = sin (46.3°) = 0.723
Branch No. 2 :
1 1
R2 = 20 Ω, X2 = = = 31.83 Ω
2πfC 2π × 50 × 100 × 10−6
Z2 = R22 + X22 = 202 + 31. 832 = 37.59 Ω
V 212
I2 = = = 5.64 A
Z2 37 . 59
R2 20
cos φ2 = = = 0.532 [or φ2 = cos–1 (0.532) = 57.86° (leading)]
Z2 37 . 59
sin φ2 = sin (57.86°) = 0.847
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 60 (b)
X-components of I1 and I2 = I1 cos φ1 + I2 cos φ2
= 9.76 × 0.691 + 5.64 × 0.532 = 9.74 A
Y-components of I1 and I2 = – I1 sin φ1 + I2 sin φ2
= – 9.76 × 0.723 + 5.64 × 0.847 = – 2.28 A
Total current, I = (9 . 74)2 + (2 . 28)2 = 10 A. (Ans.)

Example 43. The currents in each branch of a two-branched parallel circuit are given by the
expressions iA = 7.07 sin (314t – π/4) and iB = 21.2 sin (314t + π/3). The supply voltage is given by the
expression v = 354 sin 314t. Derive a similar expression for the supply current and calculate the
ohmic value of the components, assuming two pure components in each branch. State whether the
reactive components are inductive or capacitive.
Solution. From the given expressions of currents, we find that :

O iA lags the voltage by π/4 radian or 45° and iB leads it by π/3 radian or 60°. Hence branch A
consists of a resistance in series with a pure inductive reactance. Branch B consists of a
resistance in series with a pure capacitive reactance as shown in Fig. 62
(a) Parallel circuit (b) Phasor diagram

Fig. 62
O Maximum value of current in branch A is 7.07 A and in branch B is 21.2 A.
The resultant current can be found as follows :
As seen from the vector diagram [Fig. 62 (b)],
X-component = 21.2 cos 60° + 7.07 cos 45° = 15.6 A
Y-component = 21.2 sin 60° – 7.07 sin 45° = 13.36 A
Maximum value of the resultant current
= (15 . 6)2 + (13 . 36)2 = 20.54 A

φ = tan–1 (13.36/15.6) = 40.6° (lead)
Hence the expression for the supply current is :
i = 20.54 sin (314t + 40.6°) (Ans.)
354
ZA = = 50 Ω ; cos φA = cos 45° = 0.707, sin φA = sin 45° = 0.707
7 . 07
RA = ZA cos φA = 50 × 0.707 = 35.4 Ω
XL = ZA sin φA = 50 × 0.707 = 35.4 Ω.
354
ZB = = 16.7 Ω. (Ans.)
21. 2
RB = ZB cos 60° = 16.7 × cos 60° = 8.35 Ω
XB = ZB sin 60° = 16.7 × sin 60° = 14.46 Ω. (Ans.)
Example 44. Two impedances given by Z1 = (10 + j5) and Z2 = (8 + j6) are joined in parallel
and connected across a voltage of v = 200 + j0. Calculate the circuit current, its phase and the branch
currents. Draw the phasor diagram.
Solution. Refer to Fig. 63 (a).
1 1
Branch A, Y1 = =
Z1 (10 + j5)
1 10 − j 5 10 − j5 10 − j5
= × = =
(10 + j 5) (10 − j 5) 100 + 25 125
= (0.08 – j0.04) siemens
(a) Parallel circuit (b) Phasor diagram (not to scale)

Fig. 63
1 1
Branch B, Y2 = =
Z2 (8 + j 6)
1 (8 − j6) 8 − j6 8 − j6
= × = =
(8 + j 6) (8 − j6) 64 + 36 100
= (0.08 – j0.06) siemens
∴ Y = Y1 + Y2 = (0.08 – j0.04) + (0.08 – j0.06)
= (0.16 – j0.1) siemens
LM Alternatively : OP
MM 1
=
1
+
1
=
Z +Z 1 2 PP
MM Z Z Z ZZ
Z +Z
1 2 1 2
(10 + j5) + (8 + j 6) (18 + j 11) P
P
MM ∴ Y= 1
= 2
= P
ZZ (10 + j 5)(8 + j 6)
1 2 50 + j100 P
MM Rationalising the above expression, we get PP
MM (18 + j 11)(50 − j 100) 2000 − j 1250 P
Y= =
MN (50 + j 100)(50 − j 100) 12500 PP
= 0.16 – j0.1 (same as before) Q
Now V = 200∠0°
∴ I = VY = (200 + j0)(0.16 – j0.1)
= 32 – j20 = 37.74 ∠– 32° ...polar form. (Ans.)
It lags behind the applied voltage by 32°.
Power factor = cos 32° = 0.848. (Ans.)
I1 = VY1 = (200 + j0)(0.08 – j0.04)
= 16 – j8 = 17.89 ∠ – 26° 33′. (Ans.)
It lags behind the applied voltage by 26° 33′.
I2 = VY2 = (200 + j0)(0.08 – j0.06)
= 16 – j12 = 20∠– 36° 52′
It lags behind the applied voltage by 36° 52′.
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 63 (b).
Example 45. Fig. 64 shows a parallel circuit in which the values of the parameters are as
given below :
R1 = 70 Ω (non-inductive) ; Coil : RC = 30 Ω, LC = 0.5 H ; R2 = 100 Ω ; XC = 157 Ω (at 50 Hz).
Fig. 64
(i) Determine the branch currents and the total current.

(ii) Draw the phasor diagram indicating the currents and voltages across coil and condenser.
(iii) If the A.C. source is replaced by an equivalent D.C. source, what current would be drawn
by the circuit ?
Solution. Given : R1 = 70 Ω ; RC = 30 Ω, LC = 0.5 H ; R2 = 100 Ω ; XC = 157 Ω,
Applied voltage = 240 V (r.m.s.), 50 Hz
(i) The branch currents (I1, I2) and the total current (I) :
Resistance of the inductive branch = R1 + RC = 70 + 30 = 100 Ω
Reactance of the inductive branch = 2π f LC = 2π × 50 × 0.5 = 157 Ω
Conductance of inductive branch,
R1 + RC 100
G1 = = = 0.00288 S (siemens)
2
( R1 + RC ) + (2π f LC ) 2
(100) + (157)2
2
Susceptance of inductive branch,

2π f LC
B1 =
( R1 + RC )2 + (2π f LC )2
157
= = – 0.00453 S (Being inductive)
(100)2 + (157)2
Conductance of capacitive branch,
R2 100
G2 = = = 0.00288 S
+ XC
R22 2
(100) + (157)2
2
Susceptance of capacitive branch,

XC 157
B2 = = = 0.00453 S (Being capacitive)
R22 + X C2 (100)2 + (157)2
Total conductance of the circuit,
G = G1 + G2 = 0.00288 + 0.00288 = 0.00576 S
Total susceptance of the circuit,
B = B1 + B2 = – 0.00453 + 0.00453 = 0
Total admittance of the circuit,
Y= G2 + B2 = (0 . 00576)2 + 02 = 0.00576 S
I2 = 1.288 A
V
06
=2
Vc oil
.5° 90°
57
I = 1.38 A
V
57.5° °
.2
79
Vc
ond
. =2
02.
2V
I1 = 1.288 A
Fig. 65. Phasor diagram.
Current in inductive branch, I1 = V × Y1 = V G12 + B12
= 240 (0 . 00288) + (− 0 . 00453) = 1.288 A. (Ans.)

