Magnetic Particle

Testing
 Introduction
• Magnetic particle testing is a non
destructive testing method for detection of
surface and near surface discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials.
• It is one of the most widely utilized NDT methods
since it is fast and relatively easy to apply and
part surface preparation is not as critical as it
is for some other methods
• This method uses magnetic fields and small
magnetic particles (i.e. Iron filings) to detect
flaws in components.
• The only requirement from an inspect ability
standpoint is that the component being inspected
must be made of a ferromagnetic material (a
materials that can be magnetized) such as iron,
nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys
 Basic Principles
• In theory, magnetic particle testing has a
relatively simple concept
• For the case of a bar magnet, the magnetic
field is in and around the magnet. Any place
that a magnetic line of force exits or enters
the magnet is called a “pole” (magnetic lines
of force exit the magnet from north pole and
enter from the south pole)
• If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked
magnet, the particles will be attracted to and
cluster not only at the poles at the ends of
the magnet, but also at the poles at the edges
of the crack.
• This cluster of particles is much easier to
see than the actual crack and this is the
basis for magnetic particle inspection
• The first step in a magnetic particle testing is to
magnetize the component that is to be inspected.
• If any defects on or near the surface are present, the
defects will create a leakage field
• After the component has been magnetized, iron particles,
either in a dry or wet suspended form, are applied to
the surface of the magnetized part
• The particles will be attracted and cluster at the flux
leakage fields, thus forming a visible indication that
the inspector can detect
Advantages
• High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be
detected)
• Indications are produced directly on the surface of
the part and constitute a visual representation of the
flaw
• Minimal surface preparation (no need for paint removal)
• Portable (small portable equipment & materials
available in spray cans)
• Low cost (materials and associated equipment are
relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages
• Only surface and near surface defects can be detected.
• Only applicable to ferromagnetic materials
• Relatively small area can be inspected at a time
• Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can
be inspected
• The inspector must have direct access to the surface
being inspected
 Magnetism
• The term "magnetic field" simply describes a volume of
space where there is a change in energy within that
volume
• The location where a magnetic field exits or enters a
material is called a magnetic pole.
• Magnetic poles have never been detected in isolation
but always occur in pairs, hence the name dipole
• A bar magnet is a dipole with a north pole at one end
and south pole at the other.
• When an electric current flows through a
conductor, the movement of electrons
through the conductor causes a magnetic
field to form around the conductor.
• The magnetic field can be detected using
a compass.
• Since all matter is comprised of atoms,
all materials are affected in some way
by a magnetic field; however, materials
do not react the same way to the
magnetic field.
 Reaction of Materials to
Magnetic Field
• When a material is placed within a
magnetic field, the magnetic forces of
the material's electrons will be
affected. This effect is known as
Faraday's Law of Magnetic Induction
• However, materials can react quite
differently to the presence of an
external magnetic field
• The magnetic moments associated with
atoms have three origins: the electron
motion, the change in motion caused by
an external magnetic field, and the spin
of the electrons.
According to their interaction with a magnetic
field, materials can be classified as:
• Diamagnetic materials :- Diamagnetic materials
are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and
the material does not retain the magnetic
properties when the external field is removed.
In diamagnetic materials all the electrons are
paired so there is no permanent net magnetic
moment per atom. Most elements in the periodic
table, including copper, silver, and gold, are
diamagnetic
• Paramagnetic materials These materials are
slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the
material does not retain the magnetic
properties when the external field is removed.
Paramagnetic materials have some unpaired
electrons. Examples of paramagnetic materials
include magnesium, molybdenum, and lithium
• Ferromagnetic materials :-They exhibit a strong attraction
to magnetic fields and are able to retain their magnetic
properties after the external field has been removed. It
have some unpaired electrons so their atoms have a net
magnetic moment. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of
ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetization
• When a ferromagnetic material is in the unmagnetized state,
the domains are nearly randomly organized (since the
crystals are in arbitrary directions) and the net magnetic
field for the part as a whole is zero
• When a magnetizing force is applied, the domains become
aligned to produce a strong magnetic field within the part
• Components made of these materials are commonly inspected
using the magnetic particle method.
Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet
• The magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet
can be seen in the magnetograph below. A
magnetograph can be created by placing a
piece of paper over a magnet and sprinkling
the paper with iron filings. The particles
align themselves with the lines of magnetic
force produced by the magnet.
General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
• Magnetic lines of force have a number of
important properties, which include
1. They never cross one another.
2. They all have the same strength
3. Their density decreases with increasing
distance from the poles
4. They flow from the south pole to the north
pole within a material and north pole to
south pole in air.
 Electromagnetic Fields
• Magnets are not the only source of magnetic fields
• The flow of electric current through a conductor
generates a magnetic field.
• When electric current flows in a long straight
wire, a circular magnetic field is generated
around the wire and the intensity of this magnetic
field is directly proportional to the amount of
current carried by the wire
• In most conductors, the magnetic field exists only
as long as the current is flowing. However, in
ferromagnetic materials the electric current will
cause some or all of the magnetic domains to align
and a residual magnetic field will remain.
• direction of the magnetic field is dependent on
the direction of the electrical current in the
wire
• The direction of the magnetic field around a
conductor can be determined using a simple rule
called the “right-hand clasp rule”.
• If a person grasps a conductor in one's right
hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of
the current, the fingers will circle the
conductor in the direction of the magnetic field
• Note: remember that current flows from
the positive terminal to the negative
terminal (electrons flow in the
opposite direction
Magnetic Field Produced by a Coil
• When a current carrying wire is formed into several
loops to form a coil
• Magnetic field circling each loop combines with the
fields from the other loops to produce a
concentrated field through the center of the coil
(the field flows along the longitudinal axis and
circles back around the outside of the coil).
• The strength of the magnetic field
increases not only with increasing
current but also with each loop that
is added to the coil
• The concentrated magnetic field inside
a coil is very useful in magnetizing
ferromagnetic materials for inspection
using the magnetic particle testing
method.
Magnetic properties of a material
• Retentivity : The capacity for retaining magnetism
after the action of the magnetizing force has
ceased
• Residual magnetism: Is defined as the amount of
magnetization left behind after removing the
external magnetic field from the circuit
• Coercive Force : The amount of reverse magnetic
field which must be applied to a magnetic
material to make the magnetic flux return to zero
• Permeability : Is the measure of the resistance of
a material against the formation of a magnetic
field
• Reluctance : Is the opposition that a
ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment
of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to
the resistance in an electrical circuit.
Magnetic Field Orientation and
Flaw Detectability
• To properly inspect a component for
cracks or other defects, it is important
to understand that the orientation of
the crack relative to the magnetic lines
of force determines if the crack can or
cannot be detected
• There are two general types of magnetic
fields that can be established within a
component.
1. longitudinal magnetic field
2. circular magnetic field
longitudinal magnetic field
• A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic
lines of force that run parallel to the long
axis of the part.
• Longitudinal magnetization of a component
can be accomplished using the longitudinal
field set up by a coil or solenoid.
• It can also be accomplished using permanent
magnets or electromagnets
Circular magnetic field
• Magnetic lines of force that run
circumferentially around the perimeter of a
part.
• A circular magnetic field is induced in an
article by either passing current through
the component or by passing current through
a conductor surrounded by the component.
• The type of magnetic field established is determined
by the method used to magnetize the specimen
• Being able to magnetize the part in two directions is
important because the best detection of defects occurs
when the lines of magnetic force are established at
right angles to the longest dimension of the defect
• This orientation creates the largest disruption of the
magnetic field within the part and the greatest flux
leakage at the surface of the part.
• If the magnetic field is parallel to the defect, the
field will see little disruption and no flux leakage
field will be produced.
