Chevron Gray Manual For Compressors
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Abstract
This section is an overview of dynamic (centrifugal and axial) and positive displace-
ment compressors and an overview which directs readers to more detailed informa-
tion on specific categories found in subsequent sections of the manual.
This section also provides background information on the principles of compres-
sion, including a discussion of thermodynamics. It is not essential that you read this
entire section, but you may wish to use it as reference material when selecting a
compressor.
To confirm your initial selection of a new compressor, you may find that unique site
requirements or economic factors pose serious problems for the original choice of
machine. Accordingly, it may be necessary to evaluate two or more categories (or a
combination of categories) of machines for a given application.
Contents Page
110 Introduction 100-3
111 Background
120 Compressor Categories 100-4
121 Dynamic Compressors
122 Positive Displacement Compressors
130 Thermodynamics of Compression 100-6
131 Introduction
132 Perfect Gas Equation and Compressibility
133 Gas Mixtures, Specific Gravity, and Humidity
134 Flow Measurements
135 Comparison of the Isothermal, Isentropic and Polytropic Processes
136 Isothermal Compression
137 Isentropic (Adiabatic) Compression
138 Polytropic Compression
139 Miscellaneous Notes
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140 Design Considerations 100-22
141 Compressor Duty
142 System Resistance and Characteristic Curves
143 Gas Analysis
144 Site Conditions
145 Service Requirements
150 Application and Selection Criteria 100-26
151 Selection Basis
152 Approximate Application Ranges
153 Compressor Selection Process
154 Selection Analysis
160 Packaging 100-41
170 Driver Selection 100-45
171 Function of Drivers
172 Driver Consideration
173 Driver Characteristics
174 Driver Selection
175 Special Driver Considerations
180 Suction System Design 100-56
181 Separator Vessels
182 High Efficiency Filters
183 Piping And Equipment Considerations
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110 Introduction
111 Background
Most work involving compressors falls into one of three categories:
1. Purchasing and installing new compressors.
2. Troubleshooting problems during startup or while in service.
3. Modifying compressors to resolve problems or to accommodate operational or
service changes (different flow, gas pressures, etc.).
The overall goal in all three cases is the same: To maximize profits while providing
safe, reliable equipment which satisfies operating requirements and local environ-
mental constraints. Profitability is a long-term goal involving the following factors:
1. Meeting safety and environmental needs (including noise restrictions)
2. Initial cost
3. Installation and commissioning expense
4. Energy consumption (this is a major expense on compressors)
5. Reliability
6. Maintaining production (this is often the overwhelming economic factor)
7. Operability (troublesome equipment wastes resources that can be spent on prof-
itable work)
8. Starting up on time, the first time, in critical services
9. Maintenance expense
10. Operating flexibility
Although each of these factors must be considered when making decisions, there is
some degree of conflict between them. For example, buying an inexpensive unit
may keep initial costs down but it may also be less reliable and require frequent
maintenance. On the other hand, buying the ultimately reliable compressor may be
prohibitively expensive in up-front costs and unnecessary to ensure acceptable
performance.
Use judgment when deciding which factors are the most important. It is especially
important to communicate with the people responsible for operating and main-
taining the unit. Their input on the relative priority of the above factors is invalu-
able. In the end, however, engineering judgment will always be necessary.
Section 154 contains additional information which illustrates how these factors
impact the overall cost.
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120 Compressor Categories
Compressors may be classified into two main categories - Dynamic and Positive
Displacement. These are illustrated in Figure 100-1.
Fig. 100-1 Compressor Types
The range of application of compressors varies widely, with inlet pressures from
vacuum to several thousand pounds per square inch (psi) and discharge pressures
from less than atmospheric to well beyond 15,000 psi. The gases handled vary from
hydrogen, with a molecular weight of 2, to refrigerants and unusual gases having
molecular weights in the low hundreds. The sizes, types, and construction of
compressors vary greatly to accommodate this diversity of service.
121 Dynamic Compressors
Dynamic compressors develop a rise in pressure by increasing the kinetic energy of
the gas flow on a continuous basis. The types within this category include:
• Centrifugal (radial)
• Axial
Another means of compressing gases on a continuous-flow basis is the ejector. This
device has no moving parts, but requires a motive fluid which mixes with the gas
being compressed. Because of its rather low efficiency and limited scope of applica-
tion, the ejector is not covered in this manual. Typical applications include: vacuum
service on refinery vacuum distillation columns, and air ejection from the steam
condensers.
A centrifugal (dynamic) compressor is illustrated in Figure 100-2.
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122 Positive Displacement Compressors
Positive displacement compressors perform work on the gas in a repetitive non-
continuous process. The types within this category include:
• Reciprocating
• Rotary
– Screw
– Sliding Vane
– Liquid Ring
– Roots (Straight Lobe) Blower
A reciprocating positive displacement machine is shown in Figure 100-3. Two
rotary positive displacement machines are shown in Figures 100-4 and 100-5.
Refer to Sections 200 and 300 for more detailed discussions on centrifugal and
reciprocating compressors.
Fig. 100-2 Cut-away of a Six-stage Vertically-split Fig. 100-3 Balanced-Opposed Horizontal Motor-Driven,
Centrifugal Compressor Four-Cylinder Reciprocating Compressor,
Plan View (Courtesy of Dresser Rand)
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Fig. 100-4 Cut-Away of a Two-Lobe Rotary Positive Fig. 100-5 Helical Lobe Rotary Positive Displacement
Displacement Compressor (Courtesy of Compressor (Courtesy of Howell Training
Roots Div., Dresser Industries) Group)
130 Thermodynamics of Compression
131 Introduction
The principles of compression are based on thermodynamics. Compressing gases
involves complications that pumping liquids does not. The compressible nature of
gases requires us to account for their more complex behavior through the applica-
tion of thermodynamic principles.
The following information provides a detailed tutorial on compression fundamen-
tals, to help understand how compressors work. However, it is not essential for
many applications; therefore, you may wish to bypass this material, and go directly
to Section 140.
Understanding thermodynamics of compression, as described in this section, is
helpful for the following reasons:
1. It helps in selecting the best category and mechanical design for the required
flow rate and differential pressure. These selections can significantly impact the
total project cost (including installation and energy costs).
2. Properly defining the mass- and volumetric-flow rates is essential in design
and specification (including rerates), and may also be helpful in trouble-
shooting.
For example, there are several commonly used conventions for defining flow
rate:
– pounds/hour (lb/hr),
– million standard cubic feet per day (MMSCFD),
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– standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM),
– actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM),
– inlet cubic feet per minute (ICFM), and
– moles per hour (mol/hr).
It is essential to work with consistent engineering units. (Errors are not uncommon.)
3. The thermodynamic properties of the gas (or mixture of gases) affect the
energy required to do the compression. The energy requirements affect both
the size of the driver and the mechanical design of the compressor. Both are
critical design factors in new applications and rerates.
4. The thermodynamic properties of a mixture of gases can be estimated, based
on the properties of the individual components. Most compression applications
involve mixtures.
5. In gases with water vapor, the water content also needs to be accounted for.
The following sub-sections review fundamental concepts which apply to all
compressors.
132 Perfect Gas Equation and Compressibility
Equation 100-1 defines the behavior of a “perfect” gas in terms of variables listed:
pressure, temperature, volume, etc. This is a helpful starting point, although few
gases actually are “perfect”:
pV = WRT
(Eq. 100-1)
where:
p = absolute pressure in pounds per square foot
V = volume in cubic feet
W = weight in pounds
R = Ro/M = constant for specific gas
Ro = universal gas constant = 1545.3 (ft.-lb./lb mol R)
T = absolute temperature in degrees Rankine (R)
M = molecular weight
For a continuous flow process, Equation 100-1 is modified as follows
PQ = 10.73wT
----------------------
M
(Eq. 100-2)
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where:
Q = actual volumetric flow rate in cubic feet per minute (ACFM)
w = weight flow, pounds per minute and,
P is now in psia
To correct for deviations from a “perfect” gas, a compressibility factor, Z, is added
to Equation 100-2. Z is an empirical factor to correct the equation for actual, real
gases which deviate from “perfect.”
PQ = 10.73wTZ
--------------------------
M
(Eq. 100-3)
For example:
At standard conditions (14.7 psia, 60F) the factor (Z) of most gases is generally
assumed to be 1.0. However, some gases deviate appreciably even at standard
conditions. For example, normal butane has a Zo value of 0.975 (Zo denotes the
factor at standard conditions).
Values for Z are available in charts for the gas being compressed. If a chart is not
available, or if the gas is a mixture, generalized compressibility charts may be
used. To use these charts, it is necessary to compute the so-called reduced pres-
sure and temperature as follows[v]
P-
P r = ----
Pc
(Eq. 100-4)
where:
T-
T r = -----
Tc
(Eq. 100-5)
Pr = Reduced pressure
P = Actual absolute pressure, psia
Pc = Critical pressure of the gas, psia
Tr = Reduced temperature
T = Actual absolute temperature, R
Tc = Critical temperature of the gas, R
Appendices F and G contain a collection of compressibility curves for specific gases
and generalized charts. The critical temperature and pressure of a gas mixture are
explained in the next sub-section.
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The compressibility of some pure gases, notably steam and ammonia, cannot be
accurately predicted using the generalized charts. However, steam tables and an
individual chart for pure ammonia are available. When the water vapor or ammonia
content of a mixture is small (5% or less), the generalized charts may be used for the
mixture with relatively good accuracy.
For gas mixtures containing hydrogen or helium, effective values of critical pres-
sure and temperature for helium and hydrogen must be used to derive acceptable
accuracy from the generalized charts. These effective values are included in
Appendix F.
Note also that Z values can be calculated using PPROP.
133 Gas Mixtures, Specific Gravity, and Humidity
Gas Mixtures
Knowing the mole fractions in a mixture leads to calculation of several important
properties of the mixture:
• the molecular weight, Mm
• molal specific heat, MCp(m)
• the critical pressure, Pc(m), and
• critical temperature Tc(m).
A sample problem is included in Appendix B. Also see Figure 100-6 for a sample
calculation.
The mole fraction X is
N N N
X 1 = -------1- , X 2 = -------2- , X 3 = -------3- , etc.
Nm Nm Nm
(Eq. 100-6)
where:
Nm = Total moles in a mixture
N1, etc. = Number of moles of each individual component
A “mole” is actually a number of molecules (about 6 1023). A “mole fraction” is
the ratio of molecules of one component in a mixture. For example, if the mole frac-
tion of methane in natural gas is 0.90, this means that 90% of the molecules are
methane. Since volume fractions are equivalent to mole fractions, the mixture is
also 90% (by volume) methane.
The mixture fractions could also be calculated on a mass or weight basis. The mole
(volume) basis is used in compressor calculations because it is a simpler, less
confusing method.
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Fig. 100-6 Sample Calculation of Gas Mixture Properties
The molal specific heat is used to determine the k value (ratio of specific heats) as
follows. The k value is often called the adiabatic exponent, and is a value used in
the calculation of horsepower, adiabatic head, and adiabatic discharge temperature.
(Refer to Isentropic [Adiabatic] Compression.) The k value is:
C MC p m MC p m
k = -----p- = ----------------------------------
- = ---------------------------------------
Cv Ro MC p m – 1.986
MC p m – -------- -
778
(Eq. 100-7)
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where:
MCp(m) = Molal specific heat (heat capacity) of mixture at constant pressure
778 = Conversion factor, ft-lb/BTU
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure
Cv = Specific heat at constant volume
Ro = See Equation 100-1 for Ro definition
MCp(m) should be taken at the desired temperature (usually the average of suction
and discharge temperature). This aspect will be covered in Isentropic (Adiabatic)
Compression. Note that the k value of the mixture must be determined by first
determining the molal heat capacity of the mixture (see Figure 100-6). It is a
common mistake to multiply the k values of the individual gas components by their
respective mole fractions to determine the k value of the mixture.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of the gas mixture is determined by dividing the molecular
weight of the mixture by that of air.
Mm
S.G. = ------------
-
28.96
(Eq. 100-8)
Humidity
For air compressors it is usually necessary to account for water vapor content. It is
important to know the moisture content accurately when a process requires a defi-
nite quantity of dry air. Furthermore, the moisture in the inlet air affects the power
requirement, and water drop-out in intercoolers and aftercoolers.
Note that water-vapor content must also be accounted for as a component in process
streams, if present. In those cases, the content is usually available from process
engineering, gas and chemical engineering, etc.
The following information discusses how to account for water content in air.
Relative humidity, in percent, may be determined from the following relationship:
Pv
% R.H. = --------- 100
P sat
(Eq. 100-9)
where:
Pv = Partial pressure of actual water vapor content
Psat = Partial pressure of water vapor when air is fully saturated at the
temperature of interest (can be found in steam tables)
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Specific Humidity is the ratio of the weight of the water vapor content to the
weight of dry air at the existing conditions of pressure and temperature, and is deter-
mined as follows:
Wv 18 P v
S.H. = ---------- = ------------- ---------------
W da 28.96 P – P v
Pv
= 0.622 ---------------
P – Pv
(Eq. 100-10)
where:
Wv = Weight of water vapor
Wda = Weight of dry air
P = Total pressure of the gas mixture (usually atmospheric), in
absolute
Relative and specific humidity may be obtained from a psychrometric chart when
the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures are known. However, most psychrometric
charts are based on the International Standard sea-level pressure of 14.7 psia, and
are, therefore, accurate only for that barometric pressure.
For example, if a standard (14.7 psia) psychrometric chart were used for conditions
of 5000 feet elevation (12.23 psia), 80F dry bulb, and 60F wet bulb, the indicated
specific humidity would be low by about 25%, and the relative humidity low
by 10%.
If the altitude is more than 200 or 300 feet above sea level, the following equation
should be used instead of a psychrometric chart:
P – P v wb
- t – t wb
P v = P v wb – ------------------------------------
2830 – 1.44t wb
(Eq. 100-11)
where:
Pv(wb) = Vapor pressure in psia corresponding to wet bulb temperature
(from steam tables)
t = Dry bulb temperature, F
twb = Wet bulb temperature, F
Knowing Pv, the relative and specific humidities can be calculated with
Equations 100-9 and 100-10. The volumetric or mole percent of the water vapor can
be calculated from Equation 100-6 as follows:
P
mol % H 2 O = -----v- 100
P
(Eq. 100-12)
The mole percent of dry air is then 100 minus the mole percent of the water vapor.
The other properties of the mixture of air and water vapor (molecular weight, MCp,
etc.) may then be calculated.
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134 Flow Measurements
Flow through a compressor may be stated in a number of different ways:
• MMSCFD
• Moles/Hour (MPH)
• SCFM
• ACFM
• Weight Flow
MMSCFD
MMSCFD denotes millions of standard cubic feet per day, where “standard”
means 14.7 psia and 60F. This notation is often used in gas plant, gas transmission,
and refinery applications.
Moles/Hour (MPH)
Process engineers often use MPH in material balance computations. (A “mole” is a
fixed quantity of molecules. This concept greatly simplifies process calculations.)
A mole of any gas occupies approximately 379.4 cubic feet at standard conditions
(14.7 psia, 60F), and it has a weight in pounds equal to the molecular weight of the
gas. For example, a mole of methane (CH4) would have a volume of 379.4 cubic
feet at standard conditions, and that volume would weigh 16.04 pounds. Knowing
the moles per hour, the MMSCFD may be determined from:
MPH 379.4 24 -
MMSCFD = ------------------------------------------
10 6
(Eq. 100-13)
SCFM
SCFM denotes standard cubic feet per minute, and is frequently used in compres-
sion work.
ACFM
Actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM) at the inlet, often called Q, is related to the
physical size of the compressor. Several design parameters are based on Q. ACFM
at inlet is also abbreviated ICFM. ACFM at the compressor discharge is sometimes
of interest, and in this manual it will be abbreviated DCFM (discharge cubic feet
per minute).
However, note that ICFM is the more appropriate term to use when referring to inlet
conditions. In many cases, ACFM is often used interchangeably with ICFM. If there
is any doubt, be sure to get clarification.
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SCFM may be converted to ACFM, or Q, by:
Q 1 = ACFM
= SCFM 14.7 T 1 Z 1
---------- --------- ------
P 1 520 Z 0
(Eq. 100-14)
where:
P1, T1, Z1 = Absolute pressure (psia), absolute temperature (R), and
compressibility at the condition of interest.
Zo = Compressibility at standard conditions.
Refer to the nomograph in Appendix D for quick conversions between ICFM and
SCFM.
Weight Flow
Weight flow, w, may be calculated from any conditions of interest using the
following equation (derived from Equation 100-3):
P1 Q1 M
w = --------------------------
10.73T 1 Z 1
(Eq. 100-15)
Refer to the nomograph in Appendix D for quick conversions between weight flow
and inlet cubic feet per minute.
Weight flow can also be determined from SCFM:
w = 14.7 SCFM M- = --------------------------
------------------------------------- SCFM M-
10.73 520 Z 0 379.4 Z 0
(Eq. 100-16)
Zo is often taken as 1.0 regardless of its actual value. It is important to use the same
value for Zo in all calculations. Although the discrepancy would generally be no
more than one or two percent in a single calculation, it could be compounded after
conversions are made back and forth by several parties involved with the
compressor project. Be consistent.
When specifying compressors, it is best to use weight flow and MMSCFD or
SCFM, and to clarify the standard conditions to every one involved.
Other Conventions for Standard Conditions
Standard conditions of 14.7 psia and 60F have been referred to in foregoing para-
graphs. This standard is prevalent in the USA in the petroleum and natural gas
industries. API Standards use these standard conditions. However, in working with
air compression systems, “Standard Air” as adopted by ASME is defined as air at a
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pressure of 14.7 psia, a temperature of 68F, and a relative humidity of 36%. These
conditions correspond to an air density of 0.0750 pounds per cubic foot. (Refer to
the “References” section of this manual for more information.)
In the metric system, the normal cubic meter per hour is a widely used flow term.
Normal refers to conditions of 760 mmHg Absolute (14.7 psia) and 0C (32F).
Weight flow is generally stated in kilograms per hour. The SI system uses kilo-
pascals for pressure (1 kPa = 0.145 psi). Other metric units such as kilograms per
square centimeter or Newtons per square meter are used. (Conversion tables are
included in Appendix D.)
The matter of standard conditions is further confused by the ISO conditions for
base-rating a combustion gas turbine. These conditions are 760 mmHg Absolute,
15C, and 60% relative humidity. The rated flow through the compressor on the
front end of a gas turbine is universally based on ISO conditions.
135 Comparison of the Isothermal, Isentropic and Polytropic Processes
The two actual methods used to calculate thermodynamic relationships are isen-
tropic (adiabatic) and polytropic. These calculations are the basis for determining
capacity, driver size, and mechanical design. The following explains the differences
and when they are used.
Figure 100-7 shows the compression paths of three theoretical processes:
isothermal, isentropic, and polytropic. The theoretical work needed for isothermal
compression is described by the area ABEF. It can be seen that the isothermal work
is appreciably less than that of the isentropic area ABDF. Similarly, the isentropic
area is smaller than the polytropic area ABCF.
Fig. 100-7 Theoretical Compression Paths on P-V Diagram for Different Processes
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These differences can be attributed to differences in heat transfer (cooling). The
isothermal process would require continuous cooling during compression to negate
all of the temperature rise. In an actual compressor the theoretical isentropic
discharge temperature can sometimes be achieved by a moderate amount of cooling
during compression. Even so, the resultant process will not be purely isentropic due
to other losses in an actual machine. The polytropic path BC best represents an
actual process where there is no cooling during compression.
In practice, the isentropic and polytropic methods of analysis are both usable for
designing and predicting the performance of compressors.
It turns out that the isentropic (adiabatic) method is commonly applied to posi-
tive displacement compressors, because these machines are often equipped with
a cooling system that cools the casing or cylinder during compression, making
the actual temperature rise approach that of the theoretical adiabatic process.
The polytropic process is typically applied to dynamic compressors in which
there is no cooling during the compression that takes place in any individual
stage. (There may be cooling between each stage or series of stages, but not within
a given stage.)
The positive displacement and centrifugal categories of compressors are covered in
further detail in Sections 200 and 300 of this manual.
136 Isothermal Compression
In an isothermal process, the temperature is unchanged during compression.
Although it is impossible to build a machine that will compress isothermally,
isothermal performance is approached as the number of intercoolers or other cooling
devices is increased.
Furthermore, although isothermal compression cannot actually be attained in prac-
tice, it is often used as the basis for comparison with other compression processes.
The effect of the number of coolers on compression power will be covered under
Polytropic Compression.
The following equation applies to an isothermal compression process:
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = Constant
(Eq. 100-17)
“Head” is a term often used for the work input to the compression process. The
units of head are foot-pounds (force) divided by pounds (mass). In general practice,
the unit of head is usually taken as “feet.” The theoretical head for an isothermal
process is:
Hisot = RT1 ln r
(Eq. 100-18)
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where:
P
r = -----2- = pressure ratio
P1
Equation 100-18 may be used to evaluate other compression processes with various
amounts of cooling.
137 Isentropic (Adiabatic) Compression
Adiabatic Relationships
Isentropic means constant entropy (a definition of entropy is beyond the scope of
this manual). Adiabatic describes a process wherein no heat is added or subtracted.
For the sake of this discussion, it can be assumed that isentropic and adiabatic are
the same (although different thermodynamically).
Adiabatic compression is commonly assumed for reciprocating, but not centrif-
ugal compressors.
In isentropic processes, the following relationships apply:
P1V1k = P2V2k = C
(Eq. 100-19)
where:
C = constant
k
= ratio of specific heats (see Section 133)
k-----------
–1 Z + Z
k - ------------------ 1 2-
r – 1
2
H ad = RT 1 --------------------------
k – 1-
-----------
k
(Eq. 100-20)
where:
Had = adiabatic head, ft.
k-----------
– 1-
x = r k –1
(Eq. 100-21)
where:
x = a factor created for convenience
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T2(theo) = T1 (x + 1)
(Eq. 100-22)
where:
T2(theo) = adiabatic discharge temperature (theoretical absolute discharge
temperature assuming 100% adiabatic efficiency)
T 2 = T 1 1 + -------
x -
ad
(Eq. 100-23)
where:
ad = adiabatic efficiency
T2 = Actual discharge temperature, R
wH ad
Ghp = -------------------------
-
33 ,000 ad
(Eq. 100-24)
where:
Ghp = gas horsepower
Notice that Equation 100-20 has been corrected by an average compressibility,
(Z1 + Z2)/2. Averaging is a fairly accurate approximation of the correction required.
Because of the non-ideal (non-perfect) behavior of many gases, the k exponent does
not remain constant during compression. For air, diatomic gases, and inert gases, the
change in k is small when the pressures are moderate. However, for most hydro-
carbon gases, the variance of k during compression is substantial. The usual correc-
tion is to calculate k using MCp (see Equation 100-7) at the average of the
compressor (or stage) suction and discharge temperature. MCp values at 14.7 psia
are given in the Appendix of this manual.
Using the MCp at atmospheric pressure and average compression temperature for
compressor head and power calculations is sufficiently accurate for most applica-
tions. However, for very high pressures or other unusual conditions, further correc-
tions are necessary. Such corrections will be covered under Polytropic
Compression.
Adiabatic Efficiency
Since the change in entropy is not zero in an actual adiabatic compression process,
an adiabatic efficiency (ad) is used in Equation 100-23 and 100-24. In order to
calculate MCp at average compression temperature, it is necessary to estimate the
adiabatic efficiency to arrive at a discharge temperature per Equation 100-23. If the
estimate is inaccurate, a second iteration may be required.
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Thermodynamic Diagrams
Thermodynamic-property diagrams account directly for deviations of a real gas
from ideal relationships. These diagrams are a plot of gas properties, commonly
including: enthalpy, entropy, pressure, and temperature. Occasionally, a special
diagram is developed for a widely used gas mixture such as a refrigerant. However,
note that few charts are available for mixtures, and this method is therefore not
commonly used for hydrocarbon mixtures.
When a diagram is used to predict changes of state during compression, compress-
ibility and variance of k are not needed because these variables are already
factored into the diagrams. In general, then, this method is more accurate than
Equation 100-20, and when charts are available, it is certainly more convenient.
Diagrams are often used in compressor calculations for heavier hydrocarbon gases
such as propane and propylene that tend to deviate considerably. Diagrams for many
pure gases are well established. The Appendix includes an assortment of these
diagrams.
The following equations pertain to the use of diagrams for compressor calculations.
Note that for an isentropic process, there is no change in entropy, S.
S2(theo) - S1 = 0
(Eq. 100-25)
where:
S2(theo) = S1 = entropy at suction conditions
h(theo) = h2(theo) - h1
(Eq. 100-26)
where:
h1 = enthalpy at suction conditions, Btu/lb
h2(theo) = theoretical enthalpy at discharge pressure and S1, Btu/1b
h theo
h 2 = -------------------
- + h1
ad
(Eq. 100-27)
where:
h2 = actual enthalpy at discharge pressure and temperature, Btu/lb
ad = adiabatic efficiency
Note that the actual discharge temperature T2 may now be found on the thermody-
namic diagram at the point corresponding to h2 and P2.
Had = (778) h(theo)
(Eq. 100-28)
The gas horsepower may now be calculated by using Equation 100-24.
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138 Polytropic Compression
Polytropic compression is commonly assumed for dynamic (centrifugal and
axial) compressors.
The previous discussion of the adiabatic process showed that its relationships need
mathematical corrections to make credible predictions. The corrections are compro-
mises between theory and actual gas deviations, and they do not always yield suffi-
ciently accurate predictions for some types of applications. Unfortunately, even
this process requires adjustments to account for the non-ideal behavior of
many gases.
Polytropic Relationships
The polytropic compression process is described mathematically as follows.
n n
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = C
(Eq. 100-29)
where:
n = polytropic exponent
k–1
p = ------------
k
------------
n–1
------------
n
(Eq. 100-30)
where:
p = polytropic efficiency
n–1
------------
H poly = RT 1 r
n – 1
Z 1 + Z 2
--------------------------
n – 1 -------------------
------------ 2
n
(Eq. 100-31)
where:
Hpoly = polytropic head, ft.
n-----------
– 1-
T2 = T1 r n
(Eq. 100-32)
wH poly
Ghp = ----------------------
-
33 ,000 p
(Eq. 100-33)
In Equation 100-30, k is ordinarily taken at the average compression temperature by
most compressor manufacturers. Therefore, when estimating overall flange-to-
flange performance, use k at average flange-to-flange temperature to yield results
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very close to those of stage-by-stage calculations. In the case of single-stage
machines, the difference between k at inlet temperature and average temperature is
generally very small. Accordingly, in this manual, k at average compression temper-
ature will be used.
A thermodynamic diagram can be used for a polytropic calculation by first deter-
mining the adiabatic head Had using Equations 100-26 and 100-28. Polytropic head
Hpoly can then be determined by:
p
H poly = H ad --------
ad
(Eq. 100-34)
The relationship between polytropic and adiabatic efficiencies is:
k-----------
– 1-
r k –1
ad = -----------------------
k-----------
– 1-
k p
r –1
(Eq. 100-35)
This relationship is graphically represented by Figure 100-8.
Fig. 100-8 Adiabatic and Polytropic Efficiency Relationships
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From the foregoing discussion, it should be obvious that k is not equal to . In some
of the early compressor publications, the k and exponents were erroneously
treated as the same value. This error may have been one of nomenclature. At any
rate, it is important to recognize that k is associated with the adiabatic process, and
with the polytropic process.
139 Miscellaneous Notes
Some gases have extraordinarily large deviations from ideal behavior near their crit-
ical conditions or at high pressures. For example, carbon dioxide at 1500 psia and
100F has a compressibility factor, Z, of about 0.27. Furthermore, if the tempera-
ture is increased by only 20F, there is a 40% increase in the compressibility factor.
If a small amount of methane is mixed with carbon dioxide, the compressibilities
change significantly, and predictions of these compressibilities by generalized charts
is not reliable.
There are a few compressor applications that must deal with widely deviating gases.
The values for Z and k vary so much that conventional methods of calculations for
the compressor gas properties do not have sufficient accuracy. For these somewhat
rare occasions, various equations of state are used. There are a number of these
empirical relationships in existence, and each set of relationships tends to have some
advantages over the other sets for certain gas compositions.
Several equations of state that have been developed to predict thermodynamic prop-
erties include the Benedict-Webb-Rubin, Peng-Robinson, Redlich-Kwong, and
Martin-Hou equations. Typical gas compositions to which these correlations are
applied include ultra-high pressure hydrocarbons, high-pressure carbon dioxide,
some refrigerants, and some chemical plant gases. These relationships are generally
processed with a mainframe computer. A description of these complex correlations
is beyond the scope of this manual. To meet our needs, when dealing with
compressor applications where the gas deviations are very large, advice should be
sought from a process engineer with experience in the use of these equations of
state.
140 Design Considerations
Compressor sizing can involve several levels of detail, arbitrarily defined below:
1. Specifying the flow rate, pressure rise, and gas composition, leaving the
machine design and selection to the manufacturer. This is the quickest,
simplest approach, but it may not involve the Company in important design
details. This method is not commonly used.
2. Close estimations (10% typically) based on empirical correlations of
energy consumption, temperature rise, and installation cost. Several
sources exist and they are commonly used by producing locations to size recip-
rocating compressors. One set of correlations is presented in Section 300.
3. A detailed analysis based on the equations developed in Section 130.
This may be helpful in selecting the most effective category of compressor
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(reciprocating, centrifugal, etc.), in cases where the category has not been deter-
mined. These equations can be used to estimate energy requirements and
compression temperatures.
4. Rigorous, detailed analyses and calculations to determine compression
energy, power required, gas temperatures, pressure rise, and mechanical
stresses. These analyses are done by equipment vendors and are beyond the
scope of this manual.
141 Compressor Duty
The first step in specifying compressors is to define the required compression duty.
This includes defining:
• flow rate
• gas composition
• suction pressure
• suction temperature
• discharge pressure
The Compressor Pressure Profile Worksheet, CMP-EF-876, in the “Standard Draw-
ings” section of this manual may be used for determining and recording inlet and
discharge conditions.
These conditions should be confirmed and the variability of the conditions
determined.
In most applications, future, or alternate operating conditions can significantly
affect the sizing and characteristics of the compressor system. Following is a list of
typical changes affecting compressor duty:
1. Build-up in discharge pressure of gas injection compressors as the resistance of
the oil field formation increases with time, or as more compressors are added to
the system.
2. Increase in flow rate and change in molecular weight of gas gathering system as
an oil-field's gas-to-oil ratio increases with time.
3. Large change in molecular weight, flow, and pressures during periodic catalyst
regeneration in a process plant.
4. Increase in system pressure drop due to fouling of equipment during a run.
5. Change in feedstock to a process unit.
6. Seasonal changes of ambient temperature and cooling water temperature.
7. Start-of-run (SOR) versus end-of-run (EOR) conditions in a refining unit.
8. Routine turndown of compressor capacity.
Initially, you must accurately determine the pressure/flow envelope where the
compressor operates. If available, review the process flow diagram and a pressure
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profile in detail with the operating, or project representative to assure that all factors
have been considered. If a process flow diagram is unavailable, make a sketch of the
flow circuit. If you question the pressure drop allowances, review the calculations
with the operating, or project representative. Refer to the Fluid Flow Manual for
information on pressure drop calculations.
It is extremely important that you accurately determine the suction pressure. For
example, if a four-stage reciprocating compressor is sized for compression from
20 to 4400 psia, and the actual suction pressure turns out to be 25 psia, the actual
weight flow will be 25% higher, and the horsepower required 19% higher than
predicted.
142 System Resistance and Characteristic Curves
A system resistance curve can be drawn after the pressure profile is accurately
determined. This curve plots the system discharge pressure or head versus inlet
volumetric flow, and reflects the complete piping system friction losses. Each point
on the curve shows the head or pressure required to deliver an amount of flow
through the piping system.
The system resistance curve can be superimposed on the compressor's actual char-
acteristic curve to show the point at which the compressor will operate. Sections
200 and 300 provide more detailed discussions. The following provides an introduc-
tion to system resistance and compressor characteristic curves.
System Resistance Curve
The system resistance met by a compressor can vary from a constant discharge pres-
sure to a variable relationship as shown in the generalized system resistance curves
of Figure 100-9.
Examples of the three types of curves are:
Type 1 - Constant Pressure
• Gas Lift
• Gas Injection
• Refrigeration
• Plant/Air Instrument Air
Type 2 - Combined Constant Pressure and Friction
Process with piping and equipment plus constant pressure drop through catalyst bed.
Type 3 - Predominately Friction
Systems with only piping, fittings, and equipment such as heat exchangers.
Compressor Characteristic Curve
General characteristic curves for the four types of compressors at constant speed are
shown in Figure 100-10.
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Fig. 100-9 System Resistances
Fig. 100-10 Constant Speed Characteristics of Various Types of Compressors
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143 Gas Analysis
A gas analysis should be provided for all present and future operating conditions,
and it should be checked for the presence of sulfides, chlorides, or other corrosive
agents. These contaminants can have a major effect on the selection of the materials
of construction. Hydrogen embrittlement is a potential problem in compressing
gases having a significant hydrogen partial pressure. If the gas is “wet” with water
or hydrocarbon liquids, it may be necessary to provide special separation and
heating equipment for the compressor suction system.
144 Site Conditions
The climatic conditions play an important role in the compressor applications.
Compressors are normally in a heated enclosure in frigid climates, and are some-
times enclosed in temperate climates. If the ambient temperature is -20F or less,
special material requirements are needed for an air compressor with an atmospheric
suction, regardless of a heated enclosure. The climate also dictates the requirements
for winterization and tropicalization.
Environmental restrictions on noise and emissions, area classification for elec-
trical devices, and any special safety hazards should be reviewed.
Data sheets that accompany compressor specifications have provisions for indi-
cating the site conditions and requirements. (See the Specifications section of this
manual.)
145 Service Requirements
The criticality of the service should be thoroughly reviewed. A service may be
termed “critical” if one or more of the following conditions exist:
1. Compressor does not have a spare: and therefore, failure would cause an inter-
ruption in production resulting in substantial economic losses. (See Appendix L
for a discussion of availability and reliability factors related to new purchases.)
2. Service is such that a compressor failure could cause damage in the plant.
3. Service is such that a compressor failure could create a safety hazard.
150 Application and Selection Criteria
This section discusses the range of application, limitations, and the advantages and
disadvantages of each type of compressor (see Section 120 for categories). Refer to
the specific sections of this manual to confirm the initial selection.
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151 Selection Basis
Selection of compressors involves concurrently satisfying the following
requirements:
1. Suitability for service - the machinery should be sized for rated conditions and
be sufficiently flexible to accommodate off-design conditions.
2. Dependability - the design should have proven reliability and be easy to
maintain.
3. Economic performance - the efficiency should be high without undue sacri-
fice in flexibility and reliability.
4. Safety and environmental compatibility - the installation should permit safe
operation while complying with noise and environmental regulations.
5. Low cost - the installed cost (factored with financial, operating, and mainte-
nance costs) should result in the lowest evaluated cost for the payback period.
152 Approximate Application Ranges
Approximate application ranges in terms of ICFM and discharge pressure for four
categories of compressors can be quickly approximated using Figure 100-11.
Figures 100-12 through 100-16 provide further information to clarify the decision.
These figures will help resolve conflicts in selection when the application falls into
an area of overlap in Figure 100-11.
Fig. 100-11 Approximate Application Ranges
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See Section 153 for a more detailed explanation for selecting compressor categories.
Note that the data used in these figures are generalized and there may be cases
where a certain manufacturer has a design that will surpass the practical limits
shown.
153 Compressor Selection Process
After the compression duty has been sufficiently defined, the following steps may
be taken for initial selection of the best category of compressor. See Section 141,
“Compressor Duty.” This assumes you have not determined the category already.
Step 1.
Convert flow rate to ICFM using Equation 100-3 (also see Equations 100-32,
100-33 and 100-34).
Step 2.
Calculate overall pressure ratio, roa = final discharge pressure/suction pressure
(absolute pressures must be used).
Step 3.
Calculate discharge temperature, T2, using Equation 100-32 and an adiabatic
efficiency, ad,of 0.75 for all types of machines except reciprocating. Use ad = 1.0
for reciprocating compressors. (Note that absolute temperatures in Rankine must
be used.)
The 0.75 efficiency is an arbitrary value that is convenient for making an initial
rough estimate. An ad of 1.0 for reciprocating is suitable for most applications as
this machine tends to achieve nearly perfect adiabatic temperature rise when a
coolant is circulated through the cylinder jacket. (However, do not use ad = 1.0 for
power calculations. See Step 10.)
Step 4.
If the discharge temperature is less than 300F the application can most likely be
achieved in one step of compression, without intercooling, with a centrifugal or
rotary compressor. For reciprocating machines, the discharge temperature for a
single cylinder should be less than 300F.
Step 5.
If Step 4 indicates that intercooling is not necessary, refer to Figure 100-11 and
select the type of compressor. Then proceed to Step 10.
Step 6.
If the temperatures cited in Step 4 are exceeded, more than one step of compression
will probably be required (note that the word “step” is used to denote a section of
the compression duty to avoid confusion with compression “stages.”) Each row of
blades in an axial machine or each impeller in a centrifugal compressor is called a
“stage.” Whereas each cylinder of a reciprocating machine is usually called a stage;
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and each casing of two rotary compressors in tandem is called a stage. The number
of steps or sections can be estimated by assuming an equal pressure ratio for each
step. Use 2% allowance for pressure drop between the steps. By trial-and-error
method, use the following equation and Equation 100-12 to determine the number
of steps keeping the discharge temperature at 300F or less:
1---
r oa n
r = ------------------------
-
0.98 n – 1
(Eq. 100-36)
where:
r = pressure ratio of each step
roa = overall pressure ratio
n = number of steps 1,2,3,4..
n - 1 = number of intercoolers
Step 7.
Calculate suction and discharge pressure for each step of compression using the r
determined in Step 6 and taking a 2% pressure drop between each step.
Step 8.
Calculate ICFM for each compression step. The suction temperature for the first
step should be known. If suction temperature for succeeding steps is unknown, use
15F plus the temperature of available cooling water; or if cooling with air coolers
is desired, use 25F plus the design maximum ambient temperature. If these values
are not yet known, use 100F as suction temperature of succeeding steps.
Step 9.
Refer to Figure 100-11 and select the compressor category that will satisfy the
ICFM and discharge pressure for all compression stages. Generally, it is desirable
that one type of compressor will handle all steps. Refer the initial selection back to
the process designer (if available) to insure the selection is compatible with the
process requirements. Occasionally, it may be necessary to use a combination of
types such as axial for the low-pressure (LP) step and a centrifugal for the high-
pressure (HP) step. Another example would be a centrifugal and a reciprocating for
LP and HP steps, respectively.
Step 10.
Calculate weight flow using Equation 100-15 and assume that this value is constant
for all compression steps. Calculate adiabatic head and Ghp for each step using
Equation 100-20 and 100-24. For the first estimate, it is convenient to use adiabatic
relationships for all types of compressors to minimize computations. Also,
compressibilities can be neglected in most cases unless the gas deviates widely.
Add the Ghps to find the total Ghp for the compression duty.
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Step 11.
Review Figure 100-12 through 100-16 which may help resolve the choice of the
compressor when the application falls into an overlapped area.
Step 12.
At this point, some thought should be given to reliability and availability of the
compression system. (See Appendix L for more information.) If the service is
deemed to be critical, the following number of machines are typically used:
Axial and Centrifugal: One 100% unit
Reciprocating: Three 50% or two 100% units
Rotary: Same as reciprocating (Rotary are seldom used
in critical service.)
For a general purpose service, one 100% unit is the usual choice. In some instances,
the capacity may vary widely on a seasonal basis, or it may build up over a period
of years. In such cases, it may be economical to use more smaller sized units.
Step 13.
Proceed to the section of the manual corresponding to the selection made in the
above steps (Sections 200 or 300). Review this information to verify and refine the
selection.
Step 14.
If the type of driver is known, make sure that it is compatible with the size and
rating of the type of compressor selected. If the type of driver is unknown, use
Section 170 preliminarily and then refer to the Driver Manual. Due to limitations of
the driver or size of the compressor train, it may be necessary to use two or more
equally sized trains for the required compression capacity. This step should be
considered along with Step 12.
Step 15.
When the application involves the introduction of sidestreams (e.g., refrigeration
compressor), it is necessary to calculate the properties of the mixture of the two gas
streams at the entrance of the next section or stage of compression.
Step 16.
Contact at least two vendors for each type of compressor selected. Have each
vendor prepare preliminary selections, and submit order-of-magnitude prices and
estimated performance information. If it becomes evident that a small process
design change might save a considerable amount of money, the change should be
referred to the process designer. In some cases the process design can be conserva-
tive and a slight modification may allow a substantial savings.
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Fig. 100-12 Selection Guide
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Fig. 100-13 Axial Compressor – Application Ranges and Selection Notes
Ranges:
ICFM: Typical: 75,000–250,000
Low: 30,000
High: 1,000,000
Discharge Pressure: Typical: 15–150 psig
High: 550 psig (special design for LNG plant)
Discharge Temperature: Typical: 400–650F
High: 720F
No. of Stages per casing: Typical: 6–15
High: 20 (special to 22)
Adiabatic Head per Stage, ft: Typical: 4000–5000
High: 6000
Speed, RPM: 2800 - 12,000
Bhp per casing: Typical: 6000–50,000
High: over 100,000
Selection Notes:
• Generally used for air service - high volume and relatively low pressure. Typical pressure ratios for air service
are 2.5 to 7. High pressure ratio is about 14.
• Is more efficient than centrifugal.
• Is usually physically smaller and lighter in weight than centrifugal for same duty.
• Speed is somewhat higher than that of centrifugal for same duty.
• Two casings can be put in tandem arrangement, but it is seldom done.
• Some designs have provisions for intermediate nozzles for intercooling or sidestreams, but this feature is not
often employed.
• Very narrow stable operating range at constant speed - about 12%.
• Some designs utilize one or more centrifugal impellers on the high-pressure end of the rotor. This feature greatly
improves stable operating range.
• Can be fitted with variable stator vanes on first through fifth (and higher) stages to widen performance map.
Machines so fitted are often operated at constant speed.
• Relatively quiet operation.
• Typical applications: Large air compressors, such as FCC or coker air blowers. Front-end air compressor for
combustion gas turbines (not specified separately)
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Fig. 100-14 Centrifugal Compressor–Application Ranges and Selection Notes
Ranges:
ICFM: Typical: 1500–100,000
Low: 500
High: 180,000 (360,000 for double suction)
Discharge CFM (DCFM): Low: 250 (can be lower with special designs)
Discharge Pressure, psig: Typical: 15–4000
High: 10,000 (one design has been tested at 13,000)
Discharge Temperature, F Typical: 250–300
High: 350 (with oil seals)
500 with (labyrinth seals)
No. of impellers per casing: Available: 1–10
High: 8–10 (to 20,000 ICFM)
6–7 (20,000 - 40,000 ICFM)
4–5 (>40,000 ICFM)
Adiabatic Head per Stage, ft: Typical: 8000–10,000
High: 13,000 (special to 30,000)
Speed, RPM: Typical: 3000–14,000
High: 30,000 (special to over 50,000)
Bhp per casing: Typical: 1000v20,000
High: over 50,000
Selection Notes
• Most versatile type of compressor with wide application range.
• Each lower pressure casing may have up to three pairs of intermediate nozzles (8 nozzles total) for connecting
intercoolers. This means that one casing can have as many as four sections of compression, but typically only
three sections per casing are used. Note that only one intermediate nozzle is required to introduce or extract
each sidestream. Some refrigeration compressors have as many as three sidestreams.
• As many as four casings have been driven in tandem without interposed gear. Two casings in tandem are
commonplace, as are two casings separated by a gear.
• Polytropic efficiency varies widely from about 60% at low ICFM to over 80% at very high ICFM.
Efficiency also varies inversely with number of impellers in series.
• 1000 ICFM or 1000 Bhp are about the minimum economic sizes in API class machines. Refrigeration class
machines down to 500 Bhp are available.
• Noisy without acoustic treatment
• Stable operating range for one multi-stage casing is usually about 30% at constant speed. Further capacity
reduction at constant speed can be done by (1) variable inlet guide vanes on first stage (fairly efficient),
(2) suction or discharge throttling (less efficient), or (3) bypass (inefficient). When two or more casings are
driven in tandem, the overall stable operating range is reduced. Stable operating range varies inversely with
number of impellers in series.
• 10 impellers per casing is generally not recommended. Use a maximum of 8 impellers per casing for initial
estimating.
• Typical applications: Process-gas recycle, high-capacity plant/process air systems, pipeline compression,
high-capacity refrigeration.
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Fig. 100-15 Reciprocating Compressor – Application Ranges and Selection Notes
Ranges:
ICFM: Typical: 100–3000
High: up to 7500 per cylinder for vacuum or low
pressure service to 20 psig discharge, or 6000 to 50
psig.
Discharge Pressure, psig: Typical: 40 –6000
High: up to 15,000 (special to over 35,000)
Discharge Temperature, F: Typical: 250
High: 300 (400 in special cases)
No. of crank throws per frame: Typical: 2–6
Maximum: 8 (10 available)
Speed, RPM: Typical: 1000 (5-inch stroke)
720 (7-inch stroke)
514 (10-inch stroke)
360 (14-inch stroke)
257 (20-inch stroke)
Bhp: Typical: 150–6000
High: 12,000
Selection Notes
• Very high efficiency. At pressure ratios of 2.5 - 5 per stage, adiabatic efficiency is 85 - 89%, and mechanical effi-
ciency is 95% for slow-speed (600 RPM or less) machines rated at 200 HP and higher. At pressure ratios lower
than 1.5, valve losses become significant.
• Available in non-lubricated version with minor sacrifice in efficiency and reliability.
• Horizontally opposed configuration requires large plot area which is especially significant on skidded (packaged)
units. Vertical, “Y”, and “L” configurations reduce plot area, but limit number of cylinders per frame.
• Can usually achieve capacity control down to 25% with five-step unloading (down to 12-1/2% on multi-unit instal-
lation, or unit with two first-stage cylinders). Small loss in efficiency at reduced capacity.
• Also can bypass discharge back to suction for more capacity control.
• Typical Applications: Downstream—Hydrogen makeup/booster compression, overhead/flare gas compression,
small instrument air compression, refrigeration. Upstream—Gas injection, gas processing, gas-product compres-
sion.
Fig. 100-16 Rotary Compressor—Application Ranges and Selection (1 of 2)
Ranges:
ICFM: Typical: 300–2000
High: 30,000 (For low-pressure and vacuum service)
Discharge Pressure, psig: Typical: 40–150
High: 550 (usually attained in typical: second of two
casings in tandem.
Discharge Temperature, F Typical: 200–300
Maximum: 450 (for some designs)
Pressure Ratio, Typical: 2–3
P2 /P1: High: 4 (20 is attainable with oil-flooded and liquid ring
machines.)
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Fig. 100-16 Rotary Compressor—Application Ranges and Selection (2 of 2)
Differential Pressure, (P2/P1), Typical: 10–75
psi: High: 170
Speed, RPM: Typical: 300–3600
High: 20,000
Bhp: Typical: 50–2000
High: 6000
Selection Notes
• Available in oil-flooded, drop-lubricated, “dry” (oil-free), and liquid-ring design. When the oil-flooded or
liquid-ring version is applied, the discharge temperature is substantially less than that indicated by adiabatic
calculations. For example, the actual discharge temperature might be 200F or less versus a calculated value of
350F.
• Good efficiency at low-pressure ratios (somewhat lower than that of reciprocating).
• Require inlet and discharge silencers at higher power levels to achieve tolerable noise level.
• Very good for skidding and semi-portable installations due to small size and freedom from vibration.
• Are often two-staged by connecting two casings in tandem. Tandem arrangement allows sidestream (in or out)
between casings.
• Can have stepless capacity control down to 10 - 15% of rated with hydraulically operated slide valve. Efficiency
loss at turndown greater than that of reciprocating.
• Capacity control can also be achieved by speed adjustment down to 50% of rated speed.
• Dry (oil-free) units are very noisy.
• Typical Application: Freon, NH3 refrigeration, plant air.
154 Selection Analysis
After the initial selection has been made and estimating information has been
received from vendors, it is advisable to make a preliminary analysis of the
following factors to confirm the economic feasibility of the compressor:
• Purchase price of compressor and driver;
• Cost of auxiliaries;
• Space requirements;
• Foundation requirements;
• Installed cost;
• Cost of utilities (cooling water, electricity, steam, etc.);
• Annual compressor-load profile (amount of operating time at full and part
loads);
• Annual power, steam, or fuel costs corresponding to load profile;
• Compressor availability versus production goals;
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• Economic factors of interest on capital, depreciation, income tax, and
escalation;
• Local experience (are operating and maintenance personnel familiar with the
type of machine selected?); and
• Standardization of machines and spare parts.
This analysis is particularity important when two or more categories or types of
compressors are initially selected. A quick look at first costs or installed costs will
rarely provide a reliable indication of the overall life cycle costs of owning and
operating a compressor for a period of years. Required payback periods for proj-
ects are typically in the range of 2 to 5 years. In some cases, it may be desirable to
examine the life cycle costs for periods of 15 years or more.
Examples
The usual approach is to calculate the present value and accumulate them on an
annual basis for the desired number of years. Figure 100-17 shows the results of an
economic study for two different categories of air compressors for 500 ACFM.
In Figure 100-17 observe that the installed cost of this reciprocating compressor is
50% higher than that of the screw machine, but the accumulated costs are equal
when considering a period longer than 2½ years. (Note also that using unit costs
such as $/HP or $/ICFM in terms of installed costs would be very misleading.) Effi-
ciency directly affects power costs which is the dominant component of the
overall accumulated expenses.
Figure 100-18 shows the total expenses for two life-cycle periods for three catego-
ries of compressors in a large air compression duty. In this comparison, the recipro-
cating and centrifugal machines are even in costs for a five-year cycle, despite the
fact that the installed cost of the reciprocating machine is twice that of the others.
But when considering the 15-year case, efficiency takes over, making the recipro-
cating compressor the least costly.
Figure 100-17 and 100-18 do not show any particular unit costs or trends for
air compressors or compressors for other gases. Their only purpose is to demon-
strate the need for an economic analysis. For critical services, the requirements for
reliability or safety may overrule the choice determined by the other economic
factors, such as purchase price, energy, etc.
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Fig. 100-17 Life Cycle Costs for Light-duty Reciprocating and Rotary Screw Compressors for a 500 ICFM (Nominal)
125 psig Air Compressor. Example Only.
This graph displays the total compressor costs (purchase, installation, energy consumption, and maintenance), when totaled
for different assumed project lives. The total costs are displayed in terms of “present value.” This is the amount that would be
needed up front to pay all the costs over the project life, assuming, the money compounded at the cost of capital (10%), and
were spent to pay the respective costs.
This chart shows that the reciprocating compressor costs more initially, but when you consider the future power consumption,
the screw compressor will actually cost more. This is because the reciprocator is more efficient, and will consume less power
over the years.
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Fig. 100-18 Life Cycle for Heavy-duty Reciprocating, Rotary Screw, and Centrifugal Compressors for a 1500 ICFM
(Nominal) 125 psig Air Compressor. Example Only.
Note: This graph depicts two cases of “present value” for assumed project lives of 5 and 15 years. (Present value is explained
in Figure 100-17.)
This chart shows that: 1) installed costs are a minor part of the total compressor expense, even at a very short project life of
5 years, and 2) the reciprocating compressor becomes more attractive as longer project lives are assumed. Like
Figure 100-17, this is because the higher efficiency of the reciprocator pays off in power consumption over the operating life of
the compressor (despite typically higher maintenance expense).
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Compressor Manual 100 General Information
Quite often, economic factors, or the methods for determining them, will have
already been established by the sponsors of a given project. If so, the economic
study will be simplified. In some cases, the project may rule that a study is not
required. At any rate, the economics of the proposed installation should be reviewed
with the operating, or project representative.
Typical Dimension Charts
FIgures 100-19 through Figure 100-22 provide further information on the physical
sizes of the various types of compressors. Figures 100-17 and 100-18 do not show
any particular unit costs or trends for air compressors or compressors for
other gases. Their only purpose is to demonstrate the need for an economic
analysis. For critical services, the requirements for reliability or safety may over-
rule the choice determined by the other economic factors, such as purchase price,
energy, etc.
Quite often, economic factors, or the methods for determining them, will have
already been established by the sponsors of a given project. If so, the economic
study will be simplified. In some cases, the project may rule that a study is not
required. At any rate, the economics of the proposed installation should be reviewed
with the operating, or project representative.
Typical Dimension Charts
Figures 100-19 through Figure 100-22 provide further information on the physical
sizes of the various types of compressors.
Fig. 100-19 Comparison of Axial and Centrifugal Compressor Size
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Fig. 100-20 Typical Plot Dimensions and Weights of Centrifugal Compressor Casings
Dimensions for Horizontally- and Vertically-Split Centrifugal Compressors
Horizontally Split (1)
ICFM Width, ft Length, Ft Weight, lbs
3-stg 8-stg 3-stg 8-stg
20 - 40K 8 7 11 24K 40K
9 - 20K 6 6 9 13K 20K
4 - 9K 4 5 6 7K 10K
0.5 - 4K 4 4 6 6K 9K
Vertically Split (1) and (2)
Weights @
Casing Rating, Width, ft Length, ft 750 psi 3000 psi 6000 psi
9 - 20K 6 7 29 35 50
4 - 9K 5 6 22 33 41
0.5 - 4K 4 5 18 22 25
(1) Width dimensions shown are across support feet.
(2) Based on 5-stage casing.