2 2
Phase angle, φ1 = tan −1

F B I = tan FG − 0 . 00453 IJ = – 57.5°.
1 −1 (Ans.)
GH G JK
1 H 0 . 00288 K
Current in capacitive branch, I2 = V × Y2 = V G22 + B22
= 240 (0 . 00288) + (0 . 00453) = 1.288 A. (Ans.)

2 2
Phase angle, φ2 = tan −1

F B I = tan FG 0 . 00453IJ = 57.5°.
2 −1
(Ans.)
GH G JK
2 H 0 . 00288 K
Total current, I = V × Y = 240 × 0.00576 = 1.38 A. (Ans.)
Phase angle, φ = tan −1

FG B IJ = tan FG 0 IJ = 0°
−1
H GK H 0 . 00576 K
Voltage across condenser
= I2XC = 1.288 × 157 = 202.2 V lagging behind I2 by 90°. (Ans.)
Voltage across coil = I1 × ( RC )2 + (2π f LC )2 = 1.288 (30)2 + (157)2 = 206 V
Phase angle with current I1 = tan–1

FG 157 IJ = 79.2°. (Ans.)
H 30 K
(ii) Phasor diagram :

The phasor diagram indicating the currents and voltages across coil and condenser is shown
in Fig. 65.
(iii) Current drawn by the circuit when D.C. source is used :
When energised by equivalent D.C. source (i.e., 240 V D.C.), the capacitive branch will be
open and current drawn by the circuit
= Current drawn by inductive branch
V 240
= = = 2.4 A. (Ans.)
R1 + RC 70 + 30
Example 46. Fig. 66 shows two impedances (18 + j24) and (15 – j30) Ω connected in
parallel ; across the combination is applied a voltage of 200∠53°8′. Determine :
(i) kVA, kVAR and kW in each branch.
(ii) The power factor of the whole circuit. I1 18 Ω j 24 Ω
Solution. Refer to Fig. 66
1 18 − j 24
Y1 = =
18 + j 24 (18 + j 24)(18 − j 24) I2 15 Ω –j 30 Ω
18 − j 24
= = (0.02 – j0.0266) S
900 I I
1 15 + j 30 15 + j 30
Y2 = = =
15 − j 30 (15 + j 30)(15 − j 30) 1125
= (0.0133 + j0.0266) S
Now, V = 200∠53°8′ = 200 (cos 53°8′ + j sin 53°8′) 200∠ 53°8′ V
= 200(0.6 + j0.8) = (120 + j160) volts Fig. 66
I1 = V Y1 = (120 + j160)(0.02 – j0.0266)
= 2.4 + j3.2 – j3.2 + 4.26 = (6.66 + j0) ...(along the reference axis)
∴ I2 = V Y2 = (120 + j160)(0.0133 + j0.0266)
= 1.6 + j3.2 + j2.13 – 4.26 = – 2.66 + j5.33 (leading)
(i) kVA, kVAR and kW in each branch :
Power calculations can be calculated by the method of conjugates.
Branch 1 (Inductive branch)
The current conjugate of (6.66 + j0) is (6.66 – j0)
800
∴ V I1 = (120 + j160)(6.66 – j0) = 800 + j1066 ∴ kW = = 0.8. (Ans.)
1000
1066
∴ kVAR = = 1.066. (Ans.)
1000
The fact that it is positive merely shows that reactive VA (volt-amps) are due to lagging
current
kVA = (kW )2 + (kVAR)2 = (0 . 8)2 + (1. 066)2 = 1.33. (Ans.)
Branch 2 (Capacitive branch) :
The current conjugate of (– 2.66 + j5.33) is (– 2.66 – j5.33)
∴ V I2 = (120 + j160)(– 2.66 – j5.33) = 533.6 – j1065.2
533 . 6 − 1065 . 2
∴ kW = = 0.5336. (Ans.) ; kVAR = = – 1.065. (Ans.)
1000 1000
The negative sign merely indicates the reactive volt-amps are due to leading current.
∴ kVA = (0 . 5336)2 + (− 1. 065)2 = 1.191. (Ans.)

(ii) The power factor of the whole circuit, cos φ :
Y = Y1 + Y2 = (0.02 – j0.0266) + (0.0133 + j0.0266) = 0.0333 + j0
I = V Y = (120 + j160)(0.0333 + j0) = 4 – j5.33 = 6.66 ∠53°8′

or I = I1 + I2 = (6.66 + j0) + (– 2.66 + j5.33) = 4 – j5.33 (Same as above)
Power factor of the circuit, cos φ = cos 0° = 1. (Ans.)
(∵ Current is in phase with voltage)
Example 47. For the circuit of Fig. 67, calculate the current supplied by the voltage source
and the voltage across the current source.
Solution. Refer to Figs. 67 and 68.
V1 55 Ω 55 Ω
25.72∠59.04°Ω
2.83∠45°
+ +
100∠0°V
j30 Ω 100∠0°
50 Ω V1
2.83∠45°A
volts
– I1 –
I2
V1 = 72.78∠104.04° volts
Fig. 67 Fig. 68
Let the impedance of the current source be Zi, then