• Since defects may occur in various and
unknown directions, each part is
normally magnetized in two directions
at right angles to each other.
 Magnetization of Ferromagnetic
Materials
• There are a variety of methods
that can be used to establish a
magnetic field in a component for
evaluation using magnetic particle
inspection
• There are two types of magnetizing
method
1. Direct Magnetization
2. Indirect Magnetization
• With direct magnetization, current is passed
directly through the component.
• The flow of current causes a circular
magnetic field to form in and around the
conductor.
• When using the direct magnetization method,
care must be taken to ensure that good
electrical contact is established and
maintained between the test equipment and the
test component to avoid damage of the
component
There are several ways that direct
magnetization is commonly accomplished
1. Headshot
2. Prods
Head shot
• One way involves clamping the component between two
electrical contacts in a special piece of equipment
• Current is passed through the component and a circular
magnetic field is established in and around the component.
• When the magnetizing current is stopped, a residual
magnetic field will remain within the component.
• The strength of the induced magnetic field is proportional
to the amount of current passed through the component
clamps or prods,
• A second technique involves using clamps or
prods, which are attached or placed in contact
with the component.
• Electrical current flows through the component
from contact to contact.
• The current sets up a circular magnetic field
around the path of the current.
Magnetization Using Indirect Induction
(Indirect Magnetization)
• Indirect magnetization is accomplished
by using a strong external magnetic
field to establish a magnetic field
within the component.
• As with direct magnetization, there
are several ways that indirect
magnetization can be accomplished
1. Permanent magnets
2. Yoke
3. central conductor
4. coils and solenoids
Permanent magnets
• The use of permanent magnets is a low cost
method of establishing a magnetic field.
• However, their use is limited due to lack
of control of the field strength and the
difficulty of placing and removing strong
permanent magnets from the component.
Yoke
• Electromagnets in the form of an adjustable horseshoe
magnet (called a yoke) eliminate the problems associated
with permanent magnets and are used extensively in industry
• Electromagnets only exhibit a magnetic flux when electric
current is flowing around the soft iron core.
• When the magnet is placed on the component, a magnetic
field is established between the north and south poles of
the magnet.
Central conductor.
• Another way of indirectly inducting a magnetic field
in a material is by using the magnetic field of a
current carrying conductor.
• A circular magnetic field can be established in
cylindrical components by using a central conductor.
• Typically, one or more cylindrical components are hung
from a solid copper bar running through the inside
diameter.
• Current is passed through the copper bar and the
resulting circular magnetic field establishes a
magnetic field within the test components
coils and solenoids
• The use of coils and solenoids is a third method of
indirect magnetization.
• When the length of a component is several times larger
than its diameter, a longitudinal magnetic field can be
established in the component
• The component is placed longitudinally in the
concentrated magnetic field that fills the center of a
coil or solenoid
• This magnetization technique is often referred to as
a "coil shot
 Types of Magnetizing Current
• Electric current is often used to establish
the magnetic field in components during
magnetic particle inspection.
• Alternating current (AC) and direct current
(DC) are the two basic types of current
commonly used
• The type of current used can have an effect
on the inspection results
1. Direct current (DC)
2. Alternating current (AC)
3. Rectified Alternating Current
Direct current (DC)
• Direct current (DC) flows continuously in
one direction at a constant voltage
• DC is very desirable when inspecting for
subsurface defects because DC generates a
magnetic field that penetrates deeper into
the material
• In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic
field produced by DC generally penetrates
the entire cross-section of the component.
Alternating current (AC)
• Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of
50 or 60 cycles per second
• Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is
convenient to make use of it for magnetic particle
inspection.
• However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in
ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field will be limited
to a thin layer at the surface of the component. This
phenomenon is known as the "skin effect
• Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used only when the
inspection is limited to surface defects
Rectified Alternating Current
• the skin effect limits the use of AC since
many inspection applications call for the
detection of subsurface defects.