Fig. 100-21 Typical Dimensions for Centrifugal Compressors—Horizontally- and Vertically-Split Units
Estimated maximum
Skid Weights for 3 Add Skid Weight
3 Wheels Add per Wheel Wheels with Motor per Each Add’l
Maximum ICFM L x W x H, Ft. Lbs. Inches Driver, Kips Wheel, Kips
Horizontally-Split Units
2,600 4.2 x 3.5 x 2.0 300 4 10.8 0.2
5,850 5.5 x 4.5 x 3.5 1300 6 13.1 0.2
13,000 6.3 x 5.3 x 4.0 2,000 7 15.0 0.3
23,000 5.5 x 7.0 x 5.8 1,850 7 16.5 0.3
35,000 7.4 x 6.5 x 6.0 4,000 9 18.6 0.4
Vertically-Split Units
5,000 5.0 x 4.3 x 4.6 1,000 4 16.8 0.2
5.0 x 5.0 x 5.0 1,400 4 16.8 0.2
6.0 x 5.2 x 5.8 2,200 5 19.5 0.3
6.4 x 6.0 x 7.0 4,500 6 21.7 0.4
10,000 5.5 x 5.6 x 6.0 2,000 5 18.0 0.3
6.2 x 6.2 x 6.3 3,400 6 20.1 0.4
6.9 x 7.3 x 7.2 6,400 6 21.7 0.4
23,000 6.7 x 6.7 x 6.3 2,500 8 18.6 0.4
8.0 x 7.5 x 7.2 4,200 8 22.4 0.5
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Fig. 100-22 Approximate Plot Areas and Weights of Typical Reciprocating Compressors
Frame Horsepower No. of Cylinders RPM Average Footprint (1) Average Weight (1) and (2)
500 2 900 14W x 5L 13500 lbs
1000 2 514 14W x 9L 26000 lbs
5000 4 327 22W x 14-1/2L 120000 lbs
10,000 6 257 26W x 20L 210000 lbs
(1) Does not include driver
(2) Frame plus average size cylinders
160 Packaging
Packaging is a technique used to minimize construction time and labor costs at the
installation site. It consists of placing the compressor, driver, auxiliaries, and control
system on one or more skids (baseplates). Piping, tubing, and wiring are routed
between the various equipment items on each skid, and are then brought to a
minimum number of terminal points on the perimeter of the skid. These terminal
points facilitate connecting the package to the system at the jobsite.
The size and complexity of packaged equipment range from a simple air compressor
package rated at a few hundred horsepower to a large and complicated package
containing a gas compressor driven by a large mechanical drive gas turbine.
When packaging is applied on a large scale to a major project, the concept is known
as modularization or modular construction. This approach has particular applica-
tion to projects in remote areas where the availability of skilled labor is either low or
costly and difficult to implement. Modular construction takes advantage of the
availability of skilled labor at major industrial centers throughout the world. In addi-
tion to potential labor cost reductions, this approach provides the opportunity to
improve the overall project schedule.
Modular construction is used extensively for offshore platforms and onshore facili-
ties such as those on Alaska's North Slope and in jungle and desert locations.
Typical compressor module weights are 25 to 300 tons. One large module for the
North Slope contained a compressor for low-pressure separator gas, a 33,000 HP
gas turbine, gas coolers and scrubbers, and all auxiliaries, piping, and controls. This
module weighed 2600 tons and was 60 ft. 110 ft. 100 ft. high.
Module or package size and weight are limited by factory handling capability, trans-
portation constraints, and the capacity of jobsite lifting or moving apparatus.
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Console-mounted lube- and seal-oil systems for compressors are good examples of
smaller packages. Figure 100-23 provides some general weights and dimensions
which may be used for early estimates.
Fig. 100-23 Typical Packaged Seal/Lube Oil System Weight and Dimensions
Nominal Oil Flow, gpm L x W x H, ft Dry Wt, Kips Operating Wt,Kips
25 14 x 8 x 7 8.5 10.0
50 18 x 9 x 8 12.0 15.9
75 19 x 9 x 8 14.0 18.5
100 20 x 10 x 8 16.0 22.0
150 22 x 11 x 8 18.0 27.0
20 24 x 12 x 8 20.0 32.0
300 32 x 12 x 8 35.0 60.0
400 40 x 12 x 8 52.0 92.0
Figures 100-24 and 100-25 list some estimating weights and dimensions for recipro-
cating compressors (with and without coolers) with various drivers. Figure 100-26
shows typical dimensions and weights for integral gas engine driven reciprocating
compressors. Figure 100-27 and 100-28 provide similar information for centrifugal
compressors including turbine drives and enclosures.
Fig. 100-24 Typical Reciprocating Packages with Coolers Weight and Dimensions (900 RPM Separable
Compressors)
Driver HP L x W x H ft Weight Kips MMSCFD
Engine 1200 34 x 13 x 16 100 19.1
Engine 565 35 x 12 x 14 60 2.3
Engine 500 30 x 12 x 14 47 4.7
Engine 450 30 x 18 x 18 55 1.8
Engine 415 30 x 12 x 13 48 5.2
Motor 350 20 x 12 x 14 51 2.0
Fig. 100-25 Typical Reciprocating Packages without Coolers Weights and Dimensions (900 RPM Separable
Compressors)
Driver HP L x W x H ft Weight Kips MMSCFD
Engine 2,600 38 x 12 x 10 106.0 13.2
Engine 1,000 35 x 13 x 12 71.0 9.5
Turbine 2,000 35 x 12 x 12 100.0 17.0
Turbine 1,000 50 x 12 x 12 80.0 11.6
Motor 2,000 22 x 12 x 10 89.5 12.5
Motor 900 26 x 12 x 8 49.0 12.5
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Compressor Manual 100 General Information
Fig. 100-26 Typical Integral Compressor Packages Weights and Dimensions
HP L x W x H ft Weight Kips
1,000 23 x 14 x 12 100
1,500 27 x 14 x 12 140
2,000 33 x 16 x 15 190
2,400 33 x 16 x 15 210
Fig. 100-27 Typical Dimensions for Centrifugal Compressors Horizontally-Split Units and Vertically-Split Units
Estimated Maximum Skid Add Skids Weight
3 Wheels Add per Wheel Weights for 3 Wheels with per Each Add’l
Maximum ICFM L x W x H, ft. lbs. Inches Motor Driver Kips Wheel, Kips
Horizontally-Split Units
2,600 4.2 x 3.5 x 2.0 300 4 10.8 0.2
5,850 5.5 x 4.5 x 3.5 1300 6 13.1 0.2
13,000 6.3 x 5.3 x 4.0 2,000 7 15.0 0.3
23,000 5.5 x 7.0 x 5.8 1,850 7 16.5 0.3
35,000 7.4 x 6.5 x 6.0 4,000 9 18.6 0.4
Vertically-Split Units
5,000 5.0 x 4.3 x 4.6 1,000 4 16.8 0.2
5.0 x 5.0 x 5.0 1,400 4 16.8 0.2
6.0 x 5.2 x 5.8 2,200 5 19.5 0.3
6.4 x 6.0 x 7.0 4,500 6 21.7 0.4
10,000 5.5 x 5.6 x 6.0 2,000 5 18.0 0.3
6.2 x 6.2 x 6.3 3,400 6 20.1 0.4
6.9 x 7.3 x 7.2 6,400 6 21.7 0.4
23,000 6.7 x 6.7 x 6.3 2,500 8 18.6 0.4
8.0 x 7.5 x 7.2 4,200 8 22.4 0.5
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Fig. 100-28 Typical Gas Turbine-Driven Centrifugal Compressor Dimensions and Weights
Turbine-Compressor Skid Ancillary Equipment
ISO HP Model Speed, rpm Dimensions L x W x H, ft Dimensions L x W x H, ft
4,250 34.5 x 8.0 x 20.0
16,000 59. x 10.0 x 24.0
26,500 61.0 x 10.0 x 24.0
4,900 Single 30.0 x 8.0 x 8.0 21.4 x 7.8 x 10.7
4,900 Tandem 34.0 x 8.0 x 8.0 21.4 x 7.8 x 10.7
10,600 8,140 48.5 x 8.0 x 11.8 38.0 x 18.0 x 15.1
3,830 15,700 27.2 x 7.8 x 8.3 21.4 x 7.8 x 10.0
1,165 22,300 23.1 x 5.8 x 7.3 12.0 x 6.0 x 4.8
4,900 Single 26.0 x 8.0 x 8.0
4,900 Tandem 29.0 x 8.0 x 8.0
2,500 Single 28.0 x 8.0 x 8.5
2,500 Tandem 33.0 x 8.0 x 8.5
1,875 25.0 x 8.0 x 8.6
Approximate Skid Weight (kips) per With Enclosure Type Engine Control Cab Add-
ISO HP Weights, kips Additional foot Add Kips Kips
4,250 33 0.8
16,000 96 1.6
26,500 105 1.8
4,900 74
4,900 81
10,600 107.5 1.2
3,830 52.1 0.6
1,165 18.5 0.4
4,900 55.0 Open side - 4.1
Total encl. 5.3 0.5
4,900 66.0 Open side - 4.1
Total encl. 5.3 0.5
2,500 33.0 Open side - 3.4
Total encl. 5.0 0.5
2,500 48.0 Open side - 3.4
Total encl. 5.0 0.5
1,875 32.0 Open side - 4.1
Total encl. 5.3 0.5
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Compressor Manual 100 General Information
170 Driver Selection
The driver represents a major factor in the cost of a compression system. It should
be selected with care to ensure optimal performance of the compressor train. This
manual presents only general information on drivers. For additional coverage of
driver selection, see the Driver Manual.
171 Function of Drivers
The driver of any compressor train must provide the torque necessary to maintain
the required speed at the compressor's rated, or other specified conditions. The
driver must also have an adequate speed-torque characteristic to start the
compressor train and bring it to operating speed in a timely manner. (Compressors
are normally started in a no-load or partial-load condition.)
172 Driver Consideration
Proper matching of driver to the compressor is not a routine task. Some consider-
ations that must be taken into account include:
• Starting or breakaway torque.
• Comparison of available speed-torque characteristic with that required for
desired acceleration.
• Allowable speed variation (type of governor).
• Load Variation.
• Need gearbox to match speeds?
• Torsional critical speeds and vibration.
• Lateral critical speed and vibration.
• Current pulsations in electrical system if driver is a motor and load has oscilla-
tory torque.
• Lube-oil requirements of driver and compressor - can lube systems be
combined?
• Type of coupling.
• Weight.
• Space (footprint).
• Energy/fuel costs.
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173 Driver Characteristics
Figure 100-29 provides general characteristics for several types of drivers. The
values shown are approximate and should not be taken as limits for a partic-
ular type of driver. Hot gas and cryogenic expansion turbines, hydraulic turbines,
and steam engines are not shown in Figure 100-29. The expansion turbine has char-
acteristics similar to those of a steam turbine. The hydraulic turbine is often a
centrifugal pump operating in reverse. Steam engines are virtually extinct as
compressor drivers.
Fig. 100-29 General Characteristics of Compressor Drivers
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Compressor Manual 100 General Information
There are a few occasions when a compressor will have two drivers. Some exam-
ples are:
• Cryogenic expansion turbine and motor driver for compressor in natural gas
processing plant.
• Air compressor driven by hot gas expander and motor or steam turbine in fluid
catalytic cracking unit or nitric acid plant.
• Compressor driven by gas turbine with steam turbine helper.
In such cases, special consideration must be given to the division of the compressor
load between the two drivers for all operating conditions.
174 Driver Selection
Figure 100-30 shows the approximate ranges of speed for the four types of compres-
sors. This chart provides only a rough estimate of the speed, but will be helpful in
beginning the driver selection process.
Fig. 100-30 Approximate Speed Regimes for Various Types of Compressors
Figure 100-31 presents a list of commonly used drivers for various types of
compressors.
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Fig. 100-31 Common Compressor Drivers and Drive Fig. 100-32 General Area of Application of Induction
Arrangement Options and Synchronous Motors (Courtesy of
Dresser-Rand)
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Compressor Manual 100 General Information
Note that API specifications typically require drivers to be rated at 110% of the
maximum power required by the compressor. An exception to this general rule is
where a reciprocating compressor is driven by a steam turbine. In this case, the
turbine is usually rated at 120% of the compressor's maximum power. Internal
combustion engine drivers are rated on a case-by-case basis.
The following comments provide further guidance in making the initial driver selection:
Electrical motors
1. Figure 100-32 shows the general areas of application for induction and
synchronous motors in terms of horsepower and speed.
2. Induction motors have a lagging power factor and a high starting current which
may present difficulties for some electrical systems.
3. Synchronous motors have leading power factor which is often an advantage for
the electrical system. Brushless excitation is usually employed.
4. Motor drivers should not be used for applications requiring frequent starts.
Typical allowable starts vary from four per hour for a 100 HP motor to two per
day for a 1000 HP motor.
5. Designs are available for higher than normal starting torques, but these are
accompanied by higher inrush or starting currents.
6. Refer to the Driver Manual regarding starting, breakdown, pull-in, and pull-out
torques which must be considered in compressor applications.
7. Type of enclosures, atmospheric conditions, insulation, service factors, and
hazardous area classification are all important application factors. Refer to the
Driver Manual for detailed information. It is usually unnecessary to consider
these factors in depth in the initial driver selection.
8. Two-pole motors in the 500 to 10,000 HP range have had some serious
vibration problems, and are not recommended. Consult a Company
specialist if a two-pole motor in this range is being considered.
Steam Turbines
1. Steam turbines are excellent drivers for centrifugal compressors because the
turbine design can usually be tailored to match the compressor's speed. Steam
turbines are also well suited to the higher speed rotary compressor. Steam
turbines have occasionally been used to drive reciprocating compressors with
ratings to 9000 HP. A double reduction gearbox is required for such applica-
tions.
2. There are two main classes - condensing and non-condensing. Non-condensing
turbines are also known as backpressure or topping turbines. Non-condensing
turbines generally need a steam pressure ratio (absolute inlet pressure divided
by exhaust pressure) of at least two. Some condensing machines have steam
extraction or admission sidestreams. Again, the pressure ratio should be at least
two for inlet and sidestream pressures.
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3. There are two types of blading - impulse and reaction. Impulse-type is some-
what less efficient, but is generally favored for mechanical drivers in the United
States. However, reaction machines should be evaluated when efficiency is of
paramount importance.
4. Ratings vary from a few horsepower for a single-stage general-purpose turbine
to 50,000 HP or more for special-purpose, multi-valve, multistage turbines.
5. Single-stage non-condensing turbines in the 100-500 HP range have an isen-
tropic efficiency of about 35–45% @ 3600 RPM. The practical minimum rated
speed for this type of turbine is 1800 RPM, but that speed is generally not
economical because the efficiency falls to 20–30% for the same HP range. A
geared turbine would have an efficiency 45–55% with gear losses included.
6. Figure 100-33 shows efficiencies that can be used for rough estimates of
condensing and non-condensing multistage turbines.
A more precise estimate of efficiency would include corrections for superheat,
speed, power, pressure ratio, etc.
Fig. 100-33 Isentropic Efficiency Chart
HP ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY, i,%
500 60
2000 70
10,000 75
7. The steam rate, SR, in pounds per horsepower-hour (lb/HP-hr) may be esti-
mated by:
2545 -
SR = -------------------------------
h1 – h2 i
(Eq. 100-37)
where:
h1 = turbine inlet enthalpy of steam, Btu/lb
h2 = theoretical enthalpy at turbine exhaust at same entropy as at inlet
steam condition.
i = turbine isentropic efficiency
8. Two turbine casings are sometimes driven in tandem to achieve the number of
stages, power, and speed required by the driven equipment.
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Compressor Manual 100 General Information
Combustion Gas Turbines
1. Only the two-shaft gas turbine should be considered for a compressor drive that
requires any speed variation. The load carrying capability and efficiency of a
single-shaft gas turbine falls off very rapidly as speed is reduced. Also, the
single-shaft machine requires a much larger starting device. Figure 100-34 is a
diagram of a simple-cycle, two-shaft gas turbine. In the two-shaft design, the
power turbine is “free”, i.e., there is no mechanical connection between the gas
generator and the power turbine. It should be noted that the gas generator
section can be a modified aircraft jet engine. Such machines are known as aero-
derivative gas turbines. Some aircraft engines have twin spools, so that a gas
turbine using such an engine would technically have three shafts. However,
such machines are usually referred to generically as “two-shaft.”
Fig. 100-34 Simple-cycle Two-shaft Combustion Gas Turbine
Because of the light weight nature of the gas generator in the aero-derivative
turbine, the machine speed can be increased very rapidly from self-sustaining
speed (typically 25–30% of rated speed). The acceleration rates from this level
to operating speed of the power turbine can be in the range of 10–30 seconds if
desired. On the other hand, a heavy-duty turbine may require 10–20 minutes of
warm-up time for the same speed change.
2. The power turbine is often directly coupled to a centrifugal or axial compressor.
The compressor design can usually be tuned to match the gas turbine's speed.
Also, the speed of the two-shaft turbine can be adjusted slightly for the purpose
of matching with very little penalty in power capability and efficiency. In cases
where the speed difference is too large, a gearbox is used.
3. Occasionally, combustion gas turbines have been used to drive reciprocating
compressors. This arrangement requires a double reduction gearbox to accom-
modate the speed differences.
4. Refer to the Driver Manual for power output ratings, fuel consumption rates,
and environmental considerations for gas turbines. Gas turbines can be used in
combined cycle schemes to improve overall thermal efficiency of the system.
Also refer to the Driver Manual for information on combined cycles utilizing
gas turbine drives.
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Separate Internal Combustion Engines
1. Engines are often used to drive reciprocating compressors in direct-coupled
arrangements. Also suitable for direct-drive of rotary machines of the lower
speed variety.
2. Geared low-speed engines were used extensively for driving pipeline centrif-
ugal compressors in the past owing to high thermal efficiency. Gas turbines are
generally favored now since their efficiencies have become competitive with
those of engines.
3. Engines are available in two-stroke or four-stroke cycle (commonly called two-
cycle or four-cycle). Most separate drive engines are four-stroke, particularly in
the upper end of the power range.
4. Straight natural gas engines are spark-ignited. Some engines are available as
dual fuel units capable of operation wholly on diesel, or on 95% gas with 5%
(by weight) diesel pilot oil providing compression ignition.
5. Refer to the Driver Manual for power output ratings, fuel consumption rates,
and environmental considerations for separate internal combustion engines.
Integral Gas Engines
1. This design comprises power cylinders and reciprocating compressor cylinders
combined in one machine or frame.
2. They are available in two-stroke or four-stroke cycles. Essentially all integral
engines today burn natural gas and are spark-ignited. Diesel versions were
available in the past but are no longer competitive.
3. Refer to the Driver Manual for power output ratings, fuel consumption rates
and environmental considerations for integral gas engines.
175 Special Driver Considerations
The following provides a general awareness of factors that can have a major influ-
ence on the final design of the compressor train. Further information is contained in
the Driver Manual and the General Machinery Manual.
Oscillatory Torque
The torque of a reciprocating compressor oscillates significantly during one revolu-
tion of the crankshaft. This condition is usually represented by a torque effort
diagram (see Figure 100-35). The shape of the torque oscillation curve is a func-
tion of the number of degrees between each crankshaft throw, the number of throws,
and the loading of the compressor cylinders. The amplitude of the torque wave
tends to increase as capacity is reduced by cylinder unloading. If the driver is an
induction or synchronous motor, the torque oscillations could cause harmful current
pulsations in the electrical system. Figure 100-36 shows the variation in current for
a typical motor-driven reciprocating compressor. The remedy for excessive oscilla-
tions is to provide sufficient rotating inertia by adding a flywheel or increasing the
moment of inertia of the motor rotor. Limits for current pulsation are covered in
API 618.
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Compressor Manual 100 General Information
Fig. 100-35 A Typical Torque Effect Diagram
Fig. 100-36 Oscillogram Showing Variation of Current to a Synchronous Motor Driving a
Typical Reciprocating Compressor. Line A is the Envelope of the Current Wave.
Difference B–C Divided by Rated Full-load Current Multiplied by 100 is Percent
Current Pulsation (From Compressed Air & Gas Data ed. by A.W. Loomis 1982
by Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Rotary compressors also cause a pulsating torque although the frequency is higher
and the amplitude is lower than the corresponding values for reciprocating
machinery.
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Lateral Critical Speeds
The shafts of turbomachinery (dynamic compressors and turbines) have critical
speeds. A so-called critical speed occurs when the frequency of an exciting force is
at or near one of the natural frequencies of the rotor system. This resonant condi-
tion can result in dynamic instability with magnification of lateral vibration ampli-
tudes to excessive levels. The exciting force can be rotor unbalance at rotational
frequency, or other phenomena such as an unstable oil film in bearings, rotor rubs,
periodic aerodynamic forces, friction forces from loose fits, etc.
A rotor system can have several critical speeds, but the first two are usually the ones
of concern. Occasionally the third critical speed will have some influence in the
design, and very rarely the fourth critical will come into play. A shaft that operates
below the first critical is called a “stiff” shaft. Those that operate above the first crit-
ical are known as “flexible” shafts. Figure 100-37 shows a typical rotor response
plot for a flexible rotor operating above the first and below the second critical
speed. Critical speeds can be excited during normal operation or during startup and
shutdown.
Fig. 100-37 Rotor Response Plot (Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute)
The joining of the compressor and driver shafts can have a significant effect on the
overall critical response of the coupled-up system. A critical speed analysis is
conducted by the manufacturer(s), and is sometimes performed in parallel by an
outside consultant. Although this analysis can be highly complex, it is manageable
with current technology, and the results are reasonably reliable.
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Torsional Critical Speeds
Shaft systems also have torsional natural frequencies. Whereas lateral vibrations are
similar to a guitar string vibrating, torsional vibration is an oscillation in angular
direction, i.e., oscillating “twisting” of the shaft. When an exciting force of suffi-
cient magnitude and coinciding frequency is applied, the system will vibrate with
angular amplitudes reaching destructive levels. The stimulus may originate in the
driver or in the driven equipment. The oscillatory torque of a reciprocating
compressor, as mentioned above, is an example of an excitation. The excitation can
be steady-state or transient. The startup of synchronous motors and centrifugal
compressor surge are examples of transient excitation.
Torsional vibration is an insidious phenomenon as it can occur with little or no
visible evidence. Lateral vibration can be felt, sometimes heard, and observed with
instruments. It takes very special instrumentation to detect torsional vibration. The
effects of transient torsional vibration can sometimes be heard if conditions are
severe enough to cause rattling of the teeth in a gear mesh.
A shaft system can have several torsional critical frequencies of interest. A typical
specification calls for the criticals to be at least 10% away from any exciting
frequency in the operating speed range. The fact that there is a critical in the oper-
ating speed range does not necessarily mean that it is harmful. If there is adequate
damping, the amplitudes and resultant stresses may be low and of little concern.
Nevertheless, criticals in the operating speed range are generally not allowed in the
design phase.
Torsional vibration studies are usually not as complicated as lateral critical anal-
yses, and their results are generally quite reliable. Harmful torsional vibration can
ordinarily be avoided by tuning the stiffness of the couplings in the compressor
train, or by changing the mass moment of inertia of components of the system. A
resilient damping-type coupling can also be used to cure a problem in the field and
is occasionally implemented in the original design.
Gearboxes
When a gearbox is employed in a compressor train, it can stimulate torsional vibra-
tion due to manufacturing imperfections. It can also be the victim of torsional vibra-
tion if the torque variation is sufficient to cause tooth separation in the gear mesh.
Gearboxes also cause a power loss of about 1½–2% for single reduction units, and
about 3% for double reduction machines. Trains with gearboxes take more space
and have been troublesome in the past in a number of applications.
In view of these disadvantages, the application engineer may be dissuaded from
selecting a train of equipment that requires a gearbox. It is indeed a worthwhile
effort to search for equipment that does not require gearing. On the other hand, there
have been cases where this effort was carried too far such that unqualified equip-
ment was force-fitted into a gearless train resulting in a new set of problems. While
it is true that gearboxes have been responsible for excessive machinery downtime in
some installations, manufacturing techniques and analytical methods have improved
to the extent that gearbox reliability is now generally compatible with that of
compressors and drivers. Moreover, use of a gearbox will usually allow the
compressor and driver to operate at ideal speeds. The overall efficiency is thus
improved and the gear's power loss is often more than redeemed.
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100 General Information Compressor Manual
180 Suction System Design
Efficient removal of solids and liquid aerosols from gas streams entering compres-
sors is highly desirable for several reasons. These include incident prevention,
increased machinery service life, reduced downtime, increased volumetric effi-
ciency, and increased process throughput.
Compressor component service life, particularly in reciprocating and rotary
compressors, is greatly affected by gas entrained liquids and solids. Valves, rider
bands, cylinder liners and other sliding contact components last significantly longer
when abrasive contaminants and liquid aerosols are not allowed to enter the
compressors. Liquids and solids can be extremely damaging to dry screw compres-
sors and lobe-type blowers which have tight internal clearances that seal the gas
flow-path. Oil-injected screw compressors can generally handle liquid aerosols
provided they do not degrade the viscosity of the lubricating oil. Solids, however,
can cause damage very readily. In centrifugal compressors, a reduction in fouling
and lower erosion and/or corrosion rates can be achieved.
181 Separator Vessels
A separator vessel or knockout pot is usually the first line of defense against solids
or liquids entering a compressor. Selection of the type of vessel for each application
(vertical, horizontal, gravity, or impingement), depends on the amount of space
available and on the gas/liquid characteristics. Prior to designing a vessel, or modi-
fying an existing vessel, the designer should:
• Estimate the potential amount of solid and liquid loading
• Establish a target for gas cleanliness
• Determine the gas and liquid densities
• Determine the fouling, erosion, and corrosion rates of solids and/or liquids
entrained in the gas
With this data, one can calculate the optimum gas velocity and select appropriate
vessel internals.
Most operating facilities prefer vertical separator vessels because they require the
least amount of plot or deck space. More important is the vessel's ability to effi-
ciently capture, retain, and drain liquids and solids consistent with process
requirements.
Vertical Vessels
The vertical liquid/gas separator in Figure 100-38 is the most basic configuration for
knockout vessels found in compressor suction systems. This design utilizes gravity
separation as the primary method of separation and a mist elimination pad to
coalesce aerosols as the secondary separation method. The figure illustrates the
orientation of vessel internals and the standard dimensions recommended for proper
liquid/gas separation and control.
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Fig. 100-38 Vertical Knockout Vessel
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The advantages of the vertical separator include:
• Less plot space
• Greater surge volume length for effective level control and to protect against
liquid “slugs”
• Increased vertical disengagement space between the liquid level and the mist
elimination pad
• Centrifugal separation is easily incorporated
Appendix P contains a concise design guide for designing separator vessels. This
design guide is not intended to replace a process design manual for separators.
When possible, it is recommended that engineers take advantage of computer
programs such as “SEPDES” for design optimization.
Horizontal Vessels
Horizontal separator vessels as shown in Figure 100-39, are seldom used as basic
knockout vessels. Space and foundation requirements make them costly and imprac-
tical for basic service. They are commonly applied when the process requires a large
volume of liquid to be removed from the gas.
Fig. 100-39 Horizontal Knockout Vessel
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The advantages of horizontal separator vessels include:
• Greater liquid holding volume
• Increased coalescer surface area
• Flow is perpendicular to gravitational forces
One difficulty with horizontal vessels is that they are not easily modified to isolate
accumulated liquids from the disengagement space. For this reason, centrifugal
separation is not a practical design option in horizontal vessels. To assist in isolating
accumulated liquid from the gas flow path, a dipleg or “udder” is sometimes incor-
porated. Appendix P contains a design guide for designing separator vessels.
182 High Efficiency Filters
The most efficient devices for scrubbing liquid and solid aerosols from gas are high
efficiency filters. These devices are effective in removing up to 99.9% of all liquid
and solid aerosols with a particle size cut-off of 0.3 microns. This can control gas
contamination concentrations to 0.01 ppm.
The two prominently available designs, high efficiency liquid/gas coalescers and
high efficiency mist eliminators (with Brownian motion media), are very different in
design, but achieve similar results. Appendix P contains information on high effi-
ciency filters.
Retrofit Considerations
High efficiency filters are recommended as an addition to the knockout pot to
further enhance the quality of the gas to be compressed. Although high efficiency
filters have demonstrated resiliency to liquid flooding, systems that have the poten-
tial to “slug” large amounts of liquid should have an appropriately sized knockout
vessel equipped with a mist elimination device upstream to protect against liquid
overload. Many knockout vessels found in the field are inadequately sized or
improperly designed because the worst-case plant conditions were not considered.
183 Piping And Equipment Considerations
Separator vessels are only one part of a properly designed compressor suction
system. Piping design and layout, equipment location, and some aspects of
machinery skid design are equally important considerations in the design of these
systems.
Pipe Sizing And Gas Velocity
Piping is one of the largest single cost items in nearly all process plant projects. As
such, the overriding sizing criteria is economics. The economic line size is the
smallest nominal pipe size that passes the required flow, without exceeding prac-
tical velocity limits. In compressor suction and interstage lines, the gas velocity
should generally be in the range of 20–50 ft/s.
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In compression systems, the economic gas velocity is 40 times the cube root of
specific volume (ft3/lbm) for on-plot installations and 25 times the cube root of
specific volume for off-plot installations. In addition, there are practical limits to the
pressure drop in these lines. In gas lines the pressure drop should not exceed
10–15 psi per 1000 feet of pipe.
Equipment Layout, Elevations, And Drainage
It is important to provide an equipment layout that minimizes condensation down-
stream of knockout equipment, and controls and collects any liquids that do
condense downstream. The vessel or coalescer immediately upstream of the
compressor should be located as close as possible to the compressor suction. As a
maximum, it should be no more than 50 feet upstream.
Piping between the knock-out equipment and the compressor suction should be
sloped to drain back to the knock-out equipment, and should not include pockets or
low spots where liquids can collect. Lines should have a minimum slope of ½
inches per foot. If low spots are completely unavoidable, the line should include
low point drains that can be conveniently operated at grade or from an elevated
platform.
Compressor suction and interstage piping should be kept short and have few elbows
to reduce the potential for liquid collection. This needs to be balanced with the need
for adequate piping flexibility. Suction lines for centrifugal compressors should
have a minimum straight length of five pipe diameters immediately upstream of the
compressor. No flow restrictions such as reducers or suction strainers should be
located within this straight length of pipe.
Block valves should be line size in horizontal piping runs or located in vertical runs
to avoid liquid accumulation behind the valve. If a reducer is needed in the line
between the compressor and knock-out equipment, it is preferably located in a
vertical piping run. If it must be located in a horizontal run, it should be an eccen-
tric reducer oriented to prevent the accumulation of liquids.
Line Cleaning And Suction Strainers
Temporary suction strainers are recommended in the inlet piping for each stage of
compression to prevent solids from entering the equipment. In addition to suction
strainers, inlet piping should be mechanically cleaned and/or chemically cleaned to
remove grit, welding products, mill scale, and foreign objects. Typically, an acid
pickling procedure is used as described in the Chevron Piping Manual. Temporary
suction strainers in the suction lines of unspared centrifugal compressors which
must run without interruption for extended periods (where it is not possible to
remove the strainer after startup) should have very coarse mesh capable of catching
only large foreign objects such as nuts and bolts. In these systems, extra care must
be taken to ensure the suction lines are clean prior to startup.
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Gas Temperature
The knock-out vessel and line between the vessel and compressor should be insu-
lated to prevent condensation from external cooling. If beneficial, the line and the
vessel can be heat traced as well. Reciprocating compressor jacket water should be
maintained at an elevated temperature to prevent condensation on the cylinder
walls. API 618 requires jacket water to be at least 10F above the inlet gas tempera-
ture to prevent condensation. In many applications, this temperature is greater than
the cooling water available at the site. If this is the case, a cooling water console
with closed loop circulation is one solution.
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200 Centrifugal Compressors
Abstract
This section discusses engineering principles, types of machines and configurations,
and performance characteristics. It contains sufficient information, when used in
conjunction with Company specifications, to understand how to specify and apply
centrifugal compressors including auxiliaries and support systems.
The discussion is primarily aimed at heavy-duty multistage units, but the
information can be applied to smaller and less severe-duty compressors as well.
Contents Page
210 Engineering Principles 200-3
211 Gas Flow Path
212 Conversion of Velocity Energy to Pressure
213 Thermodynamic Relationships
214 Performance Related to Component Geometry
215 Compressor Types
220 Performance Characteristics 200-13
221 General
222 Impeller Performance Curves
223 Use of Fan Laws
224 Surge
225 Stonewall
230 Selection Criteria 200-25
231 Application Range
232 Horsepower and Efficiency Estimates
233 Head/Stage
234 Stages/Casing
235 Discharge Temperature
236 Selection Review
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240 Machine Components and Configurations 200-32
241 Machine Components
242 Dry Gas Seals
243 Configurations
250 Application and System Considerations 200-80
251 Effect of System Changes on Performance
252 Stable Operating Speed Ranges
253 Power Margins
254 Series Operation
255 Weather Protection
256 Process Piping Arrangements
257 Lube- And Seal-Oil Systems
260 Instrumentation and Control 200-88
261 Typical Instrumentation
262 Compressor Control
263 Control System Selection
264 Surge Control
265 Machinery Monitoring
270 Rerates and Retrofits 200-92
271 Capacity
272 Pressure
273 Power
274 Speed
280 Foundations 200-95
281 Foundation Mounting
282 Design Basis for Rotating Compressors
290 Materials 200-99
291 Sulfide Stress Cracking
292 Stress Corrosion Cracking
293 Hydrogen Embrittlement
294 Low Temperature
295 Impellers
296 Non-Metallic Seals
297 Coatings
Revision History 200-104
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
210 Engineering Principles
This section covers the fundamentals of centrifugal compressors, describing the gas
flow path, conversion of velocity to pressure, thermodynamic relationships, and the
effect of component geometry on compressor performance.
These fundamentals provide a foundation for troubleshooting performance prob-
lems, making rerating or initial selection estimates, evaluating vendor proposals,
engineering compressor applications, and assisting with overall process design.
211 Gas Flow Path
A discussion of the flow path through the centrifugal compressor will provide a
better understanding of the compression process.
There is often confusion about the term “stage” when applied to centrifugal
compressors. The process designer thinks of a stage as a compression step made up
of an uncooled section, usually consisting of several impeller/diffuser units. The
mechanical engineer or machine designer defines a stage as one impeller/diffuser
set, and a section as a single compressor casing containing several stages. In this
section of the manual:
• Stage is defined as one impeller/diffuser set
• Process stage is defined as an uncooled section (or casing) containing several
impellers/diffusers
Based on this, a centrifugal compressor is made up of one or more stages; each
stage consisting of a rotating component or impeller, and the stationary components
which guide the flow into and out-of the impeller. Figure 200-1 shows the flow path
through a section of a typical multistage unit.
Fig. 200-1 Compressor Section (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
212 Conversion of Velocity Energy to Pressure
Pressure is increased by transferring energy to the gas, accelerating it through the
impeller. Note that all work on the gas is done by the impeller; the stationary
components only convert the energy added by the impeller. Part of this energy is
converted to pressure in the impeller and the remainder is converted to pressure as it
decelerates in the diffuser. A typical pressure-velocity profile across a stage is
shown in Figure 200-2.
Fig. 200-2 Pressure and Velocity Profile
Since the kinetic energy is a function of the square of the velocity, the head (not
pressure) produced is proportional to the square of the impeller tip speed:
U2
H = K -------
g
(Eq. 200-1)
where:
U.S. Units Metric Units
H = head, ft–lbf N/m
lbm kg
U = impeller tip speed in ft/sec m/sec
K= a constant a constant
g= 32.174 (ft-lb: mass) / (lb: force) (sec2) 1 m kg / N sec2
Note “Head” is a term often used for the work input to a compression process.
The units of head are foot-pounds (force) divided by pounds (mass) [newton meter
divided by kilograms]. In general practice, “head” is usually taken as “feet” or
“meters.”
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Manufacturers generally define performance of individual impellers in terms of:
• Head coefficient - a function of actual work input and stage efficiency
• Flow coefficient - a non-dimensional function of volume flow and rotational
speed
Figure 200-3 represents a typical individual impeller curve. The head coefficient
typically varies from about 0.4 to 0.6. The surge line in the figure is discussed in
Section 224. Using the head coefficient, the head can now be shown as:
H = U
2
----------
g
(Eq. 200-2)
Fig. 200-3 Performance of a Centrifugal Compressor
213 Thermodynamic Relationships
Referring to the thermodynamic discussion in Section 100, the geometric and
thermodynamic head relationships may now be equated.
n-----------
– 1-
r n –1
U 2
H poly = ---------- = Z avg RT 1 --------------------------
g n – 1-
-----------
n
(Eq. 200-3)
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
where:
Z1 + Z2
Z avg = ------------------
-
2
= average compressibility
As mentioned in Section 100, the polytropic process is typically used for centrifugal
compressors (rather than the adiabatic process).
Using the relationship for k, n, andp, polytropic efficiency is:
k–1
------------
k
p = ------------
n–1
------------
n
(Eq. 200-4)
214 Performance Related to Component Geometry
Effects resulting from the geometric shape of the principle components of the
compressor are shown in Figure 200-4. Variables such as the impeller configuration
and blade angle, inlet guide vane angle, diffuser size and shape, etc., can be adjusted
by the machine designer for optimum performance under a specified set of
operating conditions. Figure 200-5 shows impeller vector diagrams for various
blade angles.
Fig. 200-4 Impeller Inlet and Outlet Flow Vector Triangles (From Compressors: Selection & Sizing, by Royce Brown
1986 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Fig. 200-5 Forward, Radial, and Backward Curved Blades (From Compressors: Selection & Sizing, by Royce Brown
1986 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
Impellers with backward leaning blades, are more commonly used for most
centrifugal compressors because of their increased stable operating range
(Figure 200-6). Forward and radial blades are seldom used in petrochemical
applications.
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
Fig. 200-6 Effect of Blade Angle on Stability
Machine output is always affected by combined losses, such as:
• Mechanical loss
• Aerodynamic loss
• Friction and shock loss
Mechanical losses, such as those from a journal or thrust bearing, affect the power
input required, but do not influence the head-capacity curve. Aerodynamic losses
that do influence the shape of the curve consist mainly of wall friction, fluid shear,
seal losses, recirculation in flow passages, and shock losses. Shock losses are the
result of expansion, contraction, and change of direction associated with flow
separation, eddies, and turbulence. Friction and shock losses are the predominant
sources of the total aerodynamic losses.
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Figure 200-7 illustrates the affect of these combined losses in reducing the
theoretical head.
Fig. 200-7 Typical Compressor Head
Friction losses can be reduced by improving surface finishes. Shock losses may
sometimes be mitigated by further streamlining of flow passages. These techniques
will improve efficiency and tend to reduce the surge point, but they are costly, and
there is a point of diminishing returns. The Company specification does not allow
the manufacturer’s quoted performance to include efficiency improvements due to
impeller polishing.
215 Compressor Types
There are two types of compressors, defined by either an axial or radial casing
construction. Figure 200-8 illustrates this construction, referred in the API 617
Standards as:
• axial, or horizontally split
• radial, or vertically split
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Fig. 200-8 Joint Construction (Courtesy of the Howell Training Group)
API 617 (Centrifugal Compressors) requires the use of the vertically-split casings
when the partial pressure of hydrogen exceeds 200 psi (13.8 bar).
Other factors which influence the horizontal/vertical split decision include the
absolute operating pressure of the service and ease of maintenance for a particular
plant layout.
The top half of the horizontally-split casing (Figure 200-9) is removed to access the
internals. The stationary diaphragms are installed individually in the top and bottom
half of the casing. Main process connections may be located either in the top or
bottom half.
The horizontally-split down-connected casing has the advantage of allowing
removal of the top half for access to the rotor without requiring removal of major
process piping.
Vertically-split or barrel compressors have a complete cylindrical outer casing. The
stationary diaphragms are assembled around the rotor to make up an inner casing,
and installed inside the outer casing as a unit, contained by heads or end closures at
each end. Some later designs hold the heads in place by use of shear rings
(Figure 200-10).
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Fig. 200-9 Horizontally-split Casing (Courtesy of the Howell Training Group)
Fig. 200-10 Shear Ring Head Retainer (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
On the vertically-split casing, maintenance of the rotor and other internal parts
(other than bearings and shaft-end seals) involves removal of at least one head,
withdrawal of the inner casing from the outer pressure containing casing, and then
dismantling of the inner casing to expose the rotor (Figure 200-11). The inner casing
and rotor can be removed from either the up- or down-connected vertically-split
outer casing without disturbing process piping.
Both the horizontally and vertically-split casing designs allow removal of bearings
and shaft-end seals for maintenance without disassembly of major casing
components.
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Fig. 200-11 Vertically-split Casing (Courtesy of the Howell Training Group)
Figure 200-12 gives a comparison of pressure vs. capacity for multistage
horizontally- and vertically-split casing construction. The size/rating comparisons
are general. Specific pressure/capacity ranges and casing configurations vary
between manufacturers.
Fig. 200-12 Pressure/Capacity Chart (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
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Overhung-Impeller Types
Single-stage, overhung-impeller (impeller located outboard of the radial bearings,
opposite the driver end) designs are available in pressure ratings to approximately
2000 psi (138 bar) and capacities to 50,000 cfm (85000 m3/hr).
Another type of centrifugal compressor is the integrally-geared configuration. This
is an overhung-impeller type built around a gear box, with the impellers attached to
gear pinion shafts and the impeller housings mounted on the gear box. Possible
configurations include two, three, four, and even five stage designs with capacities
to 30,000 cfm (51,000 m3/hr) and pressures to 250 psig (17 bar). These have
typically been used as packaged-air or nitrogen compressors. The overall
arrangement of this type varies significantly between manufacturers.
Major features of the integrally geared design include:
• Open impellers—maximum head developed
• volute diffusers for optimum efficiency
• different pinion speeds to optimize impeller efficiency
220 Performance Characteristics
221 General
Figure 200-13 presents a centrifugal compressor performance map, using API 617
nomenclature. The family of curves depicts the performance at various speeds
where N represents RPM, and:
• Vertical axis—Head: polytropic head, pressure ratio, discharge pressure, or
differential pressure; and
• Horizontal axis—Inlet Capacity: called “Q” or “Q1” shown as actual inlet
volume per unit of time ACFM or ICFM where “A” is actual, or “I” is inlet.
Note that inlet flow volume, or capacity, is based on a gas with a particular
molecular weight, specific heat ratio, and compressibility factor at suction pressure
and temperature.
The curve on the left represents the surge limit. Operation to the left of this line is
unstable and usually harmful to the machine.
A capacity limit or overload curve is shown on the other side of the map. The area
to the right of this line is commonly known as “stonewall” or “choke”. Operation
in this area is, in most instances, harmless mechanically, but the head-producing
capability of the machine falls off rapidly, and performance is unpredictable.
Surge and stonewall should not be confused. Although machine performance is
seriously impaired in either case, they are entirely different phenomena. These are
covered in more detail later in this section.
Terms frequently used to define performance are “stability range” and “percent
stability”. Referring again to Figure 200-13, the rated stability range is taken as
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
QD - QS where QD is the rated point and QS is the surge point along the 100 percent
speed line. The percent stability expressed as a percentage is:
QD – QS
- 100
% stability = --------------------
QD
(Eq. 200-5)
Fig. 200-13 Typical Centrifugal Compressor Performance Map (Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute)
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
222 Impeller Performance Curves
For convenience, manufacturers usually base the performance of individual
impellers on an air test. Figure 200-14 represents a typical curve which
characterizes a certain impeller design. The vertical axis is usually called the head
coefficient ; and the horizontal axis is called the flow coefficient,. (See
Section 212 for definitions of and ). In this way, impeller performance data are
concisely cataloged and stored for use by designers. When a compressor is
originally sized, the designer translates the wheel curve data into ACFM, discharge
pressure, and RPM in wheel-by-wheel calculations to select a set of wheels that
satisfy the purchaser’s requirements.
Fig. 200-14 Individual Impeller Performance Curve
Theoretically, an impeller should produce the same head, or feet of the fluid,
regardless of the gas weight. However, in practice, a wheel will produce somewhat
more head (than theoretical) with heavy gases, and less with lighter gases. Gas
compressibility, specific heat ratio, aerodynamic losses, and several other factors are
responsible for this deviation. Manufacturers should apply proprietary correction
factors when the effect is significant. This effect contributes to variance from the
well-known fan laws or affinity laws. (See the next sub-section.)
Notice in Figure 200-14 that the heavier gas causes surge at a higher Q/N, that is, it
reduces stability. The opposite is true of a lighter gas. Similar non-conformance can
sometimes be observed when the wheel is run at tip speeds considerably higher or
lower than an average design speed. The higher tip speed would surge at higher
Q/N, and the lower tip speed would surge at a lower Q/N.
Figure 200-15 illustrates the effects of using movable inlet guide vanes. Notice that as
the head or discharge pressure is reduced, the surge volume (defined by the dashed
line) is also reduced. The effect is similar to that of speed reduction on a variable
speed machine. Inlet throttling, although less efficient, will produce similar curves.
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Fig. 200-15 Constant Speed Machine with Variable Inlet Guide Vanes
Centrifugal compressors recognize actual inlet cubic feet per minute (ACFM at inlet
conditions, or ICFM). Performance curves are most commonly plotted using
ACFM. This means that a curve is drawn for a specific set of suction conditions,
and any change in these conditions will affect the validity of the curve.
Performance curves often plot discharge pressure on the vertical axis, and flow
(ACFM) on the horizontal axis. To estimate performance for varying suction
pressures, the curve should be converted to pressure ratio on the vertical axis. This
can be done by dividing the discharge pressures on the vertical axis by the suction
pressure on which the original curve was based. The effect of a small variation in
suction temperature can be estimated by using a ratio of absolute temperatures with
the original temperature in the denominator. This ratio is used to correct the inlet
capacity on the X-axis by multiplying inlet capacities by the temperature ratio.
For a rough estimate for molecular weight changes of less than 10 percent, the
pressure ratio on the curve can simply be multiplied by the ratio of the new
molecular weight over the original. Unless there are gross changes in the gas
composition causing large changes in specific heat ratio, this estimating method will
only have an error of 1–2 percent for pressure ratios between 1.5 and 3. For more
accurate estimates, a curve with polytropic head on the vertical axis must be
obtained.
Remember that any change that increases the density of the gas at the inlet will
increase the discharge pressure and the horsepower. Also, the unit will tend to surge
at a slightly higher inlet volume.
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223 Use of Fan Laws
Fan laws can be used in many cases to estimate performance for small changes in
speed and flow, but care and judgment must be used. Using these laws is risky, and
should be done cautiously.
The fan laws state that inlet volume is proportional to speed, and that head is
proportional to the speed squared. These laws are based on the assumption that the
fluid is non-compressible. Fan laws may be inaccurate when testing the
performance level of multistage compressors at off-design speeds. (Figure 200-16
illustrates this error.) Similar errors could be incurred in estimating surge volumes
using the fan laws.
To illustrate, assume a 10 percent mass flow reduction to the first stage. If all other
inlet conditions remain the same, volume flow will also be reduced by 10 percent.
Since mass flow was reduced by 10 percent, the second stage will also see a
10 percent flow reduction. (Figure 200-13 shows that flow reduction results in an
increased discharge pressure from the first stage.) Since volume is inversely
proportional to pressure, the volume to the second stage will be reduced further in
proportion to the increased discharge pressure from the first stage. The second stage
will have a similar effect on the third stage and so on. Deviation from the ideal gas
laws will increase significantly as the number of compressor stages increases.
224 Surge
Surge is a situation that can destroy a compressor. It is a critical factor in design of
the compressor and its control system. It is also a critical operating limit.
Surge is a condition of unstable flow within the compressor, resulting in flow
reversal and pressure fluctuations in the system. This occurs when the head
(pressure) developed by the compressor is less than that required to overcome
downstream system pressure. At surge, continuous “forward” flow is interrupted.
While surge is caused by aerodynamic instability in the compressor, interaction with
the system sometimes produces violent swings in flow, accompanied by pressure
fluctuations and relatively rapid temperature increase at the compressor inlet. Surge
affects the overall system and is not confined to only the compressor. Therefore, an
understanding of both the external causes and the machine design is necessary to
apply an adequate anti-surge system.
The compressor surge region was previously identified in Figure 200-13. In
Figure 200-17 lines depicting three typical system operating curves have been
added. The shapes of these curves are governed by the system friction, and pressure
control in the particular system external to the compressor
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Fig. 200-16 Error in Fan Laws – Multistage Compressor
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Fig. 200-17 Typical Centrifugal Compressor Performance Map Showing Surge Cycle
A compressor will operate at the intersection of its curve and the system curve.
To change the point at which the compressor operates:
1. Change the speed or variable geometry of the compressor, thus relocating the
compressor curve; or
2. Change the system curve by repositioning a control valve or otherwise altering
the external system curve.
Typical Surge Cycle
A typical surge cycle is represented by the circuit between points B, C, D, and back
to B (Figure 200-17). If events take place which alter the system curve to establish
operation at point B, the pressure in the system will equal the output pressure of the
compressor. Any transient can then cause reverse flow if the compressor discharge
pressure falls below the downstream system pressure.
For reverse flow to occur, compressor throughput must be reduced to zero at point C
which corresponds to a pressure called the “shut-off head”. When the system
pressure has decreased to the compressor’s shut-off head at C, the machine will re-
establish forward flow since the flow requirement of the compressor is satisfied by
the backflow gas (compressor capability now greater than system requirements).
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
Now that the compressor has sufficient gas to compress, operation will immediately
shift to the right in approximately a horizontal path to point D. With the compressor
now delivering flow in the forward direction, pressure will build in the system, and
operation will follow the characteristic speed curve back to points B and C. The
cycle will rapidly repeat itself unless the cause of the surge is corrected, or other
favorable action taken, such as increasing the speed.
Several internal factors combine to develop the surge condition. From the surge
description, you can see that the domed shape of the head-capacity characteristic
curve is fundamentally responsible for the location of the surge point at a given
speed. On the right side of the performance map (Figure 200-17) the slope of the
curve is negative. As inlet flow is reduced, the slope becomes less negative until it
reaches zero at the surge point. As flow is reduced further to the left of the surge
point, the slope becomes increasingly positive.
Section 210 covers internal factors and their effect on location of the surge region.
Frequency of Surge
Frequency of the surge cycle varies inversely with the volume of the system. For
example, if the piping contains a check valve located near the compressor discharge
nozzle, the frequency will be correspondingly much higher than that of the system
without a check valve. The frequency can be as low as a few cycles per minute up to
15 or more cycles per second. Generally, the higher the frequency, the lower the
intensity. The intensity or violence of surge tends to increase with increased gas
density which is directly related to higher molecular weights and pressures, and
lower temperatures. Higher differential pressure generally increases the intensity.
Design Factors Affecting Surge
A greater number of impellers in a given casing will tend to reduce the stable range.
Similarly, so does the number of sections of compression, or the number of casings
in series.
The large majority of centrifugals use vaneless diffusers, which are simple flow
channels with parallel walls, without elements inside to guide the flow. The
trajectory of a particle through a vaneless diffuser is a spiral of about one-half the
circumferential distance around the diffuser (Figure 200-18). If this distance
becomes longer for any reason, the flow is exposed to more wall friction which
dissipates the kinetic energy. As flow is reduced, the angle is reduced which extends
the length of the trajectory through the diffuser (Figure 200-19). When the flow path
is too long, insufficient pressure rise (head) is developed and surge occurs.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Fig. 200-18 Design Condition Velocity Triangles (Reproduced with permission of the Turbomachinery Laboratory. From
Proceedings of the Twelfth Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 1983)
Fig. 200-19 Flow Trajectory in a Vaneless Diffuser (Reproduced with permission of the Turbomachinery Laboratory.
From Proceedings of the Twelfth Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 1983)
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Occasionally, vaned diffusers are used to force the flow to take a shorter, more effi-
cient path. Figure 200-20 shows the flow pattern in a vaned diffuser. The vaned dif-
fuser can increase the aerodynamic efficiency of a stage by approximately 3 percent,
but this efficiency gain results in a narrower operating span on the head-capacity
curve with respect to both surge and stonewall. The figure also shows how the path
of a particle of gas is affected by off-design flows. At flows higher than design,
impingement occurs on the trailing side of the diffuser vane creating shock losses
which tend to bring on stonewall. Conversely, flow less than design encourages
surge, due to the shock losses from impingement on the leading edge of the vane.
Fig. 200-20 Vaned Diffuser
Despite adverse effects on surge, the vaned diffuser should be applied where
efficiency is of utmost importance, particularly with small high-speed wheels.
Stationary guide vanes may be used to direct the flow to the eye of the impeller.
Depending upon the head requirements of an individual stage, these vanes may
direct the flow in the same direction as the rotation or tip speed of the wheel, an
action known as pre-rotation or pre-swirl. The opposite action is known as
counter-rotation or counter swirl. Guide vanes set at zero degrees of swirl are
called radial guide vanes.
The effect guide vanes have on a compressor’s curve is illustrated in Figure 200-21.
Note that pre-rotation reduces the head or unloads the impeller. Pre-rotation tends to
reduce the surge flow. Counter-rotation increases the head and tends to increase the
surge flow.
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Fig. 200-21 Effect of Guide Vane Setting (Stationary or Variable)
Movable inlet guide vanes are occasionally employed on single-stage machines, or
on the first stage of multi- stage compressors driven by electric motors at constant
speed. The guide vane angle can be manually or automatically adjusted while the
unit is on stream to accommodate operating requirements. Because of the
complexity of the adjusting mechanism, the variable feature can only be applied to
the first wheel in almost all designs.