1 1 1 30∠90° + 50∠0° 50 + j 30 58.31∠30 . 96°
= + = = =
Zi 50∠0° 30∠90° 1500∠90° 1500∠90° 1500∠90°
1500∠90°
Zi = = 25.72 ∠59.04° = (13.23 + j22.05) Ω
58 . 31∠30 . 96°
Voltage across current source,
V1 = IZi = 2.83 ∠45° × 25.72 ∠59.04° = 72.78 ∠104.04° volts. (Ans.)
Current supplied by one source,
V1 72 . 78∠104 . 04° 72 . 78∠104 . 04°
I1 = = =
Zi + R 13 . 25 + j 22 . 05 + 55 68 . 25 + j 22 . 05
72 . 78∠104 . 04°
= = 1.015 ∠86.13° = (0.0685 + j1.01) A
71. 72∠17 . 91°
Current supplied by the other source,
V2 100∠0°
I2 = = 1.394 ∠ (– 17.91°) = 1.326 – j0.428
Zi + R 71. 72∠17 . 91°
Current supplied by the voltage source,
I = I2 – I1 = 1.326 – j0.428 – 0.0685 – j1.01 = 1.2575 – j1.438
= 1.91 ∠– 48.83 amp. (Ans.)
4.6.3. Series-Parallel Circuits

Series-parallel circuits may be solved by the following methods :
1. Admittance method.
2. Symbolic method.
In series-parallel circuits, the parallel circuit is first reduced to an equivalent series circuit
and then combined with the rest of the circuit as usual.
Z2 = R2 + jX2



Z1 = R1 + jX1 R2 X2



A R1 X1 B C
 R3 X3

I
Z3 = R3 – jX3
I
V
Fig. 69. Series-parallel circuit.
For a parallel circuit,

1 G G
Equivalent series resistance, Req = Z cos φ = . = 2
Y Y Y
1 B B
Equivalent series reactance, Xeq = Z sin φ = . = 2
Y Y Y
2. Symbolic method
Refer series-parallel circuit shown in Fig. 69. First calculate the equivalent impedance of
parallel branches and then add it to the series impedance to get the total impedance of the circuit.
Then current flowing through the circuit is found as follows :
1 1
Y2 = and Y3 =
R2 + jX2 R3 − jX3
∴ 1 1
Y23 = +
R2 + jX2 R3 − jX3
1
∴ Z23 = ; Z1 = R1 + jX 1
Y23
Z = Z23 + Z1
V
∴ I= .
Z
Example 48. For the circuit shown in Fig. 70 calculate :
(i) Currents IA, IB and IC .
(ii) Total power factor for the whole circuit.
Draw the complete phasor diagram.

Given : Z A = 2 + j1.5 = 2.5∠36.9° ; ZB = 5 – j3.5 = 6.1∠–35°, ZC = 3 + j2.5 = 3.9∠39.8°
(i) Currents IA, IB and IC :
1 1 1 Z A ZB 2 . 5∠36 . 9° × 6 . 1∠ – 35°
= + or Z AB = =
Z AB Z A ZB Z A + ZB (2 + j 1. 5) + (5 − j 3 . 5)
15 . 25∠1. 9° 15 . 25∠1. 9°
= = _ 2 + j0.65
= 2.095∠17.9° ~
7 − j2 7 . 28∠ – 16°
2 j 1.5
IA



3 j 2.5
C ZA
A 5 –j 3.5 B



ZC
IB



IC
ZB
200 V, 50 Hz
Fig. 70. Circuit diagram.
VCA
20.7° IB
O V
33.
2°
51.2° VAB
IC
IA
Fig. 71. Phasor diagram.
Z = ZC + ZAB = (3 + j2.5) + (2 + j0.65) = 5 + j3.15 = 5.9∠32.2°
Let V = 200∠0° ,
V 200∠0°
Then, IC = = ∠ – 32.2°. (Ans.)
= 33.9∠
Z 5 . 9∠32 . 2°
ZB 6 . 1 ∠ − 35°
I A = IC × = 33.9∠– 32.2° × ∠– 51.2°. (Ans.)
= 28.4∠
Z A + ZB 7 . 28∠ − 16°
ZA 2 . 5∠36 . 9°
IB = IC × = 33.9∠– 32.2° × ∠ 20.7°. (Ans.)
= 11.64∠
Z A + ZB 7 . 28∠ − 16°
(ii) Total power factor in the whole circuit :

The phase angle between V and total circuit current IC is 32.2°.
∴ Power factor for the whole circuit ; cos φ = cos 32.2° = 0.846 (lag). (Ans.)
For drawing the phasor diagram of Fig. 71, VCA and VB have to be calculated.
VCA = IC ZC = 33.9∠– 32.2° × 3.9∠39.8° = 132.2∠7.6°
VAB = IC ZAB = 33.9∠– 32.2° × 2.095∠17.9° = 71∠– 14.3°

Fig. 71 shows the complete phasor diagram.
Example 49. Determine the current drawn by the following circuit (Fig. 72) when a voltage of
200 V is applied across the same. Draw the phasor diagram.
Fig. 72. Series parallel circuit Fig. 73. Phasor diagram
Solution. Refer to Fig. 72. ~