• AC can be converted to current that is very
much like DC through the process of
rectification
• With the use of rectifiers, the reversing AC
can be converted to a one directional current
Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC)
• When single phase alternating current is
passed through a rectifier, current is allowed
to flow in only one direction
• The reverse half of each cycle is blocked out
so that a one directional, pulsating current
is produced
• The current rises from zero to a maximum and
then returns to zero. No current flows during
the time when the reverse cycle is blocked out.
• This type of current is often referred to as
half wave DC or pulsating DC.
• The pulsation of the HWAC helps in forming
magnetic particle indications by vibrating the
particles and giving them added mobility where
that is especially important when using dry
particles
Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current
(FWAC) (Single Phase)
• Full wave rectification inverts the
negative current to positive current
rather than blocking it out.
• This produces a pulsating DC with no
interval between the pulses
• Filtering is usually performed to
soften the sharp polarity switching
in the rectified current.
• While particle mobility is not as
good as half-wave AC due to the
reduction in pulsation, the depth of
the subsurface magnetic field is
Three Phase Full Wave Rectified
Alternating Current
• This type of electrical current is
also highly desirable for magnetic
particle testing because when it is
rectified and filtered, the
resulting current very closely
resembles direct current.
 Demagnetization
After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually
necessary to demagnetize the component. Residual magnetic fields can:
• affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.
• interfere with electronic equipment such as a compass.
• create a condition known as "arc blow" in the welding process.
Arc blow may cause the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be
repelled from the weld.
• cause abrasive particles to cling to bearing or faying surfaces
and increase wear

Removal of a field may be accomplished in several ways. The most

effective way to demagnetize a material is by heating the material
above its curie temperature (for instance, the curie temperature for
a low carbon steel is 770°C). When steel is heated above its curie
temperature then it is cooled back down, the orientation of the
magnetic domains of the individual grains will become randomized
again and thus the component will contain no residual magnetic field.
 Measuring Magnetic Fields
• When performing a magnetic particle inspection, it
is very important to be able to determine the
direction and intensity of the magnetic field.
• The field intensity must be high enough to cause
an indication to form, but not too high to cause
nonrelevant indications to mask relevant
indications.
• Also, after magnetic inspection it is often needed
to measure the level of residual magnetism
• The two devices commonly used for quantitative
measurement of magnetic fields in magnetic
particle inspection are the field indicator and
the Hall-effect meter, which is also called a
gauss meter.
Field Indicators
• Field indicators are small mechanical devices
that utilize a soft iron vane that is deflected
by a magnetic field
• The vane is attached to a needle that rotates
and moves the pointer for the scale
• This limited range makes them best suited for
measuring the residual magnetic field after
demagnetization
Hall-Effect (Gauss/Tesla) Meter
• A Hall-effect meter is an electronic device that provides a
digital readout of the magnetic field strength in Gauss or Tesla
units
• The meter uses a very small conductor or semiconductor element at
the tip of the probe
• Electric current is passed through the conductor.
• In a magnetic field, a force is exerted on the moving electrons
which tends to push them to one side of the conductor
• A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance
this magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage between
the two sides of the conductor
 Magnetization Equipment for
Magnetic Particle Testing
• To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it
is important to become familiar with the different types of
magnetic fields and the equipment used to generate them
• Flaws that are normal (90 degrees) to the magnetic field
will produce the strongest indications because they disrupt
more of the magnet flux.
• Therefore, for proper inspection of a component, it is
important to be able to establish a magnetic field in at
least two directions.
• A variety of equipment exists to establish the magnetic
field for magnetic particle testing.
• One way to classify equipment is based on its portability.
Some equipment is designed to be portable so that
inspections can be made in the field and some is designed
to be stationary for ease of inspection in the laboratory
or manufacturing facility.
Portable Equipment
• Permanent Magnets :- Permanent magnets can be
used for magnetic particle inspection as the
source of magnetism. The use of industrial
magnets is not popular because they are very
strong and thus they are difficult and
sometimes dangerous to handle.