External Causes and Effects of Surge
Briefly, some of the usual causes of surge (other than from machine design) are:
1. Restricted suction or discharge such as a plugged strainer.
2. Process changes in pressures or gas composition.
3. Mis-positioned rotor or internal plugging of flow passages.
4. Inadvertent speed change such as from a governor failure.
The effects of surge can range from a simple lack of performance to serious damage
to the machine and/or the system. Internal damage to labyrinths, diaphragms, thrust
bearing and the rotor can be experienced. Surge often excites lateral shaft vibration.
It can also produce torsional damages to such items as couplings and gears.
Externally, devastating piping vibration can occur causing structural damage,
mis-alignment, and failure of fittings and instruments.
Surge can often be recognized by check valve hammering, piping vibration, noise,
wriggling of pressure gages or ammeter on the driver. Mild cases of surge are
sometimes difficult to discern.
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225 Stonewall
Another major factor affecting the theoretical head-capacity curve is choke or
stonewall. The terms surge and stonewall are sometimes incorrectly used
interchangeably, probably due to the fact that serious performance deterioration is
observed in either case.
A compressor stage is considered to be in stonewall, in theory, when the Mach
number equals one. At this point the impeller passage is choked and no more flow
can be passed. Industry practice normally limits the inlet Mach number to less than
0.90 for any specified operating point.
We are concerned with two important items in defining stonewall: the inlet-gas
velocity incidence angle, and the inlet-gas Mach number.
The vector diagram (Figure 200-22) shows an inlet-gas velocity vector which lines
up well with the impeller blade at design flow.
Fig. 200-22 Inlet Gas Velocity Vector – Design Flow (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
The ratio of the inlet gas velocity (relative to the impeller blade) to the speed of
sound at inlet is referred to as the relative inlet Mach number.
V rel
Mach No. = ---------
-
a1
(Eq. 200-6)
where:
a1 = g k ZRT 1
= speed of sound at inlet
As flow continues to increase, the incidence angle of the relative gas velocity, with
respect to the impeller blade, becomes negative as shown in Figure 200-23. The
negative incidence angle results in an effective reduction of the flow area and
impingement of the gas on the trailing edge of the blade, contributing to flow
separation and the onset of choke.
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Fig. 200-23 Inlet Gas Velocity Vector – Negative Incidence Angle (Onset of Choke)
(Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
It is important to note the choke effect is much greater for high molecular weight
gas, especially at low temperatures and lower k values. For this reason, maximum
allowable compressor speed may be limited on high molecular weight applications,
with a corresponding reduction in head per stage.
230 Selection Criteria
This section concentrates on equipment selection. (Forms are also available in the
Appendix to assist in the estimating process.)
231 Application Range
Refer to Figure 200-12 for a chart of capacity vs. pressure for horizontally- and
vertically-split centrifugal compressors.
Normally, manufacturers do not design a compressor to match an application, they
fit the application to one of a series of existing compressor casings or frame sizes.
Therefore, check the manufacturer’s bulletins for data required to make selection
estimates. Figure 200-24 provides data for a series of compressor casings based on a
comparison of data from the industry.
Fig. 200-24 Preliminary Selection Values for Multistage Centrifugal Compressors (1 of 2)
Maximum(2)
Casing Size Flow Range Head Coefficient Nominal Impeller Typical Speed Polytropic Head/Stage
(Frame) ft3/min (m3/hr) (1) Diameter (inches/mm) RPM ft (m)
1 500–7,000 0.48 14–16 12,000 12,000
(850–11,900) (335.6–406.4) (35,880)
2 2,000–18,000 0.49–0.50 18–22 9,000 12,000
(3,400–30,600) (457.2–558.8) (35,880)
3 6,000–31,000 0.50–0.51 24–30 6,500 12,000
(10,200–52,700) (609.6–762) (35,880)
4 10,000–44,000 0.50–0.51 36 5,600 12,000
(17,000–74,800) (914.4) (35,880)
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Fig. 200-24 Preliminary Selection Values for Multistage Centrifugal Compressors (2 of 2)
5 30,000–65,000 0.51–0.52 42–45 4,400 12,000
(51,000– (1,066.8–1,143) (35,880)
110,000)
6 60,000–100,000 0.52–0.53 54 3,600 10,000
(102,000– (1,371.6) (3,048)
170,000)
7 80,000–160,000 0.53–0.54 60 3,000 10,000
(136,000– (1524) (3,048)
272,000)
(1) Based on backward leaning blades
(2) For 28–30 molecular weight at normal temperatures
In addition, the minimum discharge volume flow should be considered. Current
impeller designs limit impeller inlet flow to approximately 300–500 cfm
(500–850 m3/hr). Thus, process conditions resulting in actual discharge volume of
less than approximately 250 cfm (425 m3/hr) may be unacceptable.
232 Horsepower and Efficiency Estimates
One of the major benefits in doing your own estimates, rather than turning
everything over to a manufacturer, is that you develop a better understanding of the
application. You are then in a better position to discuss it with the manufacturers,
evaluate alternate selections, and even catch errors in manufacturer’s estimates.
Figure 200-25 is a plot of polytropic efficiency vs. inlet volume flow. This chart
may be used for estimating polytropic efficiencies.
As discussed in Section 100, manufacturers use a computer to calculate compressor
performance on a stage-by-stage basis. Performance is based on each preceding
stage, new impeller inlet conditions, including compressibility (Z) and k values to
determine the individual performance for each successive stage.
If specific stage data is unavailable, overall calculations using average
compressibility and a k value based on the average flange-to-flange temperature,
will provide reasonably accurate results. (Refer to Section 100 for compressibility
equations.)
Estimate overall efficiency from Figure 200-25, using average CFM from:
Inlet ACFM + Disch. ACFM
cfm avg = ---------------------------------------------------------------------
2
(Eq. 200-7)
where discharge ACFM is determined using Equation 200-14 and an efficiency
of 75 percent.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Fig. 200-25 Polytropic Efficiency vs. Inlet Volume Flow (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Determine n-1/n from:
n–1 k–1
------------ = ------------
n k p
(Eq. 200-8)
Recalculate head, discharge temperature, and gas horsepower (GHP) from:
n–1
------------
r n–1
H p = z avg RT 1 ---------------------
n–1
------------
n
(Eq. 200-9)
where:
Hp = Polytropic Head in foot-lbf/lbm (N-m/kg)
n–1
------------
T2 = T1 r n
(Eq. 200-10)
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
wH p
Gas Power HP = ------------------------
-
33 ,000 p
wH p
Gas Power kW = -----------------------
-
1 000 p
(Eq. 200-11)
where:
w = weight flow in lbs/min (kg/sec)
Estimate shaft power using:
Shaft power = Gas power + bearing loss + seal loss
where bearing loss is determined from Figure 200-26, and oil seal loss is
determined from Figure 200-27. The casing size in the figures is selected by
comparing the cfmavg with the flow range in Figure 200-24.
Fig. 200-26 Bearing Losses vs. Casing Size and Speed (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
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Fig. 200-27 Oil Seal Losses vs. Casing Size and Speed (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
233 Head/Stage
Although special impeller designs are available for higher heads, a good estimate
for the typical multistage compressor is approximately 10,000 ft/stage
(3048 m/stage). This is based on an assumed impeller flow coefficient of 0.5 and a
nominal impeller tip speed of 800 fps (244 mps).
The actual head per stage varies between manufacturers and individual impeller
designs, ranging from 9,000–12,000 feet (2743–3658 meters) for 28–30 molecular
weight gas at normal temperatures.
Head per stage is limited by:
• impeller stress levels
• inlet Mach number
Impeller Stress Level
The following speed margins are defined by API:
• Rated (Design) Speed: 100%
• Maximum Continuous Speed: 105% of Rated Speed
• Trip Speed: 110% of Maximum Continuous
• Overspeed: 115% of Maximum Continuous
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Figure 200-28 identifies the impeller stresses at various rotational speeds. Reduced
yield strengths required for corrosive gas will correspondingly reduce maximum
head per stage through reduction in speed.
Fig. 200-28 Impeller Stress Levels at Various Speeds
Inlet Mach Number
An increase in gas molecular weight, or a decrease in k, Z or inlet temperature will
result in an increase in inlet Mach number. For high molecular weight or low
temperature applications, Mach number may limit head per stage for a given design.
234 Stages/Casing
The maximum number of stages per casing should normally be limited to eight. It is
usually limited by rotor critical speeds, although in a few cases temperature can be a
limiting factor.
Most multistage centrifugal compressors operate between the first and second
criticals (flexible shaft rotor). Figure 200-29 shows the location of critical speeds in
relation to the operating speed range. API specifies the required separation between
critical speeds and the compressor operating range. As the bearing span is increased
to accommodate additional impellers, the critical speed decreases, with the second
critical approaching the operating range. While some manufacturer’s bulletins
indicate as many as 10 or more stages per casing, designs exceeding eight impellers
per case should be carefully evaluated against operating experience from similar
units.
For compound, or sidestream loads, additional stage spacing may be required to
allow for intermediate exit and/or entry of the gas. In these applications, the number
of impellers would be reduced accordingly.
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Fig. 200-29 Rotor Response Plot (Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute)
235 Discharge Temperature
If the calculated discharge temperature exceeds approximately 350F (177C),
cooling should be considered to avoid problems with compressor materials, seal
components, and clearances. The exact temperature limit is dependent on factors
such as the gas compressed, compressor materials, allowable temperature of the seal
oil, and the type of seals. Also, note that discharge temperature will increase as flow
is reduced toward surge.
236 Selection Review
Refer to Section 2100 for centrifugal compressor checklists, which provide typical
items covered during the review of any centrifugal compressor quotation.
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
240 Machine Components and Configurations
241 Machine Components
Centrifugal compressors are made up of a casing with stationary internals,
containing a rotating element, or rotor, supported by bearings. Shaft end-seals are
provided to contain the process gas. Figure 200-30 shows a typical multistage
compressor and identifies the basic components. (Refer to Figure 200-1 for details
of the gas flow path.
• Casings
• Nozzles
• Stage
• Diaphragms
• Impellers
• Rotor
• Shaft
• Radial Bearings
• Thrust Bearing
• Balance Piston
• Interstage Seals
• Shaft-end Seals
The main machine components are:
Casings
The following is a summary of casing materials and their applications.
1. Cast Iron
– Limited to low pressure applications for non-flammable, non-toxic gases.
– Limited in location and size of main and sidestream connections to avail-
able patterns.
2. Cast Steel
– Quality is difficult to obtain.
– X-ray inspection requirements increase costs.
– High-rejection rate or involved repairs can extend deliveries.
3. Fabricated Steel
– Used for both horizontally- and vertically-split casings.
– Improved quality control possible.
– Delays associated with rejection or repair of castings are avoided.
– Variable stage spacing provides minimum bearing span for required
stages.)
– Main and sidestream nozzle size and location are not limited by pattern
availability.
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Fig. 200-30 Centrifugal Compressor Nomenclature (Courtesy of Demag Delaval)
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4. Forged Steel
Used for small vertically-split casing sizes where application involves very
high pressures.
All centrifugal compressor casings used to be cast. But, due to the problems
associated with quality control on large castings, coupled with improved fabrication
techniques and costs, many manufacturers converted to fabricated steel casings,
especially on the larger frame sizes.
Nozzles
Inlet and outlet nozzles are available in a variety of configurations, depending on
the manufacturer. They are normally flanged. (Typical arrangements are shown later
in this section.) API 617 covers requirements for flange type, and ratings of main
and auxiliary connections.
The increased use of fabricated cases has provided additional flexibility in nozzle
orientation.
If the installation permits, the following should be considered:
1. Horizontally-split units with process connections in the lower half (down-
connected) allow removal of the top half, and internals including rotor, without
disturbing the process piping.
2. If overhead process piping is required, the use of vertically-split barrel
compressor casings still allow removal of the inner casing and access to the
internals without removing process piping. Fabricated casing design makes the
vertically-split unit a cost-effective alternative for larger medium pressure
applications.
Stage
The heart of the centrifugal compressor is the impeller “stage.” The stage is made
up of the following parts (illustrated in Figure 200-31):
• inlet guide vanes
• impeller
• diffuser
• return bend (crossover)
• return channel
The stage can be separated into two major elements:
• The impellers which are mounted on the shaft as part of the rotor.
• The stationary components including the inlet nozzle and other components
mentioned above.
The inlet volute, or return channel, guides the gas to the eye of the impeller, and
aided by the guide vanes, distributes the flow around the circumference of the
impeller eye.
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Fig. 200-31 Centrifugal Compressor Stage Components (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
One method of adjusting the stage performance, is to use different guide vane
angles. This changes the angle of incidence on the impeller which in turn varies the
head, efficiency, and stability. There are three types of fixed guide vanes; radial,
against-rotation, and with-rotation. The influence of various guide vane angles on a
given impeller head characteristic is shown in Figure 200-32.
Diaphragms
The stationary members inside the casing are called diaphragms. The diaphragm
includes a diffuser for the gas as it leaves the impeller, and a channel to redirect the
gas through the return bend and return channel into the next stage. Diaphragms can
be either cast or fabricated, with cast diaphragms normally made of iron. Normally,
diaphragms are not exposed to high pressure-differentials, and therefore are not
highly stressed. Diaphragms should be made of steel where high-differentials may
exist (such as back-to-back impellers).
Impellers
The impeller is the most highly stressed component in the compressor. Available
types vary widely, although the three basic types are designated as open, semi-open
and closed:
Open impellers have the vanes positioned in a radial direction and have no
enclosing covers on either the front or back sides.
Semi-open impellers usually have the vanes positioned in a radial or backward
leaning direction and have a cover on the back side which extends to the periphery
of the vanes. The radial blade, semi-open impeller provides for a maximum amount
of flow and head in a single stage, even in large diameter impellers (Figure 200-33).
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Fig. 200-32 Head-Capacity Characteristics of Constant Speed Centrifugal Compressor with
Capacity Regulated by Variable Inlet Vane Angle (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 200-33 Impeller Types – Closed and Semi-Open Backward Leaning (Courtesy of Dresser-
Rand)
Closed impellers have enclosing covers on both the front and back side. This is the
most common type in our large process compressors. The blades are usually
backward leaning, although they may be radial. Forward leaning blades are
normally used only in fans or blowers. (See Figure 200-33.)
Single-inlet impellers take the gas in an axial direction, on one side of the impeller
only, and discharge the gas in a radial direction.
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Double-flow impellers take the gas in an axial direction, on both sides of the
impeller, and discharge the gas in a radial direction. They are, in effect, the
equivalent of two single-inlet impellers placed back-to-back and, in general will
handle twice the flow at the same head as a single-inlet impeller of the same
diameter operating at the same speed.
Some impeller designs utilize a three-dimensional blade or vane configuration,
which varies the inlet blade angle from hub to outside diameter, thereby providing
optimum aerodynamic geometry, and improved performance over that of two-
dimensional designs.
Centrifugal compressor impellers discharge gas radially, but the gas enters in an
axial direction. An axial flow element called an inducer is sometimes incorporated
into the impeller. This combination is called a mixed-flow impeller. This
configuration results in increased efficiency in high-flow applications.
In the past, riveted impeller construction was used in a large number of applications.
Today, construction with welded components is more common.
Rotor
The rotor is made up of the shaft, impellers, impeller spacers, thrust collar, and the
balance drum. Figure 200-34 shows several rotor configurations with various
impeller types.
If a rotor always operates below the lowest critical speed, it is known as a stiff-shaft
rotor. In contrast, a rotor with a normal operating range above one or more of its
criticals is a flexible-shaft rotor. Most multistage centrifugal compressors have
flexible-shaft rotors; and therefore, must pass through at least one critical during
start-up or shutdown. From an operational point of view, stiff shafts would be
preferable. However, it is not practical since the shafts would become prohibitively
large.
Shafts
Shafts are made from alloy steel forgings, finished by grinding or honing to produce
the required finish. Special requirements are detailed in API 617 for balancing and
concentricity during rotor assembly. Impellers are normally mounted on the shaft
with a shrink fit with or without a key, depending on the particular manufacturer and
compressor frame size. Most manufacturers use shaft sleeves to both locate
impellers and provide protection for the shaft in the event of contact with internal
labyrinth seals.
Special attention must be given to minimizing mechanical and electrical runout at
the shaft area observed by proximity probes. See the General Machinery Manual for
more information on mechanical/electrical mount.
Radial Bearings
Radial bearings on centrifugal compressors are usually pressure lubricated. For ease
of maintenance, they are horizontally-split with replaceable liners or pads. The
liners or pads are usually steel backed with a thin lining of babbitt.
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Fig. 200-34 Centrifugal Compressor Rotor Configurations (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
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Since centrifugal rotors are relatively light, bearing loads are low. This often leads
to instability problems which must be compensated for by the bearing design. Due
to instability, the straight-sleeve bearing is used only in some slow-speed units with
relatively short bearing spans. The pressure-dam sleeve bearing, and the tilting-
pad bearing are two commonly used designs which improve rotor stability.
The top half of the pressure-dam design is relieved as shown in Figure 200-35,
creating a pressure point where the dam ends. This conversion of oil-velocity into
pressure adds to rotor stability by increasing the bearing load.
Fig. 200-35 Pressure Dam Sleeve Bearing Liner (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
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The tilting-pad bearing shown in Figure 200-36 is usually made up of five
individual pads, each pivoted at its midpoint. By adjustments to the shape of the
pads and bearing clearance, bearing stiffness and damping characteristics can be
controlled. This bearing is successful in applications where the pressure-dam design
is inadequate.
Fig. 200-36 Tilting-Pad or Pivoted Shoe Radial Journal Bearing (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
Thrust Bearing
The tilting pad is the most common thrust bearing used in centrifugal compressors.
The flat land and tapered land bearings are used less frequently. Figure 200-37
shows a tilting-pad bearing, consisting of a thrust collar (collar disk) attached to the
rotor shaft, and a carrier ring which holds the pads. A button on the back of the pad
allows the pad to pivot freely, thus allowing adjustment to varying oil velocity at
different compressor speeds. A further refinement to the basic design is the self-
equalizing bearing shown in Figure 200-38. An equalizing bar design allows the
bars to rock until all pads carry an equal load.
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Fig. 200-37 Button-Type Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearing (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
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Fig. 200-38 Self-Equalizing Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearing (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
Balance Piston
Figure 200-39 represents the pressure profile acting on a centrifugal compressor
impeller, showing net pressure and net thrust pattern. This pressure pattern on the
impeller results in a net thrust force towards the suction end of the machine. The
total net thrust is the sum of the thrusts from all the individual impellers.
Fig. 200-39 Impeller Pressure and Thrust Patterns (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
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The rotor’s thrust is handled by the thrust bearing. However, in most multistage
compressors, a very large, if not impractical, thrust bearing would be required to
handle the total thrust load, if not otherwise compensated. Therefore a thrust
compensating device, or balance piston (or balancing drum) is normally provided
as part of the rotating element.
As shown in Figure 200-40, compressor discharge pressure acts on the inside end of
the balance piston. The area on the discharge side (outside) is vented, usually to
suction pressure. The resulting differential pressure across the balance piston
develops a force which opposes the normal thrust force, thus greatly reducing the
net thrust transmitted to the thrust bearing.
Thrust compensation can be regulated by controlling the balance piston diameter.
However, there are usually physical and design limitations. Normally a balancing
force less than the total impeller thrust (approximately 75 percent) is selected to
maintain the rotor on one face of the thrust bearing for all operating conditions.
Otherwise, the rotor could bounce back and forth between the thrust faces as
process conditions vary.
Interstage Seals
Internal seals are installed on multistage centrifugals to prevent leakage between
stages, thereby improving performance. Labyrinth seals are commonly used, being
located at the impeller eye and at the shaft between stages. Figure 200-41 illustrates
internal labyrinth seals.
Fig. 200-40 Centrifugal Compressor Balance Drum Fig. 200-41 Interstage Seals (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
(Balance Piston) (Courtesy of the Howell
Training Group)
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Shaft End-Seals
Centrifugal compressors use shaft end-seals to:
1. Restrict or prevent leakage of air or oil vapors into the process gas stream.
2. Restrict or prevent leakage of process gas from inside the compressor.
Various types of seals are used, depending on the gas being compressed, the pressures
involved, safety, operating experience, power savings, and process requirements.
Shaft end-seals are separated into two broad categories:
• the restrictive seal which restricts but does not completely prevent leakage; and
• the positive seal designed to prevent leakage.
Restrictive seals are usually labyrinths. They are generally limited to applications
involving non-toxic, non-corrosive, abrasive-free gases at low pressures. In some
cases, ports for injection or withdrawal of the gas are used to extend the range of
effectiveness. Some possible arrangements are shown in Figure 200-42.
Another form of the restrictive seal is the dry carbon ring seal, often used on
overhung single-stage compressors where maximum sealing and minimum axial
shaft spacing are important. Since this seal can be held to close clearances, leakage
is less than with the labyrinth seal. Also, less axial shaft space is required (see
Figure 200-43).
Positive seals, while varying somewhat in design between manufacturers, are either
liquid-film or mechanical contact type.
The liquid-film type is shown in Figure 200-44. A schematic of a seal system is
shown in Figure 200-45. Sealing oil is fed to the seal from an overhead tank located
at an elevation above the compressor set to maintain a fixed five psi (typically)
differential above “seal reference” pressure. (Seal reference pressure is very close to
suction pressure.)
The oil enters between the seal rings and flows in both directions to prevent inward
leakage to the process gas or outward leakage of the gas to the atmosphere. “Buffer
ports” are often available for injection of an inert gas to further ensure separation of
the process from the sealing medium. The oil-film seal is suitable for sealing
pressures in excess of 3000 psi (207 bar). (See Figure 200-46 for an illustration of a
buffer-gas injection.)
The tilting-pad oil seal (shown in Figure 200-47) is a design that recognizes that in
some cases the seal operates as a bearing. It can be used in high-pressure, high-
pressure-rise applications to improve rotor stability.
The mechanical contact seal (Figure 200-48) is used at pressures up to 1000 psi
(70 bar), and has the added feature of providing more positive sealing during
shutdown. Sealing is provided by means of a floating carbon ring seal riding
between a stationary and a rotating face. The seal medium (oil) functions primarily
as a coolant. Seal oil differential is controlled by a regulator rather than an overhead
tank.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Fig. 200-42 Ported Labyrinth Seals (Courtesy of Fig. 200-43 Buffered Dry Carbon-Ring Seal (Courtesy of
the Elliott Company) the Elliott Company)
Fig. 200-44 Liquid (Oil) Film Seal (Courtesy of Dresser- Fig. 200-45 Oil Film Seal Schematic (Courtesy of
Rand) Dresser-Rand)
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
Fig. 200-46 Oil Film Seal with Buffer to Separate Seal Oil from Bearing Oil (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 200-47 Tilt-Pad Oil Film Seal (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
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Fig. 200-48 Mechanical Contact Seal (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
242 Dry Gas Seals
Dry gas seals represent the latest technology for compressor shaft end sealing, and
are currently the preferred sealing technology for most centrifugal compressor
applications. Under dynamic (rotating) conditions, dry gas seals function as
restrictive seals. Depending on the design and conditions, dry gas seals can behave
either as restrictive or positive seals under static conditions. Similar to pump
mechanical seals, dry gas seals use mating rings (faces) as the sealing interface
between the rotating and stationary parts. The seals depend on a fine balance
between pressure forces, closure spring forces, and aerodynamic forces that are
created by very shallow grooves or depressions typically on the rotating seal face, as
shown in Figure 200-49 (second cross-section). This balance results in a face gap of
about 0.0001–0.0002 inches (3–5 m), through which the seal leaks at very low
rates. Leak rates are generally dependent on seal size, sealing pressure, and
rotational speed, and are influenced to a lesser extent on gas conditions. Depending
on these parameters, leakage rates generally range from fractional SCFM to about
4 SCFM. Although the dry gas seal design concept first achieved significant
commercial use in the early 1980’s, it can be traced back to the early 1950’s. Dry
gas seal technology is presently also applied in pumps, and to a lesser degree, steam
turbines, but this section addresses only centrifugal compressor applications. Dry
gas seals are an advancing technology in the petrochemical industry, so it is
important to be aware of the age of information (including this section), as well as
the duration of successful field experience for any given design advancement.
Chevron Engineering Standard CMP-SU-5.02 is a purchase specification for dry gas
seals and related support systems, and should be used for new compressor and
retrofit applications in both upstream and downstream facilities. CMP-SC-5.02 is a
commented version of the specification.
Fig. 200-49 Dry Gas Seal Rotating Face Segment, Shown with Exaggerated Depth Groove Geometry.
(Second cross-sectional view shows operating face gap.) Courtesy of Flowserve Corporation
Face Rotation
ath
Gas P
Stationary
Face
Rotating Face
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In general, dry gas seals offer the following primary advantages compared to other
sealing technologies:
• significantly lower leakage rates and far greater pressure capability vs. other
restrictive type seals (labyrinth seals), and
• simpler, more efficient and lower cost operation and auxiliaries vs. other
positive type seals (oil film seals, mechanical seals).
Dry gas seals can offer additional advantages as well, all of which should be
considered in the economics if justification for gas seals is needed (see Application
Considerations). Justification is usually an issue for retrofits, but on new
compressors, economics are favorable, especially if the alternative design requires
expensive and/or inefficient auxiliaries (seal oil systems, eductor systems, etc.).
The primary advantages of dry gas seals are the result of an advanced and precise
design that relies heavily on the proper operating environment. Reliable operation is
extremely dependent on having an adequate and uninterrupted supply of seal gas
(the gas the seal faces are exposed to) that is free of particulates and liquids. In
addition, the reliability of these seals can be compromised when the design
approaches current experience envelopes in sealing pressure, sealing temperature,
and seal face surface speeds, either singularly or in combination. All of these issues
focus on assuring the proper gas film and stress levels at the seal faces. Other
vulnerabilities may include seal face hang-up (which alters the seal face gap),
reverse rotation, reverse pressurization, and lube oil contamination of the seal faces.
These vulnerabilities are mitigated to a large degree through design of the dry gas
seal as well as the supporting auxiliary systems.
Arrangements
Depending on the application, one or two pairs of faces may be used in three basic
arrangements, usually in conjunction with labyrinth seals, to achieve the desired
process gas containment level. One pair of faces (a single seal) may be used for
moderate pressure applications that are not flammable, toxic nor environmentally
harmful (air, nitrogen), since the normal seal leakage will be to atmosphere.
However, low pressure services suitable for a single seal are also suitable for
labyrinth seals, which offer greater simplicity and reliability, as well as significantly
lower initial cost. A single seal arrangement is shown in Figure 200-50.
More typical applications require a dual seal arrangement to further limit or prevent
leakage to atmosphere, and provide a higher level of containment integrity. Dual
seals can be provided in either a double seal arrangement or a tandem seal
arrangement. Double seals are oriented in an opposed fashion to contain seal gas
(also called barrier gas in double seals) supplied between the inner and outer seals
(see Figure 200-51).
The barrier gas must be available at all times at a pressure higher than the process
gas pressure at the seals (or the sealing pressure). The sealing pressure is usually
very close to suction pressure during operation, but a compressor trip can cause
sealing pressure to rise to a settle-out pressure in some compressor circuits.
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
Fig. 200-50 Simplified Single Seal Arrangement, shown without Primary Seal Labyrinth (Courtesy of Flowserve
Corporation)
Clean Seal Gas
Leakage
PROCESS ATMOSPHERE
Fig. 200-51 Simplified Double Seal Arrangement shown without Primary Seal Labyrinth (Courtesy of Flowserve
Corporation)
Seal Gas
(Barrier Gas)
Leakage Leakage
Inner Seal Outer Seal
PROCESS ATMOSPHERE
The double arrangement is generally desirable only when nitrogen can be used as
the barrier gas since it provides a reliable, consistent and easily treatable supply of
seal gas, and also assures complete process gas containment with very low nitrogen
consumption. The double arrangement is also desirable for very low sealing
pressures when there is a high potential for primary seal reverse pressurization of a
tandem arrangement (see Seal Gas Supply Objectives). The double arrangement
allows a small amount of barrier gas leakage both into the compressor across the
inner seal, and also to atmosphere across the outer seal.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Properly filtered nitrogen provides both dry and clean conditions for both inner and
outer seals, assures zero process gas emissions to atmosphere and requires a
relatively simple auxiliary system. Since a very small amount of leakage is inward
toward the compressor, it is necessary to verify that the process is tolerant of small
amounts of nitrogen.
In most services, especially where the process gas is either wet or dirty, it is still
necessary to use a flush gas or purge gas to keep liquids and solids away from the
inner seal. The flush gas is supplied between the inner seal and a seal housing
labyrinth seal. It is important to consider that a reduction of nitrogen pressure below
the sealing pressure will result in process gas emission and possible damage to the
inner seal faces, so some back-up or safety provisions may be needed to avoid these
consequences (see Barrier gas and flush gas supply systems for double seals and
Shutdown Protection Considerations). If the nitrogen supply is known to have poor
reliability, a tandem seal arrangement may be preferable, especially if protection
strategies are burdensome. Since nitrogen is not always available at high enough
pressures, double seal arrangements are usually limited to lower pressure services
such as FCC or coker wet gas.
The tandem seal is the most commonly used arrangement on compressors,
especially in moderate to high pressure services. The dual seals are oriented in
tandem to limit outward leakage (see Figure 200-52), with the inboard (primary) seal
normally seeing essentially all of the sealing differential pressure. In this
arrangement, seal gas is supplied between the inboard seal and a seal housing
labyrinth, as shown in Figure 200-53. In addition to acting as the back-up seal to the
primary seal, the outboard (secondary) seal contains all but a fraction of the primary
seal leakage under normal conditions. The cavity between the two seals is typically
vented to flare (or safe location) through primary vent porting in both the seal
housing and compressor. If the seal gas is environmentally harmful, or the process
gas is toxic, a tandem seal with an intermediate (or interstage) labyrinth should be
employed, along with a nitrogen buffer gas. The intermediate labyrinth is located in
the interstage cavity between the primary and secondary seals, so pressure in this
cavity is normally low enough to easily allow plant nitrogen to be used as buffer
gas.
Buffer gas enters the interstage cavity through a port between the labyrinth and the
secondary seal and flows across the labyrinth, preventing seal gas from reaching and
leaking across the secondary seal. Most of the buffer gas exits the seal through the
primary vent where it mixes with leakage from the primary seal, while a smaller
amount leaks across the secondary seal. The tandem seal arrangement generally
requires the most extensive auxiliary system, which must deliver seal gas, deliver
buffer gas (if needed), and monitor seal venting conditions. Since the tandem
arrangement allows for a larger variety of gases to be considered as seal gas
(including process gas from the compressor discharge), it is currently the only
arrangement choice for moderate to high pressure services. An external seal gas
supply is sometimes needed when process gas can not be appropriately treated, or
when compressor discharge gas is insufficient due to low rotational speed of the
compressor (starts, stops, idle time).
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
Fig. 200-52 Simplified Tandem Seal Arrangement with Intermediate Buffered Labyrinth
(Courtesy of Flowserve Corporation)
Leakage Inert Buffer Gas
Inert Buffer
Gas
Intermediate labyrinth
PROCESS ATMOSPHERE
A seal housing labyrinth seal, just inboard of the dry gas seal assembly is often
included in the design of any of the above three arrangements (see Figure 200-53).
This labyrinth:
• limits the amount of seal gas or flush gas flowing into the compressor
• provides a high velocity area for flowing seal gas or flush gas to minimize the
chance of solids and liquids from getting close to the dry gas seal
• limits leakage to atmosphere in the event a primary seal failure
Fig. 200-53 Simplified Tandem Arrangement Showing Shrouded Seal Face Design, Primary Seal Labyrinth,
and Separation Gas Arrangement (Courtesy of Flowserve Corporation)
Secondary
Seal Gas Inert Separation Gas
Primary Seal Vent Seal Vent
Seal Face Shrouding
Seal Housi
Primary Seal ng Separation Gas Labyrinth Seal
Labyri nth
Labyrinth
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
The seal housing labyrinth seal can either be integral to the seal assembly or
provided as a separate compressor component. Similarly, labyrinth seals can be used
on the outboard side of the seal assembly to prevent bearing lube oil from
contaminating the seal faces. (This and other options are described in better detail in
Separation Seal.) For either application, the use of abradable seals (rotating
labyrinth teeth running within a soft, non-metallic, close-clearance stationary ring
insert) should be avoided, as some users have experienced failures due to excessive
heat generation and particulates originating from the abradable material. More
recent abradable seal offerings using a thin layer of abradable coating on metal
inserts appear less likely to cause such problems, but these designs should be
carefully reviewed, and the review should include a check of installed experience.
Properly engineered abradable seals continue to be acceptable for interstage and
balance piston sealing duty.
Seal Faces
Seal face materials and designs vary between different suppliers. Since the seal
faces are the components that have the greatest influence on the reliability and
leakage performance of the seal, they are the focus of ongoing design
improvements. Face designs must be optimized to address numerous issues,
including:
• Hydrostatic lift (slight separation of the faces caused by pressure while rotor is
static)
• Low speed contact tolerance
• Dynamic lift-off properties
• Gas film stiffness variations
• A range of seal gas properties and their variability
• Stresses and deflections due to sealing conditions (pressure and temperature)
• Stresses and deflections due mounting/driving forces and dynamic forces
• Tolerance to reverse rotation
Some of these issues are addressed with face material selection, which is often
dependent on the manufacturer, but is sometimes driven by service conditions. Most
of the installed population of dry gas seals use tungsten carbide for the rotating seal
face and carbon for the stationary seal face. Silicon-based materials have been
gaining favor over the years for both rotating and stationary faces, and especially for
the latter in high pressure services where carbon materials deflect excessively. At
present, and depending on the supplier, rotating faces are typically tungsten carbide
or silicon nitride, while stationary faces are either carbon or silicon carbide. Since
silicon carbide can not provide the very good low speed touch tolerance of carbon, it
must be coated with diamond-like carbon (DLC), a very hard and low friction
coating that is also used on computer hard disks, in order to protect the seal faces
from low speed touch damage. Other material combinations have been used,
especially with unusual or extreme conditions. As with many machinery
components, it is important to recognize the potential for numerous variations of
generic material families, as they can be significant with regard to properly meeting
service condition requirements.
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Rotating face materials are generally very brittle, and are thus prone to break up
with little warning in adverse conditions. Since the rotating face materials are also
very hard, loose, broken fragments can cause damage to the seal. In some failures
with tungsten carbide faces, which tend to break up into relatively large fragments,
damage has extended to the compressor. In order to mitigate damage or unsafe
conditions in the event of a failure, a shrouded face design (see Figure 200-53) is
required, even for silicon carbide-based materials, which can still cause damage to
the seal despite their reputation for breaking up into harmless “powder.” The brittle
properties of the rotating seal faces also necessitate compliant centering devices for
the faces as well as the seal assembly shaft sleeve. This protects the faces from
excessive stresses caused by radial differential thermal growth between the shaft,
seal sleeves and faces. O-rings are sometimes used for these compliant centering
devices, but in many cases, metallic devices are needed.
Seal face groove geometry also varies between suppliers, and has evolved over the
years. Most suppliers offer both unidirectional and bi-directional face designs but
have tended to specialize in one or the other. Unidirectional faces typically have a
spiral groove geometry, although L-shaped grooves have also been used (see
Figure 200-54). Unidirectional seals directionally offer better performance with
regard to lift-off, gas film stiffness and stability, but this differential in performance
appears to have seldom precluded the successful application of a bi-directional
design in most applications. Unidirectional seals have the disadvantage of being
intolerant of reverse rotation, which can cause contact damage to the faces. Because
of this vulnerability, it is important to incorporate assembly features (both labeling
and geometry differences) which can help prevent the installation of the wrong seal
parts or assemblies (inboard vs. outboard) on a between bearings (double ended)
compressor design.
Fig. 200-54 Unidirectional Seal Face Groove Geometry Courtesy of Flowserve Corporation
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Bi-directional face designs have a greater variety of groove geometries among
suppliers, including U-shapes, “spruce tree”-shapes and T-shapes, (see
Figure 200-55). with their symmetry offering equal performance in both directions
of rotation. In some low gas density applications, gas film properties in a bi-
directional design may be prove marginal or insufficient, in which case a
unidirectional design should be considered. Note that such an assessment is most
meaningful when comparative numbers and criteria are provided, and especially
when it comes from a supplier that normally provides a bi-directional design. Due to
the ability to handle reverse rotation, bi-directional designs are somewhat more
desirable in services where compressor flow reversal potential exists (i.e., back
pressure services rather than recycle services), especially if there is a history of
compressor discharge check valve problems. Bi-directional designs also require
only one seal assembly design for both sides of a double ended machine, alleviating
the need for labeling and mis-installation provisions. The dual compatibility also
offers additional maintenance flexibility with regard to spare seal change outs and
repairs, but it should not result in the reduction of the seal sparing to anything less
than 100 percent (see Maintenance Considerations).
Fig. 200-55 Bi-direction Seal Face Groove Geometry (Courtesy of Flowserve Corporation)
Secondary Sealing Elements
Secondary sealing elements (different than the secondary seal in a tandem
arrangement) provide sealing between the dry gas seal assembly (or cartridge) and
the compressor, as well as between various seal components. Typically, elastomeric
o-rings are used as the secondary sealing elements, although other seal types are
used to address specific problems. Most secondary sealing elements are static (once
parts are assembled, there is no movement of the parts that form the joint). As with
other machinery applications, it is important to select materials that are compatible
with the normal and potential gas streams seen by the seals. In addition, high
pressure applications must be evaluated for the potential of extrusion and explosive
decompression (the latter is a function of sealing pressure, gas composition and
compressor system decompression rate). High pressures may require the use of high
Durometer elastomers or polymer (such as PTFE) materials. The polymer seals
typically use metallic springs to provide the proper contacting or energizing force.
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Besides a higher pressure capability, polymer seals also offer much longer (if not
infinite) shelf life than elastomeric seals. Given the requirements to replace
elastomeric seals on stored seals after several years of storage, gas seal designs that
use polymer seals may be worth considering in order to avoid this additional
maintenance which typically must be done at the seal manufacturer’s facility.
Installation and maintenance should always be considered in the secondary sealing
element joint design, especially those between the seal housing and compressor
casing, and the seal sleeve and shaft. Optimum o-ring placement and tapered
diameter changes can minimize or eliminate the potentially damaging action of
sliding o-rings across components during installation, as well as reduce potential for
o-rings falling out of ID grooves during installation. Special tools for the installation
and removal of dry gas seals are also an essential part of protecting these critical
components. On new compressor installations, these special tools should always be
pre-tested and used in the compressor supplier’s factory, as they have frequently
been designed improperly or ignored, resulting in damage to the seals during
installation and inspection activities.
In addition to static secondary sealing elements, there are also dynamic secondary
sealing elements, which seal the moving joints between the stationary seal faces and
their retainers or housings. The dynamic secondary sealing element must allow the
stationary seal face to move axially in order to accommodate lift-off, gas film
thickness changes and both axial movement and thermal growth of the rotor, while
at the same time providing gas containment and resisting extrusion. These
conflicting requirements make dynamic secondary sealing elements the second most
critical components in a dry gas seal (after the faces). As such, the secondary
sealing elements should always receive appropriate attention when selecting the seal
design as well as inspecting the seal, both following shop testing and field
operation.
Wear out and axial sticking (hang-up) of the dynamic secondary seal can result in
excessive leakage, and hang-up can also result in damaging face contact. Potential
design options to minimize seal hang-up include spring energized polymer seals or
spring energized o-rings, both of which reduce the dynamic secondary seal contact
forces (spring energized o-rings are shown behind stationary seal faces on prior seal
arrangement drawings). Some spring energized designs are also claimed to provide
at least some degree of reverse pressurization tolerance. Although this may be a
benefit for some applications, at this time, there is insufficient data and experience
to support relying on this feature to eliminate or even reduce measures for
preventing or reacting to reverse pressurization. Higher sealing pressures will
generally preclude the use of o-rings due to excessive contact forces and result in
designs with spring energized polymer seals. As pressures increase further, designs
must also include anti-extrusion provisions to protect the polymer from pressure
damage.
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Separation Seal
Preventing bearing lube oil from contaminating the dry gas seal faces is required for
assuring dry gas seal reliability. Separation seals (sometimes called tertiary seals)
are often necessary to accomplish this when the bearing and dry gas seal are in close
proximity, and especially if the span between the bearing and seal is enclosed. A
restrictive-type seal in conjunction with inert gas purging (separation gas), is
typically used to form a barrier between the gas seal assembly and the bearing. The
primary function of the separation seal is to prevent lube oil from migrating down
the shaft and into the dry gas seal assembly (see Figure 200-53), but it also serves
the purpose of restricting gas egress to the bearing housing and lube oil system in
the event of a total seal failure. While air has been used as separation gas in a
number of earlier installations, more recent and rigorous risk assessments have
driven the selection of separation gas toward nitrogen for all combustible gas
services. Nitrogen assures a non-flammable environment in seal failure mode
scenarios where air, even in excess amounts, can not.
The separation seal is usually a radial clearance seal in a lantern ring arrangement
(separation gas enters between a pair of close clearance seals and flows through
both in opposing directions), and may either be a labyrinth or close clearance,
floating carbon ring design. A labyrinth design will typically consume in the range
of 5 SCFM of separation gas per machine end, while a carbon ring design can
reduce this rate by at least one half. Zero clearance designs represent the greatest
reduction in separation gas consumption, which is especially attractive in locations
where nitrogen supply is limited (especially when membrane units must be installed
for the sole purpose of generating separation gas). However, zero clearance designs
should be carefully reviewed for operating experience as some early versions of this
design have demonstrated poor operating life.
An additional source of reduced reliability with carbon ring seals is the nitrogen
itself, specifically when it has a very high purity. Nitrogen with a dew point
approaching the -40° (F or C) region results in a severe reduction in the lubrication
properties of graphite. It is important to check with the separation seal supplier for
any moisture content or dew point limits, and assure that these are satisfied by either
the base supply or facilities designed to reduce the nitrogen purity by adding very
small amounts of moisture or perhaps air.
Seal Gas Supply Objectives
Depending on the service and seal arrangement, seal gas can either be supplied from
the compressor gas stream (usually the compressor final or interstage discharge) or
from an external source. As previously described, double seals will inherently
require externally supplied inert seal (barrier) gas. Tandem seals or single seals can
use either compressor discharge gas or an external supply of gas. Examples of the
latter include nitrogen, hydrogen, fuel gas and other by-product gases. Determining
factors include the availability and cost of a suitable and reliable external gas supply
and the characteristics of the gas from each source (cleanliness, liquid/moisture
content, toxicity, composition, thermodynamic properties, etc.). Figure 200-57 is a
logic diagram used in CMP-SC-5.02 to assist in selecting appropriate seal
arrangements and seal gas supply strategies.
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Failing to design a supply system for reliable delivery of seal gas under all
conditions has arguably been the most common cause of seal failures in the field.
Typically overlooked are starting and shutdown condition, including slow roll and
idle, and especially the pressure transients that occur in the compressor and seal gas
system during those times. Additional considerations must be made for lower
pressure services to prevent pressure reversals due to either venting system pressure
excursions or vacuum conditions that can occur during compressor start-up. Also
overlooked on new compressor packages are the dry gas seal operating conditions
on the compressor test stand. Table 1 of CMP-SU-5.02 requires identification and
definition of all expected factory test and field operating conditions, both steady
state and transient, so that the seal gas supply and other auxiliaries can be properly
designed to meet them all.
As examples, seal gas supply systems must be designed to address the following
potential conditions that have been encountered in past installations:
• Insufficient seal gas supply while compressor is idle, pressurizing, starting,
operating at minimum governing speed, surge or end-of-curve operation,
coasting down, and/or under pressurized shutdown conditions
• Loss of externally supplied seal gas
• Insufficient seal gas while compressor is at idle speed or stopped
• Excessive supply system pressure drop in low pressure (close to 1 atmosphere)
services
• Reverse pressurization if suction pressure and seal gas fall below vent pressure
(possible during startup in low pressure services)
• Reverse pressurization if vent pressure rises above seal gas pressure (possible
during flare system excursions in low pressure services)
• Reverse pressurization on loss of seal (barrier) gas supplied to double seals
• Saturated seal gas due to changes in the process (including plant
commissioning and upsets)
• Liquid formation in the seal gas due to pressure letdown (Joule-Thompson)
cooling
• Lubricating oil mist contamination from external seal gas source compression
system
Seal Gas Supply Systems for Single and Tandem Seals.
Figure 200-58 shows the key elements required in seal gas supply systems for single
and tandem seals. It applies to designs that use discharge gas as either the primary
or back-up source of seal gas, but the gas conditioning and filtration components
also apply to designs that use an external source of hydrocarbon gas exclusively (no
back-up). Following are functional descriptions of the required key elements.
Seal gas back-up supply for external seal gas. If there is any chance of losing seal
gas supply from an external source, the seal gas system should include automatic
cut-in of a back-up source of gas. Tandem seals should typically use discharge gas
as a back-up. In this case, it might be necessary to design for potential differences in
gas treating requirements between the different types of seal gases. Emergency
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
isolation valves (and provisions for testing them) are required for hydrocarbon gas
supplies entering the seal gas system in the event of a fire or loss of containment.
Seal gas back-up supply for compressor discharge seal gas during idling. At slow
roll speeds or even when stopped, there may be enough gas force to provide lift-off
of the primary seal faces. Current gas seal designs are pressure balanced to provide
hydrostatic lift-off at a target pressure without rotation in order to minimize rub
damage on start-up. Without sufficient discharge pressure to provide seal gas flow,
compressor gas stream particulates can enter the seal faces during coast down and
idle time and cause damage once rotating speeds are sufficiently high. In order to
prevent this contamination, an external seal gas supply can be used, again with
proper attention to treating requirements. As an alternative, packaged pressure
boosting systems can be used to raise the discharge-supplied seal gas pressure when
it falls below adequate levels. Pressure boosting systems are often limited in ability
by the positive displacement booster compressor that is used. As such, they will
likely supply less than the normal amount of seal gas, and also require careful
design and selection for all conditions. Either back-up supply alternative should be
designed for automatic cut-in with falling compressor discharge pressure. Note that
a back-up seal gas supply may not be necessary if the compressor is not capable of
slow roll, sealing pressure is below the hydrostatic lift-off pressure, and the process
gas is relatively clean—this is a very rare combination of conditions.
Seal gas supply filtration. Pre-filtering of seal gas to a 0.0004 inch (10 m) level is
highly recommended for gases that are likely to contain moderate to large amounts
of particulate (noted but not shown in Figure 200-58). While the industry has used
filtration levels of 0.00008–0.0002 inches (2–5 m) over many years, major
compressor OEMs have found better seal reliability and longevity using coalescing
type filters in the range of 0.000002 inches (0.3 microns) for final particle filtration.
This finer level of filtration increases the importance of pre-filtering since it helps to
avoid excessive final filter element change-outs. Use of stainless steel for piping and
components downstream of the pre-filters will also serve to extend final filter
element life as well as contribute to the overall cleanliness of the gas supply. Each
filtering level should incorporate duplex filters, arranged in parallel with individual
isolation valves to allow for online element changes. A differential pressure
indicator and high DP alarm should also be included for monitoring filter element
condition. If seal gas is to be provided from an external source fed by reciprocating
compressors, all filter elements should be robust enough to withstand pressure
pulsations in the system.
Seal gas liquid removal/treating. Depending on the nature of the liquid and heavier
gas components in the seal gas streams, different methods of liquid removal and
condensation control may need to be employed. Liquids can be carried into the seal
gas system directly, or they can condense out of the gas stream in various parts of
the seal gas system, including at the primary seal faces. Careful thermodynamic
evaluation of each seal gas stream (normal and back-up) under existing and
estimated future conditions is key to identifying problematic conditions and
designing the appropriate facilities. As with the seal gas supply design, the potential
for liquid contamination must be evaluated at all operating conditions and
transients. External seal gas supplies can also contain lubricating oil if they pass
January 2011 (E) 1988–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 200-59
200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
through reciprocating compressors prior to entering the seal gas supply system. For
retrofits, confirm process conditions by analyzing actual gas samples, with special
attention to capturing and identifying liquids. On new installations, pessimistic
expectations for a dry gas are recommended. It is important to design the entire seal
gas supply system to achieve the desired goal of delivering clean and dry seal gas to
the seals. Design strategies include:
• Use of an inertial separator to capture any steady state or transient
condition liquid entrainment
A simplex device with a bypass is normally sufficient, inertial devices do not
typically require on-line maintenance, and entrained liquid is most often a tran-
sient/off-design condition. The separator should have provisions for either
continuous blowdown (see below) or automated level control, as well as level
monitoring and alarming.
• Use and proper location of coalescers
Depending on how the gas behaves as it is let down, the location of the
coalescer could be upstream or downstream of the supply control valve. The
coalescer should be properly selected and sized for the normal and extreme
conditions. (Note that over sizing can potentially reduce coalescer efficiency.)
The device should include a sight glass, a differential pressure indicator, and
valving to allow element changes online without disrupting flow. Services that
are normally dry may use a bypass rather than a duplex arrangement, but the
bypass should be routed to avoid low points.
• Use of heaters and tracing downstream of the liquid removal device
The intent of heaters is to establish adequate margin (at least 36°F or 20°C)
from saturated conditions, if not already present in the seal gas supply. Tracing
and insulation should be used to maintain this margin right up to the
compressor casing. Electrical tracing, preferably with monitoring/alarming, is
preferred over steam tracing. Minimizing the distance between the heaters and
compressors, as well as the overall line length to the compressors, are addi-
tional strategies for assuring sufficient dew point margin.
• Prevention of liquid accumulation in lines/vessels
Piping should be routed with minimal low points and also sloped to avoid
liquid accumulation. Idle lines (bypass loops, duplex filter legs) should also be
arranged to prevent liquid accumulation, or should include low point bleeders
where this is not practical. In addition, liquid removal vessel low points should
be piped to the compressor suction for continuous blowdown operation. The
blowdown line should include an orifice to avoid excessive recycling of gas
back to suction.
• Promoting controlled condensation
In cases where it is not practical to heat the seal gas to achieve adequate super-
heat, a cooler upstream of the liquid removal device can be installed to knock
out additional liquid. A lesser amount of gas heating downstream of liquid
removal can then provide the desired superheating.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
• Evaluation by SMEs in the areas of dry gas seals and process/separation
technologies for extreme (dense phase) pressure conditions
Removal of heavy components in a gas stream is far more challenging if seal
gas delivery conditions are in the dense phase region. Even if condensing
conditions can be achieved, diminishing efficiency and lack of high pressure
experience introduce uncertainty to applying coalescing technology. In addi-
tion, externally supplied seal gas from reciprocating compressors at pressures
near or above 2500 psig (~175 bar) is prone to absorption of reciprocating
compressor cylinder lube oil in the gas (the pressure level may vary, depending
on the actual gas composition). This absorption, plus the potential inability for
coalescers to remove any residual liquid-state oil carry-over, both increase the
likelihood of contaminating the seals with cylinder lube oil. While the use of a
polyalkylene glycol (PAG) lubricant for cylinder lubrication can reduce or
eliminate absorbed oil content in the gas, liquid oil entrained in dense phase gas
may not be fully separated by the coalescer. Figure 200-56 represents the
change in phase envelop between very dry fuel gas (seal gas) before and after
compression to over 4500 psig (310 bar) with a lubricated reciprocating
compressor using a polyalkyl olefin (PAO) synthetic oil, at a concentration of
about 30 ppm.
Fig. 200-56 Dew Point Curve Change when Lube Oil is Absorbed in Seal Gas
400.0
Dew Point Curve for Only Seal Gas
350.0
Dew Point Curve for Seal Gas & Lube Oil
300.0
Pressure (bara)
Adiabatic Expansion from 329 bara & 100°C
250.0
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
-200.0 -150.0 -100.0 -50.0 0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0
Temperature (°C)
Barrier gas and flush gas supply systems for double seals. Figure 200-59 shows
the key elements of a barrier gas supply system. Because plant nitrogen is used,
provisions for liquid removal and treating are not required. The normal plant supply
can be backed up with nitrogen bottles, although this solution will provide only a
limited amount of additional operating time. If bottles are used, pressure
monitoring/alarming of the bottles should be included in the design in order to
assure their readiness over many years. Regardless of whether there is a back-up
supply of nitrogen, an alarm and a compressor shutdown are essential for machine
protection in the event that seal gas pressure approaches the actual sealing pressure.
The shutdown set point should be selected to allow safe coast down before the
primary seal differential pressure reverses enough to cause damaging face contact.
A 0.000002 inches (0.3 m) level of filtration is preferred for barrier gas service.
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
A flush gas (or purge gas) supply should be designed similar to a seal gas supply
(Figure 200-60) when using hydrocarbon gas. Note that since the delivery of flush
gas is at sealing pressure, and also downstream of the inboard seal faces, the
requirements for seal gas treating will likely be substantially less, but any
depressurized conditions should be considered. Likewise, the filtration level can be
increased to 0.0001 inches (3 m). Evaluation of nitrogen as a flush gas should
include the potential impact to the plant nitrogen system as well as the process being
served by the compressor. If selected, a supply system design similar to the barrier
gas can be used for supplying nitrogen as flush gas, although the much higher flow
demand for flush gas vs. barrier gas make nitrogen bottle back-up impractical. In
general, short duration operation without flush gas will not cause immediate or
significant problems to the seal.
Separation gas and intermediate buffer gas supplies. The same arrangement
shown in Figure 200-59 can also be used for supplying separation gas (to separation
or tertiary seals) and/or intermediate buffer gas (to tandem seals with intermediate
labyrinths). Consideration for a common system supplying more than one of the
services referenced in Figure 200-60 should include the following distinctions:
• Nitrogen bottle backup can only be applied to a barrier gas supply system. The
higher flowrates of the other services would deplete the bottles too rapidly to
allow for a practical system. As such, a barrier gas supply system with nitrogen
bottle back-up should be entirely independent.