Z1 = (4 + j6) = 7.2 ∠56.3° ; Z2 = (10 – j12) = 15.6 ∠– 50.2°
Z3 = (6 + j10) = 11.7 ∠59°
Z2 Z3 (10 − j 12)(6 + j 10) (10 − j 12)(6 + j 10) (180 + j28)
ZBC = = = =
Z2 + Z3 (10 − j 12) + (6 + j 10) (16 − j 2) (16 − j 2)
(180 + j 28)(16 + j 2) 2824 + j 808
= = = 10.9 + j3.1 = 11.3 ∠15.9°
(16 − j 2)(16 + j 2) 260
Z = Z1 + ZBC = (4 + j6) + (10.9 + j3.1) = (14.9 + j9.1) = 17.5∠31.4°
V 200∠0°
Assuming V = 200∠0° ; I = = = 11.4 ∠– 31.4°
Z 17 . 5∠31. 4°
For drawing the phasor diagram, let us find the following quantities :
VAB = IZ1 = 11.4 ∠– 31.4° × 7.2 ∠56.3° = 82.08 ∠24.9°
VBC = IZBC = 11.4 ∠ – 31.4° × 11.3 ∠15.9° = 128.8 ∠ – 15.5°
VBC 128 . 8∠ − 15 . 5°
I2 = = = 8.26 ∠34.7°
ZL 15 . 6∠ − 50 . 2°
V 128 . 8∠ − 15 . 5°
I3 = BC = = 11 ∠– 74.5°
Z3 11. 7∠59°
Various currents and voltages are shown in their phase relationship in Fig. 73.
4.6.4. Resonance in parallel circuits
In case of a series circuit consisting of R (resistance), L (inductance) and C (capacitance),
resonance takes place when VL = VC i.e., when XL = XC. In other words, resonance takes place when
the power factor of the circuit approaches unity. The basic condition for resonance, i.e., power factor
of the entire circuit being unity, remains the same for parallel circuits also. Thus, resonance in a
parallel circuit will occur, when the power factor of the entire circuit becomes unity.
A parallel circuit consisting of an inductive coil in parallel with a capacitor is shown in
Fig. 74 (a). The phasor diagram of this circuit with applied voltage as the reference phasor is shown
in Fig. 74 (b). The current drawn by the inductive branch lags the applied voltage by an angle φL.
The current drawn by the capacitive branch leads the applied voltage by 90°.
IC
IL R XL
IL cos φL
V
φL
IC XC IL sin φL
I I
IL
V volts, f Hz
(a) Circuit diagram (Resonant circuit) (b) Phasor diagram (Resonant circuit)
Fig. 74. Resonance in a parallel circuit.
The power factor of the current becomes unity when the total current drawn by the entire
circuit is in phase with the applied voltage. This will happen only when the current drawn by the
capacitive branch IC equals the active component of the current of the inductive branch IL [Fig. 74 (b)].
Hence for resonance in parallel circuit.
IC = IL sin φL ...(18)
V XL V
Now, IL =; sin φL = and IC =
Z Z XC
Hence, condition for resonance becomes
V V XL
= × or Z2 = XL × XC
XC Z Z
1
Now, XL = ωL, XC =
ωC
ωL L
∴ Z2 = = ...(19)
ωC C
L
or R2 + XL2 = R2 + (2π fr L)2 =
C
L 1 R2
or (2πfr L)2 = − R2 or 2πfr = − 2
C LC L
1 1 R2
or fr = − 2 ...(20)
2π LC L
This is the resonant frequency and is given in Hz if R is in ohm, L is in henry and C in farad.
If R is negligible, then
1
fr = ...same as for series resonance.
2π LC
Current at resonance
Refer Fig. 74 (b). Since wattless component is zero, the circuit current is given as :
V R VR
I = IL cos φ L = × = 2
Z Z Z
L
Putting the value of Z =2
from eqn. (19), we get
C
VR V
I= = ...(21)
L/C L/CR
L
Thus, the impedance offered by a resonant parallel circuit = .
CR
This impedance is purely resistive and generally termed as equivalent or dynamic impedance
of the circuit. As the resultant current drawn by a resonant parallel circuit is minimum, the circuit
is normally called rejector circuit. Such a type of circuit is quite useful in radio work.
The phenomenon of resonance in parallel circuits is normally termed as “current resonance”
whereas it is termed “voltage resonance” in series circuit.
Resonance characteristics :
Fig. 75 shows the characteristics of the parallel circuit consisting of an inductance L and
capacitance C in parallel plotted against frequency, the voltage applied being constant.
ωC
I
G
A
O
fr f
1
ωL
Fig. 75. Resonance characteristics.

1 1 1
Inductive susceptance, b = – =− =−
XL ωL 2π f L
Thus inductive susceptance is inversely proportional to the frequency and is represented by
rectangular hyperbola in the fourth quadrant (because it is assumed –ve).
1
Capacitive susceptance, b = ωC = 2π f C
XC
Thus capacitive susceptance is directly proportional to the frequency and is represented by a
straight line passing through the origin.
Net susceptance, B is the difference of the two susceptances and is represented by the dotted
hyperbola. The net susceptance is zero at point A, hence admittance is minimum and is equal to G.
Thus, at point A, line current is minimum. The frequency at which the total current becomes mini-
mum is the resonance frequency fr.
Evidently, below the resonant frequency, the inductive susceptance predominates, thus mak-
ing the circuit current to be lagging, whereas beyond fr capacitive susceptance predominates and
the current leads the applied voltage. At resonant frequency fr, the current is in phase with the
applied voltage.
Hence at parallel resonance it is seen that :
1. The admittance of the circuit is minimum and is equal to the conductance of the circuit.
2. The current drawn is minimum.
3. The phase angle between the current and voltage is zero, the power factor is unity.
1
4. The resonant frequency is given by fr = if the resistance in the inductance and
2π LC
capacitance branches is negligible.
4.6.5. Comparison of series and parallel resonant circuits
S. No. Aspects Series circuit (R-L-C) Parallel circuit (R-L and C)
1. Impedance at resonance Minimum Maximum

V
2. Current at resonance Maximum = Minimum = V/(L/CR)
R
3. Effective impedance R L/CR
4. Power factor at resonance Unity Unity
5. Resonant frequency
1 1 F 1 −R I 2
2π LC 2π GH LC L JK
2
6. It magnifies Voltage Current

ωL ωL
7. Magnification is
R R
4.6.6. Q-factor of a parallel circuit

It is defined as the ratio of the current circulating between its two branches to the line current
drawn from the supply or simply, as the current magnification.
1 L
Q-factor = ...(22)
R C
O It may be noted that in series circuits, Q-factor gives the voltage magnification, whereas in
parallel circuits it gives the current magnification.
Bandwidth of a parallel resonant circuit :
The bandwidth of a parallel circuit is defined in the same way as that for a series circuit. This
circuit also has upper and lower half-power frequencies where power dissipated is half of that at
resonant frequency.
The net susceptance B, at bandwidth frequencies, equals conductance. Hence,
At f2 : B = BC2 – BL2
At f1 : B = BL1 – BC1
Hence Y = G 2 + B2 = 2G and φ = tan–1