• permanent magnets are sometimes used by divers
for inspection in underwater environments or
other areas, such as explosive environments,
where electromagnets cannot be used.
Electromagnetic Yokes
• An electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of equipment
that is used to establish a magnetic field.
• A switch is included in the electrical circuit so that the
current and, therefore, the magnetic field can be turned on and
off
• They can be powered with AC from a wall socket or by DC from a
battery pack
• This type of magnet generates a very strong magnetic field in a
local area where the poles of the magnet touch the part being
inspected.
• Some yokes can lift weights in excess of 40 pounds.
Prods
• Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against the
surface of the component being inspected to make contact for
passing electrical current (AC or DC) through the metal.
• Prods are typically made from copper and have an insulated
handle to help protect the operator.
• However, caution is required when using prods because electrical
arcing can occur and cause damage to the component if proper
contact is not maintained between the prods and the component
surface.
• For this reason, the use of prods is not allowed when inspecting
aerospace and other critical components.
Portable Coils and Conductive Cables
• Coils and conductive cables are used to
establish a longitudinal magnetic field within
a component
• When a preformed coil is used, the component
is placed against the inside surface on the
coil. Coils typically have three or five turns
of a copper cable within the molded frame.
• A foot switch is often used to energize the
coil.
Stationery Equipment
• Stationary magnetic particle inspection equipment is designed for use in
laboratory or production environment
• The most common stationary system is the wet horizontal (bench) unit.
• Wet horizontal units are designed to allow for batch inspections of a
variety of components.
• The units have head and tail stocks (similar to a lathe) with electrical
contact that the part can be clamped between.
• A circular magnetic field is produced with direct magnetization

• Most units also have a movable coil that can be moved into place so the
indirect magnetization can be used to produce a longitudinal magnetic
field.
• The wet magnetic particle solution is collected and held in a tank
• A pump and hose system is used to apply the particle solution to the
components being inspected.
Pie Gage
• The pie gage is a disk of highly permeable
material divided into four, six, or eight sections
by non-ferromagnetic material (such as copper).
• The division serve as artificial defects that
radiate out in different directions from the
center.
• The gage is placed on the test piece copper side
up and the test piece is magnetized.
• After particles are applied and the excess removed,
the indications provide the inspector the
orientation of the magnetic field.
Slotted Strips
• Slotted strips are pieces of highly
permeable ferromagnetic material with
slots of different widths
• These strips can be used with the wet or
dry method
• They are placed on the test object as it
is inspected
• The indications produced on the strips
give the inspector a general idea of the
field strength in a particular area
 Magnetic Particles
• As mentioned previously, the particles that are used for
magnetic particle inspection are a key ingredient as they
form the indications that alert the inspector to the
presence of defects.
• Particles start out as tiny milled pieces of iron or iron
oxide
• A pigment (somewhat like paint) is bonded to their surfaces
to give the particles color
• The metal used for the particles has high magnetic
permeability and low retentively
• High magnetic permeability is important because it makes
the particles attract easily to small magnetic leakage
fields from discontinuities, such as flaws.
• Low retentively is important because the particles
themselves never become strongly magnetized so they do not
stick to each other or the surface of the part
• Particles are available in a dry mix or a wet solution.
Dry Magnetic Particles
• Dry magnetic particles can
typically be purchased in red,
black, gray, yellow and several
other colors so that a high level
of contrast between the particles
and the part being inspected can be
achieved.
• This makes fine particles more
sensitive to the leakage fields
from very small discontinuities
Wet Magnetic Particles
• Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet
suspension such as water or oil
• The wet magnetic particle testing method is
generally more sensitive than the dry because
the suspension provides the particles with
more mobility and makes it possible for
smaller particles to be used
• The wet method also makes it easy to apply
the particles uniformly to a relatively large
area.
• Wet method magnetic particles products differ
from dry powder products in a number of ways.
• One way is that both visible and fluorescent
particles are available