• Buffer gas purity level must be very high and very reliable if seal gas can have
a detrimental reaction with oxygen. An example would be a sour seal gas that
would form elemental sulfur in the primary vent system upon contact with even
minute amounts of oxygen.
• Separation gas that is exceedingly dry may compromise the self-lubricating
properties of separation seal carbon rings (see Separation Seal).
Seal gas control for tandem and single seals. The preferred seal gas supply
method for single and tandem seals is based on differential pressure control above a
reference pressure (Figure 200-60). Measurement point options for the reference
pressure include the seal balance line, the thrust balance line or a seal cavity port. Of
the three, the later is preferred, and the measurement point for any location should
always be in a static area to avoid errors introduced by varying flow rates through a
dynamic location. When the system is supplying two seals, the supply flow to each
seal can be balanced by installing an orifice in each of the individual supply lines.
Flow indicators to each seal are highly recommended, but trim (throttling) valves
should generally not be used. If they are, they should be arranged to assure a
minimum amount of flow to the seals should the valve(s) be fully closed. The
proper set point range for the differential pressure control should be determined by
the compressor and seal suppliers, based on the design of the compressor and seal
chamber labyrinths, the reference gas measurement point, and optimization of the
seal gas consumption rate.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Flow control arrangements (Figure 200-61) may be recommended by compressor
OEMs, justified by claimed savings through reduced seal gas consumption. These
may be offered with individual control valves for each seal, or a common valve
controlling to the lowest signal from two individual flow indicators for each seal.
While a constant supply flow is good under most conditions, it can result in
insufficient seal gas velocity at the seal chamber labyrinths and/or insufficient
outward indication of problems in the event of seal chamber labyrinth degradation.
These potential downsides, as well as the often insignificant seal gas consumption
savings (especially if supplied from the compressor discharge), should be evaluated
if considering a flow control arrangement.
Barrier gas and flush gas control for double seals. Differential pressure control
(Figure 200-60) is preferred for regulating barrier gas to double seals. The set point
should be sufficiently high to assure a positive pressure differential above the
maximum expected sealing pressure, including the settle-out pressure. The control
regulator or valve can have a manual bypass and isolation valves to allow on-line
maintenance. As previously described, a low pressure alarm and shutdown are also
required for the barrier gas to avoid seal damage. In addition, the system should
preferably be designed to assure sufficient flow to a healthy seal in the event the
opposite end seal experiences a failure.
Flush gas can be regulated with either differential pressure control or flow control.
It should be noted, that while the downside impact of flow control described in Seal
gas control for tandem and single seals is much reduced in flush gas service, the
consumption saving benefits of flow control may not apply at typical flush gas
supply pressures.
Gas control system monitoring/protection. Gas control systems should be well
instrumented to allow full on-line troubleshooting capability. In addition,
appropriate shutdown protection, sometimes with time delay, is recommended for
avoiding conditions that can lead to lead to seal damage.
The following devices and locations are suggested:
• Pressure indication and trending downstream of pressure regulators or control
valves. Measurement should be consistent with control method (differential vs.
absolute). Low and high pressure (or differential pressure) alarms should be
included at the same location.
• For double seal arrangements, a low, low differential pressure shutdown (see
Shutdown Protection Considerations).
• Individual flow indication and trending, with high and low alarms. Depending
on service criticality and expected operator responsiveness to alarms, a low,
low flow shutdown with a 30 minute time delay should be evaluated for both
seal gas and separation gas. Orifice-type flow meters are recommended.
• Except when using nitrogen, temperature indication and trending for potentially
saturated gases, with low alarms on seal gas supply header downstream of all
significant pressure drops. Include high temperature alarms if there are heaters
or there is otherwise a possibility of seal gas temperature approaching the
mechanical limits of the seal.
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
Vent systems and monitoring.
Primary Vent. Leakage from the primary (inboard) seal in a tandem seal arrange-
ment must generally be vented to a safe location such as a flare system. The venting
system should allow for safe disposition of leakage under normal and emergency
situations, and also have capability for leakage monitoring and excessive leakage
warning for each primary seal (see Figure 200-62). Vent porting placement and vent
line layout should promote drainage of any liquids within the seal housing lines,
which should also include low point drain valves. Check valves downstream of all
monitoring and alarm devices should be used to segregate the vents of each seal to
avoid cross-contamination in the event of a failure that generates debris. In low
pressure services, any check valves used in the vent system must have sufficiently
low opening pressures to avoid creating excessive back pressure that could result in
reverse pressurization of the primary seal faces.
Although limited in number, incidents in which there were secondary (outboard)
seal problems have resulted in loss of containment. Seal face breakage at the
secondary seal can cause heat generation that can rapidly result in failure of the
inboard seal, leading to a direct leakage path to atmosphere. Given this leakage
path, the severity of the leakage from the failed inboard seal may not be detected by
the devices in the primary vent line, further increasing exposure to a hazardous
condition. As a result, a protective strategy to protect against secondary seal failure
that acts independently and ahead of the primary seal failure is recommended for
tandem seal arrangements.
The following devices and locations are suggested for leakage monitoring:
• Individual flow indication and trending at each primary seal vent. Orifice-type
flow meters are recommended. Sizing should be for normal leakage rates, up to
3–4 times the normal design rate, with an alarm at 2–3 times the normal
leakage rate.
• A pressure sensor located between the seal and an orifice in the vent line.
Sizing of the orifice and setting of the pressure switch should trigger a high
pressure alarm and/or shutdown to allow for a safe coastdown of the
compressor (see Shutdown Protection Considerations).
• A rupture disk or pressure relief valve that opens a leakage path around the vent
flow device, to assure extreme back pressure related to failure of the seal is
reduced to safe levels. Any rupture disks used should have a health sensing
device tied to the permissive start system to assure that any breached disks are
replaced.
• A pressure sensing arrangement to detect low pressure in the intermediate seal
cavity/primary vent area, indicating a problem with the secondary (outboard)
seal. The arrangement should provide alarming, permissive starting and time
delayed protection capability. On seals with intermediate buffering, this is
readily done by detecting a drop in a normally constant pressure outboard of the
intermediate labyrinth. When there is no buffering, to avoid false alarming/
tripping that can be created by swings in flare header pressure, an arrangement
to measure pressure differentials between each of the intermediate cavities, or
between each cavity and the pressure downstream of the vent line check valves
is required.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Tandem seal secondary vent / double seal vent. Figure 200-63 shows a vent
configuration that can be used for tandem secondary seals as well as double seals.
The layout should promote liquid drainage and have provisions for liquid collection
to aid in evaluating separation seal performance. For double seals, alarmed flow
indicators and/or pressure indicators are recommended for monitoring the outer seal.
A protective shutdown for excessive vent leakage is considered optional for double
seals. On buffered tandem seals, a gas sampling point in the vent line can be
specified if testing for total containment is desired. Secondary vent lines routed to
the flare should also include individual check valves for each seal.
Design of the above systems should also take into consideration keeping the
intermediate seal cavity pressure low enough to allow continued inert buffering of
an intermediate labyrinth, if so equipped. Likewise, the normal flow of the buffer
gas out the primary seal vent should be considered in sizing the above devices.
Note Seal gas supply and venting system panel design has been very variable and
a potential source of reliability, operability, and maintainability problems. It is
important to specify requirements, review designs, and where possible, test the
auxiliary panels to better assure satisfactory performance.
Shutdown Protection Considerations
The gas properties, seal arrangement, and the criticality must all be considered when
deciding on protective shutdowns. The primary purpose of the protective shutdown
would be to either prevent a hazardous release of gas and/or prevent damage to the
seal or compressor. In the case of a double seal arrangement, loss of seal (barrier)
gas could result in reverse pressurization of the primary seal, leading to likely face
damage and possible release of gas. A protective trip on low seal gas supply
pressure is strongly recommended for this application. An exception can be made if
there is specific testing to assure reverse pressure capability, and the process gas is
non-toxic.
On tandem seals in toxic services, a protective shutdown is also strongly
recommended for personnel protection. The shutdown should activate when the
primary seal vent pressure exceeds the capabilities of the nitrogen buffer to the
intermediate labyrinth. For other tandem seals or a single seal, a protective
shutdown on high primary seal vent pressure is also recommended since it will
minimize seal and machine damage and also limit gas leakage to atmosphere. Not as
critical, but still recommended, are 30 minute time-delayed shutdowns on low seal
gas supply flow and low separation gas supply flow. Since gas seals have
demonstrated rapid failure in some instances, attempts to avoid nuisance trips by
excluding protective devices and relying on operator response is not advisable.
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
Application Considerations
The dry gas seal is the preferred method of shaft end sealing for essentially all new
centrifugal compressors in hydrocarbon services. However, there are limits that
warrant additional expert review, confirmation of user experience and perhaps
special design and testing activities. These cautionary limits include:
• Surface speeds in excess of 400 feet per second (122 meters per second)
• Sealing pressures in excess of 2000 psig (138 bar),
• Sealing temperatures in excess of 300°F (149C)
In addition, combinations of two or more values approaching the above warrant
escalated scrutiny. When checking user experience for similar services or
conditions, it is important to go beyond the vendor installation list and actually
contact at least some of the end users to confirm success and/or retrieve lessons
learned. In most cases, the seal gas auxiliary system will require more scrutiny than
the design of the seal assembly.
Lack of qualification in the above areas may warrant alternative sealing technology,
as can certain application conditions (see Figure 200-57, “Seal Arrangement and
Seal Gas Selection Chart”). An additional application condition that may preclude
the use of dry gas seals is the necessity to perform compressor washes by filling an
idle compressor with cleaning solution. On-line washing requirements should not
preclude the use of dry gas seals, but the wash conditions should be reviewed with
the compressor and seal suppliers
Retrofit applications can be difficult to justify, since the investment in the auxiliaries
for the original seal have already been made. Typically, retrofits are justified
primarily by reliability, and in some cases, seal performance. Often, reliability-
based retrofits can be avoided with a thorough root cause analysis and design
changes on the existing sealing system. This is an important consideration given a
number of rushed retrofits that have resulted in disappointing reliability following a
significant investment. The following factors should be included in the justification
of dry gas seal retrofits, if applicable:
• Elimination of venting gases from an oil seal trap system and/or oil degasser
• Elimination of driver power for seal oil pumps
• Cost to upgrade existing sealing system to meet safety, environmental and
reliability goals
• Reduction of main driver power draw due to lower seal parasitic loses
(20–25 HP/seal for oil bushing seals)
• Elimination of make-up seal oil and disposal or reconditioning of contaminated
seal oil
• Reduction of seal system auxiliaries maintenance and testing
• Elimination of motive gas consumption (steam and/or process gas) for labyrinth
seal eductors
• A potential reduction in other utilities used by auxiliaries (air, N2, steam,
cooling water, etc.)
The above must be offset by costs associated with dry gas seals, which are generally
much less.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Retrofits on compressors with oil seals can have a significant impact on rotor
dynamics. It is essential to have a rotor dynamic analysis conducted with expert
review to identify potential problems and solutions. Retrofits on compressors with
labyrinth seals will generally result in less rotor dynamic effect, but depending on
geometries and existing rotor dynamic margins, there may be a potential issue.
A pre-analysis expert review of these situations is suggested.
Figure 200-57 assists in selecting an appropriate sealing arrangement and
preliminary auxiliary scheme for most services. When using this figure, also refer to
the text of this section to better evaluate decisions and options.
Maintenance Considerations
The complexity and sensitivity of dry gas seals generally requires two maintenance
provisions that are not typically needed with other compressor seal designs. These
include:
• Sparing of the complete seal assemblies
• Inspection, overhaul, and testing by a qualified repair facility (generally the seal
OEM’s manufacturing facility).
At least one complete set of spare seals is recommended for each compressor
(a 100 percent sparing level). Given the requirement for offsite overhaul and testing
of removed seals, additional spare sets should be considered to assure appropriate
sparing levels during the first few weeks of operation with a newly installed set of
seals-a time where the likelihood of failure is somewhat higher than the overall
average, and a time when the removed set is likely to be unavailable. In cases where
the same seal design serves more than one compressor, and/or when bi-directional
designs are used, the sparing level can be somewhat reduced from, say a
200 percent level, but in general, a level below 100 percent is not recommended.
Sparing strategy is an activity that should involve engineering, maintenance, and
operations personnel, and is best done during early-to-mid phases (II/III) of a
project.
Factory Acceptance Testing procedures should be reviewed to assure expected site
operating conditions are well represented. On new compressors, site conditions
should also include compressor factory testing conditions as well. In general, the
same protocol should be used to test seals following overhauls, with modifications
made to reflect actual site conditions and to eliminate compressor factory test
conditions. Table 4 in CMP-SU-5.02 provides recommended test procedures for
both tandem and double seal arrangements. In general, the procedures should
measure the performance of the seal under various levels of static, starting, and
dynamic conditions, and should include emergency shutdown and hot restart
simulations as well. Tandem seal tests should also include similar testing on the
outboard seals as well. Given that dry gas seals will not have dynamic lift-off at
very low rotating speeds, long coastdown times and/or turning gear conditions that
are expected on site should be simulated during the test. Careful post-test inspection
of the seal assemblies can be as critical as the test itself. Inspection requirements
and criteria are also included in Table 4 in CMP-SC-5.02.
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
Seal assemblies that have been stored for long periods of time may need to have
secondary sealing elements changed to counter relaxation and degradation that can
occur during long storage durations or the upcoming time in service. This
requirement applies primarily to elastomeric (i.e., o-ring) type sealing elements,
although the OEM should be consulted for specific recommendations for a
particular seal design. The sealing element changes should be done by a qualified
repair facility, and the seals should again be tested to verify the integrity of the parts
and the re-assembly work.
The suggested initial seal inspection interval for operating seals is five years, at least
until inspection results and operating performance both demonstrate that longer
intervals are possible. Immediate or earlier inspections should be considered if there
is an event that compromises the environment of the seal faces. Some event
examples, in approximate rank order of urgency (high to low), include:
• Filling of the compressor case with liquid
• Loss of filter integrity, followed by step changes in leakage rate
• Loss of seal gas or purge gas, followed by step changes in leakage rate
• Degradation of leakage performance
• Extreme compressor vibration levels, followed by step changes in leakage rate
• Loss of separation gas and/or oil present in vent drain (secondary vent drain on
tandem seals)
• Prior inspection results that indicate problems not yet resolved.
A qualified manufacturer’s representative should be present to perform or oversee
the installation of seals, at least until plant personnel are very comfortable with
procedures and methods. Use of the representative for seal removal is also advised,
especially if it has never been performed by plant personnel.
200-68 1988–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
Fig. 200-57 Seal Arrangement and Seal Gas Selection Chart
January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual
1988–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
200 Centrifugal Compressors
Notes:
(1) Idle gas speed seal gas may not be necessary if process gas is clean, compressor does not slow roll, AND sealing/settle-out pressure is less than lift-off pressure.
(2) Must be compatible with process and at least 50 psi over expected sealing pressure conditions (including settle-out & transient conditions).
(3) Clean, dry, treated gases such as fuel gas or nitrogen are ideal. Gases supplied by reciprocating compressor (i.e., high pressure H2) must be treated to minimize lube
oil content.
(4) Double seal reliability is directly dependent on plant nitrogen system reliability, and process must tolerate nitrogen at rates estimated per Note 5.
(5) At normal gas seal leakage rates: approximately 1 standard liter/minute per bar of sealing pressure or 6.9 SCFM per 100 psi of sealing pressure (or max. vent
pressure for tandem seal leakage to atmosphere).
(6) Factors influencing decision shall be reviewed by Purchaser’s machinery specialist. Cost of externally-supplied gas is often justified when process gas is dirty and/or
has small dew point margins.
200-69
(7) When seal gas contains H2S, oxygen content of N2 must be at low ppm levels at all times in order to minimize sulfur formation in seal and vent system. Assure that
N2 can be tolerated in primary vent gas recovery system.
(8) Use of booster with hazardous gas must be reviewed with Purchaser.
Fig. 200-58 Seal Gas Supply Schematics
200-70
200 Centrifugal Compressors
If pressure is regulated, pressure
indicator with low & high alarm.
PI NC
TI
Compressor
Discharge
Emerg. Isolation Valve (2)
PDI
LI PDI
1988–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
PI PI
NC w/ Pressure
open indication w/ low To flare
To seal cavity To regulating system
alarm & high alarm reference line
When specified, dual seal Dual coalescing/particle
When specified, mechanical
When specified, external When specified, gas heaters with filters with pressure
liquid separator w/ valved
seal gas supply seal gas booster w/ temperature indication, differential indication and
bypass and level indication
(10 um dual pre-filters piping/valving to control, low & high alarms, high alarm. Drains to
with high alarm. Drain to
supplied as needed) allow on-line and high temperature alarmed trap w/ bypass
trap or continuous blow
testing protection (3) (4) valve or continuous blow
down, as specified.
down, as specified. (4) (5)
Notes:
(1) Standard elements are shown in black. Use of colored, boxed elements are dependent on Purchaser and Supplier specifications. Diagrams represent minimum
requirements.
(2) When specified, provide isolation valves for emergency valve on-line maintenance.
(3) Single heater may be specified if need is only for “black start” conditions.
– High temperature protection refers to shutdown of heating elements, not compressor.
– All piping and components downstream of heaters shall be traced and insulated up to compressor connection points.
(4) Transfer valves shall not be substituted by block valves without Purchaser specification or acceptance.
(5) For gases with consistently high dew point margin, drains may be normally closed with Purchaser acceptance. Level indicators with high alarm may be specified for
filters with normally closed drains.
(6) Minimize low points and slope all lines to eliminate liquid accumulation. Provide plugged drain valves at all low points.
Compressor Manual
January 2011 (E)
Fig. 200-59 Key Elements of Nitrogen Supply for Barrier Gas, Flush Gas, Intermediate Labyrinth Buffer Gas, and/or Separation Gas1
January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual
Pressure indicator, and if pressure
PI is regulated, w/ low & high alarm.
Plant
Nitrogen
Pressure indication Dual coalescing/particle
w/ low alarm PDI
filters with pressure
PI differential indication and
high alarm, and if specified,
1988–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
high liquid level alarm. (4)
PI
Pressure indication
w/ low & high alarm
If specified, to flush gas
regulating system (6)
When specified for
To separation gas
barrier gas, back-up regulating system (6)
nitrogen supply
If specified, to barrier
system using high gas or buffer gas
pressure nitrogen regulating system
bottles (6)
Notes:
(1) Standard elements are shown in black. Use of colored, boxed elements are dependent on Purchaser and Supplier specifications. Diagrams represent minimum
requirements.
(2) Transfer valves shall not be substituted by block valves without Purchaser specification or acceptance.
(3) For gases with consistently high dew point margin, drains may be normally closed with Purchaser acceptance. Level indicators with high alarm may be specified for
filters with normally closed drains.
(4) Barrier gas systems with back-up N2 supply shall not supply separation gas or flush gas.
(5) Trace and insulate all lines as needed to assure sufficient dew point margin.
(6) Minimize low points and slope all lines to eliminate liquid accumulation. Provide plugged drain valves at all low points.
200 Centrifugal Compressors
200-71
Fig. 200-60 Key Elements of Differential Pressure Regulating System for Primary Seal Gas to Single and Tandem Seals, Barrier Gas and Flush Gas to Double
200-72
200 Centrifugal Compressors
Seals, Buffer Gas to Tandem Seal Intermediate Labyrinth, and Separation Gas to Separation Seal1
Differential pressure
indication (2) w/ high Temperature indication
alarm, low alarm. PDIC w/ high & low alarms
PI TI
(not required for
NC separation gas)
From gas supply system
FI FI Flow indicator with high
1988–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
Differential Pressure Control alarm, low alarm &
References permissive(s). (3)
HP end seal balance cavity static
pressure for:
Seal gas
Double seal flush gas
Double seal barrier gas
Supplies to each compressor
Primary vent pressure for:
Differential pressure regulator (2). For end with flow indication w/
Tandem seal intermediate labyrinth
barrier gas, high & low differential high & low alarms. When
buffer gas (2)
pressure alarms, and low, low differential specified or required, check
pressure shutdown. When specified, valves and trim valves (4).
Secondary vent pressure for:
Separation gas (2) with bypass and isolation, arranged to
minimize low point dead legs.
Notes:
(1) Individual regulating systems are required for each of the listed applications, including barrier gas and flush gas.
(2) When specified, differential pressure devices may be substituted by absolute pressure devices for separation gas services venting to atmosphere and buffer gas
services.
(3) Unless otherwise specified — low, low shutdown with time delay for seal gas and/or separation gas. Shutdown devices must meet specified independence /
redundancy requirements.
(4) Check valves are mandatory only for separation gas and buffer gas, and for any other applications hat can have flow reversal during failures or upsets. Trim valves
are only for buffer gas services, and must be located to minimize Fl measurement error.
(5) Flow regulation used only when gas consumption reduction is sufficient to offset reliability benefits of differential pressure regulating system.
(6) Duplicate arrangement for each compressor end.
(7) Diagrams represent minimum requirements.
Compressor Manual
(8) Trace and insulate all lines as needed to assure specified dew point margin.
January 2011 (E)
(9) Minimize low points and slope all lines to eliminate liquid accumulation. Provide plugged drain valves at all low points.
(10)Locate PIs and TIs in close proximity to compressor connection.
Fig. 200-61 Key Elements of Flow Regulating System for Primary Seal Gas to Single and Tandem Seals Flush Gas to Double Seal5
January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual
NC PI
From gas supply system
NC PI
FIC Flow indicator with signal
to regulating valve and
permissive (3),(6)
FIC
Temperature indication
TI w/ high & low alarms (6)
1988–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
TI
Flow regulators. When specified, with Supplies to each compressor end.
bypasses and isolation, arranged to Check valves (not shown) are optional.
minimize low point dead legs (6)
Notes:
(1) Individual regulating systems are required for each of the listed applications, including barrier gas and flush gas.
(2) When specified, differential pressure devices may be substituted by absolute pressure devices for separation gas services venting to atmosphere and buffer gas
services.
(3) Unless otherwise specified — low, low shutdown with time delay for seal gas and/or separation gas. Shutdown devices must meet specified independence /
redundancy requirements.
(4) Check valves are mandatory only for separation gas and buffer gas, and for any other applications hat can have flow reversal during failures or upsets. Trim valves
are only for buffer gas services, and must be located to minimize F1 measurement error.
(5) Flow regulation used only when gas consumption reduction is sufficient to offset reliability benefits of differential pressure regulating system.
(6) Duplicate arrangement for each compressor end.
(7) Diagrams represent minimum requirements.
(8) Trace and insulate all lines as needed to assure specified dew point margin.
(9) Minimize low points and slope all lines to eliminate liquid accumulation. Provide plugged drain valves at all low points.
(10)Locate PIs and TIs in close proximity to compressor connection.
200 Centrifugal Compressors
200-73
Fig. 200-62 Key Elements of Tandem Seal Primary Vent System (Each Compressor End)
200-74
200 Centrifugal Compressors
Rupture disk w/ failed disk alarm &
permissive start or relief valve
To safe location
Pressure indication w/ low
Seal Vent Port Flow indication FI Bypass OR High Pressure Relief Line (3)
alarm/permissive, low, low
shutdown, high alarm & w/ high & low alarm
high, high shutdown (1)
1988–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
Optional gas FI
PI (2)
sampling point
To Flare
Low point drain
(typical)
Optional control valve for regulated
primary vent pressure (if dictated by
seal vendor or by outboard seal failure
protection scheme)
Notes:
(1) See Table 3 in CMP-SC-5.02 for settings and voting logic guidelines for low pressure conditions. Shutdown devices must meet specified independence/redundancy
requirements.
(2) Check valve must open at low enough pressure to prevent reverse pressurization of primary seal. Individual check valves are required for each compressor end.
(3) Use either Fl bypass line or high pressure relief line. Fl bypass is the default, unless flare system capacity is insufficient for inboard (primary) seal failures on both
ends of compressor.
(4) Not required for tandem secondary vent.
(5) Check valve must open at low enough pressure to prevent reverse pressurization of gas seal. Check valves not required for segregated lines that vent to
Compressor Manual
atmosphere.
January 2011 (E)
(6) Consider potential for reverse flow through check valves in applications with stringent emissions requirements.
Fig. 200-63 Key Elements of Venting System for Single Seal, Double Seal, or Tandem Secondary Seal (Each Compressor End)
January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual
Seal Vent Port
Pressure
indicator
w/ high Flow indication w/
FI
alarm (4) high alarm (4)
PI (5)
To Flare (6)
or other safe location
1988–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
Optional gas sampling
point on secondary vent
for tandem seals w/
intermediate labyrinth.
Low point boot
w/ drain & local
level indication.
Notes:
(1) See Table 3 in CMP-SC-5.02 for settings and voting logic guidelines for low pressure conditions. Shutdown devices must meet specified independence/redundancy
requirements.
(2) Check valve must open at low enough pressure to prevent reverse pressurization of primary seal. Individual check valves are required for each compressor end.
(3) Use either Fl bypass line or high pressure relief line. Fl bypass is the default, unless flare system capacity is insufficient for inboard (primary) seal failures on both
ends of compressor.
(4) Not required for tandem secondary vent.
(5) Check valve must open at low enough pressure to prevent reverse pressurization of gas seal. Check valves not required for segregated lines that vent to
atmosphere.
(6) Consider potential for reverse flow through check valves in applications with stringent emissions requirements.
200 Centrifugal Compressors
200-75
200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
243 Configurations
Configuration refers to the relationship between the inlet, discharge, and side
streams to the mechanical arrangement of the compressor. This will be clarified by
the following examples.
Figure 200-64 shows a typical cross-section of a multistage centrifugal compressor.
This is called a “straight-through” compressor because flow goes in one end and out
the other.
Fig. 200-64 “Straight-Through” Centrifugal Compressor (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
Another common configuration is the “compound,” or “Out-and-In” type
(Figure 200-65). This arrangement allows removal of the total gas stream for
intercooling, power savings, or processing, and re-entry for additional compression.
Note the additional spacing required for flow extraction and re-entry. Although
some designs can minimize the effect, this reduces the maximum number of
impellers available for compression.
The “sidestream compressor” shown in Figure 200-66 allows the introduction or
extraction of partial flows at intermediate levels to satisfy various process
requirements. The number of sidestreams in a single casing is limited only by
available spacing. This arrangement adds the complexity of requiring mixed
temperature calculations to determine impeller performance downstream of
sidestream inlets.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Fig. 200-65 Compound Centrifugal Compressor (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 200-66 Centrifugal Compressor with Side-stream Connections (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
The “double-flow” configuration effectively doubles the capacity of a given frame
size (Figure 200-67). The compressor is divided into two sections, the inlet flow
entering at either end, and discharging through a common discharge nozzle at the
center of the casing. The impellers in each section face in opposite directions,
achieving thrust balance at all operating conditions. While flow is doubled, the
number of stages available for increasing head is cut in half. The use of the double-
flow option should be carefully evaluated against other alternatives.
Fig. 200-67 Double Flow Compressor (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
The compressor in Figure 200-68 utilizes what is commonly called the “back-to-
back” impeller arrangement. This type has advantages in high pressure-rise
applications where thrust balancing becomes difficult using a conventional thrust
bearing and balancing drum. Since the back-to-back impellers produce opposing
thrust forces, the net thrust is significantly reduced, eliminating the need for a
balance piston to provide thrust compensation. This arrangement must, however, be
carefully reviewed with respect to division wall-flow disturbances, bearing span,
and seal design on rotor stability.
One other configuration to note is a combination series/parallel unit, Figure 200-69.
Eastern Region has one of these in booster-compression service, and reports good
performance, and flexibility switching back and forth in order to obtain higher
flows, or discharge pressure, as needed for system operation.
200-78 1988–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Fig. 200-68 Back-to-Back Impeller Arrangement (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 200-69 Series/Parallel Compressor
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
250 Application and System Considerations
251 Effect of System Changes on Performance
A centrifugal compressor operates at the intersection of its performance curve and
the system resistance curve. For constant inlet conditions, the operating point of a
variable-speed unit can be changed by either a change in speed or by altering the
system curve. Constant-speed unit performance can only be modified by changing
the system curve.
Example
In Figure 200-70 a typical system resistance curve has been added to performance
curves indicating the effect of a change in inlet pressure. The solid curve shows
original performance while the lower curve shows the effects of a reduced inlet
pressure. Calculations using fan laws (assuming a constant inlet volume flow)
would indicate revised operation at point C. However, since the compressor would
actually seek a new operating point at the intersection of its revised performance
curve and the system curve, the resulting operation would be at point B.
Fig. 200-70 Effect on Performance Due to Change in Pressure (From Compressors: Selection & Sizing, by Royce
Brown 1986 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
If the effects of the system curve are large, estimates made using the fan laws will
be significantly in error.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
252 Stable Operating Speed Ranges
The compressor stability range is discussed in connection with performance curves
and surge in Section 220. This is very important.
In addition to performance stability, a satisfactory margin must be maintained
between the operating speed range and the critical speeds of both the compressor
and driver.
Although API 617 defines these required margins, the following can be used as a
general guideline:
• lateral critical—should not fall in the range from 15 percent below any
operating speed to 20 percent above the maximum continuous speed.
• torsional criticals—(complete train) no torsional critical should fall in the
range from 10 percent below any operating speed to 10 percent above
maximum continuous speed.
253 Power Margins
The rated horsepower for centrifugal-compressor drivers should be a minimum of
110 percent of the maximum horsepower required for any specified operating point.
For motor drivers, it is necessary that the motor be carefully matched to the
compressor, and items reviewed such as:
• motor speed-torque characteristics,
• accelerating-torque requirements of the compressor, and
• motor supply voltage during acceleration.
(See the Motor section of the Driver Manual.) Steam turbines should have a
maximum continuous speed 105 percent of rated compressor speed.
Driver requirements are further detailed in API 617. API Standards 611 and 612
cover general purpose and special purpose steam turbines.
254 Series Operation
When two or more casings (or sections) are operated in series, the manufacturer
usually furnishes two performance maps: one for each casing, and one showing
overall casing performance. For determination of the surge volume, use the overall
curve.
In most situations, it is desirable to have an individual anti-surge recycle line around
each casing (or around each section of compression of compound casings). It is not
practical for one anti-surge control to accommodate two casings or sections at
operating conditions significantly removed from the rated point. In addition, the
overall operating stability range can be improved because the anti-surge controls
can be set for the stability range of each casing rather than the overall range for all
casings.
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
255 Weather Protection
Although centrifugal compressors are generally suitable for unprotected outdoor
installations, daily temperature fluctuations can affect equipment alignment. Cold
temperatures, heavy rains, salt atmosphere, blowing dirt or sand can make
maintenance difficult, and maintenance of equipment cleanliness impossible.
Most equipment specification packages include detailed requirements for weather
protection of controls and instrumentation. However, conditions vary between
locations. Therefore, get specific input from site personnel. Also, make sure the
specifications accurately reflect what the field has found to be most trouble-free.
256 Process Piping Arrangements
The inlet piping configuration is an important factor that must be carefully
evaluated to ensure satisfactory compressor performance. Performance predictions
are based on a smooth, undisturbed flow pattern into the eye of the first impeller. If
the flow has any rotation or distortion as it enters the compressor, performance will
be reduced.
Figure 200-71 may be used as a guideline to establish the minimum length of
straight pipe run ahead of the compressor inlet.
The nozzle loads, or forces and moments that the compressor can accommodate
without misalignment are generally specified by the manufacturer.
API 617 specifies an arbitrary 1.85 times the limits defined by the NEMA SM-23
Standard. This results in limits which are not practical for all machine types. This
criteria relates allowable loadings only to flange size. For example, a lightly
constructed unit with 8-inch, 150-pound flanges would be expected to withstand the
same loadings as a heavy barrel casing with 8-inch, 2500-pound flanges.
Datasheets CMP-DS-5241-SI and CMP-DS-5241-US specify allowable loadings
related to the weight of the machine. This approach provides limits which are
generally accepted within the industry.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Fig. 200-71 Minimum Straight Pipe Run Ahead of Compressor Inlet (1 of 2)
Note: Use the chart to determine Dimension “A”. (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
Fig. 200-71 Minimum Straight Pipe Run Ahead of Compressor Inlet (2 of 2)
Note: Use the chart to determine Dimension “A”. (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
The design and location of piping supports, and the accommodation of thermal
expansion, is generally left to the piping designer, although it should also be
reviewed by the project or machinery engineer. This should be checked in detail
during construction to ensure correct installation of piping, and that the location and
setting of supports is in accordance with design drawings and specifications.
Section 700 contains installation and precommissioning checklists which include
piping installation review.
The following additional items should be considered when reviewing the overall
compressor piping design.
1. High-velocity streams generate noise. Maximum velocity can be limited by the
amount of noise that is allowed.
2. No side connections (such as the balance piston return line) should be put in the
straight piping run ahead of the compressor inlet.
3. When a permanent strainer is used, specified compressor inlet pressure must
include an allowance for strainer pressure drop.
4. To avoid problems prior to startup, the compressor manufacturer should be
advised of the description and location of each strainer.
5. Woven wire mesh should not be used in strainers for centrifugal compressors.
Wire mesh has the tendency to plug very rapidly, requiring frequent removal,
and in some cases, it has been ingested into the compressor causing serious
internal damage.
6. Inlet strainers should be located in the first pair of flanges away from the
compressor’s nozzle. Strainers should not be located right at the suction nozzle,
since excessive flow distortion could result.
257 Lube- And Seal-Oil Systems
The lubrication of centrifugal compressors is generally handled by a pressurized
system, which also provides the seal oil and control oil in some cases. One system
usually supplies all machines in a given train (such as the compressor, any gears,
and the driver).
A basic pressurized lube system consists of a reservoir, pumps, coolers, filters,
control valves, relief valves, instrumentation, and other auxiliaries specific to the
application.
Seal oil may be provided from a combined lube and seal oil system, or from a
separate seal oil system. Generally, combined systems are selected for sweet gas
services. Separate seal oil systems are generally selected for compressors in services
that contain hydrogen sulfide or other corrosive or toxic gases. In either type of
system, the inner (sometimes called ‘sour’) seal oil leakage is normally not returned
to the reservoir. The outer (sometimes called ‘sweet’) seal oil leakage is returned to
the reservoir. Under certain conditions, it is possible for sour gas to migrate into the
outer seal oil stream that is returned to the reservoir. Having a separate system
positively avoids contamination of the lubricating oil and subsequent corrosive
attack of babbitt-lined bearings and other components served by the lubricating oil
system.
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
API 614, Lubrication, Shaft-Sealing, and Control Oil Systems for Special Purpose
Applications, and Specification CMP-MS-4762 cover the design, manufacture, and
testing of the overall system, as well as individual components. Used as a reference,
they provide guidelines based on user experience which can easily be scaled down
or tailored to fit any requirement.
The system may be designed either as a console or baseplate-mounted package, with
all components mounted on a single baseplate, or alternately as a multiple-package
arrangement, with system components separated into individually packaged units. In
this case the individual component packages are piped together in the field.
Oil return lines must slope toward the reservoir(s) to allow gravity draining. This is
often overlooked when piping is being laid out. Also, be careful to avoid “head
knockers” when laying out pipe.
Off-shore applications may require a system mounted integrally with the
compressor/driver baseplate, with off-mounted air coolers.
The console arrangement, because of its compact layout, may limit or restrict access
to various components making maintenance difficult. The multiple-package
arrangement allows greater flexibility in locating the individual packages for
improved maintenance access. A major disadvantage of the multiple-package
arrangement is that the complete system is seldom shop tested and therefore
performance is not verified prior to arrival on site.
Careful attention at all phases from initial specification through installation and
startup will contribute significantly to trouble-free compressor train startup and
operation. Historical maintenance data from many compressor installations indicate
approximately 20–25 percent of centrifugal compressor unscheduled downtime
results from instrument problems (many of these associated with operation and
control of the lube and seal system).
When designing or modifying a system, obtain specific input from the field
regarding site requirements, preferences, and operating experience. They may have
already modified the basic system to correct problems experienced, found a
particular type or brand of instrument that functions better under their site
conditions, or standardized on components to reduce spare parts inventories, etc.
The following highlights areas requiring special attention:
1. For critical or non-spared equipment, include a main and an identical full-sized
auxiliary oil pump (not to be confused with an emergency oil pump which is
normally of much smaller capacity, sized only to handle lube and seal require-
ments during coast-down). A popular drive arrangement for turbine-driven
compressors is a steam-turbine driven main oil pump with an electric motor
driven auxiliary. This arrangement has the advantage that auto-start control of
the electric motor driven unit is relatively simple and reliable with rapid accel-
eration to full speed and rated pressure output. For installations where steam is
not available, several alternate drive combinations are used, including motor,
shaft-driven, and in a few cases air or gas expanders. With motor driven main
and auxiliary pumps, each should be supplied by an independent power source.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
2. Consider adequate oil-flow to bearings and seals during coast-down following a
trip of the auxiliary pump. The two approaches used most often involve either
an emergency oil pump or overhead rundown tanks.
Overhead rundown tanks are typically located to provide an initial pressure
(head) equal to the low oil pressure trip pressure. API requires capacity to be
sufficient to supply oil for a minimum of three minutes. In the majority of cases
this is adequate.
A second method is an emergency oil pump. This pump would probably be DC
motor driven, with power supplied by a battery backed UPS system.
3. Manufacturers often insist that the response time of a motor driven auxiliary
pump is sufficient to avoid pressure decay tripping the main unit, and therefore
accumulators are not required. However, several tests have shown this not to be
the case. The option should always be held open so that accumulator require-
ments are based on the system demonstrating acceptable stability during the
prescribed testing.
4. The system rundown tanks, and the accumulators are sometimes confused. The
rundown tanks provide lubrication and cooling to bearings and seals during
coast-down. The accumulator is designed to maintain system pressure within
specified limits during transient conditions or upsets, thus avoiding machinery
trips.
5. When oil seals are used, the manufacturer is normally asked to guarantee a
maximum value for this inner seal-oil leakage. The guaranteed value is often
found to be considerably lower than actual leakage on test or following startup.
Since size of the degassing tank is based on this leakage rate, the tank often
ends up being undersized.
API specifies that the degassing tank be sized for a minimum of three times the
guaranteed inner seal oil leakage. Actual leakage, however, has in some
instances exceeded quoted values by more than 10 times. The manufacturer’s
sizing criteria should be verified based on review of leakage-rate tests for
similar seals.
6. For centrifugal lube-oil pumps, the pump head should be compared to the
maximum allowable filter pressure drop (of dirty filters) to ensure that suffi-
cient oil flow is provided to the machinery as the filters become dirty.
7. Shaft-driven main lube-oil pumps are not recommended, since any mainte-
nance or repair of this pump requires the machine be shutdown.
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
260 Instrumentation and Control
261 Typical Instrumentation
Typical instrumentation is shown in Figure 200-72.
API 614 and 617 data sheets include several additional instrumentation options.
These data sheets provide a good checklist for defining the requirements of a
specific application.
Whatever alarms and shutdowns are chosen, it is very important to make sure they
are installed with facilities to allow testing.
Fig. 200-72 Typical Centrifugal Compressor Instrumentation
Indicator Alarm Shutdown
Lube and Seal System
Lube oil pump discharge pressure x
Oil header pressure (each level) x
Low lube-oil header pressure x x
Standby oil pump running x
Seal-oil pump(s) discharge pressure x x
Seal-oil differential pressure x
Standby seal-oil pump running x
Low seal-oil level x
Low seal-oil pressure x x
Run-down tank level x x
Compressor
Compressor flow rate x
Compressor suction pressure low and high
(each section) x
Compressor discharge pressure low and high
(each section) x
High compressor discharge temperature x WS(1)
Journal bearing temperature WS(1) WS(1) WS(1)
Thrust bearing temperature WS(1) WS(1)
High liquid K.O. levels x x x
Surge event x
Shaft Vibration x x x
Axial Position x x x
(1) WS = when specified
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
262 Compressor Control
The control system must regulate compressor output to satisfy the process
requirements and must also keep the compressor from operating in surge.
Performance requirements are usually established during the process-design phase,
based on a cooperative effort between the process designer and machinery engineer.
Although control parameters for an existing process may already be set, (making
selection of the compressor control system relatively straight forward), a process
update or modification, a change in type of compressor or driver, or a need for
improved efficiency, may dictate a change. Refer to the Instrumentation and
Controls Manual for coverage of control system design.
An understanding of the effect of varying gas conditions on compressor
performance is necessary to properly evaluate control alternatives. Figure 200-73
shows the performance curve for a centrifugal compressor operating at constant
speed with varying inlet conditions.
Fig. 200-73 Effects of Changing Gas Conditions at Constant Speed (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
263 Control System Selection
Variable-speed and constant-speed suction throttling are the two most common
control methods. Adjustable inlet guide vanes are sometimes used, primarily on
single-stage units.
Turbine driven compressors typically use variable speed, with either pressure or
flow as the controlled variable. Suction throttling is generally used for motor-driven
compressors. Variable-speed motors and hydraulic or electric variable-speed
couplings are seldom applied to centrifugal compressors due to their added cost, and
because they significantly lower the efficiency of the unit.
A review of centrifugal compressor characteristics highlights the differences
between these two methods:
For variable-speed control, the capacity varies directly with speed and the head
varies proportional to the square of speed. Therefore, as speed is reduced, capacity
and head are reduced to meet the process requirements, with a corresponding
reduction of horsepower and a minimum loss in efficiency.
On the other hand, constant-speed operation essentially produces a constant head.
Throttling reduces the inlet and outlet pressures but adds losses by introducing
added resistance to the system.
Figure 200-74 shows typical constant-speed performance curves indicating the
effect of suction throttling. Figure 200-75 shows typical variable-speed performance
curves. A comparison gives an indication of the difference in power requirements
between the two methods.
For a capacity requirement of 80 percent, suction throttling requires approximately
86 percent horsepower. For the same 80 percent capacity, control by variable speed
requires approximately 81 percent horsepower.
Parallel Operation
Parallel operation of two or more compressors adds additional complexity to the
control system evaluation.
Slight variations in compressor performance characteristics, piping configuration,
and instrument settings can cause one unit to take all the load, thus forcing the
others into recycle, or alternately causing endless “hunting” between units.
For example, if one unit starts to recycle slightly ahead of the other and suction
temperature is increased due to the recycle, its capability to produce head will be
reduced, thereby locking this unit into recycle. Alternately, if suction temperature is
reduced by recycle, head output is increased forcing the other unit into recycle,
starting a back-and-forth swing between units.
Simulation studies are often necessary because of the complexity involved in
matching parallel compressors. Direct your efforts toward developing the least
complex control logic that will meet process and operating requirements. One
common approach is to base load one unit, allowing the second unit to take process
swings.
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Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
Fig. 200-74 Constant Speed Performance Curves Fig. 200-75 Variable Speed Performance Curves
(Courtesy of the Elliott Company) (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
264 Surge Control
In the case of air compressors, surge control is often accomplished by a discharge
blow-off valve, regulated to maintain the required minimum flow to the compressor.
This is based on a minimum flow setting and is applicable only for units operating
at constant inlet conditions. In most applications, however, it is necessary to recycle
flow back to the suction, through a bypass cooler, in order to maintain stable
operation. Consult a company specialist for assistance in selecting an appropriate
control system.
265 Machinery Monitoring
Machinery monitoring systems are covered in detail in the General Machinery
Manual. In summary:
• Monitoring systems are used to confirm that machinery is operating within
specified design limits, to provide an indication of machinery condition, and to
warn of changing conditions which might result in machinery damage or
failure.
• Machinery monitoring varies from periodic manual recording of data, to
automated continuous computer data logging and performance analysis.
The most common systems are those described in the General Machinery Manual.
Virtually all new centrifugal compressors come with some monitoring system.
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200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
270 Rerates and Retrofits
It is often desirable to modify process conditions to improve overall plant efficiency
or to increase production. However, this often requires rerating an existing
compressor.
Before spending a considerable amount of time and effort in redesigning the
process, it is advisable to make a preliminary feasibility estimate to determine the
rerate capabilities of the existing compressor. This will identify various limitations
and help avoid completing a total process redesign only to find out that a
compressor cannot meet these new requirements.
The major areas which require evaluation include capacity, pressure, speed, and
power. Consider consulting the OEM, and/or a Company specialist before making
significant changes to any critical (unspared) centrifugal compressor.
271 Capacity
While impellers and internal stationary components can be relocated and new ones
added, the casing nozzle sizes are fixed. The maximum capacity that can be handled
with a reasonable pressure drop is therefore dependent on the nozzle size and related
to inlet gas velocity.
Inlet velocity is dependent on gas conditions, allowable noise levels, and inlet
piping configurations. An acceptable rule-of-thumb is a maximum of 140 ft/sec for
air or lighter gases and approximately 100 ft/sec for heavier hydrocarbons.
The actual inlet gas velocity can be calculated from:
Q
V = 3.06 -------
D2
(Eq. 200-12)
where:
Q = ACFM in ft3/minute at inlet pressure, temperature, Z, MW
D = inside diameter of the nozzle, in inches
If side load or compound inlets are involved, inlet gas velocity should be checked
for all inlet connections.
272 Pressure
Next, check the pressure rating of the existing unit:
During manufacture, the casing was hydrotested to 1½ times the maximum
operating pressure (nameplate rating). If the pressures involved in the rerate exceed
the nameplate rating, it will be necessary to re-hydrotest the casing for the new
conditions.
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Note the following items:
• It may be necessary to check with the manufacturer to confirm that the casing
design pressure is adequate for rerating and rehydrotesting.
• Compressor operating characteristics, relief valve settings, or settle out
pressures may set the maximum operating pressure.
• If set by compressor characteristics, use pressure rise to surge at maximum
continuous speed.
• Side stream or compound compressors may have been hydrotested by sections
with a different pressure for each. Check each section for compatibility with
new conditions.
Check the compressor to determine its capability of producing the head required.
Use Equation 200-3 to calculate the head for the rerated condition based on the desired
pressure ratio. An attempt may be made to re-use some or all of the existing impel-
lers, based on an overall polytropic efficiency of 70 percent for the initial estimate.
Initially estimate the speed from the affinity law (see later discussion regarding
speed limitations):
1
H p ---
2 2
N 2 = N 1 --------
Hp
1
(Eq. 200-13)
where:
N1 = original speed
N2 = rerated speed
Hp1 = head for rerated pressure
Hp2 = head for original pressure
This same procedure will work for applications involving side loads or intercooling
between sections. The head for each section is determined based on the conditions
for that section, and the total head is the sum of the individual section heads.
273 Power
Since motor drivers are seldom oversized, anything more than a minor power
increase may require a new motor. This requires close evaluation of proposed
process changes to see if necessary improvements can be achieved while still
staying within the driver’s capabilities.
In contrast, turbines and gears can usually be modified to provide increased power.
Although turbine data sheets will sometimes provide information regarding
maximum steam flow or uprate capabilities, discussions with the manufacturer may
be required.
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From Equation 200-11, you can see that gas horsepower (GHP) is directly
proportional to weight flow (w) and head (H), or:
w 2 H p2
GHP 2 = GHP 1 ----------------
-
w 1 H p1
(Eq. 200-14)
For example, if weight flow is increased by 10 percent and head is increased by
10 percent, the power requirement is increased by:
1.10 1.10 = 1.21 or 21%
Furthermore, a driver power margin of 10 percent is recommended. Therefore, the
total recommended requirement is increased by:
1.21 + 10% (1.21) = 1.33 or 33%
274 Speed
Finally, review the speed based on impeller stress and compressor critical speeds.
Impeller stress levels are related to the impeller tip-speed as discussed in
Section 240. While the maximum allowable tip speeds vary with manufacturer,
impeller design, and material, a good rule-of-thumb for impellers with backward
leaning blades is 900 ft/sec. (274 m/sec) maximum tip velocity.
Determine impeller tip speed by:
DN
u = ---------
229
(Eq. 200-15)
or, using the 900 ft/sec. (274 m/sec), maximum speed is:
299 900 -
N max = ----------------------
D
(Eq. 200-16)
Maintain the following critical speed separation margins:
• Any critical speed at least 20 percent below any operating speed
• Any critical speed at least 20 percent above maximum continuous speed
Revamping of the rotor may have some effect on critical speeds; however, ignore
this effect for the initial feasibility estimate.
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280 Foundations
This sub-section provides a basis for establishing the dynamic forces to be used by
civil engineers in foundation design calculations. Soil mechanics, natural frequency
calculations, bearing pressure, concrete strength, and other design factors are not
covered here. Refer to the Civil and Structural Manual for such information.
Foundations, anchor bolts, and grouting are discussed in the General Machinery
Manual.
In addition to knowing the dimensions and weights of the machinery to be
supported, engineers designing the foundation must know the magnitude, direction,
and frequency of the dynamic forces that the machinery will exert on the
foundation.
The importance of foundations to a compressor installation cannot be
overemphasized. Foundations attenuate vibratory forces generated by the
machinery, and reduce transmission of these forces to the surrounding plant and
equipment. Foundations also keep the machinery in alignment.
To perform these essential functions throughout the life of the installation, the
foundation must be sized to support the weight of the machinery while imposing a
tolerable bearing pressure on the soil or structure. It must be properly designed so
that the system, consisting of the foundation, soil, machinery, and piping, is not at or
near a resonant condition. It is particularly important on offshore structures, which
may be susceptible to resonance from the machinery vibration.
The purchaser of the machinery is normally responsible for the design of the
foundation. The vendor or manufacturer of the machinery will seldom take this
responsibility because his expertise is not in this field. It would not be in his
best interest to accept the risks associated with the design. Additionally, the
vendor does not have specific knowledge about the soil conditions at the site.
281 Foundation Mounting
Centrifugal compressors are installed on either soleplates or fabricated steel
baseplates. The baseplates may be of the non-self-supporting or self-supporting
type, depending on site requirements. These intermediate supports provide a
permanent mounting point for the machine feet, which can then be shimmied for
final location and alignment. In many cases, the baseplate is extended to support
both the driver and driven equipment, and in cases such as off-shore installations, it
can also contain the lube and seal system. The baseplate simplifies installation.
Section 700 contains a detailed checklist including foundation mounting. This
checklist may be used in conjunction with Specification MAC-MS-3907. (See the
General Machinery Manual for more information on foundations, anchor bolts, and
grouting.) Section 100 includes criteria for establishing forces to be used in
foundation design for centrifugal compressors.
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282 Design Basis for Rotating Compressors
Dynamic (centrifugal, and axial) and rotary compressors generally exert much
smaller dynamic forces than reciprocating compressors. Nevertheless, these forces
should be accounted for to avoid a potentially serious vibration problem during
operation of the compressor. A fault in the design of a concrete foundation is extremely
difficult to correct after the concrete has been poured. There is no easy way to add
mass, alter the stiffnesses, or adjust damping to change the natural frequency of a
concrete foundation in an effort to move the system away from a condition of
resonance. In a few extraordinary cases, it has been necessary to break out an
existing foundation and pour a redesigned foundation to solve a serious vibration
problem. Obviously, such instances are exceedingly expensive and time consuming.
While guidelines have been developed over the years for the allowable vibration of
the foundation itself, criteria for defining the forces to be used in foundation design
have been lacking.
A misunderstanding between the foundation designer and the compressor
manufacturer regarding the unbalanced forces to be allowed for in the design has
contributed to many foundation vibration problems. These problems have
commonly been caused by not designing for the actual dynamic forces, but rather
for some lower value, due to communication problems between the foundation
designer and the machine manufacturer.
Depending on how the question about unbalanced force is asked, the manufacturer
might respond with the rotor’s residual unbalance from the dynamic balancing
machine. This balancing-machine tolerance is an extremely small number which
might be only 1/20th of the actual force at rated speed. At other times, arbitrary
values are assumed for foundation design, yet they may not be representative of
actual machine operation.
Dynamic Forces
The dynamic force generated by the rotor(s) of rotary and dynamic compressors is
related to the running speed and the vibration of the rotor. Because of the
complexity of the subject, it is impossible to accurately predict the behavior of a
rotor system with one or two simple equations.
Fortunately, however, standards have been developed for allowable limits of
vibration for new machinery. One of the most widely used standards is the API limit
for dynamic and rotary machines:
1---
A v = 2 or 12000
--------------- 2 whichever is less
N
(Eq. 200-17)
where:
Av = Peak-to-peak amplitude (displacement) of vibration in mils
(0.001 inches)
N = Rated speed in RPM
Note This equation is valid for speeds down to about 3000 RPM. Below 3000
RPM the limit is 0.002 inches (2 mils).
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The following equation may be used for calculating the force used in foundation
design. This equation is based on a vibration three times the amplitude calculated
from Equation 200-17. A safety factor of three is recommended because that is
about the maximum vibration level where you would ever allow a compressor to
continue to operate.
F = 4.3 10 – 8 N 2 W R A v
(Eq. 200-18)
where:
F = Dynamic force, lbs
N = RPM
WR = Weight of rotor, lbs
The force calculated is actually a rotating vector, and it should be assumed that it is
acting perpendicularly at the center of the rotor. It should also be assumed that there
will be a 50 percent reaction at each bearing from the unbalanced rotating force. The
reactions at the machine’s hold-down bolts can then be resolved.
Figure 200-76 shows the resolution of these forces to bearing reactions. The latter
reactions are transmitted to the foundation via soleplates or baseplate and anchor
bolts. Note that Equation 200-18 can also be applied to the rotors of turbine drivers
and gearboxes.
Occasionally the foundation designer may want to add a factor above the dynamic
force determined by Equation 200-18, although Equation 200-18 is quite
conservative. Five times the API vibration limit has been used as a design criterion
in some cases where there were special concerns about the design. This would
provide a safety factor of 1.67 beyond Equation 200-18. To make the calculation,
substitute 7.1 for 4.3 in Equation 200-18.