FG IJ
B
= tan–1 (1) = 45°
H K
G
However, at off-resonant frequencies, Y > G and BC ≠ BL and phase angle is greater than zero.
Example 50. An inductive circuit of resistance 2 ohms and inductance 0.01 H is connected to
a 250 V, 50 Hz supply.
(i) What capacitance placed in parallel will produce resonance ?
(ii) Determine also the total current taken from the supply and the currents in the branch
circuit.
Solution. Given : R = 2 Ω ; L = 0.01 H, Supply voltage = 250 V, 50 Hz.
(i) Value of capacitance which will produce resonance, C :
Now, XL = 2π f L = 2π × 50 × 0.01 = 3.14 Ω
R2 + X L 2 = 22 + 3 . 142 = 3.72 Ω
Z=
L L
We know that, Z2 = or C = 2
C Z
0 . 01
∴ C= = 722.6 × 10–6 F or 722.6 µF. (Ans.)
(3 . 72)2
(ii) Total current and currents in the branch circuits, I, IL, IC :
V 250
IR-L = = = 67.2 A. (Ans.)
Z 3 . 72
3 . 14
tan φ L = = 1.57 or φL = tan–1 (1.57) = 57.5° (Ans.)
2
Hence, current in R-L branch lags the applied voltage by 57.5°.
V V
IC = = = ωVC = 2π × 50 × 250 × 722.6 × 10–6 = 56.75 (Ans.)
XC 1/ωC
This current leads the applied voltage by 90°.
Total current, I = IR-L cos φ = 67.2 cos 57.5° = 36.1 A. (Ans.)
LMor V VCR 250 × 722 . 6 × 10 −6 × 2 OP
I= = = = 36 . 1 A
MN L / CR L 0 . 01 PQ
HIGHLIGHTS
1. Modern alternators produce an e.m.f. which is for all practical purposes sinusoidal (i.e. a sine curve), the
equation between the e.m.f. and time being
e = Emax sin ωt
where e = instantaneous voltage ; Emax = maximum voltage;
ωt = angle through which the armature has turned from neutral.
2. The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that steady (D.C.) current which when flowing
through a given circuit produces the same heat as is produced by the alternating current when flowing
through the same circuit for the same time.
Irms = 0.707 Imax.
3. The average or mean value of an alternating current is expressed by that steady current which transfers
across any circuit the same charge as is transferred by that alternating current during the same time.
Iav = 0.637 Imax
Form factor is the ratio of r.m.s. value to average value of the wave form.
Peak factor is the ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s. value of the wave form.
4. The frequency (series circuit) of the voltage which gives the maximum value of the current in the circuit
is called resonant frequency (fr) and the circuit is said to be resonant.
1
fr = .
2π LC
5. Q-factor of a series circuit is defined as equal to the voltage magnification in the circuit at resonance.
1 L
Q-factor = .
R C
6. Q-factor of a parallel circuit is defined as the ratio of the current circulating between its two branches to
the line current drawn from the supply or simply, as the current magnification.
1 L
Q-factor = .
R C
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
Choose the Correct Answer :

1. A sine wave has a frequency of 50 Hz. Its angular frequency is ...... radian/second.
(a) 100 π (b) 50 π
(c) 25 π (d) 5 π.
2. The reactance offered by a capacitor to alternating current of frequency 50 Hz is 20 Ω. If frequency is
increased to 100 Hz, reactance becomes ...... ohms.
(a) 2.5 (b) 5
(c) 10 (d) 15.
3. The period of a wave is
(a) the same as frequency (b) time required to complete one cycle
(c) expressed in amperes (d) none of the above.
4. The form factor is the ratio of
(a) peak value to r.m.s. value (b) r.m.s. value to average value
(c) average value to r.m.s. value (d) none of the above.
1
5. The period of a sine wave is seconds. Its frequency is
50
(a) 20 Hz (b) 30 Hz
(c) 40 Hz (d) 50 Hz.
6. An A.C. current is given by i = 200 sin 100 πt. It will achieve a value of 100 A after ...... second.
1 1
(a) (b)
900 800
1 1
(c) (d) .
700 600
7. A heater is rated as 230 V, 10 kW, A.C. The value 230 V refers to
(a) average voltage (b) r.m.s. voltage
(c) peak voltage (d) none of the above.
8. If two sinusoids of the same frequency but of different amplitudes and phase angles are subtracted, the
resultant is
(a) a sinusoid of the same frequency (b) a sinusoid of half the original frequency
(c) a sinusoid of double the frequency (d) not a sinusoid.
9. The peak value of a sine wave is 200 V. Its average value is
(a) 127.4 V (b) 141.4 V
(c) 282.8 V (d) 200 V.
10. If two sine waves of the same frequency have a phase difference of π radians, then
(a) both will reach their minimum values at the same instant
(b) both will reach their maximum values at the same instant
(c) when one wave reaches its maximum value, the other will reach its minimum value
(d) none of the above.
11. The r.m.s. value of a sine wave is 100 A. Its peak value is
(a) 70.7 A (b) 141.4 A
(c) 150 A (d) 282.8 A.
12. If two waves are expressed as e1 = Em1 sin (ωt + α 1) and e2 = Em2 sin (ωt + α 2 ) , then
(a) e1 is leading e2 by ∠ (α2 – α1) (b) e2 is leading e1 by ∠ (α2 – α1)
(c) e2 is leading e1 by ∠ (α1 – α2) (d) e1 is in phase with e2.
13. The voltage of domestic supply is 220 V. This figure represents
(a) mean value (b) r.m.s. value
(c) peak value (d) average value.
14. Two waves of the same frequency have opposite phase when the phase angle between them is
(a) 360° (b) 180°
(c) 90° (d) 0°.
15. The power consumed in a circuit element will be least when the phase difference between the current
and voltage is
(a) 180° (b) 90°
(c) 60° (d) 0°.
16. The r.m.s. value and mean value is the same in the case of
(a) triangular wave (b) sine wave
(c) square wave (d) half wave rectified sine wave.
17. For the same peak value which of the following wave will have the highest r.m.s. value ?
(a) square wave (b) half wave rectified sine wave
(c) triangular wave (d) sine wave.
18. For the same peak value, which of the following wave has the least mean value ?
(a) half wave rectified sine wave (b) triangular wave
(c) sine wave (d) square wave.
19. For a sine wave with peak value Imax the r.m.s. value is
(a) 0.5 Imax (b) 0.707 Imax
(c) 0.9 Imax (d) 1.414 Imax.
20. Form Factor is the ratio of
(a) average value/r.m.s. value (b) average value/peak value
(c) r.m.s. value/average value (d) r.m.s. value/peak value.
21. Form factor for a sine wave is
(a) 1.414 (b) 0.707
(c) 1.11 (d) 0.637.
22. For a sine wave with peak value Emax the average value is
(a) 0.636 Emax (b) 0.707 Emax
(c) 0.434 Emax (d) 1.414 Emax.
23. The current in a circuit is given by : i = 100 sin 314 t amperes
The maximum value and frequency of current are
(a) 50 2 A, 100 Hz (b) 100 2 A, 100 Hz
(c) 100 A, 50 Hz (d) 70.7A, 50 Hz.
24. For a frequency of 200 Hz, the time period will be