Other Considerations
The question sometimes arises about whether the foundation would survive if a
large chunk of metal, such as a piece of an impeller or turbine blade(s), were thrown
off the rotor while running at full speed. A second question might be whether the
foundation should be designed to accommodate such an occurrence. Foundations
usually will survive such accidents, although some repairs to anchor bolts, hold-
down bolts, or bearing pedestals may be necessary. Generally, such occurrences are
not taken into account in the design. The forces involved are extremely high, and it
is impossible to predict their magnitude. It is suggested that bolting and structures
be checked for adequacy at 10 times rated torque. This value is often used on
turbine-generator foundations, because a short circuit can cause an instantaneous
torque increase to that level. Similarly, a compressor rotor might cause such a torque
increase in the event of a severe rub.
It is recommended that the natural frequency of the foundation system be at least
30 percent above or below the frequency of any compressor or driver operating
speed.
As a rule of thumb, the weight of the foundation should be no less than three times
the weight of the rotating machinery it supports.
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Fig. 200-76 Unbalanced Forces from Compressor and Turbine Rotors
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290 Materials
Selection of casing material is influenced by the service involved. Steel casings are
required by API 617 for air or nonflammable gas at pressure over 400 psig
(27.6 bar) or calculated discharge temperature over 500F (260C) (anywhere in the
operating range), and for flammable or toxic gas. Stainless steel and high nickel
alloys are generally used for low temperature refrigeration units. A materials
guideline which covers recommended materials for compressor components is
included as an Appendix of API 617.
Although manufacturers have a background of experience in applying materials and
manufacturing processes to special applications, never assume the manufacturer
completely understands your process.
Include a complete process gas analysis, with emphasis on corrosive agents, and
water vapor, together with any anticipated variation in composition, off-design or
alternate operating conditions, or possible process upsets. Specifications should
encourage the manufacturer to offer alternatives or comment based on their
experience.
When defining the operating environment, also consider the possibility of
contaminant build-up during compressor shutdown which might contribute to
subsequent component failure. For example, the addition of water or cleaning
chemicals during a unit shutdown may add one of the components that lead to a
sulfide stress cracking failure (see Section 291).
API imposes specific design limitations for corrosive gas applications. However,
actual operating experience may dictate addition or modification to these
requirements.
API also contains an appendix of material specifications for major compressor
component parts.
The following discussion will help you recognize applications where the potential
for problems may exist. Detailed descriptions of the failure mechanisms mentioned
is beyond the scope of this manual. (See the Materials Manual.)
291 Sulfide Stress Cracking
A prevalent problem is sulfide stress cracking of highly stressed components,
especially impellers. It requires the presence of hydrogen sulfide, water in the liquid
state, an acid pH, and tensile stress.
The use of inhibitors has been investigated, although in most cases the practical
solution for operation in this environment has been a change of material.
Studies indicate that for materials with yield strengths between 100,000–110,000 psi
(690–759 MPa), stress levels required for sulfide cracking are near the yield
strength. In contrast, materials with yield strengths of 140,000 psi (966 MPa)
exhibited susceptibility at stresses as low as 30,000 psi (207 MPa).
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Continuing studies have resulted in establishing the generally accepted API 617
guidelines, which limit material yield strength to 90,000 psi (620 MPa) or less, and
a hardness not exceeding Rockwell C22.
Note that in 1987, sulfide cracking caused the loss of a critical compressor
supporting a major hydroprocessing facility, costing several million dollars. The
cause was impeller stage pieces with too high a yield strength.
292 Stress Corrosion Cracking
Materials operating where the combination of tensile stress, a corrosive medium
present, and a concentration of oxygen are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking.
The effects of stress and corrosion combine to produce spontaneous metal failure.
Because all conditions required for stress corrosion cracking are less likely to exist
in a normal environment, corrosion cracking is not as common. Also, materials
modified for sulfide cracking produce a material less susceptible to stress corrosion.
293 Hydrogen Embrittlement
Compressors handling hydrogen (hydrogen at partial pressures greater than 100 psig
(6.9 bar), or concentrations greater than 90 molar-percent at any pressure) are
susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. This embrittlement occurs when a metal is
stressed in a hydrogen-rich atmosphere.
Metals highly prone to embrittlement include high-strength steels and high-strength
nickel base alloys. Those having only a slight tendency include titanium, copper,
austenitic stainless steels and aluminum alloys, with most materials commonly used
on centrifugals falling in between.
As in the previous cases, the most practical solution has been found in selection of
material properties compatible with the process involved.
API 617 limits impellers to 120,000 psi (8274 bar) yield strength and a hardness less
than Rockwell C34. Figure 200-77 shows that this stress level is for overspeed
RPM, and is therefore conservative at running speed.
Fig. 200-77 Impeller Stresses at Various Speeds of Rotation (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
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294 Low Temperature
Standard compressor casing materials are generally good for temperatures of 20 to
50F (28 to 46°C). Below these temperatures, standard materials become brittle,
and materials with improved low temperature properties must be used.
Nickel based steel alloys are generally used, with suitable alloys available for both
fabricated and cast casings, for temperatures to approximately 150F (101C).
Special nickel alloys and austenitic stainless steels may be used for temperatures to
320F (195°C).
Also review other component materials for compatibility with the operating
temperature range. The materials appendix of API 617 is an appropriate guide for
material selection since temperature limits specified indicate limits commonly
applied by compressor manufacturers.
An unusual example of the application of low temperature material requirements is
an air compressor located in a cold climate region. Although this compressor might
be located in an enclosed (even heated) building, it could be exposed to inlet air
temperatures well below 50°F (46°C). Suction throttling would further reduce
inlet temperatures.
Where reduced maximum yield strength and hardness are specified, apply the same
requirements to any welding and repair procedures.
295 Impellers
Centrifugal compressor impellers are most commonly made from alloy steel
forgings of AISI 4140 or 4340. Materials such as AISI 410 stainless steel and
precipitation hardened stainless steels (including Armco 17-4 pH or 15-5 pH) may
be used in situations where corrosion resistance is required. Austenitic stainless
steels, monel, and aluminum, although somewhat limited in their application, are
used in some special cases. Figure 200-78 identifies the chemical analysis of various
impeller materials. Figure 200-79 provides a listing of mechanical properties.
296 Non-Metallic Seals
Elastomeric seal requirements in centrifugal compressors are generally handled by
O-rings. Since compressor applications seldom involve pure gases or fluids,
selection of the proper O-ring material can become quite difficult. Carefully
evaluate the operating environment, considering factors such as temperature,
pressure, and fluid composition (with special emphasis on corrosiveness of the gas).
Operating experience in the same or similar service is of prime importance.
Figure 200-80 provides “application charts” for typical O-ring materials.
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Fig. 200-78 Chemical Analysis of Impeller Materials (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
Fig. 200-79 Mechanical Properties of Impeller Materials (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
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Fig. 200-80 O-Ring Application Charts (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
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297 Coatings
Coatings are not widely used to improve corrosion or erosion resistance of
compressor internals. Problems include:
• surface preparation prior to coating
• maintenance of critical tolerances
• balancing coated components
• protection of coating during handling
• modification of established manufacturing procedures
Selection of compatible materials or material properties is generally the most
practical approach.
Revision History
Date Description Author Sponsor
1988 Initial release ATEU ATEU
October 2009 General revision ATEU ATEU
January 2011 (E) Errata: Replaced references to CMP-SC-1876 with ATEU ATEU
references to CMP-DS-5241-SI and CMP-DS-5241-US.
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300 Reciprocating Compressors
Abstract
This section discusses engineering principles, types of reciprocating compressors,
configurations, and performance characteristics. It contains sufficient information
for understanding how to specify and apply reciprocating compressors including
auxiliaries and support systems.
Contents Page
310 Introduction 300-3
320 Engineering Principles 300-4
321 Compression Cycle
322 Volumetric Efficiency
323 Capacity and Power Calculations
324 Discharge Temperature
325 Number of Stages
326 Cylinder Sizing
330 Compressor Types / Performance Characteristics 300-25
331 Types
332 Performance Characteristics
340 Machine Components and Cylinder Arrangements 300-31
341 Machine Components
342 Cylinder Arrangements
350 Selection Criteria 300-58
351 Rod Loading
352 Discharge Temperature
353 Rotating Speed and Piston Speed
354 Compressor Valves
355 Drivers
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356 Footprint and Weight
357 Noise
358 Efficiency and Economics
360 Application and System Considerations 300-72
361 Cylinder Thermal Performance
362 System Resistance
363 Capacity Control
364 Parallel Operation
365 Power Margins
366 Foundation Mounting and Grouting
367 Shaking Forces (Foundation Requirements)
370 Piping and Arrangements 300-78
371 Instrumentation and Control
372 Control Devices
373 Instruments
380 Foundations 300-82
381 Reciprocating Compressor
382 Pulsation Suppression
390 Rerates and Materials of Construction 300-86
391 Capacity Changes
392 Valve Upgrades
393 Suction System Modifications
394 Materials of Construction
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Compressor Manual 300 Reciprocating Compressors
310 Introduction
Section 100 provided general information and fundamental compression equations
applicable to all types of compressors. This section presents additional equations,
charts, and recommendations specifically related to reciprocating compressors. The
machinery covered is limited to crosshead compressors having power ratings from
approximately 150 to several thousand horsepower, with speeds ranging from 250 to
1000 RPM. With engineering judgment, much of the information presented can be
applied to machines with ratings below 150 HP and speeds to 1500 RPM.
The purpose of Section 300 is to provide information to assist the reader in:
• Making initial estimates of power consumption, number of stages, cylinder
sizing, and plot area for a proposed new compressor installation.
• Evaluating retrofits and modifications to re-rate existing compressors for new
service conditions.
• Troubleshooting performance problems occurring on existing equipment.
Figure 300-1 shows a cross-section of a typical single-cylinder (one crankthrow)
compressor, and includes the basic nomenclature that will be used throughout this
section.
Fig. 300-1 Typical Reciprocating Compressor (From Ingersoll-Rand Compressor Catalog, 1977. Courtesy of
Dresser-Rand)
1. Crankpin 8. Piston Rod 15. Cylinder
2. Crankshaft Counterweight 9. Wiper Packing 16. Cylinder Head
3. Flywheel 10. Distance Piece 17. Liner
4. Frame 11. Piston Rod Packing 18. Valve Cap
5. Conrod 12. Piston 19. Suction Nozzle
6. Crosshead 13. Discharge Valve 20. Discharge Nozzle
7. Crosshead Guide (Dog house) 14. Suction Valve
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320 Engineering Principles
321 Compression Cycle
In a reciprocating compressor, compression takes place as a result of the back-and-
forth travel or stroke of a piston in a cylinder equipped with inlet and discharge
valves. The cycle is usually described by a Pressure-Volume (PV) diagram,
similar to the one shown in Figure 300-2.
Fig. 300-2 Steps in the Cycle of a Reciprocating Compressor (From Compressors: Selection & Sizing, by Royce
Brown 1986 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
The “ideal indicator diagram” is followed by a series of cylinder
illustrations depicting piston movement and valve position.
The figure shows, in diagram form, one complete crankshaft
revolution representing a complete compression cycle. To
begin the cycle, refer to the figure at:
(a) where the piston is at the lower end of the stroke (bottom
dead center) and is at path point 1 on the indicator diagram.
At this point the cylinder has filled with gas at intake pressure
P1. Note that the valves are both closed.
(b) the piston has started to move to the left. This is the
compression portion of the cycle and is illustrated by Path 1-2.
When the piston reaches point 2 on the indicator diagram,
the exhaust valve starts to open. The discharge portion of the
cycle is shown at (c). This is shown on the indicator diagram
Path 2-3. Note that the discharge valve is open during this
period while the intake valve is closed. The gas is discharged
at the discharge line pressure P2.
(c) When the piston reaches point 3 it has traveled to the
upper end of its stroke (top dead center). Physically, at this
point in the stroke, there is a space between the piston face
and the head. The space results in a trapped volume and is
called the clearance volume.
(d) Next in the cycle, the piston reverses direction and starts
the expansion portion of the cycle, as illustrated at (d) in the
figure. Path 3-4 shows this portion of the cycle. Here the gas
trapped in the clearance volume is re-expanded to the intake
pressure. Note that the discharge valve has closed and the
intake valve is still closed.
(e) At point 4 the expansion is complete and the intake valve
opens. The intake portion of the cycle is shown at (e). This is
indicated by Path 4-1 on the indicator diagram. The cylinder
fills with gas at intake line pressure P1.
When the piston reaches point 1 the cycle is complete and
starts to repeat.
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322 Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency (Ev) is an important variable in reciprocating compressor
calculations, affecting the diameter, stroke, and speed for a given compressor
capacity. The compressor cylinder's actual inlet flow (ICFM) is the product of the
volumetric efficiency and the cylinder's displacement over time, expressed in cubic
feet per minute (CFM).
Ev is related to the clearance volume in the cylinder (the volume to the left of the
dotted lines in Figure 300-2). On the PV diagram, it is the volume between points
0 and 3. The total volume displaced by a full stroke of the piston in the single-acting
cylinder illustrated in Figure 300-2 is the volume between points 1 and 3. Clear-
ance is usually expressed as a percentage of the displaced volume as follows:
Vc
- 100
C = ---------
V cyl
(Eq. 300-1)
where:
C = percent clearance
Vc = clearance volume, cubic inches
Vcyl = displacement volume, cubic inches
The theoretical volumetric efficiency (in percent) of a cylinder is:
1
---
E v (theo.) = 100 – C r k – 1
(Eq. 300-2)
where:
P P
r = -----2- or -----d- = pressure ratio
P1 Ps
C
k = -----p-
Cv
Corrections to Ev for Gas Characteristics
In practice, corrections have to be made to Ev to account for valve losses, non-ideal
re-expansion of gas in the clearance volume, internal leakage, compressibility, and
other effects. Each manufacturer has his own set of empirical corrections. There-
fore, several corrections for Ev are used in the industry.
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Several of these corrections were compared for natural gas (S.G. = 0.72) and for
propane. They were all within about 5% for pressure ratios between two and four.
However, for hydrogen-rich gases with molecular weights below 10, the correc-
tions varied as much as 17% at a pressure ratio of four. However, the maximum
pressure ratio for hydrogen-rich gases is typically about three (to keep the discharge
temperature below 300F). At a pressure ratio of 3, the deviation is less than 10%.
The following equation yields results that are approximately the average of the other
formulas when used for more ordinary lubricated-cylinder compressor applications.
Also, see the following discussion for limitations and corrections.
1
Z ---
E v = 97 – F r – C -----s- r k – 1
Z d
(Eq. 300-3)
where:
Ev = volumetric efficiency, in percent
Zs = compressibility at suction conditions
Zd = compressibility at discharge conditions
F = 2.4 for mol. wt. < 10
= 1.4 for mol. wt. 10 to 30
= 1.0 for mol. wt. > 30.1
r = pressure ratio
Equation 300-3 is similar to the formula in the GPSA Handbook. The main differ-
ence is that F in Equation 300-3 adjusts for internal gas slippage which varies
inversely with molecular weight.
Mechanical Corrections to Ev
Equation 300-3 applies to lubricated cylinders. Non-lubricated cylinders have a
lower Ev due to greater piston-to-liner clearances, and other factors. For non-lube
applications, change the 97 in Equation 300-3 to 94.
Speed also affects Ev. Equation 300-3 applies to slower speed machines up to
600 RPM. For 1000 RPM machines, Ev is about 3% less, and the Ev determined
from Equation 300-3 should be multiplied by 0.97.
Applications and Limitations of Ev
Although Equation 300-3 is somewhat complex, it does not necessarily imply a high
level of accuracy. It should only be used for estimating when pressure ratios range
from two to five. Furthermore, the equation assumes the cylinder design provides
ample valve flow area, the valve dynamics are satisfactory, and pressure pulsations
are moderate. If any one of these conditions is abnormal, the Ev prediction is ques-
tionable.
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Note that although Ev is a vital sizing consideration, it does not affect power
consumption. Ev becomes an important factor, if the owner is considering a re-rate,
or is troubleshooting a compressor capacity problem. Manufacturers may be
consulted to determine highly accurate values of Ev based on proprietary informa-
tion and programs.
Actual Inlet Flow
Actual inlet flow (ICFM) to the cylinders is determined by the equation:
ICFM = Q = VdEv
(Eq. 300-4)
where:
Vd = displacement rate, CFM
Ev = volumetric efficiency expressed as a decimal.
Note When Ev appears in an equation, it is expressed as a decimal value, not a
percent.
(Refer also to Section 100, Equations 100-14 and 100-15 for other Q relationships.)
323 Capacity and Power Calculations
Background
The power required by a reciprocating compressor is normally calculated using
adiabatic (isentropic) relationships. The common industry practice is to state power
in units of “brake horsepower per million cubic feet per day” (Bhp/MMCFD).
It is important to differentiate between:
• Bhp/MMCFD - brake horsepower per million cubic feet per day (14.4 psia and
actual suction temperature)
• Bhp/MMSCFD - brake horsepower per million standard cubic feet per day
(14.7 psia and 60F)
When the capacity is given in MMSCFD, it may be converted to MMCFD as
follows:
14.7 T s Z rc
MMCFD = MMSCFD ---------- --------
14.4 520 Z
- --------
o
(Eq. 300-5)
where:
Ts = Actual suction temperature, R
Zrc = Compressibility at reference conditions of 14.4 psia and actual
suction temperature
Zo = Compressibility at 14.7 psia and 60F
Z rc
Note -------- can usually be taken as 1.0 with negligible error
Zo
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If the capacity is given in SCFM, or pounds per minute, MMCFD can be calculated
as follows:
SCFM T Z rc
MMCFD = ----------------------------s -------
-
353 ,742 Z o
(Eq. 300-6)
wT s Z rc
MMCFD = ------------------
932 M
(Eq. 300-7)
where:
w = weight flow in lbs/minute
M = molecular weight
When the flow rate in MMCFD, and Bhp/MMCFD are known, brake horsepower
can be calculated from:
Bhp = ----------------------
Bhp - MMCFD
MMCFD
(Eq. 300-8)
MMCFD can be converted to ICFM (inlet cubic feet per minute), or Q as follows
(bearing in mind that MMCFD is equal to 106 cubic feet/day):
14.4- -------
Q = MMCFD 10 6 ---------
Zs day -
P Z 1 ,440 min.
- -------------------------
s rc
4 Zs
= MMCFD 10
-------- -------
P Z
-
s rc
(Eq. 300-9)
where:
Ps = Suction pressure in psia
(Notice that division of 14.4 by 1440 results in 1/100 which simplifies the arith-
metic, and it is for this reason that 14.4 psia is used as a convenient reference pres-
sure for MMCFD.)
Combining Equations 300-4, 300-8 and 300-9:
Bhp 10 4 Z S
Q = V d E v = -------------------------------------------------------------
-
Bhp MMCFD Z rc P s
(Eq. 300-10)
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where:
Vd = displacement rate, CFM
Ev = volumetric efficiency as a decimal
Note Zrc is often taken as 1.0 in Equations 300-9 and 300-10 as a simplifying
assumption. The error is usually small.
A number of formulas and charts have been developed over the years for deter-
mining Bhp/MMCFD. (Note that Bhp/MMCFD is often shortened to Bhp/MM.)
Most of the recently published charts and equations have been for large motor-
driven, low-speed, heavy-duty machines for critical refinery and chemical plant
services covered by API 618. These relationships are also generally applied to large
low-speed integral gas-engine compressors.
The Bhp/MM curves are used along with several correction factors to account for
specific gravity, low-inlet pressure, etc. Additional correcting factors are often
applied for smaller frames with higher speeds.
Computer programs have also been developed to calculate the theoretical horse-
power and power losses associated with specific types of valves, and mechanical
friction. The resulting power predictions are much more accurate than the Bhp/MM
curves and the correction factors, and the computer methods continue to be
improved. By the mid-1980's, the major manufacturers were using computer
methods on most applications.
The manufacturers consider their valve designs and loss factors to be proprietary,
and they are, therefore, not available. However, fairly good estimates can be made
using updated Bhp/MM curves or formulas with some corrections.
Rough Compressor Horsepower Estimate
Equation 300-11 can be used to obtain a quick and rough estimate (plus or
minus 10%) of compressor horsepower. It was developed for large low-speed
(300-450 RPM) units handling 0.65 specific gravity gases and having stage
compression ratios above 2.5. The equation may produce a result that is as much as
20% low for high-speed compressors (900-1200 RPM) due to the higher valve
losses in these machines.
Bhp = (22) (MMCFD) (f) (n) (r)
(Eq. 300-11)
where:
r = compression ratio per stage (should be between 2.5 and 4.0)
n = number of stages
f = 1.0 for single-stage compression
= 1.08 for two-stage
= 1.10 for three-stage
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Note that:
r = roa 1/n
(Eq. 300-12)
where:
roa = overall compression ratio
Equation 300-11 will also provide a rough estimate of horsepower for gases with
higher specific gravities or for lower stage compression ratios, with modification.
For specific gravities between 0.8 and 1.0 use a multiplication factor of 20 instead
of 22 in the equation. Likewise, use a factor of 16 to 18 for stage compression ratios
between 1.5 and 2.0.
More Accurate Power Estimates
Figure 300-3 summarizes the equations and charts available to determine power for
four classes of reciprocating compressors as defined in the chart. A Reciprocating
Compressor Performance Calculation Worksheet, CMP-EF-873, is included in the
Standard Drawings and Forms section. A sample problem using the worksheet is
also included in Appendix B.
Fig. 300-3 Classes of Reciprocating Compressors and Reference Data
Nominal
Typical HP Speed Range, Nominal Stroke Equation Figure
Class Range RPM Range, inches Reference Reference
Class A: 500-10,000 250-600 10-20 300-11 300-4
API 618 type heavy-duty 300-12 300-5
process gas machine 300-13 300-6
300-14 300-7
300-15
300-16
Class B: 150-3000 600-1000 5-6 300-17 300-8
Often called “separable” are 300-18
normally used in oil and gas
field operations.
Class C: 20-300 250-600 5-13 (multiply results
Similar to Class A, but the from Class A by
frames are smaller. Used in 1.03)
both process and oil field
services.
Class D: 10-200 800-1500 2.5-4 (multiply results
Smaller light-weight versions from Class B by
of Class B. Usually applied in 1.05)
the oil field.
Equation 300-13 along with correction factors may be used to obtain a more accu-
rate estimate of compressor horsepower.
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Compressor Manual 300 Reciprocating Compressors
k-----------
– 1-
k – 1
r
46.9- -------------------------- -----------------
----------------------- = ---------
Bhp Z s + Z d
-
MMCFD Z rc k–1 2
------------
k
(Eq. 300-13)
where:
C T s + T d
-----------------
k = -----p- at 14.7 psia and average compression temperature -
Cv 2
Equation 300-13 includes a correction for a mechanical efficiency of 93%. (In other
words, if the compressor frame and cylinders had zero mechanical losses or 100%
mechanical efficiency, the 46.9 constant in Equation 300-13 would be 43.6.) The
93% is an arbitrary average. Actual mechanical efficiency can vary significantly
with machine selection. See Section 330, “Compressor Types and Performance
Characteristics.”
Figures 300-4, 300-5, and 300-6 are graphic representations of Equation 300-13,
less compressibility effects. These figures are similar to figures found in the GPSA
Handbook and other handbooks, and may be used instead of Equation 300-13 to
determine the uncorrected BHP/MMCFD.
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Fig. 300-4 Basic Bhp/MM for Gas Compressors 150 HP and Above
Note: This chart applies to Class A machines, as defined in Figure 300-3, and also applies to Integral-
Engine Compressors. Refer to Section 323 for further instructions, and for corrections to this chart for
specific gravity, moisture, and non-lubricated cylinders.
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Fig. 300-5 Basic Bhp/MM for Gas Compressors 150 HP and Above
Note: This chart applies to Class A machines, as defined in Figure 300-3, and also applies to Integral-
Engine Compressors. Refer to Section 323 for further instructions, and for corrections to this chart for
specific gravity, moisture, and non-lubricated cylinders.
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Fig. 300-6 Basic Bhp/MM for Gas Compressors 150 HP and Above
Note: This chart applies to Class A machines, as defined in Figure 300-3, and also applies to Integral-
Engine Compressors. Refer to Section 323 for further instructions, and for corrections to this chart for
specific gravity, moisture, and non-lubricated cylinders.
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Corrections to Equation 300-13. There are several potential factors which may be
accounted for in order to obtain a more accurate horsepower estimate. See
Equation 300-20 for the total adjusted horsepower. The corrections are described as
follows.
Valve Loss Corrections. Valve losses tend to increase with increasing gas density.
Molecular weight (specific gravity) and inlet temperature affect density. These
effects can be taken into account with an addition to the basic Bhp/MM. For
Class A compressors, this correction is as follows:
Corrected Bhp/MM = Basic Bhp/MM + Bhp/MM (SG)
(Eq. 300-14)
where:
Bhp/MM(SG) = valve loss correction
When Specific Gravity 1.0
Bhp MM SG = 4 ,320 SG -
--------------------------
T s Z rc
(Eq. 300-15)
When Specific Gravity < 1.0
Bhp MM SG = 3 ,624 SG + 696-
-----------------------------------------
T s Z rc
(Eq. 300-16)
The corrections in Equations 300-15 and 300-16 are appropriate for cylinders
having good valve flow characteristics. However, if the valves are not properly
selected for the compressor application, or if the machine's service conditions differ
significantly from the original design conditions, the corrections may not provide an
accurate prediction of compressor power. Excessive pressure pulsations can also
affect the accuracy of predictions.
Class B compressors, with higher speeds, often have higher valve losses. Methods
of predicting horsepower for Class B machines vary from simply adding 5% to the
Bhp/MM, regardless of the gas, to a set of additions related to specific gravity. The
latter method is the one used by the GPSA Handbook (refer to the “References”
section of this manual).
While the GPSA method will provide fairly good predictions for average cases, inlet
temperature is not accounted for, and applications with higher pressure ratios tend to
be overcorrected. Corrections similar to those for low-speed compressors are also
available. Following are additions to the basic Bhp/MM which have been used in
the industry for Class B compressors:
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When Specific Gravity 1.0
,027 SG -
Bhp MM SG = 6--------------------------
T s Z rc
(Eq. 300-17)
(The correction calculated is applied in Equation 300-14.)
When Specific Gravity1.0
5 ,672 SG + 335-
Bhp MM SG = -----------------------------------------
T s Z rc
(Eq. 300-18)
Figures 300-7 and 300-8 may be used in place of Equations 300-15, 300-16, 300-17,
and 300-18 for valve loss corrections for Class A and B machines. They neglect
compressibility effect (Zrc = 1).
Moisture Correction. When the gas being compressed contains water vapor, the
vapor content should preferably be included in the gas analysis. When it is included,
there is no need to correct the Bhp/MM for moisture. If it is not included, a mois-
ture correction should be made. The moisture correction is typically used in air
compressor calculations. The moisture correction factor is:
Ps
MF = ----------------
-
Ps – Pv
(Eq. 300-19)
where:
MF = Moisture correction factor
Ps = Suction pressure, psia
Pv = Vapor pressure of water at suction temperature (from steam
tables/charts).
The moisture factor must be calculated for each stage. After the first stage, it is
usually assumed that the gas is saturated (relative humidity = 100%) with water
vapor as it leaves the intercooler. Note that there will be water drop-out at each
intercooler.
Correction for Non-lubricated Cylinders. Another correction factor is applied
when the cylinders are not lubricated. The commonly used non-lube correction
factor (NLCF) is a multiplier of 1.05. This factor is widely accepted in the industry.
Although there is some evidence that a well-engineered non-lube design will only
require 1–2% more power, using 1.05 is recommended unless you know the correc-
tion should be less.
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Fig. 300-7 Addition to Basic Bhp/MM to Correct for Valve Losses in Class A Compressors, as defined in Figure 300-3.
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Fig. 300-8 Addition to Basic Bhp/MM to Correct for Valve Losses in Class B Compressors, as defined in Figure 300-3.
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Total Corrected Power. The total adjusted Bhp/MM per stage is then:
Bhp
Total adjusted -----------
MM
= Basic ----------- MF NLCF + --------------------
Bhp Bhp -
MM MM SG
(Eq. 300-20)
The result of Equation 300-20 can then be applied in Equation 300-8 to determine
the Bhp for each stage. The total Bhp for the machine is the sum of the Bhp’s for the
stages.
Power Estimates for Class C and D Compressors. A quick estimate for Class C
Compressors can be made by adding 3% to the horsepower calculated on the basis
of a Class A machine. Similarly, for Class D machines, add 5% to the power deter-
mined for Class B units.
In making performance estimates, it is customary to subtract 1% from the initial
suction pressure, and add 1% to the final discharge pressure. These allowances are
for the pressure drop through the pulsation dampers.
For interstage pressure drop, use 3% to account for pulsation dampers, piping,
knockout drum (separator), and intercooler. If Equation 100-36 is used, replace 0.98
with 0.97 in the denominator. If actual values for pressure drops are known, they
should be used instead of the foregoing estimates.
324 Discharge Temperature
Properly cooled compressor cylinders stay reasonably close to the theoretical adia-
batic (isentropic) process with respect to discharge temperature. Therefore, the adia-
batic discharge temperature equations in Section 100 may be used to predict the
discharge temperature with fairly good accuracy. These equations can be rewritten
as follows so that Fahrenheit temperature may be used:
k-----------
– 1-
td = ts + 460 r k – 460
(Eq. 300-21)
where:
ts and td are in Fahrenheit.
This equation is applicable for machines with ideal cylinder cooling, and may be
used as a first approximation for all applications. If more accurate estimates are
needed, refer to Section 360 of this manual, “Application and System Consider-
ations” where cylinder cooling and deviations from Equation 300-21 are discussed.
Refer to Figure 300-9 for a graphic representation of Equation 300-21.
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Fig. 300-9 Theoretical Discharge Temperatures Single-Stage Compression (Read r to k to ts to td) (Courtesy of GPSA)
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325 Number of Stages
The number of stages is governed by the following factors:
1. Allowable discharge temperature.
2. Rod loading.
3. Existence of a fixed sidestream pressure level (where flow is added to or with-
drawn from main flow of compressor).
4. Allowable working pressure of available cylinders.
Discharge temperature is the most important factor affecting the number of stages.
Class A and B reciprocating compressors are generally limited to 300F for most
gases in upstream and downstream plants. API 618 further limits the discharge
temperature of hydrogen-rich gases to 275F. These limits restrict the stage pres-
sure ratios. It is often necessary to increase the number of stages so that intercoolers
can be added to keep the discharge temperature within limits, while achieving the
required overall pressure ratio. Knowing the discharge temperature limit,
Equation 300-21 can be rewritten to find the allowable pressure ratio as follows:
k
t d + 460 ------------
r = ------------------- k – 1
t s + 460
(Eq. 300-22)
Figure 300-9 may also be used to find r (pressure ratio) corresponding to a given
discharge temperature limit.
Adding intercoolers to a centrifugal compressor tends to save horsepower. With
reciprocating compressors, however, there will seldom be any benefit in adding
intercoolers beyond those needed to maintain discharge temperature limits. The rea-
sons are: (1) reciprocating compressors are already highly efficient, and adding an
intercooler adds pressure drop which offsets the power savings, and (2) addition of a
stage requires additional cylinder(s), pulsation dampers, knockout drum and piping.
The rod-load limit can affect the number of stages since the combined rod loading
is related to the differential pressure across the cylinder. Increasing the number of
stages obviously reduces the differential pressure of each stage. Quite often a rod
loading problem can be solved by using two cylinders for one compression stage. In
this case, the differential pressure would remain the same, but piston area, upon
which the differential pressure acts, would be reduced. Rod loading is covered in
further detail in Section 350, “Selection Criteria.”
Sometimes a compressor application has more than one suction or discharge
pressure level. For example, in an oil field gas system, the compressor may take
different quantities of gas from the separator at two pressures, say 40 and 250 psig.
This machine could also be required to deliver a portion of the gas at 1000 psig for
gas lift, and the remainder at 2500 psig for injection back into the formation. In this
case, these pressures would set the interstage pressures so that the sidestreams are
accommodated. Note also that two stages might be required between the 40 and
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250 psig levels (depending on suction temperature and k value) to stay below the
discharge temperature limits.
Allowable Working Pressure. Occasionally a given pressure ratio might be
achieved in one stage with satisfactory discharge temperature and rod loading, but
an actual cylinder does not exist to handle both the capacity (ICFM) and pressure. In
these situations, it is necessary to use two stages, or use two smaller single-stage
cylinders depending on hardware and economics.
326 Cylinder Sizing
Cylinder displacement is easily calculated with basic geometry. There are three
cylinder configurations to consider:
1. single-acting
2. standard double-acting
3. double-acting with tail rods (see Section 351)
Refer to Figure 300-2 for an illustration of a single-acting cylinder. Figure 300-10
illustrates double-acting configurations. Following are displacement and displace-
ment rate formulas.
Fig. 300-10 Double-Acting Cylinders
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Single-Acting
Cylinder displacement can be calculated:
V cyl = --- D 2 S = 0.785D 2 S
4
(Eq. 300-23)
where:
Vcyl = displacement, cubic inches
D = piston diameter, inches
S = stroke, inches
The displacement rate can be calculated:
D 2 SN D 2 SN
V d = --- --------------- = ---------------
4 1 ,728 2 ,200
(Eq. 300-24)
where:
Vd = displacement rate, CFM
N = RPM
Double-Acting
Cylinder displacement is calculated:
Vcyl = 0.785 (2D2 - d2) S
(Eq. 300-25)
where:
D = piston diameter, inches
d = rod diameter, inches
Cylinder displacement rate is calculated:
V d = ----------------------------------
2D 2 – d 2 SN-
2 ,200
(Eq. 300-26)
Double-Acting with Tail Rod
Cylinder displacement is calculated:
Vcyl = 1.571 (D2 - d2 ) S
(Eq. 300-27)
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Cylinder displacement rate is calculated:
D 2 – d 2 SN
V d = --------------------------------
1 ,100
(Eq. 300-28)
Estimating Cylinder Size to Accommodate a Given Flow Rate
Compressor cylinders are made in certain classes defined by:
1. Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP)
2. Stroke
3. Number of valves per cylinder
4. Diameter range
The diameter in a class is varied by changing the wall thickness of the inner
cylinder, or liner. Each class of cylinder has essentially the same clearance volume
regardless of the diameter. However, the percent clearance varies with diameter.
Volumetric efficiency also varies since it is related to clearance.
For example, assume that a 12-inch-stroke cylinder (double-acting) has a 3-inch rod,
a MAWP of 1000 psig, a speed of 360 RPM, a diameter range of nine to 11 inches,
and a clearance of 15% when the diameter is 10 inches. Further assume that the
application has a pressure ratio of three, a molecular weight of 20, and a k value of
1.25. Figure 300-11 shows how percent clearance and volumetric efficiency vary
with diameter for this cylinder class.
Fig. 300-11 Example: Percent Clearance and Volumetric Efficiency Variance
Displ. rate,
Dia.(1) Vd, CFM Displ., Vcyl, in3 Cl. vol., in3 % Clearance Ev, %
9 300 1442 270 18.7 66.5
9-1/2 337 1616 270 16.7 69.3
10 375 1800 270 15.0 71.7
10-1/2 415 1993 270 13.6 73.6
11 458 2196 270 12.3 75.5
(1) Practice varies among manufacturers, but cylinders can usually be furnished in diametral increments of 1/8 inch up to
about 12-inch diameter, 1/4-inch increments from 12 inches to 20 inches, and 1/2-inch increments beyond 20 inches.
The percent clearance varies from about 8% to well over 30% among the many
classes of cylinders available. There is no rule of thumb to relate percent clearance
to diameter with much accuracy. However, for rough estimates use:
• 20% for diameters up to eight inches
• 15% for eight to 20 inches
• 12% in excess of 20 inches
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The common approach to cylinder sizing is to make an educated guess at Ev, and
then solve for the displacement rate using Equation 300-4. Cylinder diameter can
then be calculated using Equations 300-24, 300-26, 300-28, as appropriate. This
approach may have to be repeated two or three times to arrive at a combination that
satisfies a given inlet flow quantity, Q.
As cylinder diameters do not come in an infinite number of increments, it is
customary to select the next largest increment. In multistage machines, depending
on the size of increments, oversizing of an initial stage is sometimes balanced by
slightly undersizing the subsequent stage, assuming the interstage pressure level is
not fixed (by a sidestream for example).
330 Compressor Types / Performance Characteristics
331 Types
There are two basic types of reciprocating compressors distinguished by the style of
piston and the linkage between the piston and crankshaft. One type covers the
lighter-duty machines having trunk-type (automotive-type) single-acting pistons
lubricated by crankcase oil, with no crossheads. These machines are typically used
for air compression to 125 psig, although cylinders are available for working pres-
sures to 6000 psig, for various gases. They operate at speeds in the range of 1200 to
1800 RPM and have ratings to about 125 HP. This type of machine is not often used
for petroleum gas service, therefore, it is not described further in this manual.
The other type of reciprocating compressor is a heavy-duty crosshead-type
machine where each piston is usually double-acting, and is connected to the
crankpin by a piston rod, crosshead, and connecting rod. The cylinders are lubri-
cated by a force-feed lubricator. Refer to Figure 300-1 for a cross-section of a
typical single-cylinder reciprocating compressor.
Crosshead-type machines may be categorized into four broad classes:
• Class A – API 618 type of heavy-duty process gas machine.
• Class B – Often called “separable,” are normally used in oil and gas field oper-
ations.
• Class C – Similar to Class A, but the frames are smaller. Used in both process
and oil field services.
• Class D – Smaller, light-weight versions of Class B. Usually applied in the oil
field.
The manual concentrates generally on Classes A and B, but much of the informa-
tion is also generally applicable to Classes C and D. (Also see Figure 300-3.)
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332 Performance Characteristics
One of the inaccuracies involved in estimating power from Bhp/MM equations, or
curves, stems from friction horsepower losses. For example, say a compressor has a
12-inch stroke frame with a maximum rating of 4000 Bhp. Also assume that the
frame and cylinders have a mechanical efficiency of 93% (basis of Equation 300-13).
Friction horsepower would be 280 HP (4000 0.07) for the frame. Now, say this
frame is only loaded to 2000 Bhp for a certain application. The friction HP is about
the same (i.e., 280 HP) so now that friction loss is 14% (280 2000) of load and the
mechanical efficiency is 86%.
This example may be somewhat out of the ordinary, but it points out the fact that
significant error can arise from not accounting for frame loading. It is impractical to
develop a loading factor, because it varies from one design to the next. Friction HP
also varies with the number of throws and sizes of cylinders. The vendor should be
contacted if there is serious concern about the friction HP contribution to overall
compressor power.
Figure 300-12 shows a theoretical PV Diagram and the effects of changes in clear-
ance, pressure ratio, and k value on the area (work) of the compression cycle. The
figure shows that increasing the clearance decreases the volumetric efficiency;
hence, the ICFM is reduced. Therefore, clearance is an appropriate variable to use to
control the capacity.
Fig. 300-12 Effect of Various Parameters on P-V Diagram (Note: The original drawing used VE in place of Ev. The
drawing was changed for consistency of units in this manual.) (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
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Compressor Manual 300 Reciprocating Compressors
Capacity Control by Unloading
Reducing the capacity is commonly called unloading, and devices that cause
capacity reduction are called unloaders. Capacity control is often stated in terms of
loading steps. Five-step unloading, without further clarification, means nominal
capacity steps of 100, 75, 50, 25, and 0%; three-step means 100, 50, and 0%.
There are two general types of unloading devices. One type adds clearance to the
cylinder to reduce the capacity. The other type fully deactivates one end of a
cylinder. To avoid confusion between the two types, the former devices are often
called clearance pockets (fixed or variable), clearance bottles, or clearance spacers;
whereas, the latter devices are called unloaders. These are described further in
Section 340.
There is some parasitic gas power loss in the unloaded end of a cylinder as a result
of gas flowing back-and-forth through suction valves held open or through the port
of a plug-type unloader. Moreover, when one end of a cylinder is unloaded, the
capacity of the loaded end is reduced to some extent by heat build-up caused by the
back-and-forth flow in the unloaded end. The heat built-up from the power loss
causes a rise in suction temperatures, resulting in a lower weight flow. This effect is
usually small but can be as much as 10–15% if the parasitic loss is proportionally
high.
Bypassing, suction throttling, and varying speed are other means of capacity control
that are external to the compressor. These methods are occasionally used for recip-
rocating compressors. Speed control is available only on units with variable-speed
drivers, such as internal combustion engines.
Reciprocating compressor performance is usually presented in a tabulation of data
showing Bhp's and capacities for various pressure conditions and gas compositions.
Also, if there are clearance pockets or many unloading steps to accommodate highly
variable pressure conditions, curves may be furnished by the vendor (similar to
Figures 300-13 and 300-14).
Fig. 300-13 Typical Performance with Fixed Clearance Fig. 300-14 Typical Performance with Variable Volume
Pocket on Head End of One Cylinder Clearance Pocket on Head of One Cylinder
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Valve Losses
Figure 300-15 shows a PV diagram with an “ideal” valve system. Note that there is
no valve loss as shown in Figure 300-16. The valves open and close instanta-
neously at the exact moment required.
Fig. 300-15 Ideal PV Diagram and Valve Motion
Fig. 300-16 Actual PV Diagram
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Compressor Manual 300 Reciprocating Compressors
However, in reality, it is virtually impossible to obtain an ideal PV diagram. In an
actual compressor cylinder, the valves do not open and close instantaneously; they
may lag behind the optimum open or close timing, either due to weak or overly
strong springs. For example, if the springs are too stiff, the valve may not remain
fully open but will close prematurely. Real valves also present a restriction to flow
which, combined with any plates that do not open fully, could cause a greater pres-
sure drop across the valve, thus increasing the power consumption. In addition,
volumetric efficiency is reduced.
The compression efficiency of a cylinder depends largely on the valve losses.
Manufacturers have made vast improvements in analytical techniques to optimize
valve design. Optimized valve designs have effected up to a 15% improvement in
Bhp/MM for some applications.
Figure 300-16 is a typical PV diagram showing valve losses. Suction and discharge
valve loss is represented by Areas A-F-E and B-C-D. The amount of loss is a func-
tion of the flow rate, drag coefficient and mass of the valve elements, valve-spring
stiffness, pressure drop, gas pulsations, effective valve flow area, and compressor
speed. Therefore, calculation of valve losses is not a straightforward process. It
requires a complex computer program with empirical factors related to each specific
valve design and cylinder.
Whenever possible, each cylinder should have at least two suction and two
discharge valves per end (four suction and four discharge valves total for a double-
acting cylinder). A greater number of valves will reduce the effect of a broken valve
on cylinder performance and rod loading. In some small bore cylinders, it may be
impossible to provide more than one suction and one discharge valve per end. If this
is the case, ask the vendor if clearance can be added to a larger cylinder with more
valves to achieve the same inlet capacity. In extreme cases, it may be possible to
reduce the stroke on a particular crank throw in order to utilize a larger cylinder.
Rod loading may be adversely affected, however.
Valve porting also influences volumetric efficiency by contributing to the clearance
volume. If the porting must be enlarged to reduce the flow loss, it is done at the
expense of clearance volume and a reduction in volumetric efficiency.
Compressor specifications often refer to the average inlet valve velocity as a general
index of valve performance. The average inlet valve velocity can be used to make
very generalized comparisons of compressor offerings with respect to valve perfor-
mance. Generally, the lower the average inlet valve velocity, the lower the power
loss as a result of valve losses.
The average inlet valve velocity is calculated from the cylinder displacement and
the total valve lift area of all the suction valves in the cylinder. The following
formula is used to calculate the average inlet valve velocity:
288V
V = ---------------d-
A
(Eq. 300-29)
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where:
V = average gas velocity, FPM
Vd = cylinder displacement rate, CFM
A = product of the actual lift, valve opening periphery, and the number
of suction valves per cylinder, Square Inches
Figure 300-17 shows the lift area in a plate type valve. The product of the actual lift
and valve periphery is the valve lift area. These values are furnished by the
compressor valve manufacturer. When the valve lift area is not the smallest area in
the valve flow path, the average inlet valve area is calculated on the basis of the
smallest area.
Fig. 300-17 Lift Area of a Plate Valve (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Note The 288 factor in the valve velocity formula in Paragraph 2.7.1 of API 618
is correct. For many years API, GPSA, and other references erroneously used a
constant of 144 in the formula. The 144 was wrong because the original formula
was based on all suction valves of a cylinder being open at the same time. Actually,
only half the valves are open at any given time in the cycle.
In reviewing bids for compressors, look for large differences in average valve
velocities among the proposed machines. Small differences such as 5000 versus
6000 FPM are probably not significant. But if one vendor consistently quotes veloc-
ities twice those of another vendor, find out why. Also, determine whether they are
quoting “average” or “effective” valve velocities.
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340 Machine Components and Cylinder Arrangements
341 Machine Components
The machine components of a reciprocating compressor are:
• Running Gear
• Pistons
• Piston-to-Rod Attachment
• Crankshafts
• Piston Rod
• Unloaders and Clearance Devices
• Compressor Valves
• Compressor Cylinders
• Piston Rings and Rider Rings
• Packing
• Distance Pieces
• Bearings
Running Gear
The internal moving parts are often called the running gear. A typical set of running
gear is shown in Figure 300-18. Note that a balancing weight(s) (usually a circular
plate, not shown) can be added at the threaded end of the crosshead.
.
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Fig. 300-18 Typical Running Gear (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
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Lubrication of Running Gear. Lubrication is normally accomplished with a pres-
surized system using the sump of the compressor frame as the reservoir. API 618
describes requirements for the system components. Although many systems do not
necessarily meet the requirements of API 618, the diagram included in API 618
shows a typical system schematic arrangement.
Whether a single oil filter or duplex filters are to be furnished is usually a matter of
plant preference, based on the criticality of the service and number of machines
applied to the service. Unlike centrifugal-compressor systems, twin oil coolers are
seldom used in reciprocating compressor systems.
Splash type systems are sometimes used to lubricate the running gear of smaller
machines (200 HP or less).
Compressor cylinder and packing lubrication is provided with force-feed mechan-
ical lubricators. There are two types of lubricator systems: the multiple pump type
(also called “single-plunger-per-point”), and the distributor type (also called
“divider block”).
These lubricator systems are described further in Appendix J.
Pistons
One-piece pistons are made of cast iron, or steel for small diameters and high-
differential pressures. They are also sometimes used when it is necessary to add
weight for balancing to reduce reciprocating shaking forces. (Figure 300-19 illus-
trates three styles of pistons.)
Fig. 300-19 Piston Designs (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
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Two-piece designs are used for ease in casting and weight control. They are made
of aluminum or cast iron, and are generally applied for diameters above 10 inches.
Aluminum is used to reduce reciprocating mass.
The three-piece segmental design incorporates a ring carrier. They are used to
facilitate installation of rider rings (wear bands) which, when required, are placed
on each side of the carrier. In this way, the rider band can be thicker because it does
not have to be stretched over the outside diameter of the piston.
Another piston design worth mentioning is the labyrinth piston for non-lube service.
This piston has no rings, and is used only in vertical machines. It has a large number
of labyrinth grooves to limit blow-by. The blow-by is slightly more than that of
ringed pistons, but the advantage is in low piston maintenance. The labyrinth
compressor is manufactured only by Sulzer in Switzerland, and is used in rather
special services such as oxygen at relatively low pressures.
Piston-to-Rod Attachment
Rods are attached to pistons with a single extension of the rod through the piston
(see Figure 300-18), or with multiple through-bolts as shown in Figure 300-20. The
advantages of multiple bolts are:
1. The smaller bolts are much easier to accurately tension.
2. Adequate pre-stress levels are reliably maintained.
3. Loading by the bolts is more evenly distributed in the piston.
Fig. 300-20 Pistons with Multiple Thru-bolts (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
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This feature is especially useful for large diameter aluminum pistons with large
diameter rods. Such pistons with the single through-bolt attachment sometimes have
nut-loosening problems after a number of temperature cycles. Factors contributing
to this looseness are the difficulty of properly torquing one large nut, and possible
non-squareness of the nut's face with the piston surface.
Crankshafts
Crankshafts are one-piece forgings or castings, although provisions are usually
made for removable counterweights.
Reciprocating machines have two kinds of motion - rotational and reciprocating
(translational). In rotational motion, a rotating force is caused when there is an
unbalanced weight at some distance from the center of rotation. The imbalance
involved in the rotational motion of one crankthrow of the compressor consists of
the weights of the crankpin, crankshaft webs, and a portion (usually about 2/3) of
the connecting rod. Counterweights are sometimes used to compensate for the off-
centered weights of these components. (Figure 300-21 illustrates these terms.)
Fig. 300-21 Number of Main Bearings
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The components involved in translational motion are the piston, piston rod, cross-
head, and the remaining portion (usually about 1/3) of the connecting rod. A fluctu-
ating force results when these parts are accelerated and decelerated as the piston
travels back and forth.
For a single-cylinder compressor, the forces caused by both kinds of motion can be
resolved into two sets of forces, primary and secondary, acting both horizontally and
vertically.
Primary forces result from the rotational motion, and their frequency is that of
running speed. Secondary forces result from translational motion, and their
frequency is two times running speed due to the acceleration and deceleration
during each stroke of the piston. Secondary forces act only along the axis of the
cylinder.
Now, if a horizontally opposed compressor has two cylinders, a force couple can be
generated by the unbalanced force of each cylinder acting in opposite directions and
separated by the distance between the crankthrows. Figure 300-22 shows a primary
couple for a two-throw machine having equal reciprocating weights on each throw.
It also shows how counterweights can be added to the crank webs to reduce the
primary couple.
Fig. 300-22 Counter Weights and Balance Weights
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Pistons on opposite adjacent throws are often not of the same diameter, so their
weights are unequal. Figure 300-22 shows the location where a balance weight
could be added to equalize the reciprocating weights. Dissimilar piston materials
can also be used to equalize the weights.
It is seldom practical to fully compensate for forces and couples with counter-
weights and balance weights. The design becomes more complex where the
machine has more than two throws. The resultant magnitudes of the unbalanced
forces and couples, then, depend on:
• the number of throws,
• the angular orientation of the crankpins with respect to each other,
• the distance between the throws,
• the difference in reciprocating weights, and
• the amount of counterweighting that can be applied.
It is probably possible to balance the reciprocating weights on a pair of adjacent
throws, but to have identical weights for all throws of a machine with several stages
is seldom practical.
Figure 300-22 shows the simple case of a two-throw machine with a crankpin orien-
tation of 180 degrees. As the number of throws increases, the effect of crankpin
orientation on forces and couples gets quite complicated. Figure 300-23 qualita-
tively shows these effects for some of the more common crank arrangements with
equal and unequal reciprocating weights.
Fig. 300-23 Effect of Crank Arrangements on Forces & Couples (typical only) (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
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Selecting the best arrangement from Figure 300-23 is not always the complete
answer to the matter of shaking forces and couples. For example, for a four-throw
machine, the 180 degree “flat” crankshaft is obviously the best choice from the
standpoint of shaking forces and couples, and it eliminates the need for counter-
weights. However, the “flat” crankshaft causes all cylinders to be compressing at the
same time. Hence, the torque-effort diagram (see Section 100, Figure 100-35) of the
compressor may have undesirable oscillations from the standpoint of the driver. The
“flat” crankshaft might require the addition of a large flywheel effect to the driver
system, larger crankshaft diameter, and a special coupling to attenuate the oscilla-
tions. Therefore, the 90-degree arrangement might be more economical for an appli-
cation that is not sensitive to shaking forces and couples. On the other hand, if the
application is offshore, or onshore with undesirable soil conditions, the “flat” crank-
shaft will likely be the best choice.
A question that often arises concerns the number of main bearings. There are two
configurations in Figure 300-21. One has two main bearings and a common web
between the throws; the other has three main bearings, both for a two-throw
crankshaft.
The advantage of the two-bearing design is that the throws are closer together, so
the magnitude of the couple is less than that of the three-bearing design. With the
three-bearing design, however, the crankshaft is more uniformly supported so that
shaft deflection and bending stresses are less than that of the two-bearing design.
The three-bearing arrangement has more places to attach counterweights to reduce
the primary couple, but can the added complexity be justified? Opinions vary, but
the fact remains that both designs are common, and both work.
Note that with a main bearing between each throw, the frame can have odd and even
numbers of throws. When two throws have a common web, only even numbers of
throws are possible.
Piston Rods
The piston rod (Figure 300-18) is a principal component in the running gear. The
primary design factor regarding piston rods is a phenomenon loosely called “rod
loading” described in detail in Section 351. As the rod is subjected to high
alternating stresses (compressive and tensile), its surface finish must be extremely
smooth to avoid stress intensification, which could lead to fatigue failure. The
threads on the rod where it attaches to the crosshead are critical for the same reason.
For hardness and surface finish specifications for commonly used rod materials,
refer to API 618 and/or Section 800. For clean non-corrosive gas service, AISI-4140
carbon steel is a typical rod material. For this material, guidelines for the allowable
stress at the root area of the threads at the crosshead are:
Thread Type Stress, psi
Cut 6000
Cut-and-ground 7500
Rolled 8000
Cut threads have a higher stress intensification factor.
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These guidelines may be used by dividing the vendor's maximum allowable contin-
uous rod load rating (in pounds) by the thread root area (square inches). Obviously,
if the rod material is not 4140, the guideline stress values should be adjusted by the
ratio of tensile strengths of the two materials. Rolled threads are preferred for all
applications, but may not be available on some of the smaller machines.
Some new piston rods are provided with metal coatings for certain services. Metal
coatings are also used to recondition rods. A summary of Company experience with
piston-rod reconditioning is included in Section 830.
Unloaders and Clearance Devices
Unloaders and clearance devices are used to:
• Unload the compressor for startup;
• Maintain fixed suction or discharge pressure in a process;
• Control capacity (flow rate);
• Maintain optimum loading on driver under varying compressor operating
conditions; and
• Maintain operating pressures, temperatures, or piston rod loads within allow-
able limits under varying compressor operating conditions.
Unloaders are applied to the suction side of a compressor cylinder to deactivate
one or both ends of the cylinder. Unloaders are installed on suction valves only, so
the gas circulating through the valve will be cooler than if the unloaders were
installed on discharge valves. Metal fatigue and attendant valve failure occurs more
quickly at elevated temperatures. The two types of unloaders, plug and finger, are
shown in Figure 300-24.
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Fig. 300-24 Unloaders
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There are two kinds of plug-type unloaders (as shown in Figure 300-24, Items A
and B). Item A is fitted on a suction valve. Item B is applied to an individual gas
port on the suction side of the cylinder. With either kind, when the unloader is actu-
ated, an opening is maintained during both the suction and discharge strokes. With
this opening, the gas is no longer trapped, but is free to flow back to the suction side
during the compression stroke. Normally, only one plug-type unloader is required
on a cylinder end. Either kind can be operated manually or automatically with air or
gas as the motive fluid.
The finger type suction valve unloader (Item C of Figure 300-24) is applied to all
suction valves on a cylinder end. This type is sometimes called a “suction valve
depressor”. When actuated, the fingers push down on the suction valve plate(s), and
hold them open. Again, the gas flows back to suction during the compression stroke.
The plug-type tends to be more reliable than the finger-type. Valve plate failure can
be caused by the concentrated loads where the fingers push on the plate. The disad-
vantage of using plug-type unloaders is that there is less overall available valve area
in the cylinder, resulting in higher valve losses.
One European compressor valve manufacturer markets a “stepless” controller for
their valve unloaders. In this scheme, the finger type unloader holds the suction
valve plate open for a specific length of time corresponding to the desired capacity.
Since the suction valves are not allowed to close at the normal time (at or near
bottom dead center), in effect, the displacement of that end of the cylinder is
reduced. Therefore, it is theoretically possible to provide an infinite number of
capacity steps depending on valve timing.
The stepless system has been applied to quite a few installations in Europe, but it
has not gained much favor in the domestic petroleum applications due to its
complexity. One USA manufacturer offers a similar stepless control system, but it is
typically applied only to storage (pump-in, pump-out) compressors having continu-
ally varying suction and discharge pressures.
There are two kinds of clearance devices: clearance pockets and clearance
spacers. Pockets can be fixed or variable volume. (Figure 300-25 shows examples
of fixed and variable volume pockets.) Fixed volume pockets can be either manu-
ally or pneumatically (air or gas) operated.
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Fig. 300-25 Clearance Devices (1 of 2)
A. Manual variable volume clearance pocket—high pressure
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
B. Manual variable volume clearance pocket—low pressure
(Courtesy of Dresser—Rand)
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Fig. 300-25 Clearance Devices (2 of 2)
C. Pneumatically operated fixed volume clearance pocket
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
D. Manual fixed volume clearance pocket E. Pneumatically operated fixed volume clearance pocket
(Courtesy of Dresser-Rand) for valve cap
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
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Variable volume pockets are normally only manually operated. Hydraulic actua-
tion has been tried, but the results have generally been unfavorable. Variable volume
pockets are applied only to the head end of a cylinder, because it is physically
impossible to locate them on the crank end. Occasionally, variable-volume pockets
may be capable of more adjustment than required for the load step. Opening the
pocket too far can cause overheating problems because the volumetric efficiency
becomes too low. External mechanical stops can be installed to limit handwheel
travel to the length required in the capacity control design.
Fixed volume pockets are normally applied to the head end for the same reason,
although fixed pockets can be applied to suction valve caps on either the head or
crank ends. Fixed-clearance pockets often look like an ell-shaped piece of pipe,
pointed upwards to prevent liquid accumulation. This type of pocket can be installed
by the manufacturer, or as a field retrofit.
Valve cap pockets require a special suction valve with an opening at the center of
the seat so that the pocket volume is in direct communication with the cylinder's
interior when the pocket is opened. Installation of valve cap pockets on discharge
valves is not recommended because of the possibility of collection of oil or liquids
in the pockets.
Clearance spacers are sometimes used to increase the clearance volume. A spacer
can be installed between the cylinder head and cylinder body. Also, a compressor
valve can be designed with a two-piece yoke (hold-down for valve). By using one
piece of the yoke as a spacer, the valve seat and guard can be moved farther away
from the cylinder bore, thus increasing the clearance. A shutdown is required to
change clearance with spacers.
Compressor Valves
Valves are manufactured by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM), and by
non-OEM suppliers. The compressor will almost always be supplied with OEM
valves, but non-OEM valves are often retrofitted to solve a particular problem, or
when a unit is re-rated. Occasionally, non-OEM valves are specified on new
machines to match existing equipment or to solve known problems. For more infor-
mation on various types of compressor valves, see Section 354.
Compressor Cylinders
Cylinder design is dependent mainly on the working pressure and diameter range.
Cylinder bodies can be castings of gray iron, nodular (ductile) iron, or steel. Forged
and fabricated steel cylinders are also available for higher pressures. Figure 300-26
shows a variety of cylinders. All of these cylinders have liners. Many of the cylin-
ders offered for high-speed compressors (Class B and D) do not have liners.
Note that cylinders are available in the tandem arrangement having two sizes of
pistons. This rather uncommon arrangement allows two cylinders to be placed on
one crankthrow. Usually both pistons are single-acting, but in some designs only
one of the two will be double-acting.
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Fig. 300-26 Compressor Cylinders (1 of 2)
Large Cast Iron Cylinder for Low Pressure
(Courtesy of the Dresser-Rand)
Forged Steel Cylinder with Tall Rod for High Pressure
(Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
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Fig. 300-26 Compressor Cylinders (2 of 2)
Non-lube Cast Iron Cylinder with Two-compartment Distance Piece for Medium Pressure
(Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fabricated Steel Cylinder Cast Iron Tandem Cylinder with
for Medium to High Pressure 2-Volume Head End Pocket
(Courtesy of Dresser-Rand) (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
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Piston Rings and Rider Rings
The purpose of piston rings is to prevent the blow-by of gas from one end of the
piston to the other. Rider rings or wear bands support the weight of the piston,
help guide the piston in the bore, and prevent rubbing of the piston on the cylinder
wall. Some designers use nylon buttons in the piston skid to prevent contact with the
cylinder on trunk-type pistons.
For many years, piston rings were made from non-abrasive, relatively soft metallic
materials. Cast iron was the most common material, later largely replaced by
bronze. Metallic rings were favored because of their good heat transfer characteris-
tics.
However, much development of non-metallic piston rings and rider rings occurred
when non-lube applications became common in the 1950's.
Carbon-graphite was tried first, but was found to be brittle and did not have suitable
wear characteristics. Phenolic and laminated plastics such as Bakelite and Micarta
were used when temperatures were low. Although it is relatively weak with poor
heat transfer properties, PTFE (teflon) with various filler materials eventually
became the favored material, because of its excellent low-friction characteristics.
Today PTFE is used almost exclusively for lubricated, as well as nonlubricated
services. Bronze is still used on rare occasions for clean and dry lubricated service
when good heat transfer is needed.
The shapes of piston and rider rings are shown in Figure 300-27. Some designs call
for an inner ring or expander ring (not shown) to be fitted under the piston ring to
energize the piston ring and keep it against the cylinder wall as wear takes place.
However, the most popular and safest design employs gas pressure to energize the
piston ring.
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Fig. 300-27 Piston Rings and Rider Rings (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
Piston Rings
Rider Rings
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The “angle” cut is generally preferred, and is the most commonly used. For smaller
lower-pressure cylinders, the “step” cut is used, although care must be taken in the
design to avoid joint breakage. The “seal” cut provides the best seal, but is more
expensive.
Pressure in the cylinder acts on the piston rings, and assuming that the ring does
some sealing, there will be a pressure drop from one side of the ring to the other.
This pressure difference results in a net “pressure induced force” holding the ring
against the side of the piston groove and outward against the cylinder bore (refer to
Figure 300-28).
Fig. 300-28 Pressure Induced Forces Acting on a typical Compression Piston Ring (Courtesy of the ASME)
Figures 300-29 through 300-31 provide some typical dimension ranges for piston
rings and piston clearance. The latter is governed mainly by the coefficient of
thermal expansion of the piston material. In general, the ring should not protrude
from the piston groove by more than 25% of its thickness.
Fig. 300-29 Compilation Compression Ring—Axial Width (Courtesy of the ASME)
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Fig. 300-30 Compilation Compression Ring—Radial Thickness (Courtesy of the ASME)
Fig. 300-31 Compilation Piston to Cylinder Clearance—A-B (Courtesy of the ASME)
Rider rings and piston rings are almost always of the same material. Rider rings
must be designed so that they do not act as a piston ring. Otherwise, wear will occur
too rapidly. Solid rider rings are not prone to outward expansion, but cut rider rings
must be vented with holes or slots to bleed off pressure. Figure 300-32 and
Figure 300-33 are examples of typical thicknesses for solid and cut rider rings
versus cylinder diameter.
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Fig. 300-32 Compilation Band-type (Solid) Rider Rings Radial Thickness (Courtesy of the ASME)
Fig. 300-33 Compilation Joined (Cut) Rider Ring Radial Thickness (Courtesy of the ASME)
Rider-ring width is determined by the bearing pressure. Figure 300-34 shows piston
ring and rider ring arrangements on the rider ring. The bearing pressure is generally
limited to five psi for PTFE in non-lube services and 10 psi for lubricated cylinders
(see API 618). These pressures are based on the weight of the piston plus one-half
the weight of the rod divided by 0.87 DW (where D is the piston diameter, and W is
the width of all rider rings on the piston).
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Fig. 300-34 Typical Arrangements for Piston & Rider Rings (Courtesy of the ASME)
Packing
On double-acting cylinders (and some single-acting), the piston rod must be sealed
to reduce gas leakage from inside the cylinders. This seal is called pressure
packing. It is of the full-floating design so that the packing rings follow any lateral
motion of the piston rod.
As with piston rings, PTFE is used extensively for packing rings. Figure 300-35
shows the forces on a packing ring. Figure 300-36 shows a typical arrangement of
packing rings. The back-up ring limits deformation of the packing ring, and is
usually not required below 500 psi. The back-up ring is sometimes made of bronze
for better heat dissipation.
Fig. 300-35 Pressure Induced Forces Acting on a Typical Packing Ring (Courtesy of the ASME)
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Fig. 300-36 Typical Radial Cut & Tangent Cut Packing Sets with Back-up Ring (Courtesy of the ASME)
Packing cases with vent and buffer arrangements are shown in the Appendix of API
618. Figure 300-37 shows a packing case with passages for coolant. Guidelines for
when cooled packing is applied are included in the text of API 618.
Fig. 300-37 Pressure Packing Case with Coolant Passages (Courtesy of the ASME)
Wiper packing is also shown on the diagrams in API 618. The purpose of this
packing is to minimize leakage of crankcase oil.
Distance Pieces
The distance piece (refer to Figure 300-1) separates the cylinder from the cross-
head guide (doghouse). It provides a housing for both wiper packing and pressure
packing. The distance piece prevents entry of compressed gas into the crankcase,
and provides access for maintenance of the packing and piston rod.
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Four types of distance pieces (with corresponding diagrams) and their applications
are covered in API 618. Vent and purge connections are shown on the API 618
diagrams. Further information on venting and purging is provided in Section 360,
“Application and System Considerations.”
Bearings
Main and connecting rod bearings for the larger heavy-duty frames are split-
sleeve precision insert type (refer to Figure 300-18). The most common materials
are cast iron/babbitt or steel/babbitt. Occasionally, aluminum bearings are used.
Aluminum bearings require better oil filtration as they are sensitive to dirt.
Although sleeve bearings are the most common, API 618 allows rolling-element
(anti-friction) main bearings for Class A machines up to a rating of 200 HP. Rolling-
element bearings are used in some Class B machines for ratings in excess of
1000 HP.
Refer to the General Machinery Manual for additional information on both types of
bearings.
342 Cylinder Arrangements
Refer to Figure 300-1 for a single-cylinder compressor. However, most recipro-
cating compressors are multi-stage (refer to Figure 300-40). Even single-stage
machines are often multi-cylinder for better balance. There are numerous arrange-
ments of the cylinders. Figure 300-39 covers most of the possible arrangements.
The horizontally opposed machine shown in the lower right-hand corner of this
Figure is the most widely used configuration. Figures 300-40 and Figure 300-41
show other views of typical horizontally opposed machines.
The integral gas engine shown in Figure 300-39 is still popular for many oil field
duties. A cutaway view is shown in Figure 300-42. Figure 300-38 illustrates an
integral-engine compressor.
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Fig. 300-38 Integral-engine Compressor (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
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Fig. 300-39 Cylinder Arrangements Used for Various Reciprocating Compressors. Dots on Connecting Rods Indicate
Crossheads (From Hydraulics Pnematics, “Air Compressors, Conditioning, Costs and the Crunch” ed. N.R.
Stull 1976)
Fig. 300-40 Low-Speed Horizontally-Opposed Compressor (From Compressed Air & Gas Data ed. by A.W. Loomis
1982 by Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
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Compressor Manual 300 Reciprocating Compressors
Fig. 300-41 Package High Speed Engine (Courtesy of Demag Delaval)
Fig. 300-42 A “V”-angle Arrangement of an Internal Gas-engine Driven Compressor (From Compressed Air & Gas Data
ed. by A.W. Loomis 1982 by Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
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350 Selection Criteria
When new compressors are being purchased, obviously the first consideration is
installed cost. However, with compressors, it is particularly important to evaluate
the present worth of the overall project for a chosen life cycle. Evaluated cost
includes consideration of energy consumption as well as other direct costs. (Refer to
Life Cycle Costs in Section 154.)
In addition to costs, the technical merits of proposed machines must be weighed.
Rod loading and discharge temperature are important. Other major factors include
reliability, number of stages, piston speed, rotating speed, number and type of
valves, driver, “footprint” size (plot area) and weight, shaking forces (foundation
requirements), and noise. The following is a brief discussion of these factors.
351 Rod Loading
Rod Loading is a general term having many interpretations. It is also called “pin
loads,” “frame loads,” and “combined rod loads.” Excessive rod loading can result
in rod or crosshead failure and possible destruction of the machine.
API 618 gives definitions for the terms “combined rod loading,” “gas load,” “inertia
force,” and “rod reversal.” Combined rod loading is the important term as it is the
net effect of gas and inertia loading. Rod reversal occurs when the force on the rod
changes from tension to compression, or vice versa. It is a critical lubrication factor
for the crosshead pin and bushing. If there is no reversal, the pin and bushing
surfaces do not separate; hence, oil is prevented from lubricating these surfaces.
This can result in catastrophic damage to the crosshead, connecting rod, bushing,
and crosshead pin.
Frame loading is the result of reaction forces from the gas-pressure resultant
forces. Frame loading stresses static items such as crosshead guides, distance pieces,
the frame itself, and the bolting between these items.
Rod loading is somewhat of a misnomer in some cases. A manufacturer's adver-
tised maximum allowable continuous rod load (MACRL) rating is based on the
weakest link in the running gear/frame system. The piston rod is not always the
weakest link. It may be the crosshead pin or bushing, for example.
Years ago, quite often only gas loads were considered in evaluating proposed
compressors. In most cases, a quick comparison of gas loading with the MACRL
was adequate. But occasionally, inertia forces augmented the gas loading at certain
crank angles so that the MACRL was exceeded.
Rod reversal becomes a problem at low pressure ratios. It can also be a problem at
high-pressure ratios for single-acting cylinders, half loaded cylinders, or when the
bore of double-acting cylinders is not much larger than the piston rod. Tail rods can
be used to alleviate the latter situation.
Figure 300-43 shows gas, inertia, and combined loading for pressure ratios of 4.00
and 1.05. The 4.00 ratio examples show the maximum combined loading is less than
the gas loading (the inertia force helped the situation). Such is not always the case,
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however. It depends on the differential pressures throughout the stroke, and the
weights of the reciprocating parts. It is impossible to provide a “rule of thumb” for
this phenomenon.
Fig. 300-43 Rod Loading vs. Crank Angle (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Figure 300-43 also illustrates a cylinder with a very low pressure ratio (1.05). In this
case, the maximum combined load is greater (negative) than either the gas or inertia
loads. Also the combined load only reversed for 15-20 degrees of crankshaft
rotation. (Note that API 618 suggests a minimum of 15 degrees of reversal).
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Figure 300-44 shows the ideal reversal (see dark areas labeled “A”) at the
crosshead pin.
Fig. 300-44 Load Reversal at Crosshead Pin (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
A subtlety often overlooked is that the actual differential pressure that exists at a
certain crank angle inside the cylinder is higher than the theoretical differential
pressure. Refer to Figure 300-15 and note that the vertical distance between points
C and F is significantly greater than discharge minus suction pressure. Pressure
pulsations can make matters worse. It should be noted that, at any one instant, the
upper part of the diagram in Figure 300-15 would correspond to the head end, while
the lower part would correspond to the crank end.
When purchasing new compressors, you should insist that the vendor make a study
of combined rod loading versus crank angle using internal cylinder pressures with:
(1) normal operating conditions, and (2) with any broken valve, with relief valve
setting as discharge pressure.
Calculated gas loads can be very misleading, but sometimes they can be used as a
preliminary index to estimate the frame size or number of cylinders per stage. These
calculations can be made using pressures at the cylinder flanges and the full area of
the piston on the head end and the net area (piston area minus rod area) for the crank
end. Loading should be calculated for tension and compression. When one end of a
cylinder is unloaded, that end will have suction pressure in it at any crank angle.
352 Discharge Temperature
Discharge temperature is an important factor, as it must be limited to prevent mate-
rial damage. Additionally, higher discharge temperatures mean higher differential
temperatures which cause greater differences in thermal expansion of components
made of dissimilar materials. This in turn, causes higher stresses and larger devia-
tions from design clearances.
300F is a good all-around limit for process and oil-field compressors. The limit
often applied to machines compressing hydrogen-rich gases is 275F.
Although temperatures as high as 350–375F have been used with a fair amount of
success, 300F provides a better margin of safety for several design factors, thus
improving reliability and availability. The widely used PTFE piston ring and
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packing materials last longer and perform better at lower temperatures. With a
calculated or observed temperature of 300F, there are likely localized temperatures
50 degrees higher or more.
The 300F limit sometimes causes a machine to have a greater number of stages
than a higher temperature limit. More stages reduce rod loading by reducing the
differential pressure. Another benefit of lower discharge temperatures is a reduced
tendency toward deposits of solids on the discharge valves. This is likely to occur in
dirty gas and heavy hydrocarbon services.
The penalties of lower discharge temperatures are cost, more working parts, and
increase in footprint size. However, experience has shown that the benefits
outweigh the penalties in the long run. There may be isolated cases where higher
discharge temperatures may be justified, but these cases should be carefully studied.
353 Rotating Speed and Piston Speed
Rotating Speed
Higher rotating speed increases the number of cyclic events (such as stress rever-
sals) that occur in a given period of time. For instance, the number of valve open-
ings and closures increase directly with speed. Valve life is related to the number of
cycles of operation, as are the lives of other components. For a given stroke, an
increase in rotating speed directly increases the average piston speed.
Piston Speed
Average piston speed is an index of the rubbing speed and wear of the piston and its
rings. Average piston speed, in feet per minute (FPM), may be calculated with the
following formula:
A.P.S. = SN/6
(Eq. 300-30)
where:
S = stroke in inches
N = RPM
For critical service heavy-duty Class A compressors, a speed limit of 360 RPM is
recommended. The average piston speed should be limited to about 860 FPM for
lubricated machines, and 700 FPM for non-lubricated machines.
Class B, high-speed machines used in medium- to light-duty applications in the oil
field typically have upper limits of 1000 RPM. Machines will work at these levels,
but significant improvement in reliability can be achieved by running these units at
900 RPM or slower. Although the slower speeds result in larger cylinder sizes and
increased rod loading, this disadvantage is usually overbalanced by the reduced
wear.
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354 Compressor Valves
Valves are highly stressed wearing parts that account for the majority of compressor
downtime. Reciprocating compressors represent 1% of the machinery in Chevron
Refineries but account for 12% of the maintenance budget. The Company spends
approximately five million dollars per year for maintenance of reciprocating
compressors. A significant percentage of that cost is attributable to compressor
valves.
Although liquid, dirt, or process contaminants often cause valve failures, design
factors are often a major contributor. Furthermore, valve design can also reduce the
effects of contamination in some cases. Valve life in some severe services has been
as short as 4 days when the wrong combination of valve lift and materials was
specified.
Although new materials and a better understanding of valve dynamics have greatly
improved reliability, valves continue to have a major impact on overall compressor
availability. For example, a large refinery compressor shut-down for valve replace-
ment reduced the plant feedrate by 40%, which cost $65,000 (1990 dollars) in lost
production. Even small improvements in valve life which postpone valve repairs
can have an a large impact on plant profitability.
There are many types of compressor valves. Almost all are spring loaded and gas
actuated. Reciprocating compressors generally used one of the three basic valve
configurations: plate, strip, or poppet. These are described in the following
paragraphs.
Plate Valves
Figure 300-45 shows a typical plate valve. This type of valve is actuated by unbal-
anced pressures on either side of the valve. The valve plates or elements are held
against the ports in the valve seat by spring force. The gas pressure overcomes the
spring force, the elements lift away from their seats and stop against the guard,
opening the valve.
Fig. 300-45 Plate Valves (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
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Concentric Ring Valves. The plate valve shown in Figure 300-45 is a concentric
ring valve. This type of valve can be fitted with plastic elements, which is an advan-
tage in corrosive services. The concentric ring valve can be used over the widest
range of compressor applications and can withstand the most extreme operating
conditions. Concentric ring valves have been used for pressures as high as
60,000 psi with differential pressures greater than 10,000 psi and temperatures in
excess of 500F.
Ported Plate Valves. Ported plate valves are very similar to concentric ring valves
except that the individual rings are joined to form one or two larger plates. Their
chief advantages are ease of manufacture and simpler assembly. Ported plate valves
are used primarily for high speed gas field compressors. Ported plate valves are
shown in Figure 300-46.
Strip Valves. Strip valves include channel and flexible element valves. They are
used primarily for air service, either lube or nonlube. A disadvantage is that they
cannot be used with plastic elements and are therefore not very tolerant of dirt or
liquids in the gas stream. They have good flow areas and are relatively inexpensive.
The maximum discharge pressure for these valves is about 1,500 psi. The highest
recommended operating temperature is 350F and the maximum pressure differen-
tial is approximately 500 psi. Strip valves may be used in compressors with rotating
speeds up to 1,800 rpm.
One type of strip valve, called a “feather” by the original manufacturer, employs a
single component to serve as the sealing element and the return spring. Application
of the feather valve is generally limited to operating pressures less than 1000 psi,
differential pressures no greater than 400 psi, and maximum temperatures of 350F.
A feather valve is shown in Figure 300-47.
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Fig. 300-46 Ported Plate Valves (Courtesy of Dresser- Fig. 300-47 Feather Valves (From Compressed Air &
Rand) Gas Data ed. by A.W. Loomis 1982 by
Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Another type of strip valve, called a channel valve, is shown in Figure 300-48.
Poppet Valves. Poppet valves have an effective lift area approximately 50% greater
than that provided by the same size concentric ring valve. Poppet valves can operate
with lifts as great as 1/4 inch and are used extensively in the natural gas transmis-
sion industry. They have recently been applied in other process applications such as
carbon dioxide injection for tertiary oil recovery. By design, they add built-in clear-
ance, which causes a capacity penalty, especially with high specific heat gases.
The poppet valve utilizes a mushroom-shaped element made from a variety of mate-
rials. The sealing element material determines the range of application. Valves with
metallic poppets can withstand pressures up to 3000 psi and temperatures to 500F.
However, metallic poppets are seldom used due to inertial effects.
Nonmetallic poppets are limited to 450F and 800 psi, with compressor speeds up to
1,800 rpm. Typically NYLON, TORLON, and now PEEK are used for the poppet
material because of their light weight and conformability to the valve seat. Several
OPCOs are using poppet valves with good success. Refer to Figure 300-49.
Valve Motion
The motion of valve elements during the compressor cycle are affected by two
forces, as shown in Figure 300-50. The first is an aerodynamic force due to flow of
gas around the element. The second is the spring force resisting this aerodynamic
force.
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Fig. 300-48 Channel Valve (From Compressed Air Fig. 300-49 Poppet Valve (Courtesy of Hoerbiger Corporation
& Gas Data ed. by A.W. Loomis of America, Inc.)
1982 by Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of
Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 300-50 Forces Acting on a Valve Plate (Courtesy of Hoerbiger Corporation of America, Inc.)
Plate or strip motion affects compressor performance and reliability. Not only must
the valve open and close at the correct time, but it must open completely and seal
tightly upon closing. In addition to being able to open fully and close completely,
the valve element must not strike the seat or guard with excessive force, or short
valve life will result.
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Each valve is a damped spring/mass system with natural frequency. If the natural or
resonant frequency is forced by some driving frequency, such as the pulsations from
the compressor pistons, rapid cycling of the valve element will occur. The element
generally bounces between the guard and the seat. This is commonly called
“flutter”. Flutter can greatly reduce the life of springs and valve elements.
The manufacturer modifies the valve lift to suit the gas specified. For example, an
air compressor might be furnished with a lift of .100 inches. The same compressor
valve applied in a low mole weight service such as hydrogen, might use a lift of
.032 inches.
The problem with a higher lift valve in the hydrogen service is that hydrogen lacks
the damping properties of air. As a result, the valve elements would experience high
impact forces and might bounce. Broken valve elements might result.
Valve Element Failure
When the valve element is stopped abruptly at the guard or seat, it may not land
evenly. Typically, one edge contacts first, which induces a bending moment. This
flexing will eventually cause fatigue failure of the valve element. Several steps can
be taken to reduce the flexing. Reducing valve lift is one remedy, but frictional
power loss may increase. Providing balanced spring arrangements that allow the
valve element to return to the seat as evenly as possible and/or providing a gas
cushion can reduce fatigue failures of the valve element.
The gas cushion is produced by a close clearance between the valve element and a
groove in the valve seat, which also locates the valve element. As the gas trapped in
the space between the underside of the valve element and the walls of the groove
escapes along the edges of the element, the element is cushioned as it returns to the
seat, as shown in Figure 300-51.
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Fig. 300-51 Gas Damped Valve Plate (Courtesy of Cooper Energy Services Div., Cooper
Cameron Corporation)
Another type of damping, mass damping, is used in the “damped plate” design. A
disk ported the same as the valve element is attached to the valve element, usually at
its center. This damping plate adds inertia to the valve element and therefore retards
the impact velocities of the valve element against the guard and seat. This type of
damping is useful for high speed compressors where valve velocities are high. It is
also more desirable than gas damping, where the gas stream is dirty or heavily lubri-
cated. A damped plate valve is shown in Figure 300-52.
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Fig. 300-52 Damped Plate Valve (Courtesy of Hoerbiger Corp. of America)
Allowable Plate Impact Velocity
Excessive valve plate impact velocity at the valve seat or at the valve guard contrib-
utes heavily to valve plate and valve spring failures.
One manufacturer's operating experience has shown that, in order to eliminate valve
plate or spring failures resulting from improper valve dynamics, the plate impact
velocities in Figure 300-53 should not be exceeded.
Fig. 300-53 Maximum Allowable Plate Impact Velocity (inch/sec)
Valve Design At Valve Guard At Seat
Std. Plate 150 75
Damped-Plate 200 100
Most vendors have computer programs that mathematically model valve element
motion, aerodynamic drag coefficients, and flow through the valves during the
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compression cycle. These programs assess the valve dynamics and optimize the
design in terms of lift, spring stiffness, and the damping for a specific application.
The programs have a fairly good record of success, and continue to be improved
with time. Figure 300-54 shows the results of a typical computer analysis (note the
greatly reduced valve flutter).
Fig. 300-54 Results of Computer Study of Valve Dynamics (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
If practical, before purchasing, have the vendor run a computer study for new
machines, or for any valve upgrades planned for existing machines. It is highly
recommended to discuss actual field experience with users of any particular type of
valve proposed. Avoid valves which are not being used in similar services.
355 Drivers
Figure 300-55 presents a generalized curve of speed versus horsepower for Class A
machines based on one vendor's experience. Figure 300-56 shows the distribution of
driver types for Class A compressors, again based on one vendor's experience.
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Fig. 300-55 Reciprocating Process Compressors—Rotative Speed vs. Horsepower
(Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 300-56 Reciprocating Process Compressors Driver Practice (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Type Driver % of Installations Criteria for Selection
Low Speed Synchronous 80 Efficiency—Price—Power
Factor Correction
Low Speed Induction 16 Simplicity—No Excitation
Required
Induction Motor/Gear 1 Low Torque per KVA in
Starting. Lower Maintenance.
Explosion Resistant Enclo-
sure
Steam Turbine/Gear 3 Availability of Low Cost
Steam
Coupled Internal Negligible
Combustion Engine
Refer to the Driver Manual for detailed application information, and use the
following general comments for any preliminary work:
1. Synchronous motors are 3–4% more efficient than induction motors of the
same speed, and usually offer power factor improvement for the electrical
system. High-efficiency induction motors should not be used with recipro-
cating compressors, because the oscillating torque causes excessive heat.
Rather, use standard induction motors.
2. Steam and combustion gas turbines can be applied to reciprocating compres-
sors, although it is not a frequent practice (see Figure 300-57). A torsional anal-
ysis is essential to be certain the train will not operate close to a torsional
critical speed.
3. Spark-ignited gas engines are available to drive Class B machines up to about
2000 HP at 900–1000 RPM.
4. Belt-drive systems can be used up to about 200 HP.
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356 Footprint and Weight
General footprint and weight data were presented in Section 100. If more detailed
information is needed, obtain it from vendor bulletins or directly from the vendor.
357 Noise
Noise data must be obtained from the vendor. Compressor vendors generally cannot
meet the 85 dbA noise limit recommended in many Company specifications. They
usually guarantee 90 dbA. Acoustic treatment may be required if it is necessary to
meet 85 dBA.
358 Efficiency and Economics
Efficiency directly affects power or fuel cost, and this cost will be the dominant
factor in the total life cycle cost. The reciprocating machine is very efficient not
only at full load, but also at partial load. Figure 300-58 shows the typical full-load
efficiency of Class A machines compressing hydrogen.
Fig. 300-57 Typical Turbine Drive (Courtesy of Dresser- Fig. 300-58 Typical Efficiency Reciprocating Process
Rand) Compressors—Hydrogen (Courtesy of
Dresser-Rand)
It is impractical to provide general cost estimating factors such as $/HP or $/ICFM.
Such factors can be very misleading owing to wide variances in power levels, pres-
sures, etc., in the range of applications. (See Section 154.) Cost estimates for the
machinery should be obtained from the vendor.
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360 Application and System Considerations
361 Cylinder Thermal Performance
Figure 300-59 shows heat rejection rates for forced liquid cooling of cast iron cylin-
ders. Cast steel or forged steel cylinders have lower heat rejection rates, mainly
because the walls are thicker, and the jacketed areas are smaller. The following
values may be used for estimating purposes for average conditions:
• cast iron cylinders 700 BTU/Bhp-hr
• cast steel cylinders 250 BTU/Bhp-hr
• forged steel cylinders 200 BTU/Bhp-hr
Fig. 300-59 Gas Temperature Rise Characteristics for Operation with Thermally Circulated Coolant and Dry Jackets
(From Compressed Air & Gas Data ed. by A. W. Loomis 1982 by Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of
Dresser-Rand)
The coolant inlet temperature should be at least 10F above the suction temperature
to prevent condensation. The coolant temperature-rise across each cylinder should
be at least 10F, but no more than 20F.
The following relationships should be treated as guidelines. They will not provide
exact answers for all applications. Consult the vendor if it is necessary to know the
discharge temperature more accurately.
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The average gas and coolant temperatures affect the actual discharge temperature of
cylinders with forced cooling. If the average gas temperature less the average
coolant temperature is between 50F - 60F, the discharge temperature should be
close to that predicted by Equation 300-25. For other temperature differentials, refer
to Figure 300-60 to determine an estimate of the deviation from adiabatic discharge
temperature.
Fig. 300-60 Gas Temperature Rise Characteristics with Forced Coolant Circulation
Two other types of cooling systems are applied to cylinders: thermosyphon and no
coolant circulation (static filled jackets). Refer to API 618 for criteria to apply these
systems. Figure 300-61 gives temperature relationships for these systems.
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Fig. 300-61 Gas Temperature Rise Characteristics for Operation with Thermally Circulated Coolant and Dry Jackets
362 System Resistance
Because a reciprocating compressor can usually be unloaded in 25% capacity steps
down to zero throughput, it is possible to overlook the fact that suction or discharge
pressure (or both) will normally vary with each step (unless these pressures are
fixed by process controls). At lower capacity steps, the suction pressure could be
much higher than it is at the full capacity step. This condition could cause relief
valves to pop during operation unless the higher pressure is accounted for in the
system design. Accordingly, a system pressure profile calculation should be made
for each capacity step as well as for full load. The Compressor Pressure Profile
Worksheet (CMP-EF-876) along with the Fluid Flow Manual will help in making
and recording these calculations.
363 Capacity Control
Capacity may be controlled on the basis of suction pressure, discharge pressure,
flow or a combination of these variables. Capacity can be varied by use of
unloaders, clearance pockets, and/or by speed variation when the driver is a
variable-speed machine.
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Whenever possible, constant-speed operation is recommended in order to avoid
possible excitation of torsional or acoustical resonances. This is of particular impor-
tance on complex compressors with three or more stages, or when the unit(s) are to
be located on an offshore platform. (The acoustical simulation becomes increas-
ingly difficult with variable-speed machines, as does torsional vibration analysis.)
The complex steel structure of an offshore platform has numerous vibratory natural
frequencies which can respond to mechanical or acoustical excitations generated by
the compressor. The risk of encountering such resonances are greater with variable
speed compressors.
364 Parallel Operation
For machines operating in parallel, avoid allowing one machine to take more than
its share of the load. Constant-speed, identical reciprocating compressors may be
well matched, but deterioration can occur on one machine due to a broken valve, or
worn rings. This would cause the other machine to take on more load in situations
where the suction pressure varies with flow rate.
For example, three 50% compressors are piped in parallel to a large receiver vessel
feeding fuel gas to a combustion gas turbine, with fuel gas flow varying between 70
and 100% of the rated flow. Two compressors would be running, with one on
standby. One unit would be on “base load”, and the other would be the “swing” unit
taking all the load variation. This load variation could be accommodated by auto-
matically actuating suction-valve unloaders to maintain the receiver pressure within
a set range. Clearance pockets could be used in combination with the unloaders to
reduce the control fluctuations.
When the system has no receiver, a bypass with control valve is required if it is
necessary to regulate the flow to quantities between those provided by the capacity
steps. Otherwise, the control systems set-up could be the same as described above.
There are numerous possibilities for control system arrangements for parallel opera-
tion which are beyond the scope of this manual. Consult a control systems engineer
to optimize the system and work out the details.
365 Power Margins
The rated horsepower of motor drivers should be at least 10% greater than the
highest power required by the compressor (including any power transmission
losses) at any of the specified operating conditions. For turbine drivers, a 20%
margin is recommended to provide for deterioration in performance and variation
between actual and specified steam conditions. (Moreover, the 20% margin has been
necessary on smaller units to effectively handle the cyclic compressor torque.)
Internal combustion engines should be rated in accordance with DEMA standards.
The DEMA continuous duty rating must be derated for site elevation, maximum
ambient temperature, inlet and exhaust pressure drops, and for shaft-driven acces-
sory loads. In addition, it is desirable to have a 10% margin between the site-derated
continuous duty rating and the maximum compressor power requirement. With
engines, the power margin is not as straight-forward as with other drivers owing to
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the different levels of conservatism of the manufacturers. A power margin is desir-
able because such factors as emission control devices and the cooling water temper-
ature to the turbocharger aftercooler can affect engine capability. Engineering
judgment will usually have to be applied.
Engines should also meet the DEMA requirement for the capability to carry a 10%
overload for two hours out of any 24-hour period. It is also a good idea to review
the engine vendor's experience at the proposed rating with other owners of that
model.
366 Foundation Mounting and Grouting
Refer to the General Machinery Manual (Section 300) for more information on
foundations, anchor bolts, and grouting.
There are three methods of mounting reciprocating compressors on foundations:
1. Direct grouting
2. Mounting on sole plate (rails)
3. Mounting on a base plate (skid)
Direct grouting of the frame to the foundation is used on smaller machines, such as
air compressors. These machines are short and not likely to experience frame distor-
tion due to differential foundation displacement.
If longer machines with several crank throws are directly grouted, the heat from the
frame will cause thermal distortion of the foundation. The frame then conforms to
the foundation, causing misalignment of the crankshaft. Misalignment can lead to
crankshaft failure; therefore, sole plate mounting is used. With this method there is
air space between the frame and the foundation. Chock blocks and/or shims are used
between the sole plate and the frame. If foundation distortion occurs over the years,
the frame can be re-chocked or re-shimmed to restore alignment.
Figure 300-62 shows a typical sole plate and chock arrangement for a crosshead
pedestal. A similar arrangement would be used under the frame, although the foun-
dation bolt is usually one-piece. Note that the foundation bolt sleeve is packed to
prevent entry of grout. This feature is important.
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Fig. 300-62 Crosshead Pedestal Sole Plate (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
Many Class B units are typically skid-mounted. In this case, the frame is mounted
on a base plate, and the base plate is grouted to the foundation. When the base plate
becomes quite large, sole plates are sometimes used under the base plate.
Except for very small units, epoxy grout is recommended for reciprocating
machines. Although more expensive than cementatious grout, epoxy grout has
superior strength, is oil-resistant, and has negligible shrinkage. Some cementatious
grouts include an additive that expands during the curing process to reduce
shrinkage. However, this process has been unreliable in many cases, and the grout
deteriorates with constant exposure to lube-oil. One recommended rule-of-thumb is
to use epoxy grout on all reciprocating machines rated at 500 HP or more, or that
weigh 5000 pounds or more.
367 Shaking Forces (Foundation Requirements)
Refer to Section 366, “Foundation Mounting and Grouting”. Carefully review the
vendor's unbalanced forces and couples with the engineering group designing the
foundation. This aspect of the compressor installation is critical, especially if it is
offshore or on very poor soil. It may be necessary to provide guidance to the vendor
when shaking forces are crucial. It is possible to alter the proposed design to
improve the balance of forces and couples.
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370 Piping and Arrangements
Refer to the Piping Manual for detailed information on piping design and configura-
tion. A few of the fundamental guidelines are presented here.
Reciprocating compressors are sensitive to dirt. Therefore, the suction piping to
each stage (from the knockout drum to the suction pulsation damper) should be
“pickled” (chemically cleaned). Temporary strainers should be installed and left in
place for several days during initial operation. These strainers are usually of the
truncated-cone or conical type, and made of perforated steel plate with a double
overlay of stainless steel wire mesh screen (often 100 mesh over 30 mesh). The
screen is attached to the outside of the strainer basket so that the flow encounters the
screen fist. The strainer is typically located at the inlet to the suction pulsation
damper.
Liquid is also a significant problem. Suction piping must be configured so that
liquids cannot be trapped in low spots. Liquids that collect in “pockets” in the
piping can “slug” the compressor causing extensive damage. The suction line imme-
diately attached to the separation device (knockout drum, scrubber) should be
slightly sloped so that liquid drains back to the vessel. Inadequacy of liquid separa-
tors is a common complaint in operating plants. They may be too small, unable to
take slugs, or located too far from the compressor. The latter is a very common
failing. This aspect of plant design should be studied very carefully. Very often the
design is based on preliminary dew point calculations for a given gas, but later the
composition changes. Accordingly, the design should include a generous safety
factor.
Where there is any possibility of liquid condensation, the suction lines should be
heat-traced. A second line of defense is to include a liquid separation chamber in the
pulsation damper (see API 618). Pulsation dampers can be heat-traced with a “plate
coil” for steam, or with electrical heaters. Bayonet heaters can also be supplied.
The distance between the pulsation damper and the compressor cylinder should be
held to a minimum.
It used to be common practice to install intercoolers on top of the compressor cylin-
ders. Each cooler would span across two cylinders, with pulsation-damping volume
built into the coolers. This arrangement made a compact installation, but provided
little defense against liquids, and compromised maintenance access. It also required
that the suction valves of one of the two cylinders be placed in the undesirable loca-
tion on the bottom of the cylinder. Currently, on-compressor mounting of coolers is
no longer used, except perhaps for bone-dry gases.
Piping design should be analyzed to assure that forces and moments exerted on the
cylinder flanges are within the vendor's tolerances. Cold springing should not be
allowed. (Cold springing is forcing pipe to the machine in a cold condition in order
to afford relieved stresses as the pipe heats to operating temperature.)
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371 Instrumentation and Control
Compressor control systems use suction pressure, discharge pressure, flow, or an
external process signal to regulate capacity. Control systems are typically electronic
or pneumatic. Capacity of the compressor is adjusted by:
1. Actuating unloaders and clearance pockets
2. A control valve in a bypass
3. Changing speed
The control system can be manual or automatic. Many systems today are program-
mable. This section will briefly describe the control devices and instruments usually
supplied with the compressor. Overall control system design is not covered (refer to
the Instrumentation and Controls Manual for information on system design).
372 Control Devices
Capacity Control
Five-step unloading means capacity control in approximately 25% steps from zero
to 100%. Therefore, if two 50% compressor units are used, capacity control is avail-
able in 12.5% steps. Suction valve or plug-type unloaders can only deactivate each
cylinder to zero or 50%. If the 25% intermediate step is desired, it is necessary to
use clearance pockets. It is possible to obtain five-step unloading in increments
other than 25%.
When the pressure ratio is quite low (less than approximately 1.7) the volume of the
clearance pocket becomes very large. The actual volume is dependent on the piston
displacement and “k” value of the gas. Refer to the formula for volumetric effi-
ciency. Also, API 618 recommends that volumetric efficiency remain above 40%
since performance prediction is generally unreliable below that value. (However,
values as low as 25% have been used when less precise capacity control is
acceptable.)
Note also that when the cylinder bore is not much larger than the piston rod,
unloading the crank end of the cylinder results in a capacity reduction much less
than 50%.
Three-step (100%, 50%, 0%) capacity control is used on some general purpose
machines such as air compressors. Three-step control requires more cyclic actua-
tion of the unloaders than five-step control. Therefore, three-step control is more
detrimental to machine components (particularly valves).
When precise capacity turndown is required, a bypass with a control valve is neces-
sary. Depending on the system requirements, the bypass may only be across the first
stage. But, more often the bypass spills back across all stages unless the differential
pressure is too high to be handled by a single control valve. The take-off point for
the bypass must be downstream of a heat exchanger so that cooled gas will be
spilled back to the suction. If there is no exchanger in the discharge, the bypass must
branch into the suction line upstream of an exchanger. Alternatively, a cooler may
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be placed in the bypass line. In any case, the bypass should tie-in upstream of a
suction knockout drum so that any condensate resulting from the expansion cannot
enter the compressor.
When a bypass is used in combination with step control, five-step operation is more
efficient than three-step operation.
373 Instruments
Loadless Starting
Most motor-driven compressors are equipped with suction valve or plug-type
unloaders on both ends of all cylinders on the frame to permit loadless starting.
Loadless starting is not mandatory, but facilitates startup, and reduces disturbance in
the electrical system. It is also a convenient and less punishing feature for all types
of drivers.
Alarms and Shutdowns
Figure 300-63 is a typical list of alarm and shutdown functions for the compressor
frame and cylinders. Local preferences may call for additions to or deletions from
this list.
Fig. 300-63 Typical List of Alarm and Shutdown Functions
Function Alarm Shutdown
Low lube-oil pressure x x
High discharge temp. (each cyl.) x x
High oil filter diff. pressure x
High cyl. jacket water temp. x
Low cyl. jacket water pressure x
Low lubricator flow x
High vibration x x
High liquid level, gas separator x x
The data sheets in API 618 list many other functions. These data sheets also serve as
a good checklist.
Refer to the Driver Manual for recommended alarm and shutdown parameters for
drivers.
If a vibration detection device is used on the frame, an accelerometer type detector
is recommended to provide continuous measurement. Ball-and-seat or magnetic-
type switches are unreliable. Consult the vendor regarding the best location for the
device. Sometimes it is necessary to install two devices (one for transverse vibra-
tion, and one for axial vibration).
Note that whatever alarms and shutdowns are chosen, it is important to make sure
they are installed with facilities to allow testing.
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Gages
Location of the gages is generally a matter of plant preference. They can be
mounted locally on the compressor or piping, or mounted in a local panel. Gages
mounted on the compressor or attached piping may be subject to vibration. Check
with plant operating and maintenance personnel regarding the best location for these
gages. (Figure 300-64 is a typical list of gages.)
Fig. 300-64 List of Gages
Function Temperature-Gage Pressure Gage
C. W. outlet, each cyl. x
C. W. supply x x
Lube-oil to frame x x
Lube-oil out x
Lube filter diff press x
Suction gas, each stage x x
Each interstage gas x
Disch. gas, each stage x
Final disch gas x
Packing (500 psi and higher) x
Lube cooler, inlet/outlet x
Supply to each cooled packing x x
Outlet of each cooled packing x
Monitoring
Monitoring systems of the continuous type are not widely used on reciprocating
compressors. However:
Eutectic bearing temperature safety devices are available for main and connecting
rod bearings. These devices are spring-loaded and they vent control air to alarm or
shut down the unit when high temperature melts the eutectic material. At one large
Company installation, such devices prevented a major failure. Main bearing thermo-
couples or RTD's are also available.
One device that is gaining more acceptance is a rod-drop monitor. This device can
be a eutectic sensor that melts when rubbed by the rod allowing a signal to be trans-
mitted for alarm or shutdown. This function can also be accomplished with a prox-
imity probe.
Various lubricator flow and drive failure sentries are also available for cylinder and
packing lubricator systems.
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380 Foundations
This sub-section provides a basis for establishing the dynamic forces to be used by
civil engineers in foundation design calculations. Soil mechanics, natural frequency
calculations, bearing pressure, concrete strength, and other design factors are not
covered here. Refer to the Civil and Structural Manual for such information. Foun-
dations, anchor bolts, and grouting are discussed in the General Machinery Manual,
and Section 366 of this manual.
In addition to knowing the dimensions and weights of the machinery to be
supported, engineers designing the foundation must know the magnitude, direction,
and frequency of the dynamic forces that the machinery will exert on the
foundation.
The importance of foundations to a compressor installation cannot be overem-
phasized. Foundations attenuate vibratory forces generated by the machinery, and
reduce transmission of these forces to the surrounding plant and equipment. Foun-
dations also keep the machinery in alignment.
To perform these essential functions throughout the life of the installation, the foun-
dation must be sized to support the weight of the machinery while imposing a toler-
able bearing pressure on the soil or structure. It must be properly designed so that
the system, consisting of the foundation, soil, machinery, and piping, is not at or
near a resonant condition. It is particularly important on offshore structures, which
may be susceptible to resonance from the machinery vibration.
The purchaser of the machinery is normally responsible for the design of the foun-
dation. The vendor or manufacturer of the machinery will seldom take this
responsibility because his expertise is not in this field. It would not be in his
best interest to accept the risks associated with the design. Additionally, the
vendor does not have specific knowledge about the soil conditions at the site.
381 Reciprocating Compressor
Unbalanced Forces and Moments
Reciprocating machines generate primary and secondary forces and couples as a
result of unbalanced rotating masses and unbalanced reciprocating masses which
accelerate and decelerate each revolution (see Section 300). These forces and
couples react at the main bearings, and the resultant forces are transmitted to the
foundation via the frame and bolting. These forces and moments are sometimes
called shaking forces. Primary refers to the frequency of running speed;
secondary means the frequency of twice running speed.
Forces arising from differential gas pressure acting on the piston and piston rod
have no effect on the unbalanced forces and moments transmitted to the foundation.
The magnitude of these forces and moments can sometimes be extremely large, and
they must be accounted for in the foundation design. There is no “rule of thumb” to
predict the magnitudes as reciprocating machine designs vary widely in terms of the
number and sizes of cylinders and crankshaft configuration. Data Sheet
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CMP-DS-875 may be sent to the vendor with the Company's quotation request, and
preliminary values are provided by the vendor so that the forces and moments of the
various machines proposed can be evaluated. Preliminary foundation design can
begin with this information, and be refined as the actual forces are furnished by the
vendor.
Other Considerations
Any natural frequency of the foundation should be at least 30% above or below the
primary and secondary frequencies. For instance, on a 450 RPM unit, ideally any
natural frequency should not be anywhere in the range of 315 to 1170 cycles per
minute (cpm). Sometimes it is impractical to keep natural frequencies out of a range
that wide. Accordingly, it may be possible to place a natural frequency between
the primary and secondary frequencies. A natural frequency in the range of 585–630
cpm would satisfy the criterion of 30% separation margins in the above example.
For reciprocating units, as a rule of thumb, the weight of the foundation should be a
minimum of five times the combined weight of the frame, cylinders, and driver.
382 Pulsation Suppression
Background
Simple volume bottles were the earliest method, and are still used in some applica-
tions for pulsation suppression. Many individuals and companies had their own
methods of sizing bottles. These bottles generally worked satisfactorily; however,
some installations experienced intolerable piping vibration and failures.
In the early 1950's, the Southern Gas Association appointed Southwest Research
Institute to investigate the problem. The result was the development of an analog
computer to simulate the acoustical interaction of one or more compressors and the
associated piping. At first, the analog results were analyzed only from the stand-
point of pressure pulsation amplitudes and frequencies. Later, the piping systems
were analyzed for mechanical interaction between the gas pulsations and piping
vibration.
Due to this research, in many cases pulsation dampers with proprietary internals
replaced volume bottles except in low pressure applications. These dampers are also
called snubbers or suppressors.
Design Approaches
Numerous approaches are currently employed to avoid excessive vibrations that can
occur in the connected piping, instrumentation, etc. These include:
1. Relying on vendors to design and supply adequate suppression dampers along
with the compressor, without stating any specifications. Vendors may use
digital calculations or proprietary empirical correlations. This is normally
5–7% of line pressure peak-to-peak pulsation at the bottle outlet unless other-
wise specified.
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2. Relying on vendors to design and supply suppression dampers, based on a spec-
ified maximum pulsation amplitude at the outlet of the damper. The specified
pulsation may be 1–5% of line pressure and determined by estimating pulsa-
tion affects on the piping system.
3. Specifying the size of pulsation dampers based on empirical correlations within
the Company.
4. Specifying that the vendor obtain an analog study of the pulsation dampers and
associated piping, for machines not specified by API 618.
5. Specifying one of the three design approaches as outlined in API 618, as
summarized below.
Most manufacturing and many producing locations employ analog studies (from
SWRI) when purchasing new equipment. These studies are expensive, however, and
may not always be appropriate. Analog studies have the disadvantage of not being
very flexible. If changes in piping, vessels, or operating conditions are made after
the analog study, the entire analog must be redone at additional cost. For example,
Warren Petroleum, which employs a large inventory of integral and high-speed
separable compressors used in varying applications, uses all of the previous
approaches, as they determine to be applicable.
API 618 thoroughly specifies the requirements for pulsation suppression devices in
terms of pressure drop, pulsation level, and mechanical design. Three design
approaches are listed in API 618:
Design Approach-1 does not include a simulation study. Empirical factors and
experience are applied, and everyone involved hopes for the best.
Design Approach-2 calls for a simulation study which reveals the pulsation ampli-
tudes and frequencies, but does not predict how much the piping is going to vibrate.
Design Approach-3 is an extension of Design Approach 2 where the structural
design of the piping is reviewed to determine its vibration tendency with respect to
excitation by the gas pulsations.
Some compressor and damper vendors have digital computer programs to simulate
compressor systems. They are faster, and may be less expensive than analog studies,
and have proven to be reliable. Digital programs also have the advantage of saving a
file which can be easily modified when changes are made.
The Company is a member of the SGA-SWRI program for analog simulation. Many
systems have been successfully analyzed for the Company using SWRI's services.
For large, critical projects, it is recommended that SWRI continue to do this analyt-
ical work, because although digital programs have some advantages, SWRI has the
overwhelming amount of simulation experience.
Moisture Removal
In many reciprocating compressor installations the pulsation dampers have integral
moisture removal sections to provide a final line of defense against liquid carry-
over. There are two schools of thought. Pulsation dampers can be designed with
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these moisture removal sections, or they can be designed so that liquids positively
cannot collect. Most refinery pulsation dampers have moisture removal sections.
Many oil field dampers do not have moisture removal sections.
Designing pulsation dampers without moisture removal sections takes great care
when the damper includes internals for pulsation attenuation (choke tube and
baffle). The baffle needs to have a hole at the bottom to prevent liquid from accu-
mulating on either side. However, a hole in the baffle can make the damper less
effective as an acoustic filter. The way around this is to design the damper with an
additional choke tube at the bottom of the damper and acoustically model the
damper in this configuration. Another problem is the lip created by the nozzle
projecting into the bottle. Figure 300-65 illustrates the design aspects.
Fig. 300-65 Pulsation Damper Without Moisture Removal Section
Note: The very nature of pulsations cause aerosols and particles to agglomerate within the bottle. A
path should be provided to keep the bottom of the bottle clean and dry.