(a) 0.05 s (b) 0.005 s
(c) 0.0005 s (d) 0.5 s.
25. The phase difference between voltage and current wave through a circuit element is given as 30°. The
essential condition is that
(a) both waves must have same frequency (b) both waves must have identical peak values
(c) both waves must have zero value at the same time
26. An A.C. voltage of 50 Hz has a maximum value of 50 V. Its value after 1/600 second after the instant the
current is zero, will be
(a) 5 V (b) 12.5 V
(c) 25 V (d) 43.3 V.
27. When two waves are in phase they have peak values at an interval of
(a) 180° (b) 120°
(c) 90° (d) none of the above.
28. For 200 V r.m.s. value triangular wave, the peak voltage will be
(a) 200 V (b) 222 V
(c) 282 V (d) 346 V.
29. A sine wave of voltage varies from zero to maximum of 200 V. How much is the voltage at the instant of
30° of the cycle ?
(a) 50 V (b) 82.8 V
(c) 100 V (d) 173.2 V.
30. How much r.m.s. current does a 300 W 200 V bulb take from the 200 V, 50 Hz power line ?
(a) 0.5 A (b) 1.5 A
(c) 2 A (d) 3 A.
31. Two sinusoidal currents are given by i1 = 100 sin (ωt + π/3), and i2 = 150 sin (ωt – π/4)
The phase difference between them is ...... degrees.
(a) 15 (b) 50
(c) 60 (d) 105.
32. The r.m.s. value of a half-wave rectified current is 100 A. Its value for full-wave rectification would be
...... amperes.
(a) 141.4 (b) 200
(c) 200/π (d) 40/π.
33. From the two voltages equations e1 = Emax sin 100 πt , and e2 = Emax sin (100 πt + π/6), it is obvious that
(a) 1 leads 2 by 30° (b) 2 lags behind 1
1
(c) 2 achieves its maximum value second before 1 does
600
1
(d) 1 achieves its zero value second before 2.
600
34. The r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal A.C. current is equal to its value at an angle of ...... degrees.
(a) 90 (b) 60
(c) 45 (d) 30.
35. Capacitive reactance is more when
(a) capacitance is less and frequency of supply is less
(b) capacitance is less and frequency of supply is more
(c) capacitance is more and frequency of supply is less
(d) capacitance is more and frequency of supply is more.
36. Time constant of a capacitive circuit increases with the
(a) increase of capacitance and decrease of resistance
(b) increase of capacitance and increase of resistance
(c) decrease of capacitance and decrease of resistance

(d) decrease of capacitance and increase of resistance.
37. In a series circuit on resonance, following will occur
(a) V = VR (b) XL = XC
(c) Z = R (d) VL = VC
(e) all above.
38. In a series resonant circuit, the impedance of the circuit is
(a) minimum (b) maximum
(c) zero (d) none of the above.
39. Power factor of an electrical circuit is equal to
(a) R/Z
(b) cosine of phase angle difference between current and voltage
(c) kW/kVA (d) ratio of useful current to total current IW/I
(e) all above.
40. The best place to install a capacitor is
(a) very near to inductive load (b) across the terminals of the inductive load
(c) far away from the inductive load (d) any where.
41. Poor power factor
(a) reduces load handling capability of electrical system
(b) results in more power losses in the electrical system
(c) overloads alternators, transformers and distribution lines
(d) results in more voltage drop in the line (e) results in all above.
42. Capacitors for power factor correction are rated in
(a) kW (b) kVA
(c) kV (d) kVAR.
43. In series resonant circuit, increasing inductance to its twice value and reducing capacitance to its half
value
(a) will change the maximum value of current at resonance
(b) will change the resonance frequency
(c) will change the impedance at resonance frequency
(d) will increase the selectivity of the circuit.
44. Pure inductive circuit
(a) consumes some power on average
(b) does not take power at all from a line
(c) takes power from the line during some part of the cycle and then returns back to it during other part
of the cycle
45. Inductance affects the direct current flow
(a) only at the time of turning off (b) only at the time of turning on
(c) at the time of turning on and off (d) at all the time of operation.
46. Inductance of a coil varies
(a) directly as the cross-sectional area of magnetic core
(b) directly as square of number of turns (c) directly as the permeability of the core
(d) inversely as the length of the iron path (e) as (a) to (d).
47. All the rules and laws of D.C. circuit also apply to A.C. circuit containing
(a) capacitance only (b) inductance only
(c) resistance only (d) all above.
48. Time constant of an inductive circuit
(a) increases with increase of inductance and decrease of resistance
(b) increases with the increase of inductance and the increase of resistance
(c) increases with decrease of inductance and decrease of resistance