Additional Notes
Some have questioned the bottle-sizing equation in API 618, and would prefer to
use other, less-expensive procedures. Nevertheless, the API equation is based on a
combination of theory and statistics, and is recommended as a conservative prac-
tice. If an exact equation were available, acoustical simulation studies would not be
needed.
Note that for pulsation control, bigger is generally better. On the other hand, there
can be interference problems and access to cylinders can be limited. There is a point
of diminishing return where a bigger bottle does not gain that much on pulsation
attenuation.
To guard against high late charges after the purchase order has been committed, it is
a good idea to ask the vendor to quote a “dollar-per-pound” price addition in his
proposal for pulsation damper changes. In this way, if the simulation study reveals
the necessity for changes to the dampers, there will be a firm-price basis for them.
In setting up the simulation study, be sure to consider all operating conditions.
Beware of variations in molecular weight. For example, some hydrogen compres-
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sors handle nitrogen during regeneration. The acoustic velocities of these two gasses
differ by nearly a factor of four (4400 fps versus 1200 fps @ 100°F). If the machine
is an addition to a plant, the existing machines should be included if they are in the
same system. Evaluate combinations of unloading steps, speeds, and variation in gas
composition. Sometimes only the extremes of the conditions need to be simulated,
but SWRI should be the judge of which conditions can be ignored.
The simulation is not a design tool. The piping design must be completed before
simulation can be started. It can, however, indicate trouble spots which can be
corrected, and the simulation is then re-run. In view of this procedure, it is advis-
able to have a Company piping designer or other representative present during the
simulation.
390 Rerates and Materials of Construction
391 Capacity Changes
The following methods can be used to change the capacity of the machine:
• Change speed
• Increase or decrease clearance of cylinders
• Re-bore unlined cylinders and change pistons
• Re-line cylinders and change pistons
• Replace cylinders
Speed change is rarely a viable option. Obviously, increasing speed will not be an
option if the frame is already running at the maximum rated speed. Change in the
speed of a motor-driven unit requires replacement of the driver. If the driver is a
variable speed machine, there is a chance that something can be done, but the
system must be carefully studied. The torque and power ratings of the driver,
compressor, couplings, and gear (if any) should be checked, and a torsional analysis
of the system conducted. A review of the pulsation dampers and piping design may
also be required.
For small changes in capacity, it may be possible to alter the clearance of the cylin-
ders. It will usually be very difficult to significantly increase capacity in this manner
unless the cylinders were originally over-clearanced. However, it might be possible
to use this method in combination with other methods. Ordinarily, capacity can be
reduced quite easily by adding clearance, with spacers or clearance pockets, or by
reducing piston length.
Unless the cylinders are at maximum diameter, unlined cylinders can be re-bored,
sometimes by a substantial amount, to increase displacement. Similarly, liners can
be replaced in lined cylinders to increase or decrease displacement. There is no
guideline for the amount of displacement change that can be achieved. Consult the
manufacturer. If changes are contemplated, a computer study of the combined rod
loads should be made. Although a large change would not be expected, the manu-
facturer should review the torque-effort diagram.
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In rare cases, where it is desired to increase capacity and power, the crankshaft may
be a limiting factor. Crankshafts have maximum horsepower-per-throw and total
horsepower (torque) ratings.
There is no way to upgrade the maximum allowable working pressure of a cylinder,
unless it was under-rated for the original application. It is worthwhile asking the
manufacturer whether the cylinder's present nameplate is the actual maximum
rating.
392 Valve Upgrades
Before considering valve upgrades, the overall compressor system must be evalu-
ated. For example, to cure a liquid problem, the suction vessel must be looked at.
Check the vessel sizing and the damper boot sizing. Check for insulation and heat-
tracing if condensation is a possibility. Always keep the cylinder jacket water at
least 10 to 20°F above the inlet gas temperature. Most liquid slugging occurs at
startup when the compressor is cold. Make sure there are no dead legs where liquids
can accumulate. All of these problems should be corrected before making a deci-
sion to upgrade the valves.
Valves do not pass liquids well. Liquid slugs have been known to cause broken
pistons and, in at least one case, actually separate the compressor cylinder from the
crankcase. The usual evidence of liquid slugging is severely damaged plates or no
plates at all; only pieces. Springs can also collapse, although this is sometimes diffi-
cult to detect, since by the time the cylinder is opened the water or hydrocarbon
liquid may have drained or evaporated.
Lube oil accumulation from over-lubrication can have similar effects. This is espe-
cially prevalent with some compressors equipped with plug type unloaders on the
suction or top side of the cylinder. In one case, a piston assembly and valves were
severely damaged when the compressor was loaded after being operated unloaded
for about 30 minutes. Oil had accumulated in the valve pocket due to the design of
the internal suction passages.
There are many new valve designs available from OEM and non-OEM sources.
Valve problems are often design related, and they can be solved by a change in
materials, or valve type. For example, one Company compressor experienced over
50 valve failures over a three-year period. Although the gas was wet, changing from
strip to peek plate valves dramatically reduced the failure rate.
Before recommending replacement of existing compressor valves, ask the vendor to
conduct a valve motion study on the existing application. Be sure the valve design is
such that neither the valve guard nor the assembly bolting can fall into the cylinder,
even if the valves assembly bolting breaks or comes loose.
Ask the prospective supplier how his valves and unloading system deviate from
API 618. Confirm that the existing valves are being built to specifications according
to dimensions, material hardness, etc. Whether valves are repaired by a
contractor, or in-house, established specifications and procedures are a prereq-
uisite to reliable performance.
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Non-metallic valve plate materials have been developed for relatively high tempera-
tures. These materials are only about one-sixth the weight of steel. Also, non-
metallic materials can be contoured to reduce the drag coefficient for the flow
around the plate. These designs have shown a great deal of improvement in valve
life at some installations. However, existing valves should not be indiscriminately
replaced with these new designs.
It is important to determine whether the manufacturer designs and manufactures the
unloader system or only the valves. Be careful of a manufacturer who supplies only
valves but relies on others for the unloader mechanism. The unloader system is an
integral part of most compressors and must be designed in conjunction with the
valves.
Also, determine the manufacturer's capability in materials engineering, finite
element analysis, and non-destructive examination. Find out whether the manufac-
turer can perform mechanical testing including tensile, hardness, and impact tests.
393 Suction System Modifications
Caution should be exercised when modifying reciprocating compressor suction
systems because changes may alter the acoustic response. Unacceptable levels of
vibration, high piping and nozzle stresses, and compressor valve problems may
result from the addition of knockout vessels and coalescers, or from piping changes.
Chances are often good that problems will not result, but there is a very real risk,
and your project may be the statistic. In new equipment installations, an acoustic
study is the tool used to mitigate this risk.
Installing a coalescer or other piece of equipment in a reciprocating compressor
suction line changes the acoustic length of the line, or creates two new acoustic
lengths where there was previously one. An acoustic study is a design review of
these lengths to determine if any acoustic resonances will occur and if they will
coincide with the mechanical natural frequencies in the piping system. In some situ-
ations it is prudent to revisit this work when making field changes.
API 618 gives guidance as to when an acoustic study is recommended for new
machinery installations. An acoustic study should be considered when any of the
following are true:
• Two or more compression stages
• Three or more cylinders per stage
• Final discharge pressure exceeds 1000 psig
• Driven equipment horsepower is 500 Bhp or greater
• Service alternates between gases of significantly different molecular weights
• Interaction is anticipated between compressors of 150 Bhp and greater
Acoustic studies are usually not performed for machines of less than 150 Bhp.
The API recommendations provide a good basis for deciding whether to perform an
acoustic study when altering a system, but risk assessment should also play a part in
decision making as these studies can be quite expensive. Generally, risk of having
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harmful pulsations increases as compressor running speed decreases and as the gas
acoustic velocity increases (usually as molecular weight decreases). As these param-
eters change, acoustic lengths get very long and fall out of the normal range of field
piping lengths. Also, the intended use of the compressor plays a part in risk assess-
ment. The cost of production losses should be weighed against the cost of
performing an acoustic study as part of an alteration.
All things considered, a packaged high-speed compressor in a producing field gas
application would be considered low risk because it is high-speed, high molecular
weight, with low to moderate production losses. Conversely, a large hydrogen
booster compressor in a refinery would be considered high risk for acoustic prob-
lems because it is low speed, low molecular weight, with high production losses.
394 Materials of Construction
The following is a description of materials available for some of the principle
components.
Crankshafts
Crankshafts are most commonly one-piece forgings or castings. (One exception is
the Worthington “Cub” which has a two-piece, coupled crankshaft.) Forged steel is
used exclusively for Class A machines. Steel or nodular iron castings are some-
times used for other machines up to 1500 HP. The advantages of a casting is that
counterweights can be an integral part of the shaft. However, the Company prefers
forged steel for ratings of 200 HP and higher. A typical material designation is
ASTM A688 Class F.
Piston Rods
The most common material is heat-treated AISI 4140 steel with a maximum Rock-
well C hardness of 40 at the core and a minimum of 50 at the surface. If stress
corrosion is a design factor, this material is annealed to a hardness of 22C maximum
(core) and 50C minimum (surface). AISI 8620 with the same hardness provides
higher working stresses for stress corrosion applications.
Rods of 17-4 PH stainless steel are used for corrosive services. Core and surface
hardnesses are 40-50C for standard applications. When stress corrosion is present,
the through-hardness is limited to 33C.
Crossheads
Crossheads are available in cast gray iron, nodular iron, or steel. The Company
prefers cast steel for all high-horsepower applications, but has accepted nodular iron
as an alternate on a few applications. It is recommended that cast gray iron be
allowed only on smaller machines with ratings less than about 200 HP.
Connecting Rods
Connecting rods should be forged steel. A typical material designation is
ASTM A235.
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Compressor Cylinders
Maximum allowable working pressures (MAWP) corresponding to materials are
typically limited to the values shown in Figure 300-66.
Fig. 300-66 Limitations for MAWP Based on Cylinder Materials
MAWP,PSIG Oil
Material MAWP, PSIG API 618 Field 8 Inch Diameter 8 Inch Diameter
Gray Cast Iron, ASTM A278 1000 1600 1000
(1)
Cast Nodular Iron ASTM 1000 2500 1500
A395
Cast Steel, ASTM A216 2500 2500 2500
Forged Steel, ASTM A668 >2500 7500 —
(1) May be quoted to 1500 PSIG as separate option
Note that nodular iron may be used for Class A machines above 1000 PSIG only in
special cases. Nodular iron is an excellent engineering material, but homogeneity of
the material throughout the casting can sometimes be a problem. Thus, the yield
strength may not be as high as anticipated. API 618 calls for specimen testing and
other NDE in an effort to ensure the quality of nodular iron castings.
Compressor Valves
Valve materials must be selected for both durable, long-term operation and compati-
bility with the gas being handled. Extensive research and field testing contribute to
the improvement of valve materials.
Figure 300-67 shows materials for valve guards and seats. Valve plates are
available in various types of stainless steels and thermoplastics, as shown in
Figure 300-68. Figure 300-69 shows the wide variety of spring materials available,
from music wire to Inconel. Other super alloys, such as Elgiloy and Haynes 25, are
being used to avoid hydrogen embrittlement for springs.
Fig. 300-67 Typical Guard and Seat Materials for Compressor Valves
Material Application
1141 Light Duty Non-Corrosive Service
Heat Treated 1141 Light to Medium Non-Corrosive Service
Ductile Iron Light to Medium Service - Resistance to some
Chemical Attack
4140 Medium to High Strength - Resistance to some
Chemical Attack
Heat Treated 4140 High Strength Service - Resistance to Some Chemical
Attack
400 Series Stainless Steel Corrosive Service
300 Series Stainless Steel Extreme Corrosive Service
17-4 PH Stainless Steel
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Fig. 300-68 Typical Valve Plate Materials
Material Application
Glass Filled Nylon Thermoplastic Good Impact and Corrosion Resistance. 270F Temperature Limit
Peek - Polyetheretherketone High Strength - High Temperature (up to 375F)
Linen Based Phenolic Laminate Clean Gas. Low Compression Ratios. 225F Temperature Limit
Laminated cloth Based Phenolic High Temperature Applications up to 400F - Available for Ported Plate
Application only
410 Stainless Steel Moderate Corrosion Resistance, Good Impact Resistance
17-7 PH Stainless Steel Moderate Corrosion Resistance, Good Impact Resistance
Inconel X-750 High Corrosion Resistance and High Strength Properties in High Tempera-
ture Applications
Fig. 300-69 Typical Valve Spring Materials
Material Application
Music Wire Low Corrosion Resistance. Good Durability in Clean Gas Environments and Low
Temperatures
302 Stainless Steel Moderate Corrosion Resistance. Average Durability in Moderate Temperatures
17-7 PH Stainless Steel Excellent Corrosion Resistance, High Strength Properties in Moderate/High Tempera-
tures (700F Max)
Inconel X-750 High Corrosion Resistance, High Strength Properties in High Temperature Applications
(1100F Max)
Quality assurance and accurate dimensions are equally important. Surface finish and
parallel face surfaces are the most serious considerations for metallic plates. Dimen-
sional stability of thermoplastic plates in humid and high temperature environments
is essential.
One drawback to the use of thermoplastic plates is their affinity for moisture, called
hygroscopicity. Newer materials, such as PEEK and TORLON, have lower absorp-
tion rates (.06%) than nylon glass composites (1%). Also, some of these materials
have a lower coefficient of thermal expansion. For example, Dresser-Rand's
“HiTemp” valve material has a thermal expansion factor of 1.2 10-6 in/in-F,
almost half that of nylon glass composites. A low thermal expansion factor makes
the plate more resistant to deformation at higher temperatures and better able to hold
dimensional integrity.
Quality Assurance on Replacement Parts
A number of processes are used to manufacture valve plates. Among them are die
stamping, electron discharge machining, laser cutting and water jet cutting. Each
process has advantages and disadvantages with regard to the plate's fatigue strength.
Laser cutting, for example, causes a heat affected zone, which can be minimized if
the plate is cut at optimum speed. A recast layer will be found on the cut edge as it
comes from the laser; this must be removed. One manufacturer does this by
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300 Reciprocating Compressors Compressor Manual
tumbling the plates in a stone media. This method satisfactorily removes the recast
layer and also forms a radius on the edge of the plate surface.
Metal valve disks or plates should be suitable for installation with either side sealing
and should be finished on both sides to 16 microinches RMS. Edges should be suit-
ably finished to remove stress risers. Valve seats and sealing surfaces should also be
finished to 16 microinches.
The ends of coil-type valve springs must be squared and ground to protect the plate
against damage from the spring ends.
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600 Inspection and Testing
Abstract
This section contains information on the purpose of, and general principles for,
inspecting and testing compressors. It covers several quality-control tests, offering
guidance in determining when the respective tests may be cost-effective and
appropriate.
Contents Page
610 General Comments 600-2
620 Non-Witnessed, Witnessed, and Observed Tests 600-2
630 Centrifugal Compressor Inspections 600-3
640 Centrifugal Compressor Tests 600-7
641 Four-Hour Mechanical Spin Test
642 Assembled Compressor Gas Leakage Test
643 Performance Test
644 String Testing
645 Other Tests
650 Reciprocating Compressor Inspections 600-13
660 Reciprocating Compressor Tests 600-16
661 Mechanical Running Tests
662 Bar-Over Test
Revision History 600-17
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600 Inspection and Testing Compressor Manual
610 General Comments
Inspection at the point of manufacture is normally conducted by the ETC Quality
Assurance (QA) team, or by a qualified inspector who is contracted for the work by
the QA team. The purpose of shop inspection is to obtain reasonable assurance that
the compressor meets specification and order requirements, displays quality
construction, and is free of significant defects or damage before it ships.
Inspection is warranted for all process gas compressors. Inspection coverage may
also involve a Company machinery engineer, a mechanical specialist from the
customer’s maintenance organization, or both. Coverage should be agreed upon as
early as possible and communicated to the Supplier. Typically, the machinery
engineer or mechanical specialist witnesses mechanical run or performance tests for
large machines. Additionally, machinery engineers or specialists may witness the
following:
• Final rotor balancing (centrifugals)
• Final assembly
• Dismantling after mechanical or performance testing and reassembly
• Operational and cleanliness tests on lube and seal oil systems
620 Non-Witnessed, Witnessed, and Observed Tests
Inspection and testing of a compressor or parts of a compressor by the Supplier may
be non-witnessed, witnessed, or observed.
Non-witnessed means that the Supplier performs the required test and certifies the
results; test results are reviewed by the Purchaser’s inspector during other inspection
visits. Production is not stopped as it is for witnessed tests.
Witnessed means that a hold is applied to the production schedule and the test is
carried out with the Purchaser’s inspector present. This may result in a double test.
The Supplier will include a cost extra in the bid for witnessing a test.
Observed means that the Purchaser requires notification of the test’s timing.
However, the test is performed as scheduled, and if the Purchaser’s inspector is not
present, the Supplier may proceed with the test. A hold is not applied to the
production schedule. Since only one test is scheduled, the Purchaser’s inspector can
expect to be in the factory longer than for a witnessed test, while setup is completed
or debugging test equipment is done. For an observed test, the Supplier will include
a cost extra that is less than the cost for witnessing a test.
The cost differential between observed and witnessed tests can be more than offset
by increased inspector’s time for observed tests; observed tests may also be missed
because of insufficient notification by the Supplier. Therefore, specifying an
observed test is not recommended.
If a test is important enough to warrant the presence of an inspector or engineer, a
witnessed test should be specified. When a test is to be witnessed, it must be so
stated on the compressor data sheet or elsewhere in the order documents.
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630 Centrifugal Compressor Inspections
The principal inspection points are listed below in the normal manufacturing
sequence. The cost of testing is usually added to the purchase cost in a compressor
quotation.
1. Preinspection Meeting. A preinspection meeting is held to review
specifications and order requirements at the point of manufacture to verify
compliance. This visit should always be made at the compressor Supplier’s
plant and normally at the manufacturing plants for the following:
• Lube and seal oil consoles
• Overhead seal oil tank (pressure vessel)
• Gear (speed changer)
• Driver (prime mover)
Preinspection meetings help to resolve ambiguities that could delay final
shipment or result in equipment that does not meet user specifications.
Preinspection meetings also confirm that Suppliers understand our inspection
and testing requirements and that they are aware of the required witness points.
These meetings should be held for all except small utility compressors.
2. Review of Compressor-Casing Fabrication Drawings (by Purchaser’s
inspector prior to start of fabrication). This inspection should always be
made for compressors with fabricated casings. The casings are pressure-
containing parts, but compressor Suppliers sometimes use joint designs and
materials that do not meet normal minimum requirements for pressure vessels
or pressure piping (required by API Std 617).
3. Visual Inspection of Fabricated or Cast Casings Before Machining. A
visual inspection should always be made for fabricated casings, even when
sound joint designs are on the fabrication drawings. Actual weldments
frequently have visible flaws. Weld repairs must be made before machining
because some distortion from welding is inevitable. Cast casings should be
visually examined prior to machining to verify that they do not have significant
defects.
4. Nondestructive Examination of Fabricated or Cast Casings (liquid
penetrant, magnetic particle, ultrasonic, radiographic). Company
compressor specifications usually require some degree of NDE in addition to
visual examination and a successful hydrostatic test. Supplementary NDE
beyond that contained in the specification should not be added unless it is
clearly justified by the service conditions, material characteristics, or
established requirements. A materials engineer, QA engineer, or both should be
consulted if supplementary NDE is being considered for other reasons. NDE in
itself is frequently inexpensive; it is the resulting repairs to upgrade castings
subjected to NDE that can be expensive. When some form of supplementary
NDE is specified, an acceptance standard must always be specified Whenever
NDE is specified, it should always be witnessed (radiographs interpreted when
radiography is specified) and should be identified as a witness point on the
compressor data sheet. (See Section 620 for definitions.)
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5. Visual Inspection of Welded Baseplates Before Machining. This visit should
always be made for large or critical compressor baseplates. Weld quality and
inadequate weld size have been problems on large baseplates.
6. Hydrostatic Test. A casing hydrostatic test is always performed, and
witnessing the test is always warranted. Helium testing, if specified, should also
be witnessed.
7. Visual Inspection of Welded or Cast Impellers Before Heat Treatment and
Machining. This inspection is warranted in most cases. Welding the impellers
is difficult. The customer does not specify a quality standard, and the
compressor Supplier is not likely to initiate weld repairs on completed
impellers because another round of heat treatment and machining would be
required. Cast compressor impellers frequently have significant defects but the
compressor Supplier may be inclined to use them anyway.
8. Overspeed Test and Subsequent NDE of Impellers. Both tests should always
be witnessed to check for cracks and distortion. Impellers are made from high
strength alloys and often have hub stresses close to the material yield point.
9. Stacking and Incremental Balancing of Rotor. This inspection is usually not
witnessed. It can require days of inspector time because the rotor is balanced
several times during the course of assembly. If witnessing incremental
balancing is being considered, consult a machinery specialist.
10. Final Balancing of Rotor. This inspection should normally be witnessed along
with dial indicator measurement of runouts at bearing journals, thrust bearing
faces, and all points along the rotor with close clearances. Impeller wobble
caused by warpage during weld repair is also checked at this time.
11. High Speed or “At-Speed” Balance, The “at-speed” balance can make
corrections to account for bending deflections that are present at operating
speed. Care must be taken to use bearings that closely resemble the actual
bearings. This balance always takes place in a “bunker” that serves as
containment if the rotor comes apart during the test. Additionally, the test
bunker is placed under vacuum, which allows for the testing of fully bladed
rotors. Sometimes impeller seating changes when the rotor is at operating
speed, causing changes in vibration amplitude and phase angle. With high-
speed balancing, balance corrections can be made more accurately after any
“shifts” that were not caught with axial runout checks during rotor assembly.
API RP 684, Chapter 5, Section 4 lists reasons to consider “At-Speed” Balance
as:
a. Rotors that exhibit high vibration as they pass through their critical or reso-
nant speeds (high amplification factor).
b. Rotors that accelerate slowly through their critical speeds (i.e., gas
turbines).
c. Rotors that are running on or near a critical speed.
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Compressor Manual 600 Inspection and Testing
d. Rotors that are very sensitive to unbalance.
e. Rotors for equipment in extremely critical services.
f. Rotors going to inaccessible locations, such as offshore.
g. Very long, flexible rotors (L/D > 10)*.
h. Places where a critical rotor cannot be run in its intended casing prior to
installation.
*L/D is shaft bearing span length divided by diameter of the smallest
impeller bore.
API RP 684 reiterates that high-speed balancing is especially useful where
bending deflections at operating speed magnify forces that are present due to
residual unbalance remaining from a slow-speed balance. For some vendors, it
is standard to perform a high-speed balance. This is perfectly acceptable and
should not be discouraged in an effort to cut costs. If an at-speed balance is
performed, it is always witnessed.
12. Runout Checks for Proximity Probes. These checks should be performed
after the compressor is assembled and should be witnessed. Its purpose is to
verify that mechanical and electrical runouts of the probe target areas are low
enough for the vibration monitoring system to operate satisfactorily without
electronic compensation. (See the General Machinery Manual for additional
information.)
13. Final Assembly of Compressor. The final assembly should usually be
witnessed to verify that internal clearances are correct, that parts do not have
significant visible flaws, and internal damage is not done during assembly. This
inspection requires a resident inspector for one week or more.
14. Mechanical Run and Performance Tests. One of these tests is usually
specified to verify that the compressor is mechanically sound and to prove it
will meet performance requirements. A mechanical test is often required by the
Supplier’s own internal specifications. These tests should always be witnessed
by a machinery engineer or mechanical specialist.
15. Dismantling After Test. As a minimum, the bearings and seals are removed
and inspected when the mechanical run or performance test is completed.
Inspection is conducted by the machinery engineer or mechanical specialist
who witnessed the mechanical run or performance test.
16. String Test of All Job Equipment. A string test is a mechanical running (and
sometimes performance) test of all ordered equipment assembled together on
job baseplates to make sure everything operates satisfactorily. Consult a
machinery specialist if a string test is being considered. A string test should
always be witnessed.
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17. Final Inspection. This inspection is always performed after the compressor,
driver, piping, and instrumentation are installed on the baseplate, but before
painting is finished. Final inspection includes, but is not limited to, the
following tasks:
a. Line-by-line review of equipment against specifications and data sheets.
b. Dimensional check against reviewed outline drawings.
c. Verification that all required piping and appurtenances are present.
d. Visual inspection for defects or damage.
e. Ensuring compliance with Safety in Design (SID). (See SID-SU-5106.)
18. Drivers. (See the Driver Manual.)
19. Gears. Degree of testing and inspection vary with speed and load-carrying
requirements. The following are usually witnessed:
a. Gear contact and backlash check in contact-checking stand.
b. Gear contact and backlash check in casing.
c. Mechanical run test (unloaded or loaded) if specified.
20. Overhead Seal Oil Tanks. Check for a high degree of internal cleanliness.
(Also see the Pressure Vessel Manual for information on inspection of vessels.)
21. Lube and Seal Oil Consoles. The following are usually witness points:
a. Visual inspection of components prior to assembly for weld quality and
cleanliness.
b. Pressure tests of completed systems.
c. Operational and cleanliness tests per API Std 614.
d. Final inspection before finish painting.
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Compressor Manual 600 Inspection and Testing
640 Centrifugal Compressor Tests
Compressors are typically expensive machines that are critical to large process
plants. As such, the construction of a sound testing plan is imperative to successful
startup and operation.
641 Four-Hour Mechanical Spin Test
The four-hour mechanical spin test is a standard test for most Suppliers. It is also
specified in API Std 617. The purposes of this test are as follows:
1. To check the vibratory behavior of the rotor-bearing system during acceleration
and at maximum continuous speed.
2. To check for proper assembly and running clearances.
3. To prove that the bearings and seals operate satisfactorily under running
conditions.
This test is considered to be strictly mechanical. No part of the aerodynamic
performance of the compressor is measured during the test. The test is usually
conducted with the compressor operating in a closed piping loop at a relatively low
pressure (100–200 psi discharge is common). An open piping loop could also be
used.
For “flexible” rotors (those operating above the first critical), the location of the first
critical speed is verified during acceleration and deceleration when possible. If the
rotor system is highly damped, and if the rotor is dynamically balanced to an
extremely low level of residual unbalance, it is not always possible to discern the
first critical speed from plots of X or Y filtered vibration amplitude versus speed.
Plots of phase angle versus speed also may not provide a reliable indication of the
frequency of the first critical for the same reasons.
642 Assembled Compressor Gas Leakage Test
This test comes after the four-hour mechanical spin test, and is conducted at
maximum seal design pressure (usually settling-out pressure) at zero speed with the
seal system operating. The purpose is to check for gas leaks at all joints and
connections. The test is also applied to compressors handling hazardous or
flammable gases. If the compressor has oil film seals, it is a good idea to have the
seal oil leakage rate measured in this static condition, because this condition often
exists at the compressor installation during startup and shutdown. The static leakage
rate will be somewhat higher than that when the rotor is turning because the inner
seal ring could be in an eccentric position (leakage varies approximately with the
square of eccentricity). Very high static leakage could indicate an O-ring problem or
other fault that might not be apparent when the shaft is rotating.
Alternatively, the seal leakage can be measured during the full-pressure, full-speed
test if this optional test is specified.
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643 Performance Test
The aerodynamic performance of a stage, of a section, or of a complete casing can
be evaluated with an optional test using the procedures covered in the ASME Power
Test Code (PTC 10, 1997), Performance Test Code on Compressors and Exhausters.
Aerodynamic performance refers to the shape of the head-versus-capacity
characteristic curve. The ASME test is conducted to determine whether the
compressor meets the quoted power and head at one operating point on the curve for
one speed. This is usually the normal operating point, but can be any other point as
specified. The minimum flow point is determined during the test, and at least four
other points are taken along the speed line, including one at a capacity beyond that
of the point in question. Depending on certain machine characteristics, variable
speed compressors may require additional test points at different speeds. These
additional points increase the cost of the test, but are necessary to ensure proper
operation across the operating envelope.
Note Some Suppliers use the term “head rise to surge,” which is not numerically
equal to “pressure rise to surge.” Rise to surge (RTS) can have a major influence on
the operating stability of the machine, and on the design of the anti-surge system.
RTS tends to become a problem with gases that are heavier than air and that have
relatively low acoustic velocities. Propane and propylene are examples of gases that
can have a flat characteristic from the normal operating point to the surge point.
Accordingly, a small change in system resistance would effect a major change in
capacity, causing a potentially unstable situation. Company specifications require a
guarantee on the RTS quoted by the Supplier.
The following paragraphs discuss in detail the two classes of ASME loop tests.
Type I Tests
The test gas used for a Type I test is the same as the actual gas specified on the data
sheets. This test reproduces the specified conditions as closely as possible to
determine exactly how the compressor performs. Type I tests are usually expensive
and carry a higher risk than Type II tests due to the use of hydrocarbons. The use of
contract gas at specified conditions means that the full power requirement must be
supplied by a shop driver. (See Figure 600-1.)
Type II Tests
The test gas is different than the gas specified on the data sheets and dynamic
similarity is used to measure performance. Compressibility factors are applied along
with changes in “k” value from suction to discharge. In Type II tests, the test speed,
pressures, and temperatures are often different from the values specified on the data
sheets. The ASME code includes tables showing the allowable deviations for
volume reduction, Q/N, machine Mach number, and machine Reynolds number for
Type II tests (Figure 600-2). Similarly, permissible departure from specified
conditions for Type I tests including pressure, temperatures, specific gravity of the
gas, speed, and capacity are listed.
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Compressor Manual 600 Inspection and Testing
Fig. 600-1 Allowable Departures from Specified Design Parameters ASME PTC 10 (1997) Type I Test. (Reprinted from
ASME PTC 10 - 1997, by permission of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. All rights reserved.)
Fig. 600-2 Allowable Departures from Specified Design Parameters ASME PTC 10 (1997) Type I and Type 2 Tests.
(Reprinted from ASME PTC 10 - 1997, by permission of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
All rights reserved.)
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Type II tests are the most common type used in the petroleum industry. All Chevron
compressors receive a Type II test prior to leaving the factory. Type II test gases
tests include carbon dioxide, nitrogen, Refrigerant R-134a, and mixtures of helium
and nitrogen. Generally, it is preferred to run the test with a pure, unmixed gas. With
a mixture of helium and nitrogen, it is sometimes difficult to maintain a constant gas
composition for the duration of the test. If makeup is required in the loop during the
test, it is not easy to add the correct proportions of the two gases. In such cases, it
may be advisable to require that the compressor Supplier buy an adequate quantity
of certified pre-mixed gas from a specialty gas Supplier.
Some Type II tests are run with a sub-atmospheric suction to reduce power
requirements during the test. This procedure invites air leakage into the loop, which
upsets the gas composition. Therefore, flange tightness should be carefully checked
prior to test startup. In general, the heavier test gases are used for heavy specified
gases. Helium/nitrogen mixtures are used for hydrogen-rich gases such as ammonia
synthesis and refinery recycle gases. Note that the equivalent speed, capacity-speed
ratio, and volume ratio at which Type II tests are run are generally compromises
among the various departures allowed by the PTC 10 code (see Figure 600-2).
Company specifications require that the test speed have a safe margin from the
rotor’s critical speed.
The effect of flow in different regimes of Reynolds Number is well known, and
some correction should logically be applied. The problem is in developing suitable
correlations of the complex flow path in the compressor. Company experts should
be consulted when applying Reynolds Number corrections.
In some cases, it is not possible to perform strict Type I or Type II tests. For
instance, modified closed-loop Type I tests have been run on high-pressure
machines with discharge pressures ranging from about 3,000 to over 9,000 psi. Such
machines are used for injection of natural gas into an oil field formation. The test
gas is formulated by blending several hydrocarbon gases and other gases to closely
approximate the composition of the actual gas. The test is run at full pressure and
full load. Sometimes the main objective of such a test is to determine mechanical
behavior at high-pressure levels, and aerodynamic performance may be of
secondary importance.
A Type II test is always run in advance of the modified or unmodified Type I test.
The considerable time and cost of the Type I test will not be wasted if the machine
cannot pass a Type II test. For both types of tests, it is always desirable to unmask
problems on the test stand, as it is far less expensive and time consuming to modify
a machine at the factory than at the jobsite.
When it is decided that a performance test is required, merely specifying an ASME
test is seldom sufficient to obtain the desired results. The objective of the tests
should be stated so that the Supplier and Purchaser can work out an appropriate test
procedure. In this regard, consultation with a mechanical specialist is strongly
recommended.
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Compressor Manual 600 Inspection and Testing
644 String Testing
Several definitions exist for what constitutes a “string” test. This test uses the
contract driver, compressors, couplings, and most auxiliaries. String tests are very
complex and expensive, but can prove the compression train’s thermodynamic and
mechanical performance prior to installation in the field. Full-load string tests also
serve to verify the driver’s power output.
Some string tests can be thought of as Type I tests with contract equipment and
drivers. Beyond Type I requirements, it is important to do everything possible to
match the volume reduction ratio across each compressor in the train to ensure that
the aerodynamic performance of the machine is demonstrated. The test also verifies,
to an extent, the behavior of some control systems.
Trains with a discharge pressure of 3,000 psi or greater are automatically string
tested. However, hard and fast boundaries have faded as this cutoff point has
become more technically proven. Applications that necessitate string tests should
consult an SME at ETC Machinery. Much depends on Company and Supplier
experience.
Systems such as fire suppression and the gas turbine enclosure are not typically
used. These tests also prove some of the shutdown logic, alarms, restarts, and other
aspects of the train. For full requirements, reference datasheets CMP-DS-5241-SI
and CMP-DS-5241-US.
A string test should have a purpose. Four types of string testing are commonly seen,
each with a different goal. The four types of testing are described below.
1. Full load, full pressure hydrocarbon test
This is the most stringent, difficult, and expensive test that uses a hydrocarbon gas
blend to replicate field conditions. It is important to match the gas used in the test
blend to the gas used in the field. By using a gas blend that carefully replicates the
field gas, exact aero/thermal performance can be assessed as well as train
mechanical performance with true gas effects. This test is defined as a PTC 10
Type I test.
• Benefits
– True aero/thermal performance
– Mechanical behavior includes true aerodynamic forces at full load
– Driver output proven (full load)
– Demonstrated startup and trip behavior in field conditions
• Drawbacks
– Not usually feasible for large refrigeration compressors (heat sink is not
large enough)
– Most expensive test
– Safety concerns associated with hydrocarbon testing
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2. Full load, inert gas, preservation of volume reduction ratio
This is the second-most-stringent string test. It uses a gas blend, agreed upon by the
Purchaser and Supplier, that differs from the actual service gas but can simulate
compressor performance at full load. Because the volume reduction ratios are
matched across the stages, mechanical behavior is almost identical to field
operation. This test is generally used for LNG refrigeration trains.
• Benefits
– Gas properties manipulated to derive performance without full
hydrocarbon test
– Mechanical behavior includes true aerodynamic forces at full load
– Driver output proven (full load)
– Demonstrated startup and trip behavior close to field conditions
• Drawbacks
– As test gas is different, temperatures are different across the compressors;
full thermal effects are not seen
– Expensive test
3. Full load, inert gas, volume reduction ratio not matched
In some cases, the test gas cannot be blended to match the volume reduction ratios.
The usefulness of this test grows to the extent to which you can match the volume
reduction ratios.
• Benefits
– Driver output proven (full load)
– Demonstrated startup and trip behavior (limited)
• Drawbacks
– True mechanical behavior and rotordynamic do not match actual
conditions
– Aerodynamic performance cannot be seen using similarity
– Thermal effects not identical to field, as test gas is different
4. No load mechanical
This test is the easiest to perform, least expensive, and least time consuming. The
machines are fit together and run up to operating speed. This test is not
recommended as it does not produce enough usefulness for the cost of a string test.
• Benefits
– Least expensive string test
– Verifies mechanical fit up if machines are skid mounted
– Shows unloaded transient response on ramp-up/down
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• Drawbacks
– Test is a repeat of required individual casing mechanical tests
– No aerodynamic effects seen on mechanical performance
– No aerodynamic performance seen
– Driver not proven
Before deciding on a string test, it is good practice to define what you are trying to
prove. In instances of duplicated trains, for example, it may not be necessary to fully
prove the aero/thermal characteristics of an impeller that is operating in the field. In
this case, proving the mechanical performance with a full load inert gas test may be
the correct application.
645 Other Tests
The helium test, sound-level test, auxiliary-equipment test, and other optional tests
listed in API Std 617 are self-explanatory.
650 Reciprocating Compressor Inspections
Reciprocating compressor inspections can be grouped under material and
mechanical inspections. Preinspection meetings are held between the Purchaser and
the Supplier to finalize the required level of inspections and the details to address in
the inspections. The following paragraphs provide details on the process.
Reciprocating compressors must be inspected as follows:
1. Preinspection Meeting. A preinspection meeting is held to review
specifications and order requirements at the point of manufacture to verify
compliance. This visit should always be made at the compressor Supplier’s
plant and normally at the manufacturing plants for the following:
• Lube oil system
• Pulsation dampers (pressure vessels)
• Gear (speed changer)
• Driver (prime mover)
• Controls and instrument panels, if furnished
Preinspection meetings help to resolve ambiguities that could delay final
shipment or result in equipment that does not meet user specifications.
Preinspection meetings also verify that Suppliers understand our inspection and
testing requirements and that they are aware of the required witness points and
optional observed points. These meetings should be held for all except small
utility compressors.
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2. Material Inspections (Nondestructive Examination of Materials). It is the
Supplier’s responsibility to ensure good material quality of the compressor.
Suppliers internal standards for material inspection should include NDE of the
pressure-containing parts of the compressor, which include the cylinder, the
head, and pulsation dampeners. NDEs are generally recommended for API
Class A and B machines or, more generally, for process gas machines—
especially for machines in flammable and hazardous services. On request,
Suppliers should share their internal standards, which should determine
whether more NDEs are required. Of the NDEs, magnetic particle inspection,
ultrasonic, and dye penetrant are not very expensive; but radiography is
expensive and is recommended for cylinders and heads that have extensive
welds (such as fabricated steel cylinders). Cylinders are normally accepted on
the basis of visual examination and successful hydrostatic tests.
Supplementary NDE should not be added unless it is clearly justified by the
service conditions, material characteristics, or established requirements. A
materials engineer, QA engineer, or both should be consulted if supplementary
NDE is being considered for other reasons.
Note Supplementary tests are generally suggested when the
pressure-containing components are fabricated (welded) or when exotic
materials are used. This is rarely seen in reciprocating compressors.
NDE in itself is frequently inexpensive; it is the resulting repairs to upgrade
castings subjected to NDE that can be expensive. When some form of
supplementary NDE is specified, an acceptance standard must always be
specified. When NDE is specified, it should always be witnessed (radiographs
interpreted when radiography is specified) and should be identified as a witness
point on the compressor data sheet. (See Section 620 for definitions.)
3. Mechanical Inspections. Following are descriptions of the required
mechanical inspections.
a. Alignment of Cylinders to Frame. Concentric and axial alignment of
frame, crosshead guide, distance piece, and cylinder are carefully
measured. Witnessing the alignment check must be performed for large
critical machines; consult a machinery engineer to determine if it is
warranted. Note that if these alignments are not done correctly in the shop,
then field alignment may be more difficult. Although Suppliers would still
be responsible, they may resist fitting the distance pieces and cylinders on
large units. This is an essential test and should, at the least, be an observed
test.
b. Piston Rod Runout and Piston/Head Clearance. These measurements on
the assembled compressor provide assurance that cylinder alignment is
satisfactory, that machining and assembly of crosshead/piston rod/piston
are correct, and that the Supplier’s specified head clearance is, in fact,
present. Dimensional check of the compressor against the outline drawing,
and visual inspection for defects and damage are performed at this time.
These steps also would be difficult to complete in the field, and would
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Compressor Manual 600 Inspection and Testing
require Supplier involvement to correct problems. The Supplier might
claim some external factors. These measurements should be observed as a
minimum.
c. Cleanliness Inspection. If requested by the Purchaser, the components and
weld surfaces are inspected before assembly according to pre-established
standards to ensure that they are free from foreign materials and corrosion.
Deposits of foreign materials and corrosion products can lead to more
corrosion and wear or damage to machine parts (valves in particular),
piping, and appurtenances, and to blockage of lube oil filters. This test is
generally witnessed.
d. Oil System Cleanliness Inspection. The oil system needs to be free of
foreign contaminants as per API Std 618. Contaminants like dirt or silica
particles are large enough to cause interferences between metal contact
surfaces. Analysis of lubricating oil will identify the source of a
contaminant, whether the chemical properties of the oil are intact, and if
machine wear is occurring. Controlling oil cleanliness minimizes the
effects of solid particle contamination on the lubricating oil film. It also
maintains separation of the metal surfaces. If requested, this would be an
observed test.
e. Hardness Inspection. If requested by the Purchaser, the hardness of welds
and heat-affected zones are measured to ensure the integrity of the material
after the welding operation. The standards for testing, such as NACE
standards, will be mutually agreed upon by the Supplier and the Purchaser.
This is a non-witnessed test.
f. Final Inspection. This test is required if the compressor is shipped
disassembled, as many are. For compressors that ship packaged, final
inspection is similar to item 17, Section 630, and should be performed.
g. Auxiliary Equipment and Driver Inspection Points:
1. Drivers. (See the Driver Manual)
2. Gears. (See item 19, Section 630)
3. Pulsation dampers. (See the Pressure Vessel Manual). Checks are
made for the following conditions:
a) A high degree of internal cleanliness and adequate preservation of
cleanliness.
b) Proper application of the internal coatings.
c) Flange faces in the same plane for nozzles in a manifold bottle
that connects to two cylinders.
4. Lube oil system. (See item 21, Section 630)
5. Control and instrument panels, if furnished.
January 2011 (E) 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 600-15
600 Inspection and Testing Compressor Manual
660 Reciprocating Compressor Tests
The following reciprocating compressor tests are mandatory to ensure the proper
functioning of the machine. The level of scrutiny (observed or witnessed) depends
on the application. Refer to the corresponding sections for more details.
1. Hydrostatic Tests. Cylinder hydrostatic tests are always performed and should
always be witnessed. The hydrostatic test is primarily a strength test but by
nature, is also a leak test (leakage is not allowed during the test). The test
proves the structural integrity of the cylinder, reveals leaks caused by material
flaws that extend through the cylinder wall, and reveals leaks caused by
machining errors or damage to machined surfaces. The gas side of the cylinder
and the cylinder heads are tested separately from the cooling water side to
verify that there is no leakage from one side to the other. This is an important
test for the machine and is generally witnessed.
2. Helium or Air Pressure Test. API Std 618 or the job specification may require
helium or air pressure tests in addition to the hydrostatic tests. Helium tests are
required if the working fluid is less than 12 mole weight and if it contains more
than 0.1% of H2S; otherwise a gas leak test with nitrogen or air would suffice.
Gas tests are more likely to find small leaks than hydrostatic tests. Gas tests are
made with the cylinder submerged in water; however, for helium tests a helium
probe is sometimes used instead of submergence. Because compressed gas has
a great deal of stored energy, high-pressure gas tests should always be preceded
by a successful hydrostatic test for safety.
For reciprocating compressors in hazardous or flammable service, it is
preferred to have the gas leak tests witnessed. For less critical services it could
be an observed test.
3. Compressor Valve Leak Test. This test measures the amount of time for a
fixed volume of gas behind a valve to drop from one defined pressure to
another. Special fixtures are required for this test, which is sometimes specified
for compressor valves. Depending on the criticality of the service, this test is
either observed or non-witnessed.
661 Mechanical Running Tests
API Std 618 reciprocating compressors are almost never run at full speed in the
factory. Packaged and skid-mounted units are sometimes run unloaded at the
compressor factory or at the packager’s shop. This test is usually run without
pressure-loading the cylinders to verify that the compressor is mechanically sound.
Cylinder heads are removed after the test for inspection of the cylinder liners.
Alarms, shutdowns, gauges, lube systems, and over-speeds may be functionally
tested at this time to avoid problems in the field. This test is described in
API Std 618. Shops often lack power or fuel to conduct such tests. The mechanical
running test is not as meaningful for the reciprocating machine as it is for the
centrifugal compressor. Although the running test would check mechanical
compatibility and the workability and heat loads of the lube system, generally the
test is not cost-effective.
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Compressor Manual 600 Inspection and Testing
Class B machines going offshore tend to be considered for mechanical testing more
often, but again, the test facilities may limit the sizes of machines and types of
drivers that can be tested. Mechanical testing of Class B machines is still not a
common occurrence. Because of their smaller size and rating, Class C and D
compressors can be given a mechanical running test more easily. For the same
reason, such a test may be more difficult to justify unless the service is semi-critical
or offshore. The Suppliers should be consulted regarding their testing capabilities
before specifying a mechanical running test for reciprocating machines. When
requested, this test (and post-test inspection) should always be witnessed. For very
large compressors, Suppliers do not have the facilities to make mechanical run tests.
662 Bar-Over Test
The bar-over test is usually a Supplier’s standard test. In a manual bar-over test, the
compressor is assembled as if it were to be run and the machine is turned manually
through various crank positions. The purposes of this test are to check the end
clearances of the pistons, and to measure the cold vertical and horizontal piston rod
runout. A complete description of rod runout is included in the Appendix of API Std
618. When requested, this is a witnessed test.
Revision History
Date Description Author Sponsor
12/98 Initial release ATEU ATEU
08/10 General revision NTCP ATEU
01/11 (E) Errata: Replaced references to CMP-SC-1876 with ATEU ATEU
references to CMP-DS-5241-SI and CMP-DS-5241-US.
January 2011 (E) 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 600-17
600 Inspection and Testing Compressor Manual
600-18 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
700 Compressor Installation and
Precommissioning
Abstract
This section contains general guidelines and checklists for installation and precom-
missioning of new compressors and recommissioning of existing ones.
Contents Page
710 Introduction 700-2
711 Installation/Precommissioning Checklists
712 Summary
713 References
720 Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist 700-4
730 Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist 700-14
740 Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist 700-22
750 Centrifugal Compressor Precommissioning Checklist 700-31
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 700-1
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
710 Introduction
These guidelines focus on new installations, although many aspects also apply to
existing installations where equipment has been repaired, rerated, retrofitted, etc.
Proper compressor installation and precommissioning helps ensure trouble-free
startup and long-term reliability. Thorough inspection and critical review during
each phase of the installation process eliminates “built-in” deficiencies or problems
which later result in equipment failures or poor performance. The checklists in this
section are intended to aid in this inspection/review process.
711 Installation/Precommissioning Checklists
In general, the Installation Checklists cover items to be done well in advance of,
and in preparation for the initial equipment run-in and startup. They are applicable
to most common on-shore and off-shore installations.
The Precommissioning Checklists should be used immediately preceding startup.
These checklists cover a final check of equipment readiness and general steps to be
followed during equipment run-in and startup. As with the Installation Checklists,
the Precommissioning Checklists cover general requirements applicable to most
installations.
These checklists are general, and do not include specific acceptance criteria (align-
ment tolerances, pipe forces, vibration limits, etc.). These criteria should be devel-
oped for the specific application based on the manufacturer's instruction manual,
applicable industry standards, project specifications, and local practice. Any
discrepancies should be resolved prior to installation or start-up. Consult the manu-
facturer's instruction manual for detailed run-in/startup procedures specific to the
equipment involved, and modify the final checklist accordingly.
712 Summary
Successful startups depend on:
• Documented execution of maintenance/installation work during the turn-
around/construction phase.
• Startup procedures developed for each unique startup (with follow-up and
documentation support).
• Clearly defined startup tasks and responsibilities.
• Communicated tasks and responsibilities in a Pre-startup Meeting to review
timing, communications during startup, contingencies, startup sequencing, and
other pertinent items.
700-2 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
713 References
The following provide additional information:
• Specification MAC-MS-2983, Field Cleaning of Compressor Lube-Oil and
Seal Oil Systems.
• Specification MAC-EG-3907, Grouting of Machinery.
• Specification PIM-MS-2411, Descaling and Cleaning Steel Piping.
• Integrated Machinery Inspection Candidate Manual (data acquisition and
condition monitoring procedures).
• Machinery Reliability Procedures—El Segundo Refinery (machinery stan-
dards, repair and operating procedures, and specific checklists).
• Total Alignment, V.R. Dodd (machinery alignment standards, procedures, and
general background)
Note All of the startup data described in the following pages should be reduced
during and immediately after the startup, then filed in the appropriate machine
binder.
Instructions are covered in detail in the CUSA Mfg., IMI Candidate Manual. This
standard startup information is used routinely and successfully in all CUSA
refineries.
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 700-3
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
720 Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist
The manufacturer's installation manual, equipment specifications, as-built
data sheets, and the specific process requirements should be reviewed in detail,
and modifications made to this checklist, as appropriate, to cover individual
requirements.
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist (1 of 10)
Initial Date
Step 1. Documentation
The following documents covering all major compressor train components
should be available. Review as applicable:
Manufacturer's instruction manual for the equipment involved. _____ _____
Equipment specifications, as applicable:
• API Equipment Standards _____ _____
• Project Specifications _____ _____
Purchase Documents:
• Purchase Order _____ _____
• Quotation Request _____ _____
• List Sheets _____ _____
• Other Documents Referenced in Purchase Order _____ _____
As-built Equipment Data Sheets _____ _____
Performance Data _____ _____
Lubrication Chart _____ _____
Installation Drawings _____ _____
Shop Test/Inspection Records and Reports _____ _____
Safety Instruction Sheets _____ _____
Existing Installations:
Maintenance History _____ _____
Performance/Vibration History _____ _____
Inspection/Trouble Reports since last major turnaround _____ _____
700-4 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist (2 of 10)
Initial Date
Step 2. Safety Precautions
Lock out and properly tag the main driver. _____ _____
Insure all piping and hot surfaces (above 140F) are suitably guarded or insu-
lated for personnel protection. _____ _____
Verify all relief valves are installed, properly set, and tested. Notify the proper
equipment inspector that the valve exists so that his database can be updated. _____ _____
Confirm no block valves are located between the source of pressure and safety
valves, unless locked open. _____ _____
Insure outlets of crankcase and distance piece explosion relief doors point
downward away from personnel. _____ _____
Insure suitable guards meeting OSHA requirements are in place around all
exposed rotating parts such as couplings, belts, etc. _____ _____
Eliminate tripping/slipping hazards or mark clearly as hazards. Remove oil
from floors or decking. _____ _____
Insure suction and discharge valves are correct and properly placed in
compressor cylinders. _____ _____
Relieve pressure within unit (cylinders, piping, bottles, etc.) before any tie-in
work is performed. Install blinds per local procedures. _____ _____
Isolate compressors handling toxic or flammable gases from process piping
and purge or evacuate, as applicable. _____ _____
Open piston vent holes and confirm piston does not contain pressure (when
removing a cylinder head). _____ _____
Bar-over unit more than one complete revolution before any startup/re-start to
insure there are no mechanical interferences, nor any liquid in cylinders. _____ _____
Step 3. Equipment Condition (Before Installation)
As Received:
Check all bill of materials for completeness of material received. Insure all
“tagged” materials are correctly labeled. _____ _____
Insure all required spare parts and special tools received, and location docu-
mented. Take immediate action on any shortages or damage. _____ _____
Check internal/external cleanliness. _____ _____
Inspect cylinder bore, pistons, rods, bearing journals, etc. for corrosion, pitting,
or damage. _____ _____
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700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist (3 of 10)
Initial Date
Confirm integrity of preservative per manufacturer's recommendations and
local practice. _____ _____
Insure baseplate/skid is straight and flat. _____ _____
Insure baseplate/skid mounted compressor/driver not bolt-bound (free to move
for alignment, as necessary). _____ _____
Confirm compressor/driver rotates freely. _____ _____
Inspect condition of all bearings. _____ _____
Check alignment shim (number, material, condition) acceptability. _____ _____
Insure coupling condition is acceptable and all components have been received. _____ _____
Temporary Storage:
Insure storage protection requirements met (refer to the General Machinery
Manual and manufacturer's installation manual). _____ _____
Blanket equipment with inert gas or dry air/inert gas purge as appropriate. _____ _____
Confirm rust preventive/lubricant compatibility. _____ _____
Schedule and perform inspection of equipment condition at regular intervals
during storage. (Check condition of equipment and storage protection if stored
for more than one month. Follow-up required.) _____ _____
Step 4. Foundations and Grouting
Concrete Foundations:
Clean or coat metal surface of soleplates, rails, or compressor parts (crankcase
or crosshead frame). _____ _____
Check for properly rounded corners of soleplates or rails. _____ _____
Confirm the mounting feet or base are free of burrs. _____ _____
Disconnect coupling before leveling. _____ _____
Level soleplates, rails, and compressor parts in accordance with manufac-
turer's recommended procedure and local standards. _____ _____
Cure concrete foundation for at least 14 days before grouting preparation. _____ _____
Properly roughen and clean (free of oil, grease and other foreign substances)
concrete surface. If cementitious grout is used, saturate concrete surfaces with
water for 24 hours prior to placement of grout. Remove any free standing water
before grouting (Refer to Specification MAC-MS-3907, Grouting of
Machinery, for recommended procedures.) _____ _____
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Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist (4 of 10)
Initial Date
Insure proper grout material/thickness. _____ _____
Confirm anchor bolt cavities in foundation are not filled with grout. _____ _____
Cure grout for at least three days. Piping should not be connected to equip-
ment until grout has thoroughly cured. _____ _____
Check there are no hollow areas or major cracks in grouting. _____ _____
Back off leveling bolts. _____ _____
Tighten anchor bolts using a torque wrench to values in accordance with manu-
facturer's recommendation. _____ _____
Other Foundations (Structures):
Locate mounting plates at load bearing support beams. _____ _____
Insure shims are of corrosion-resistant material. _____ _____
Properly level baseplate/skid. _____ _____
Tighten bolting using a torque wrench to recommended values. _____ _____
Step 5. Cleaning of Piping, Pulsation Dampers and Separators—New Construction
Check cleanliness of all cylinder suction vessels and piping to protect against
damage to compressor valves and cylinder walls during/after startup. _____ _____
Thoroughly clean all lube systems as recommended below. _____ _____
Isolate the system, and if possible, inert gas blanket it after cleaning to insure
that no further foreign material can enter the system. _____ _____
Piping
Chemically clean steel process gas and lube-oil system piping internally, in
accordance with appropriate procedures. PIM-MS-2411 is available in the
Piping Manual as a cleaning specification. _____ _____
Clean alloy piping in accordance with applicable project or local procedures. _____ _____
Note When chemically cleaning the frame lube-oil system, clean all of the
piping from the discharge of the oil pump, through the oil cooler and oil filters
and up to the inlet of the compressor (generally, only the oil cooler shell and
filter bodies should be pickled; tube bundles and filter cartridges removed).