(d) increases with decrease of inductance and increase of resistance.
49. Power factor of an inductive circuit is usually improved by connecting capacitor to it in
(a) parallel (b) series
(c) either (a) or (b) (d) none of the above.
50. In a highly capacitive circuit the
(a) apparent power is equal to the actual power (b) reactive power is more than the apparent power
(c) reactive power is more than the actual power (d) actual power is more than its reactive power.
51. Power factor of the following circuit will be zero
(a) resistance (b) inductance
(c) capacitance (d) both (b) and (c).
52. Power factor of the following circuit will be unity
(a) inductance (b) capacitance
(c) resistance (d) both (a) and (b).
53. Power factor of the system is kept high
(a) to reduce line losses
(b) to maximise the utilization of the capacities of generators, lines and transformers
(c) to reduce voltage regulation of the line
(d) due to all above reasons.
54. The time constant of the capacitance circuit is defined as the time during which voltage
(a) falls to 36.8% of its final steady value (b) rises to 38.6% of its final steady value
(c) rises to 63.2% of its final steady value (d) none of the above.
55. In the R-L-C containing R = 4.5 Ω, L = 0.06 H, C = 0.6 µF the power factor will be
(a) zero (b) lagging
(c) leading (d) unity.
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (d)
7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (b)
13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (a)
19. (b) 20. (c) 21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (b)
25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (c) 30. (b)
31. (d) 32. (a) 33. (c) 34. (c) 35. (a) 36. (b)
37. (e) 38. (a) 39. (e) 40. (b) 41. (e) 42. (d)
43. (d) 44. (c) 45. (c) 46. (e) 47. (c) 48. (a)
49. (a) 50. (c) 51. (d) 52. (c) 53. (d) 54. (c)
55. (c).
THEORETICAL QUESTIONS
1. Define the following terms :
Circuit, Electrical network, Active network, Node and Branch.
2. What are the limitations of ohm’s law ?
3. State and explain Kirchhoff’s laws.
4. Discuss briefly application of Kirchhoff’s laws.
5. Explain the nodal voltage method for solving networks. How are the nodal equations written ?
6. Explain Cramer’s rule used for solving equations by determinants.
7. State and explain Superposition theorem.
8. State Norton’s theorem. List the steps for finding the current in a branch of a network with the help of
this theorem.
9. State Thevenin’s theorem.
10. State the maximum power transfer theorem and explain its importance.
11. Define the following terms as applied to an alternating current :
Cycle, frequency, time period, amplitude.
12. What do you mean by the term “Phase difference” ?
13. Explain the following terms relating alternating current :
(i) R.M.S. value (ii) Average value
(iii) Form factor (iv) Peak factor.
14. Explain briefly the following as applied to A.C. series and parallel circuits :
(i) Resonance frequency (ii) Q-factor.
15. What do you mean by transient disturbances ?
16. Define single energy and double energy transients.
EXERCISE
1. An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz has a maximum value of 120 A. Write down the equation for
its instantaneous value. Reckoning time from the instant the current is zero and is becoming positive,
find :
1
(i) The instantaneous value after second ;
360
(ii) The time taken to reach 96 A for the first time. [Ans. 103.9 A, 0.00245 second]
2. An alternating current of frequency 50 Hz has a maximum value of 100 A. Calculate :
(i) Its value 1/600 second after the instant the current is zero and its value decreasing thereafter wards.
(ii) How many seconds after the instant the current is zero (increasing thereafter wards) will the cur-
rent attain the value of 86.6 A ? [Ans. – 50 A, 1/300 s]
3. Calculate the r.m.s. value, the form factor of a periodic voltage having the following values for equal
time intervals changing suddenly from one value to the next : 0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 60, 50, 20, 10, 5, 0, 5, 10 V
etc. What would be the r.m.s. value of sine wave having the same peak value ?
[Ans. 31 V ; 23 V ; 1.35 ; (app.) ; 42.2 V]
4. A sinusoidally varying alternating current has an average value of 127.4 A. When its value is zero, then
its rate of change is 62,800 A/s. Find the analytical expression for the sine wave.
[Ans. i = 200 sin 100 πt]
5. A coil of resistance 10 Ω and inductance 0.1 H is connected in series with a 150 µF capacitor across a
200 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (i) the inductive reactance, (ii) the capacitive reactance, (iii) the imped-
ance (iv) the current, (v) the power factor, (vi) the voltage across the coil and the capacitor respectively.
[Ans. (i) 31.4 Ω, (ii) 21.2 Ω, (iii) 14.3 Ω, (iv) 14 A, (v) 0.7 lag (vi) 460 V, 297 V]
6. A circuit is made up of 10 Ω resistance, 12 mH inductance and 281.5 µF capacitance in series. The
supply voltage is 100 V (constant). Calculate the value of the current when the supply frequency is
(i) 50 Hz and (ii) 150 Hz. [Ans. 8 A leading ; 8 A lagging]
7. A coil having a resistance of 10 Ω and an inductance of 0.2 H is connected in series with a capacitor of
50.7 µF. The circuit is connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz A.C. supply. Calculate (i) the current flowing
(ii) the voltage across the capacitor (iii) the voltage across the coil. Draw a vector diagram to scale.
[Ans. (i) 10 A (ii) 628 V (iii) 635 V]
8. A coil is in series with a 20 µF capacitor across a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. The current taken by the circuit
is 8 A and the power consumed is 200 W. Calculate the inductance of the coil if the power factor of the
circuit is (i) leading and (ii) lagging.
Sketch a vector diagram for each condition and calculate the coil power factor in each case.
[Ans. 0.415 H ; 0.597 H ; 0.0238 ; 0.0166]
9. An A.C. series circuit has a resistance of 10 Ω, an inductance of 0.2 H and a capacitance of 60 µF.
Calculate :
(i) the resonant frequency (ii) the current and
(iii) the power at resonance.
Given that the applied voltage is 200 V. [Ans. 46 Hz ; 20 A ; 4 kW]
10. A circuit consists of an inductor which has a resistance of 10 Ω and an inductance of 0.3 H, in series with
a capacitor of 30 µF capacitance. Calculate :
(i) The impedance of the circuit to currents of 40 Hz ;
(ii) The resonant frequency ;
(iii) The peak value of stored energy in joules when the applied voltage is 200 V at the resonant frequency.
[Ans. 58.31 Ω ; 53 Hz ; 120 J]
11. A resistor and a capacitor are connected in series with a variable inductor. When the circuit is connected
to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply, the maximum current given by varying the inductance is 0.5 A. At this current,
the voltage across the capacitor is 250 V. Calculate the values of the following :
(i) The resistance ; (ii) The capacitance ;
(iii) The inductance.
Neglect the resistance of the inductor. [Ans. 480 Ω, 6.36 µF ; 1.59 H]
12. A resistance, a capacitor and a variable inductance are connected in series across a 200 V, 50 Hz supply.
The maximum current which can be obtained by varying the inductance is 314 mA and the voltage
across the capacitor is then 300 V. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor and the values of the
inductance and resistance. [Ans. 3.33 µF, 3.04 H, 637 Ω]
13. A circuit consisting of a coil of resistance 12 Ω and inductance 0.15 H in series with a capacitor of 12 µF
is connected to a variable frequency supply which has a constant voltage of 24 V.
Calculate : (i) The resonant frequency, (ii) The current in the circuit at resonance, (iii) The voltage
across the capacitor and the coil at resonance. [Ans. (i) 153 Hz, (ii) 2 A, (iii) 224 V]
14. A resistance of 24 Ω, a capacitance of 150 µF and an inductance of 0.16 H are connected in series with
each other. A supply at 240 V, 50 Hz is applied to the ends of the combination. Calculate (i) the current
in the circuit (ii) the potential differences across each element of the circuit (iii) the frequency to which
the supply would need to be changed so that the current would be at unity power-factor and find the
current at this frequency. [Ans. (i) 6.37 A (ii) VR = 152.8 V, VC = 320 V, VL = 123.3 V (iii) 32 Hz ; 10 A]
15. A coil-A of inductance 80 mH and resistance 120 Ω is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz single-phase supply.
In parallel with it is a 16 µF capacitor is series with a 40 Ω non-inductive resistor B. Determine
(i) The power factor of the combined circuit,
(ii) The total power taken from the supply. [Ans. (i) 0.945 lead (ii) 473 W]
16. A choking coil of inductance 0.08 H and resistance 12 ohm, is connected in parallel with a capacitor of
120 µF. The combination is connected to a supply at 240 V, 50 Hz. Determine the total current from the
supply and its power factor. Illustrate your answers with a phasor diagram. [Ans. 3.94 A, 0.943 lag]
17. A choking coil having a resistance of 20 Ω and an inductance of 0.07 henry is connected with a capacitor
of 60 µF capacitance which is in series with a resistor of 50 Ω. Calculate the total current and the phase
angle when this arrangement is connected to 200 V, 50 Hz mains. [Ans. 7.15 A, 24° 39′ lag]
18. A coil of resistance of 15 Ω and inductance 0.05 H is connected in parallel with a non-inductive resist-
ance of 20 Ω. Find (i) the current in each branch ; (ii) the total current (iii) the phase angle of whole
arrangement for an applied voltage of 200 V at 50 Hz. [Ans. 9.22 A ; 10 A ; 22.1°]
19. A sinusoidal 50 Hz voltage of 200 V (r.m.s.) supplies the following three circuits which are in parallel :
(i) a coil of inductance 0.03 H and resistance 3 Ω ; (ii) a capacitor of 400 µF in series with a resistance of
100 Ω ; (iii) a coil of inductance 0.02 H and resistance 7 Ω in series with a 300 µF capacitor. Find the total
current supplied and draw a complete vector diagram. [Ans. 29.4 A]
20. In a series-parallel circuit, the two parallel branches A and B are in series with C. The impedances are
ZA = (10 – j8) Ω, ZB = (9 – j6) Ω and ZC = (100 + j0). Find the currents IA and IB and the phase difference
between them. Draw the phasor diagram. [Ans. IA = 12.71 ∠– 30° 58′ IB = 15 ∠– 35° 56′ ; 4° 58′]
3
Three-Phase A.C. Circuits
1. Introduction. 2. Advantages of polyphase systems. 3. Generation of three-phase voltages.
4. Phase sequence and numbering of phases. 5. Inter-connection of three phases. 6. Star or Wye (Y)
connection. 7. Delta (∆) or Mesh connection. 8. Comparison between star and delta systems.
9. Measurement of power in 3-phase circuit: Three-wattmeters method—Two-wattmeter method—
One-wattmeter method. 10. Measurement of reactive voltamperes—Highlights—Objective Type
Questions—Theoretical Questions—Exercise.
1. INTRODUCTION
l Generation, transmission and heavy-power utilisation of A.C. electric energy almost
invariably involve a type of system or circuit called a polyphase system or polyphase circuit.
In such a system, each voltage source consists of a group of voltages having relative
magnitudes and phase angles. Thus, a m-phase system will employ voltage sources which,
conventionally, consist of m voltages substantially equal in magnitude and successively
displaced by a phase angle of 360°/m.
l A 3-phase system will employ voltage sources which, conventionally, consist of three voltages
substantially equal in magnitude and displaced by phase angles of 120°. Because it possesses
definite economic and operating advantages, the 3-phase system is by far the most common,
and consequently emphasis is placed on 3-phase circuits.
2. ADVANTAGES OF POLYPHASE SYSTEMS

The advantages of polyphase systems over single-phase systems are :
1. A polyphase transmission line requires less conductor material than a single-phase line for
transmitting the same amount power at the same voltage.
2. For a given frame size a polyphase machine gives a higher output than a single-phase
machine. For example, output of a 3-phase motor is 1.5 times the output of single-phase motor of
same size.
3. Polyphase motors have a uniform torque where most of the single-phase motors have a
pulsating torque.
4. Polyphase induction motors are self-starting and are more efficient. On the other hand
single-phase induction motors are not self-starting and are less efficient.
5. Per unit of output, the polyphase machine is very much cheaper.
6. Power factor of a single-phase motor is lower than that of polyphase motor of the same
rating.
7. Rotating field can be set up by passing polyphase current through stationary coils.
8. Parallel operation of polyphase alternators is simple as compared to that of single-phase
alternators because of pulsating reaction in single-phase alternator.
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2

Single-phase A.C. Circuits

1. INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT

2. GENERATION AND EQUATIONS OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

Fig. 1. Rotating a coil in a stationary Fig. 2. Rotating a magnetic field

Equations of Alternating Voltages and

the magnetic field or to the rate of change of flux link-

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

3. ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

Fig. 5. The graph of the sinusoidal voltage.

The equation of sinusoidal alternating current is given as :

I 2max I 2max I 2max I

LM Limits are taken from 0 to π, since O Fig. 6

Form factor (Kf) Peak factor (Kp)

2. Half wave rectified sine wave :

3. Full wave rectified sine wave :

Form factor (Kf) Peak factor (Kp)

Reasons for using alternating current (or voltage) of sinusoidal form :

to a reference axis or reference wave and ‘phase angle’

Solution. (a) We know that, i = Imax sin ωt

= 282.2 cos 225° = 280.2 × −

02 + 102 + 202 + 402 + 1002 + 1202 + 1002 + 402 + 202 + 102

Since the time period ‘T’ is 20 millisec.

Example 7. A resultant current wave is made up of two components : a 4A D.C. component

LM16 + 32 sin θ + 16 FG 1 − cos 2θ IJ OP dθ

Solution. Refer to Fig. 19.

Vr.m.s = 34.64 V. (Ans.)

4. SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS

Fig. 23. A.C. through pure ohmic resistance alone.

Power. Refer to Fig. 23 (c)

Hence average power consumed in a pure inductive circuit is zero.

Current through the circuit,

4.4. Phasor Algebra

E= a2 + b2 (cos θ + j sin θ) Fig. 28

= a2 + b2 (cos θ ± j sin θ) ......in general

3. Exponential form : E= a2 × b2 e+jθ

= a2 + b2 e±jθ ......in general

180° and hence reverses its sense because, j × j = j2 = (− 1)2 = – 1.

Solution. Refer to Fig. 30. A

The magnitude of the resultant vector V = (a1 + a2 )2 + (b1 + b2 )2

The position of V with respect to X-axis is θ = tan–1

Subtraction. V = V1 − V2 = (a1 + jb1) – (a2 + jb2) = (a1 – a2) + j(b1 – b2)

The magnitude of the resultant vector V = (a1 − a2 )2 + (b1 − b2 )2

The position of V with respect to X-axis is θ = tan–1

Multiplication and division of vector quantities :

V1 = a1 + jb1 = V1∠θ1, where θ1 = tan–1

V2 = a2 + jb2 = V2∠θ2, where θ2 = tan–1

∴ Magnitude of C = 34.752 + 33.182 = 48

Slope of C = tan–1 (33.18/34.75) = 43.68°

Fig. 33. R-L circuit (Resistance and inductance in series).

Let V = R.M.S. value of the applied voltage,

The term ‘cos φ’ is called the power factor =

3. Power factor, cos φ =

The numerical value of impedance vector = R2 + X L2

Apparent, Active (True or real) and Reactive Power :

So, I= ( Iactive )2 + ( Ireactive )2

Refer to Fig. 35.

R (= 5Ω) L (=31.8 mH)