Mechanically clean the cooler shell and filter bodies if they are large enough. _____ _____
Thoroughly drain all gas suction lines. _____ _____
Protect piping against oxidation by jetting oil using high- pressure air or inert
gas blanket, as applicable. _____ _____
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700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist (5 of 10)
Initial Date
Check inlet line to air compressor for corrosion protective coating of internal
surface (except stainless steel). _____ _____
Completely remove all grit from sandblasted lines. _____ _____
Cover the ends of all intake piping and fittings, and vessel nozzles to insure
that no foreign material can enter during construction/turnaround. _____ _____
Clean interstage piping mechanically. Blow clean. (Do not blow back into the
compressor cylinder unless piston rods and valves are removed and packing
area is blanked off.) _____ _____
Flush frame lube-oil and packing cooling oil piping. _____ _____
Pulsation Dampers/Separators
Remove inspection covers on pulsation dampers/separators and inspect vessels
for cleanliness and integrity of all internals. _____ _____
Insure wedge-type supports used on discharge pulsation dampers are loose
when cold. _____ _____
Step 6. Piping Installation/Support Systems/Alignment
Check all process and auxiliary piping valves, including safety valves, for
proper location, position, flow direction, and tightness of supports and anchors. _____ _____
Inspect suction strainers, if used, for proper installation, correct orientation,
and differential pressure gage, if applicable. If strainers have fine mesh overlay,
orient so that flow contacts mesh overlay first. _____ _____
Insure insulation and heat tracing is installed in accordance with installation
drawings. _____ _____
Confirm there are no pockets or low spots in the gas piping which cannot be
drained. _____ _____
Insure correct separator mesh material, with adequate corrosion resistance. _____ _____
Drain all separators/K.O. pots to a safe location. (Hazardous service.) _____ _____
Check all piping against final installation drawings and P&ID's for correct
material and installation. Confirm necessary pressure gages, block valves, and
control valves are provided. _____ _____
Vent all high points in liquid piping. _____ _____
Insure oil piping on frequently used vents/drains properly routed to prevent
spraying oil over equipment. _____ _____
Confirm pipe plugs are not installed in packing case drain valves. _____ _____
700-8 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist (6 of 10)
Initial Date
Inspect auxiliary equipment for properly installed block valves. _____ _____
Use proper thread sealant for screwed piping. (Sealant should not be used when
connection is seal welded.) Do not use teflon tape for lube-oil pipe threads. _____ _____
Insure nitrogen or dry air purge to reservoirs, sump, bearing housings, etc., is
connected and functional. _____ _____
Inspect all drain lines for proper slope (1/4-inch/foot minimum). _____ _____
Insure suction and discharge piping is properly supported and clamped. _____ _____
Confirm that no significant strains have been introduced on the compressor
cylinder(s) during erection and bolt up of process piping. _____ _____
Insure provision is made for thermal expansion of discharge line. _____ _____
Insure cylinder supports installed and adjusted in conformance with design
drawings. Under no circumstances should a cylinder be supported by its piping. _____ _____
Inspect all bolted connections for tightness. Tape flanges for sniffer inspection. _____ _____
Check alignment of all coupled equipment. _____ _____
Check alignment of frame by measuring crankshaft web deflection in accor-
dance with manufacturer's recommendations. _____ _____
Check cylinder-to-frame alignment by measuring piston rod runout in accor-
dance with manufacturer's recommendations. _____ _____
Step 7. Compressor Valves/Cylinders
Inspect the cylinder bore and gas passageways for dirt and foreign material.
Clean each cylinder as necessary. _____ _____
Check piston-to-head clearance on cylinder head-end and crank-end. _____ _____
Insure suction ports of each cylinder are free of all foreign material. _____ _____
Confirm all valves are correct for the service intended. _____ _____
Inspect valves for correct installation in the cylinders. _____ _____
Note Valve strips or plates in the suction valves open toward the cylinder
bore. Strips or plates in the discharge valves open away from the bore. _____ _____
Check valve gaskets for correct type and material. _____ _____
Use torque wrench to insure valve cap holddown bolts are torqued to manufac-
turer's recommended values to avoid valve seat distortion. _____ _____
Remove one or more suction valves (and their covers) from each end of each
cylinder to reduce load during initial run-in. _____ _____
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700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist (7 of 10)
Initial Date
Step 8. Cylinder Cooling System
Insure all thermosyphon, static, and closed-loop forced circulation cylinder
cooling systems contain treated water and/or antifreeze type fluids where
necessary. _____ _____
Avoid use of raw water due to its fouling tendency. _____ _____
Properly inhibit any coolant to minimize rusting. _____ _____
Static Cooling
Completely fill cylinder jackets with appropriate coolant. _____ _____
Check that the stand pipe or expansion chamber and vent extends above the top
of the cylinder to accommodate expansion of the coolant. _____ _____
Thermosyphon Cooling
Remove high-point vent plugs and fill cylinder jackets with coolant. _____ _____
Fill the expansion tank to the proper level, leaving room for the level to rise as
the system temperature increases. _____ _____
Replace all vent plugs. _____ _____
Forced Coolant System
Disconnect water lines at cylinder and cooler outlets, and thoroughly flush the
system with clean water. _____ _____
Open all cylinder and piping vents to remove air, completely fill the system,
and replace plugs. _____ _____
Cylinder Cooling System Design/Other Compressor Cooling Systems
Occasionally, there is a portion of the hot coolant outlet system where it is
difficult to obtain good circulation due to air entrainment. To remove the air
and thus restore circulation, an “air expelling trap” can be installed on the high-
point of the line. _____ _____
Shell-and-Tube Type Oil Cooler:
Run coolant through to confirm all connections are tight. _____ _____
Vent the coolant side of exchanger and all auxiliary piping to remove all air. _____ _____
Water- or Oil-Cooled Packing Assemblies:
Check for external leaks, and vent air from system piping. _____ _____
700-10 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist (8 of 10)
Initial Date
Step 9. Frame Lubrication
Thoroughly clean frame lubricating system before startup. After cleaning all
newly installed piping and auxiliary equipment as outlined previously in step 5,
the following additional cleanup steps are recommended: _____ _____
Drain rust preventive from the frame lubrication system, as applicable. _____ _____
Check frame oil filter elements for proper micron rating. Check for dirt and
lint. Clean as necessary. _____ _____
Remove frame and frame extension inspection covers, inspect for foreign
material, and clean as necessary. _____ _____
Flush the frame lubrication system in accordance with manufacturer's recom-
mendations. (If auxiliary oil pump is available, bypass crank driven main frame
oil pump and circulate flush oil through oil cooler, oil filter and all piping.)
Check external piping for leaks. _____ _____
Circulate flush oil with bearings bypassed until no foreign material is detected
ahead of the oil filters. _____ _____
Circulate flush oil through bearings using the following procedure to achieve
similar cleanliness:
Connect the oil lines to the first main bearing and flush for approximately one
hour. Then continue, connecting to other main bearings one at a time until all
lines are connected. Bar the crankshaft through 90 degrees every 10-15
minutes during the flush cycle on each bearing. _____ _____
If special flush oil is used, completely drain frame, external piping and equip-
ment after flushing is completed. For any oil, check for foreign material in oil
filter housings. Remove any accumulated material and clean or replace oil
filter elements, as appropriate. _____ _____
Fill the frame oil sump to the proper level with the proper grade of oil. _____ _____
Circulate oil and completely fill the frame lubrication system using the motor
driven or hand pump, as appropriate. Add oil to the crankcase as required. _____ _____
Check internal piping for tightness. _____ _____
Inspect the crankshaft oil seals, clean, and apply a few drops of oil, if possible.
(May be impractical on units with flywheels or large couplings.) _____ _____
Confirm that correct size flow control orifices are installed in oil supply to
bearings (pressure systems). _____ _____
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 700-11
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist (9 of 10)
Initial Date
Step 10. Cylinder Lubrication—Lubricated Units
Drain lubricator of all rust preventive oil unless compatible. _____ _____
Fill the lubricator with the proper grade of cylinder oil. _____ _____
Install special lubricant if a new cylinder or cylinders and packing have been
installed and the final lube-oil to be used is not suitable for break-in. (Gener-
ally, lubricants required for normal operations will be suitable for break-in.)
During the break-in periods, oil feed to both cylinders and packing should be
adjusted to a heavy feed rate, as recommended by the manufacturer. _____ _____
With the oil lines disconnected at the check valve, operate the lubricator by
hand, or use an oil filler pump, to eliminate all air in the system. Pump the
system until oil is forced out of the line, indicating tubing is full. _____ _____
Reconnect piping and operate the lubricator or hand pump for one minute more
to inject oil into the cylinder and packing cases. Confirm that the lubricators
are adjusted to deliver feed rates, as recommended by the manufacturer. _____ _____
When it is not possible to adjust the lubrication rate to an individual packer,
additional oil can be added to the rod by mounting a temporary lube reservoir
on the distance piece. This reservoir can then provide drops of oil on the rod. _____ _____
Apply lubricating oil to the cylinder bore. _____ _____
Inspect the oil seal on lubricator drive shaft (where it emerges from the crank-
case). Clean, and apply a few drops of oil. _____ _____
If used, insure synthetic oils are compatible with materials of construction.
Some synthetic oils attack aluminum bearing components.
Step 11. Non-lubricated Cylinders
Carefully examine all portions of cylinders, pistons, and rods for foreign
material. _____ _____
Note It is extremely important that all components be thoroughly cleaned. _____ _____
Check suction filters, if any, for cleanliness. _____ _____
Step 12. Instrumentation and Controls
Check all safety valves for proper location and setting. _____ _____
Confirm that all indicating gages are properly installed, and are oriented to be
clearly seen by an operator when making control adjustments. _____ _____
Test all alarm, shutdown, and safety functions. _____ _____
700-12 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist (10 of 10)
Initial Date
Insure alarms and shutdowns are operating and arranged to permit testing while
the compressor is on line. _____ _____
Confirm operation and sequencing of pneumatic valve unloaders, if the unit is
provided with them. This is extremely important. A crossed connection could
result in compressor damage. _____ _____
Confirm that all manual unloaders are operating freely. _____ _____
Step 13. Drivers
Refer to the Drivers Manual for Installation Checklists for compressor drivers.
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 700-13
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
730 Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist
Use the following checklist during run-in of the compressor for the first time, and
also following major equipment overhauls. Review the manufacturer's installa-
tion manual and the specific process system in detail and modify this checklist,
as appropriate, to cover individual requirements.
Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (1 of 8)
Initial Date
Review the final modified checklist with the operators and all other personnel
involved in the precommissioning to insure that everyone understands the
procedures and the specific objectives involved. _____ _____
Confirm that operators are familiar with new equipment and required oper-
ating procedures/training has been implemented in accordance with local prac-
tice. A Pre-startup Meeting of all concerned is highly recommended. _____ _____
Step 1. General
New equipment installations should first be checked in accordance with the
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist. _____ _____
Reconfirm checks previously completed if there has been extended time
between installation and startup and/or additional work has been performed on
the unit. _____ _____
Review existing installation overhaul/repair records for completeness of repairs
and repair documentation. _____ _____
Step 2. Safety Precautions
Lock out and properly tag the main driver, and complete all checks. _____ _____
Do not operate any equipment in excess of its rated capacity, speed, pressure,
compression ratio, or temperature. _____ _____
Confirm all safety relief valves are installed, properly set, and tested. _____ _____
Confirm no block valves are located between the source of pressure and the
safety relief valves, unless locked open. _____ _____
Insure outlets of crankcase and distance piece explosion relief doors, if any, are
pointed downward away from personnel. _____ _____
Insure suitable guards meeting OSHA requirements are in place around all
exposed rotating parts such as couplings, belts, etc. _____ _____
Eliminate tripping/slipping hazards or mark clearly as hazards, and remove all
oil from floors or decking. _____ _____
700-14 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (2 of 8)
Initial Date
Check that all vent lines (including packing and distance piece vents) are open
and purge gas, if required, is properly connected to the distance piece and/or
wiper packing. _____ _____
When overheating is suspected, the crankcase should not be opened until
components have cooled sufficiently. _____ _____
Avoid creation of flammable mixtures in compressor cylinders, in suction and
discharge piping, and in interstage equipment. _____ _____
Step 3. Pre-Run-in Data Review
Define data acquisition requirements and develop list (or data sheets) covering
specific data to be recorded during precommissioning. _____ _____
Review the final run-in procedure to be certain that non-reversing rod load
conditions cannot occur in any cylinder. _____ _____
Check all interstage pressure switches or differential switches, if provided, to
insure that the shift in interstage pressure when bringing the unit on line will
not cause a shutdown. _____ _____
For motor drivers, determine how many restarts are permitted during one
hour's time. Do not exceed these limits. _____ _____
Review manufacturer's instructions for loading and unloading compressor
cylinders. _____ _____
Step 4. Pre-Run-in Installation Check
Check that all appropriate blinds are in place and that suction and discharge
line block valves are closed. _____ _____
Insure all alarms and shutdown have been set and tested. _____ _____
Insure monitoring systems, including all alarms and shutdowns, are in service
and not bypassed during initial operation and startup. _____ _____
Insure gas lines are drained and prewarmed, if applicable, by turning on heat
tracing before operation of the compressor. _____ _____
Confirm that suction and discharge valves are correct and properly placed in
compressor cylinders. _____ _____
Confirm that at least one suction valve and valve cover has been removed from
each end of each cylinder. _____ _____
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 700-15
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (3 of 8)
Initial Date
Bar the unit over manually at least one complete revolution before any
startup/restart for a few revolutions to confirm that all components are working
freely and that lube-oil is distributed to all running surfaces and there is no
liquid in the cylinders. _____ _____
Check the direction driver of rotation by bumping it. Check rotation of all
auxiliary system motor drivers. Resolve conflicts. _____ _____
Check the oil level of the crankcase. If a separate motor-driven frame oil pump
is provided, start the pump to pressurize the lubrication system. _____ _____
When the unit is not equipped with a separate motor-driven pump, manually
prelubricate the running gear for approximately five minutes. _____ _____
For lubricated compressor cylinders:
Check that the lubricator reservoir is filled. _____ _____
Confirm the proper break-in oil is being used. _____ _____
Squirt oil on rods prior to initial run-in. _____ _____
Flood the packing with lubricant. _____ _____
Check that both cylinder and packing lubricators are set at correct rate. _____ _____
Manually turn shaft-driven lubricators to confirm that oil is being fed. _____ _____
Prime divider block type lubricator systems with a priming pump. _____ _____
Check lubricator oil level. _____ _____
Start lubricator motor (if separately driven). _____ _____
Turn on coolant to compressor cylinders, packing, etc.; and start closed coolant
system pumps and air cooler as applicable. Vent trapped air from cylinder
jackets or any other parts of the cooling system. _____ _____
Note Avoid turning on cooling water to the frame lube-oil cooler until the oil
is almost up to normal operating temperature. (In colder climates it may be
necessary to initially heat the lube-oil.)
This completes the specific pre-check prior to equipment run-in. Make one
final walk completely around the unit making sure that all equipment is ready
for operation. Confirm that all personnel are in a safe position and are aware
that the unit is about to be started. _____ _____
Step 5. No-Load Run-in
Start the driver in accordance with manufacturer's instructions. If possible, the
unit should be run-in at reduced speed. _____ _____
700-16 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (4 of 8)
Initial Date
When the unit comes up to speed, note the frame oil pressure, check the
cylinder lubricator for proper feed rate and check all coolant flows and temper-
atures. Adjust as necessary. _____ _____
For motor-driven units, record the no-load amperage. _____ _____
Run the unit for approximately one minute and stop it. Record the time it takes
the compressor to roll to a stop. _____ _____
During the initial startup, operators should be alert for abnormal noises, pres-
sures, temperatures, etc. Watch for smoke or other signs of overheating. Imme-
diately shut the unit down if overheating is indicated. If an auxiliary frame
lube-oil pump is provided, and it has started on unit shutdown, keep it running
to facilitate cooldown. _____ _____
If overheating is suspected or smoke is coming out of the frame oil sump
breather, do not open any crankcase inspection cover for at least 15 minutes.
Sufficient time must elapse for the hot parts to cool. Opening a cover allows an
inrush of fresh air and may trigger a crankcase explosion. _____ _____
If overheating is not indicated, open crosshead and frame covers as soon as the
compressor stops turning. Check all bearings (main, thrust, and crankpin),
crosshead pin bushing, and crosshead shoe temperatures. Eliminate any condi-
tion causing overheating in these parts. Replace inspection covers. _____ _____
Restart the unit and run it for approximately five minutes. Check driver and
driven unit for abnormal vibration. Stop the unit and repeat internal inspection. _____ _____
Examine compressor cylinders. (Remove valve covers and inspect cylinder
bore condition.) _____ _____
On lubricated cylinders, check for satisfactory lubrication of cylinder bores.
Check temperature and lubrication of piston rods and packing. _____ _____
Check temperatures in non-lubricated cylinders for indication of overheating. _____ _____
Run the compressor at no load for at least a 15-minute period as long as no
overheating or other signs of distress are noted. Repeat bearing and lubrication
checks. _____ _____
Reinstall suction valves and covers previously removed from each end of each
cylinder. Clean parts thoroughly before installing. _____ _____
Purge all air from compressor cylinders and piping inside process piping block
valves. _____ _____
When process gases are toxic or noxious, pressurize the cylinders with nitrogen
to approximately 50 psi and check for leaks in flanged piping joints and valve
covers. Use portable gas sniffers. Correct leaks. _____ _____
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 700-17
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (5 of 8)
Initial Date
Alternately for non-toxic gases, check for leaks by gradually pressurizing the
system by opening unit block valves to admit process gas. _____ _____
Apply full suction pressure (using nitrogen or process gas) to each cylinder and
recheck for leaks. _____ _____
Blow piping and cylinders down through vent valves. _____ _____
Step 6. Run-in Under Load
There are a variety of ways to run-in new packings and rings. The basic idea is
to allow working parts to adjust and to seat satisfactorily without overheating
or overstressing. Gradual load application is recommended to avoid burned
spots on rings and packing. This damage will appreciably reduce overall life. _____ _____
Be sure manufacturer's instructions for loading and unloading cylinders are
available and have been reviewed. _____ _____
Caution Confirm that the specific run-in procedure developed
insures that a non-reversing rod load condition will not
occur in any cylinder.
Open all fixed and variable volume clearance pockets on each cylinder (to the
maximum allowable volume). _____ _____
With all cylinder valves in place, unload the compressor as much as possible
by one or more of the following methods:
1. Open discharge-to-suction bypasses. (Be sure bypass cooler, if any, is
operational.) _____ _____
2. Open discharge vents (not interstage) to blowdown. _____ _____
3. Unload suction valves on one end of each cylinder. _____ _____
With the compressor unloaded, start the unit and allow it to warm up in accor-
dance with manufacturer's recommendations (at least 15 minutes). _____ _____
Closely observe gas temperature indication for each cylinder. Do not exceed
the manufacturer's recommended maximum allowable temperature in any
cylinder. _____ _____
Turn on purge gas, if any, to rod packers, distance pieces and wiper packing. _____ _____
During the following loading procedure it is particularly important that piston
rod packing be properly run-in. The rate of pressure buildup in a cylinder
depends on piston rod packing leakage. Follow specific manufacturer's recom-
mendations on the maximum rate of pressure buildup for the particular packing
material supplied. _____ _____
700-18 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (6 of 8)
Initial Date
Depending on the particular installation, it may be necessary to make special
provisions for gradual partial loading until the packing seals properly. This is
especially true for high-pressure applications. _____ _____
For units equipped with discharge-to-suction bypass capability, gradually
load the unit by slowly opening the discharge block valve, closing the bypass,
and then slowly opening the suction block valve. _____ _____
Note If the bypass stream is not cooled, some intake gas must be admitted to
maintain safe gas temperatures. _____ _____
For units equipped with discharge vents only, slowly open the discharge
block valve and while opening it, close the vents. _____ _____
Open the suction block valve slowly. _____ _____
If design permits, utilize suction valve unloaders on the crank end of the
cylinder to minimize pressure on the rod packing. (First, verify that the config-
uration of unloading will not cause non-reversing rod loading.) _____ _____
Caution Suction block valves must be opened fast enough to avoid
rod overloads caused by an excessive compression ratio.
For multi-stage compressors, the following loading procedure is recommended:
Note When stages are loaded in the following manner, no gas will be
pumped. Cylinder pressures will be reduced during each stroke. This will not,
however, be detrimental for the short period of time it takes to put the machine
on line.
1. Load the last stage (highest pressure cylinder) by opening the discharge
block valve, then the suction block valve on that stage. _____ _____
2. Load the next highest pressure cylinder as above. _____ _____
3. Continue to load each succeeding lower pressure stage in a similar manner. _____ _____
Use the following procedure to break in new rings and packing on each new
stage:
1. Apply full load (open discharge and suction block valves) for approxi-
mately one minute. Remove the load entirely for approximately 15
minutes to permit rings and packing to cool. _____ _____
2. Apply full load for two minutes and remove it for 15 minutes. _____ _____
3. Repeat initial step for five minutes. _____ _____
4. Apply full load and leave it on unless severe heating occurs in the packing. _____ _____
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 700-19
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (7 of 8)
Initial Date
During the run-in period, make sure lubricator feed rates are properly set. In
addition, check the following items:
1. Packing for overheating and leakage. If severe heating occurs or the
packing blows by excessively, shut the unit down, determine and correct
the cause. If the packing blowby rate is low but persists for more than a
few hours, shut the unit down and correct the problem. _____ _____
2. Suction valve temperatures by checking valve covers for excessive
heating. _____ _____
3. Valve leakage using an ultrasonic transducer or an electronic engine
analyzer. _____ _____
Step 7. Bringing the Unit On-stream
Following initial break-in of rings and packing the unit may be put in service.
Re-check adequacy of cooling and lubrication system operations. _____ _____
After the unit has been in operation long enough for temperatures to stabilize,
supports under compressor cylinder and pulsation dampers should be adjusted
in accordance with manufacturer's recommendation. _____ _____
Shut down the compressor after a few hours of service (or after unit has
reached thermal stability). _____ _____
Remove inspection covers and check bearings, bushings, and crosshead shoes
for overheating. _____ _____
Check piston rods and packing for overheating and adequate lubrication. _____ _____
Remove valve covers and check for satisfactory lubrication of cylinder bores
(lubricated cylinders). Check bores of non-lubricated cylinders for proper
condition. _____ _____
Retighten to manufacturer's recommended torque (or stretch) all bolting
including external frame bolting, packing gland nuts, piston rod crosshead nuts,
main bearing nuts, foundation bolts, driver holddown bolts, pulsation dampers,
and cylinder flange mounting bolts, etc. _____ _____
After the unit has run for approximately two days, shut down the unit and
perform the following steps:
1. Check alignment of the compressor, driver, and gearbox (if any). _____ _____
2. Retorque holddown bolts for compressor, driver and gearbox (if any). _____ _____
3. Remove several valves and check each cylinder bore for proper condition. _____ _____
4. Check piston rod alignment. _____ _____
700-20 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (8 of 8)
Initial Date
5. Check piston rod crosshead nuts for proper tightness. _____ _____
6. If a special break-in oil is used, drain oil from the frame oil system
including sump, filters, coolers, pump, and piping. Fill the sump to the
proper level with the lube-oil recommended for the service intended. Fill
the cylinder and packing lubricator reservoir with the proper oil. Replace
or clean oil filters, as applicable. _____ _____
Gradually reduce the lubricant rate to cylinders and packing to the feed rate
recommended by the manufacturer. _____ _____
Note Caution should be used in operating at maximum lubricator feed rates
for extended periods to avoid excessive lube-oil accumulation in cylinders.
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 700-21
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
740 Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist
The manufacturer's installation manual, equipment specifications, as-built
data sheets, and the specific process system requirements should be reviewed in
detail, and modifications made to this checklist, as appropriate, to cover indi-
vidual requirements.
Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist (1 of 9)
Initial Date
Step 1. Documentation
As applicable, review the following documents which cover all major
compressor train components:
Manufacturer's instruction manual(s) _____ _____
Equipment Specifications, as applicable:
• API Equipment Standards _____ _____
• Project Specifications _____ _____
Purchase Documents:
• Purchase Order _____ _____
• Quotation Requests _____ _____
• List Sheets _____ _____
• Other documents referenced in Purchase Order _____ _____
As-built Equipment Data Sheets _____ _____
Performance Data/Curves _____ _____
Lubrication Chart _____ _____
Installation Drawings _____ _____
Shop Mechanical/Performance Reports, and Inspection Reports _____ _____
Shaft Alignment Chart _____ _____
Safety Instruction Sheets _____ _____
Existing Installations:
Maintenance History _____ _____
Performance/Vibration History _____ _____
Inspection/Trouble Reports done since last major turnaround _____ _____
700-22 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist (2 of 9)
Initial Date
Step 2. Safety Precautions
Lock out and properly tag the main driver. _____ _____
Insure all piping and hot surfaces (above 140F) are suitably guarded or insu-
lated for personnel protection. _____ _____
Confirm all safety valves are installed, properly set, and tested. _____ _____
Insure no block valves are located between the source of pressure and the
safety valves, unless locked open. _____ _____
Insure suitable guards meeting OSHA requirements are in place around all
exposed rotating parts. _____ _____
Eliminate tripping/slipping hazards or mark clearly as hazards, and remove all
oil from floors or decking. _____ _____
Relieve all pressure within the unit before any work is performed. _____ _____
Isolate compressors handling toxic or flammable gases from process piping
and purge or evacuate, as applicable. _____ _____
Step 3. Equipment Condition (Before Installation)
As Received
Check all bill of materials for completeness of material received. Insure all
tagged materials are correctly labeled. _____ _____
Confirm required spare parts and special tools received, and location docu-
mented. _____ _____
Take immediate action on any shortages or damage. _____ _____
Check internal/external cleanliness. _____ _____
Insure baseplate/skid straight and flat. _____ _____
Insure baseplate/skid mounted compressor/driver not bolt-bound (free to move
for alignment, as necessary). _____ _____
Confirm that compressor/driver rotates freely. _____ _____
Inspect condition of all bearings. _____ _____
Confirm alignment shims (number, material, condition) are acceptable. _____ _____
Confirm coupling condition is acceptable and all components received. _____ _____
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 700-23
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist (3 of 9)
Initial Date
Temporary Storage:
Insure storage protection requirements met (refer to the General Machinery
Manual and Manufacturer's installation manual). _____ _____
Confirm equipment inert gas blanketed or dry air/inert gas purged, as appro-
priate. _____ _____
Confirm rust preventive/lubricant compatibility. _____ _____
Schedule and perform inspection of equipment condition at regular intervals
during storage. _____ _____
Step 4. Foundations and Grouting
Concrete Foundations
Clean and properly coat metal surface of soleplates or baseplate/skid. _____ _____
Confirm corners of soleplates or baseplate/skid are properly rounded. _____ _____
Insure mounting feet or base are free of burrs. _____ _____
Disconnect coupling before leveling. _____ _____
Level soleplates or baseplate/skid in accordance with manufacturer's recom-
mended procedure and local standards. _____ _____
Cure concrete foundation for at least 14 days before grouting preparation. _____ _____
Properly roughen and clean (free of oil, grease and other foreign substances)
concrete surface. If cementitious grout is used, saturate concrete surfaces with
water for 24 hours prior to placement of grout. Remove any free standing water
before grouting. (Refer to Specification MAC-EG-3907, Grouting of
Machinery for recommended procedures.) _____ _____
Insure proper grout material/thickness. _____ _____
Confirm anchor bolt cavities in foundation are not filled with grout. _____ _____
Cure grout for at least three days. _____ _____
Piping should not be connected to the equipment until grout has thoroughly
cured. _____ _____
Confirm no hollow areas or majors cracks in grouting. _____ _____
Back off leveling bolts. _____ _____
Tighten anchor bolts using a torque wrench to values in accordance with manu-
facturer's recommendation. _____ _____
700-24 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist (4 of 9)
Initial Date
Other Foundations (Structures) _____ _____
Insure mounting plates are located at load bearing support beams. _____ _____
Use shims of corrosion-resistant material. _____ _____
Dowel driver after successful solo (uncoupled) run. _____ _____
Dowel compressor after hot alignment check confirms proper alignment. _____ _____
Step 5. Alignment and Couplings
Install compressor and driver on foundation in accordance with the manufac-
turer's recommendations and local procedures. _____ _____
Check for correct axial spacing between compressor and driver shaft ends. _____ _____
Check axial float of motor driver. _____ _____
Confirm that motor driver is properly positioned. (Limited end float coupling.) _____ _____
Review and finalize the compressor train Shaft Alignment Chart. _____ _____
For existing installations, use historical data as a basis for determining cold
alignment settings necessary to achieve the desired running (hot) alignment. _____ _____
Lubricate bearings before rotating shaft for cold alignment. _____ _____
Install coupling per manufacturer's instructions. _____ _____
Check for proper shim installation on flexible coupling. _____ _____
Check for proper coupling lubrication. _____ _____
Check alignment of all coupled equipment. _____ _____
Install hot alignment tooling/equipment, as applicable. _____ _____
Check hot alignment only after the compressor has been operated for several
hours and stable operating temperatures reached. _____ _____
Make final alignment moves based on a thorough review of data obtained
during the hot alignment. _____ _____
Install coupling guard. _____ _____
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 700-25
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist (5 of 9)
Initial Date
Step 6. Piping
Thoroughly clean all piping and vessels which are on the suction side of any
compressor to protect against damage of compressor internals during/after
startup. Also thoroughly clean all lube systems as recommended below.
Precautions must be taken after cleaning to insure that no further foreign mate-
rial can enter the system. Cleaning of piping usually requires chemical or
mechanical means, or both. Appropriately seal all component parts following
cleaning. _____ _____
Compressor flanges should remain sealed until the final piping is to be
connected. _____ _____
Mechanically clean steel piping for suction gas and blow down with air. _____ _____
Chemically clean steel piping for lube-oil systems in accordance with appro-
priate procedures. Sandblasting may be appropriate for some installations. _____ _____
Clean alloy piping in accordance with applicable project or local procedures. _____ _____
Drain all gas suction lines thoroughly. _____ _____
Remove all grit from sandblasted lines. _____ _____
Confirm that piping interior is free from all dirt, scale, rust, weld slag and other
foreign material. _____ _____
Braces on expansion joints and pins in spring supports should remain in place
during installation, and any subsequent testing, such as hydrotesting. _____ _____
Piping should not be connected to the equipment until grout has thoroughly
cured. _____ _____
Confirm flange bolt holes are in line and flanges are parallel within specified
tolerance. _____ _____
Check the equipment installation (including auxiliary systems) against final
drawings to insure correct location and orientation of safety valves, block
valves, check valves, recycle lines, etc., as required by the specific system.
Check all piping and components for proper material. _____ _____
Check the location and setting of pipe anchors, fixed supports and spring
hangers to insure they are in accordance with drawings and specifications, and
properly set and anchored to avoid any casing strains. _____ _____
Check spring supports after removal of pin to insure springs freely carry the
pipe load. _____ _____
Provide adequate allowance for expansion of suction and discharge piping. _____ _____
700-26 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist (6 of 9)
Initial Date
Maintain angular offset of expansion joints within manufacturer's prescribed
limits (expansion joints not used to correct misalignment of pipe). _____ _____
Maintain compressor and driver movement within allowable limits during
piping bolt-up. If movement exceeds limits, piping must be loosened and refab-
ricated, realigned, or anchors adjusted as required. _____ _____
Insure suction strainers are accessible and removable without disturbing equip-
ment alignment. _____ _____
Inspect screen for adequate construction, compliance with specification and
proper orientation. _____ _____
Verify that strainers are installed and that piping is provided with pressure taps
both upstream and downstream of the strainer. _____ _____
Check inlet line to air compressor for corrosion protective coating of internal
surface, or that line is stainless steel. _____ _____
Confirm insulation and/or heat tracing installed in accordance with installation
drawings. _____ _____
Confirm there are no pockets or low spots in the gas piping which cannot be
drained. _____ _____
Vent all high points in liquid piping. _____ _____
Route oil piping on frequently used vents/drains away from equipment to
prevent spraying oil over equipment. _____ _____
Inspect auxiliary equipment for properly installed block valves. _____ _____
Insure proper thread sealant used for screwed piping. (Sealant not used when
connection is seal welded.) Do not use teflon tape to seal threads on lube-oil
piping. _____ _____
Confirm purge gas to reservoirs, bearing housings, etc., connected and
functional. _____ _____
Inspect all drain lines for proper slope (l/4-inch/foot minimum). _____ _____
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 700-27
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist (7 of 9)
Initial Date
Step 7. Special Notes for Lube and Seal Systems
Since centrifugal compressor trains are often among the last items to be started up, cleanup of the
lube and seal system is usually on the critical path to plant startup. Refer to MAC-MS-2983, Field
Cleaning of Compressor Lube and Seal Oil Systems, and PIM-MS-2411, Descaling and Cleaning Steel
Piping for additional information.
Substantial time savings can be realized by proper planning prior to the start of flushing. Historical
records from previous projects indicate revised procedures and improved planning can reduce overall
flushing from five-six weeks to less than two weeks.
Consider the following areas:
Pre-plan approach—Put one individual in charge and familiarize all
personnel with objectives. _____ _____
Define goal of cleanliness, and establish criteria for measuring. _____ _____
Initial startup of flush—A very effective way to expedite cleanup is to
initially remove all screens, filters, orifices, or any other removable restric-
tions and sweep all foreign material through the system into the reservoir
(make sure filters are removed and the compressor and driver seals/bearings,
turbine control system and overhead seal oil tank are bypassed). _____ _____
Schedule around-the-clock flushing right from the start. _____ _____
Heat the oil—Optimum flushing temperatures are in the order of 160-180F.
Permanently installed reservoir heaters will probably not be adequate. Plan to
make special provisions for temporary heating of the oil. _____ _____
Shock the system every way possible—This includes sudden changes in flow
velocity, hammering on all the piping and components, and thermal shock. _____ _____
Plan for adequate flushing velocity—Oil flushing velocity should be at least
twice the normal operating velocity. Walk the piping, count fittings and defin-
able pressure drops, determine the system curve and plot on pump curves.
Consider alternate methods of maximizing flow (parallel pumps, series pumps,
operate steam driven pump above its rated speed, temporarily replace positive
displacement pumps with centrifugal, etc.). Check to make sure any pump
bypasses back to the reservoir remain closed. _____ _____
Maintain close and continual DAILY communication with all parties
involved. Immediately resolve problems and develop a revised course of
action. _____ _____
Do not assume the system or components are clean because they were
“cleaned at the factory.” _____ _____
Do not install anything that isn't clean. _____ _____
700-28 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist (8 of 9)
Initial Date
The key to an efficient cleaning program is recognizing that lube-oil is a
very inefficient rust, slag, scale or paint remover. Timely completion there-
fore relies heavily on thorough cleaning of individual components and piping
prior to assembly. Specifically:
Disassemble and thoroughly clean all components. _____ _____
Reassemble cleaned components in a clean work environment. _____ _____
Stainless steel systems often include carbon steel block valves, slip-on flanges,
coolers, filters, switch valves, and pumps. _____ _____
Remove carbon steel components, dismantle and clean mechanically before
starting flushing. _____ _____
Carefully analyze all material that appears on the flushing screens (identify and
remove source of contamination). _____ _____
Make prompt decisions to remove contaminates or to live with them. _____ _____
Do the previous steps concurrently with the final piping assembly and testing
for the most efficient use of time. _____ _____
Recycle through the previous steps as necessary. _____ _____
Step 8. Instrumentation and Controls
Check all safety valves for proper location and setting. _____ _____
Insure all indicating gages are installed, and oriented to be clearly seen by an
operator when making control adjustments. _____ _____
Test alarm, shutdown, and safety functions. _____ _____
Confirm alarms and shutdowns are operating and arranged to permit testing
while the compressor is on line. _____ _____
Complete required loop checks and other tests of Compressor anti-surge,
capacity and process control systems, confirming proper operation. _____ _____
Step 9. Drivers
Consult manufacturer's instruction manual for specific installation instructions. _____ _____
Operate turbines uncoupled and check the actual trip speed three times before
coupling to the driven equipment. Trip speeds should be non-trending and all
within 1%. _____ _____
Also confirm that trip setting is within the allowable range for all driven
equipment. _____ _____
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 700-29
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist (9 of 9)
Initial Date
Operate motors uncoupled from compressor to check rotation and general
operation. Provide supplementary lubrication for motors normally lubricated
by a shaft driven oil pump on the driven equipment. _____ _____
Coordinate mechanical checks, such as air gap and magnetic center, with
appropriate electrical personnel. _____ _____
Check for proper rotation of all auxiliary system motor drivers. _____ _____
Consult the Drivers Manual for more comprehensive installation checklists for
drivers.
700-30 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
750 Centrifugal Compressor Precommissioning Checklist
Use the following checklist during run-in of the compressor for the first time, and
also following major equipment overhauls. Review the manufacturer's installation
manual and the specific process system in detail, and modify this checklist, as
appropriate, to cover special requirements.
Review the final modified checklist with the operators and all other personnel
involved in the precommissioning to insure that everyone understands the proce-
dures and the specific objectives involved. A Pre-startup Meeting of all
concerned is highly recommended.
Centrifugal Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (1 of 4)
Initial Date
Step 1. General
New equipment installations should first be checked in accordance with the Centrifugal Compressor
Installation Checklist.
Reconfirm checks previously completed if there has been extended time
between installation and startup and/or additional work has been performed on
the unit. _____ _____
For existing installations the overhaul/repair records should first be reviewed
for completeness of work and recording of pertinent data. _____ _____
Step 2. Safety Precautions
Lock out and tag main driver. _____ _____
Insure all safety valves are installed, properly set, and tested. _____ _____
Confirm no block valves are located between the source of pressure and safety
valves, unless locked open. _____ _____
Insure suitable guards meeting OSHA requirements are in place around all
exposed rotating parts. _____ _____
Eliminate tripping/slipping hazards or mark clearly as hazards, and remove all
oil from floors or decking. _____ _____
Step 3. Pre-Startup Data Review
As a minimum, the following data should be available:
A list (or data sheets) covering specific data to be recorded during startup. _____ _____
Critical speeds for all train components. _____ _____
Any maximum temperature/pressure limits. _____ _____
Minimum and maximum governor speed settings (turbine drivers). _____ _____
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700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Centrifugal Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (2 of 4)
Initial Date
Overspeed trip setting (turbine drivers). _____ _____
Maximum turbine exhaust temperature (condensing turbines). _____ _____
For motor drivers, determine how many restarts are permitted during one
hour's time. Do not exceed these limits. _____ _____
Review the precommissioning procedure with the appropriate operating and
startup personnel, to insure a safe, reliable initial operation, and a smooth tran-
sition from startup conditions to normal operation. _____ _____
Resolve any conflicts between precommissioning checklist and manufacturer's
instruction manual procedures. _____ _____
Define data acquisition requirements, and schedule appropriate personnel and
monitoring equipment. (See Figure 700-1 for data recommended for all major
machinery startups.) For turbine drivers, define the specific speed steps at
which data will be taken during startup. _____ _____
Operation on Air—Initial Startup
Operation on air or inert gas, when permitted, requires special precautions.
Both discharge temperature and/or seal operation may be limiting factors.
Specifics of the proposed operation should be reviewed in detail, and the
manufacturer consulted for any recommendations or limitations on the specific
equipment involved. _____ _____
Run-in on air should only be done with an open loop for flammable gas
machines with oil seals—never with a closed loop, this can be extremely
dangerous. _____ _____
Step 4. Pre-Startup Installation Check:
Removal of all liquids from gas suction piping is mandatory. Be sure lines are
drained and prewarmed, if applicable, by turning on heat tracing before opera-
tion of the compressor. _____ _____
Confirm that the coupling and coupling guard are properly installed. _____ _____
Remove any rust preventive, as appropriate. _____ _____
Confirm that all instrumentation (including vibration, thrust, and temperature
probes) has been calibrated, and is operational. _____ _____
Confirm that all alarms and shutdowns have been properly set and tested. _____ _____
Confirm that monitoring systems, including all alarms and shutdowns, are in
service and not bypassed during initial operation and startup. _____ _____
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Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Centrifugal Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (3 of 4)
Initial Date
Check the lube and seal system for proper oil supply pressure, temperature, and
flow; and confirm that all system alarms, trips, and the auxiliary pump startup
are functioning properly. _____ _____
For turbine drivers—confirm that the main trip-throttle valve and any extrac-
tion valves trip on proper signals. _____ _____
Step 5. Startup
Revise the following general checklist for the specific installation and equip-
ment involved, and incorporate detailed procedures from the manufacturers
instruction manual(s), as appropriate.
Steam Turbine Drivers
Open drains to remove condensate from the turbine casing and steam lines. _____ _____
Warm the turbine by cracking open the steam supply block valve or the
warmup bypass valve. _____ _____
Close drain valves when condensate has been purged. _____ _____
Open sealing steam lines, when provided, at both low and high pressure ends. _____ _____
Manually begin turbine rotation up to slow roll speed (approximately
500 RPM) by further cracking open the main steam supply valve. _____ _____
Allow the unit to warm up while monitoring operation. Watch exhaust temper-
ature on condensing units to make sure it does not exceed the specified limit
while at reduced speed. _____ _____
Manually trip overspeed mechanism in accordance with local procedures to
check for proper action. Reset and continue startup. _____ _____
Gradually increase speed in steps as previously defined. Record required data
at each step. Pass through criticals rapidly without stopping. _____ _____
Monitor unit operation as speed is increased to minimum governor. Increase to
approximately 100% speed on governor control. Check that the governor is
controlling to proper speed. _____ _____
Motor Drivers
Determine how many restarts are permitted in one hour's time and follow those
limits.
Caution Do not frequently push the “Stop” button before motor has
reached full speed, particularly on larger motors. Do not
push the “Start” button until motor has coasted to a
complete stop. Such actions may trip or even damage the
electrical equipment.
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700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
Centrifugal Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (4 of 4)
Initial Date
If motor repeatedly trips on start attempts, check:
Process for excessively high flow or pressure demands. _____ _____
Improper electrical switchgear settings. _____ _____
Low system voltage during starting. _____ _____
Mechanical compressor problem such as bad bearing or internal rubbing. _____ _____
Electronic Monitoring of Startup
Note The following information is applicable to electronic monitoring of
centrifugal-compressor start-ups.
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Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
Fig. 700-1 Recommended Startup Data for Major Turbomachinery
Data Type When Recorded
During
Minimum Maximum 500 RPM Speed
Slow Roll Governor Governor Intervals Change Continuous
1. Scope Photos x x x
2. Hand Logged Data x x x x
3. Probe Spectrums x x x
4. FM Tape Recording x x
5. Bode/Nyquist Plots x x
6. Raster Plots x x
7. Strip Chart x x
8. Velocity Spectrums x x
9. Acceleration Spectrums x x
(1) Scope photos should be fully documented, and on X-Y probes, should include filtered and unfiltered orbits at speeds
above slow roll. All photos must be done in real-time.
(2) Hand logged data should be logged as often as possible during the run as outlined above. Do not try to hand log data
within the critical range, which must be traversed rapidly. (Refer to Figure 700-2 for a hand-log form.)
(3) Probe spectrums should be recorded on each probe as outlined above. Averaging is not necessary if the spectrum is
stable. (i.e., no pulsating amplitudes, etc.)
(4) FM tape recordings should include a known reference calibration signal and a tape log. At a minimum, the X-Y probes on
each side of each coupling, one of the X-Y probes at the end of the machine opposite the coupling, and the key-phasor
probe should be recorded for each machine casing. (This will require more than one 8-channel recorder if the train
consists of more than two machine cases.) Under no circumstances should the recordings be interrupted for any
reason.
(5) Bode/Nyquist plots should be made for all radial probes. Normally, one probe is done in real-time during startup and the
others are done from the tape recorded signals.
(6) Raster plots should be made at 500 RPM intervals for each X-Y probe. These may also be done from the tape.
(7) Strip chart recordings should be made for any radial probe(s) not being tape recorded, and as a minimum should include
speed and unfiltered amplitude. If all radial probes are being tape recorded, a strip chart recording of axial position
versus speed should be recorded.
(8) Velocity spectrums should be made at all points on the bearing caps for each machine as outlined previously. A minimum
of eight linear averages should be done, and each spectral line's frequency identified.
(9) Acceleration spectrums should be made on turbine casings and gearboxes as previously outlined, using a stud-mounted
accelerometer. These must also be averaged at least eight times and each spectral line over 0.5 G's should have the
frequency identified on the plots.
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Turbomachinery Hand-logged Data Sheet
Fig. 700-2
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Abstract
This section reviews reciprocating compressor/engine predictive maintenance,
reciprocating piston rod reconditioning, and contains troubleshooting checklists for
centrifugal and reciprocating compressors. Maintenance checklists referred to in this
section are included in the Appendix. For information on predictive maintenance of
centrifugal compressors and vibration troubleshooting, see the CUSA, IMI Candi-
date Manual.
Contents Page
810 Performance Analysis of Reciprocating Compressors
and Engines 800-3
811 Introduction
812 Principles of Compression Analysis
813 Principles of Combustion Analysis
814 Characteristics of Ignition Problems
815 Vibration vs Crankangle
816 Hardware
817 Example of a Typical Predictive Maintenance Program
818 Examples of Program Benefits
820 Maintenance Checklists 800-29
830 Reciprocating Compressor Piston-Rod Reconditioning 800-31
831 Introduction
832 Rod Leakage/Surface Finish
833 Rod Deviations
834 Rod Reconditioning
835 Rod Coating Processes
836 Experience
837 Recommendations
838 Inspection and Specifications
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840 Troubleshooting 800-53
841 Introduction
842 Troubleshooting Guidelines
843 Problem Solving Guides
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
810 Performance Analysis of Reciprocating Compressors and Engines
811 Introduction
Performance analysis is employed in several Company locations as one of several
available methods of predictive maintenance.
Performance analysis is a program involving several elements, which can include:
• Analysis of power-cylinder pressure versus time,
• Analysis of compressor-cylinder pressure versus time, or volume,
• Analysis of vibration caused by mechanical events,
• Analysis of computed values, such as horsepower, and/or
• Analysis of power-cylinder ignition.
The concept of predictive maintenance is being successfully used throughout the
industry to reduce maintenance expense. The essential philosophy behind a predic-
tive maintenance program is a concentrated effort to gather pertinent data on a peri-
odic basis. Data acquisition is covered later on in this section.
The advantages of a predictive maintenance program include:
• Elimination of catastrophic damage, thereby avoiding very high expense.
• Avoiding equipment (and plant) downtime.
• Performing only necessary maintenance.
• Avoiding disassembly of healthy machinery (periodic “overhauls,” for
example) and exposing it to risks of maintenance errors.
• Allowing reliable machinery to continue operation.
• Optimizing fuel consumption.
The following is information summarized from two programs: one at a producing
facility, the other at a large refinery.
812 Principles of Compression Analysis
Pressure-Volume Analysis
The purpose of this analysis is to:
• Detect mechanical problems before they become serious enough to cause
significant damage to the machine,
• Evaluate compressor/engine performance in conjunction with P-T (Pressure-
Time) and vibration analysis, and
• Automatically compute indicated horsepower, volumetric efficiency,
compressor horsepower loading, and power loss.
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Compressor Cylinders
Figure 800-1 is a simplified summary of a typical Pressure-Volume display and how
it correlates to piston/valve actions. It gives the basic pattern and events relative to
piston travel.
Figure 800-2 represents one format to display the compression cycle. Note that it is
similar to Figure 800-1, except for being reversed. Figure 800-2 also shows typical
problems that can be detected (with interpretation).
Figures 800-3 and 800-4 further illustrate methods for detecting impending
compressor valve problems.
Fig. 800-1 Typical Pressure Volume Display (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Fig. 800-2 Typical Compressor Cylinder Problems Identified with P-V Displays (1 of 5)
(Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
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Fig. 800-2 Typical Compressor Cylinder Problems Identified with P-V Displays (2 of 5)
(Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Fig. 800-2 Typical Compressor Cylinder Problems Identified with P-V Displays (3 of 5)
(Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
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Fig. 800-2 Typical Compressor Cylinder Problems Identified with P-V Displays (4 of 5)
(Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Fig. 800-2 Typical Compressor Cylinder Problems Identified with P-V Displays (5 of 5)
(Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-3 Detection Patterns for Valve Problems
Fig. 800-4 Detection Patterns for Valve Problems
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
813 Principles of Combustion Analysis
Much of the material in Sections 813, 814, 815 and 816 has been extracted from
materials provided by Rotating and Reciprocating Specialists.
The purpose of this analysis is to:
• Optimize fuel consumption, and
• Detect mechanical problems before they become serious enough to cause
significant damage to the machine.
Typical combustion patterns are depicted on Figure 800-5 and may be defined as
follows:
1. Normal Combustion—Ignition timed correctly, proper air/fuel mixture, no
malfunctions.
2. No Combustion (Dead miss)—Cause: ignition or mixture, also water in
cylinder.
3. Early Combustion—Cause: ignition timing, mixture, or temperature.
4. Late Combustion—Cause: late ignition, mixture (rich or lean) or water in
cylinder.
– Terminal pressure high—rich mixture
– Terminal pressure low—lean mixture
5. Detonation (too rapid combustion rate—uncontrolled)—Cause: mixture,
excess load. Rich mixture tends to detonate.
6. Pre-ignition (auto-ignition)—Cause: hot spot, carbon or foreign matter in the
combustion chamber, excess cylinder temperature, presence of heavy
hydrocarbons.
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Fig. 800-5 Typical Combustion Patterns (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
NOTE: Frames 1-6 are all cylinder pressure vs. crankangle displays.
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
2-Stroke Cycle versus 4-Stroke Cycle
Both types of engines have advantages and disadvantages. The individual applica-
tion governs the selection of a 2-stroke cycle or 4-stroke cycle unit.
The primary difference between the engines is cylinder design, and:
• The 2-stroke cycle requires the piston to make only two strokes through the
cylinder (one revolution of the crankshaft) for each complete combustion cycle.
• The 4-stroke cycle requires the piston to make four strokes through the cylinder
(two revolutions of the crankshaft) for each complete combustion cycle.
• The 2-stroke cycle engine is the less complicated of the two, since it has no
CAM-actuated intake valves and most have no CAM-actuated exhaust valves.
Some 2-stroke cycle units do, however, have CAM-actuated exhaust valves.
• The 2-stroke cycle engine requires a positive scavenging air pressure (recipro-
cating scavenging air cylinder, mechanically-driven blower or turbocharger).
The 4-stroke cycle engine can be naturally aspirated. More horsepower can be
derived from the 4-stroke cycle engine by utilizing a mechanically-driven
blower (supercharger or turbocharger).
• The 4-stroke cycle engine has a longer functional stroke than the 2-stroke cycle
engine, since the 4-stroke cycle maintains a positive pressure (due to combus-
tion) on the piston for more degrees of crankshaft rotation and opens the
exhaust valve near the bottom dead center. Therefore, if a 2-stroke cycle and a
4-stroke cycle cylinder had the same displaced volume and were operating at
the same crankshaft speed with the same average cylinder pressures, the
2-stroke cycle would be developing 65 to 75% more horsepower.
• The 2-stroke cycle engine develops more power per cubic inch of displaced
volume.
• The 2-stroke cycle performs efficiently 100 to 110% of its rated load. The effi-
ciency drops rapidly as the load is reduced. Modern 2-stroke cycle engines do
operate more efficiently at lighter loads than the earlier generations did.
• The 4-stroke cycle engine is more efficient over a wider load range and
responds faster to drastic load changes, since the flow of gases is better
controlled by the intake and exhaust valves.
814 Characteristics of Ignition Problems
Ignition can be analyzed similar to compression and vibration. The following
describes such an analysis:
(Also, refer to Figures 800-6 and 800-7.)
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-6 Details of Combustion Pattern (Primary) (Courtesy of the American Gas
Association)
Fig. 800-7 Details of a Combustion Pattern (Inductive Secondary) (Courtesy of the
American Gas Association)
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Point A—Breaker points close/transistor turns on. If there is any abnormal voltage
change at this point, or if this point varies horizontally, a problem is expected with
the points or the switching mechanism.
Point B—Breaker points open/transistor turns off. This occurs at the same degree
each cycle if normal, and varies if the drive is worn or if the points stick or arc.
Point C—(line I) Peak ionization voltage. Voltage required to ionize the plug gap.
As this increases, the duration (line III) will decrease.
High voltage indicates:
• Wide plug gap of bad plug. Arc voltage (II) will be high also
• High resistance in the secondary lead (arcing broken strands or corroded
connectors)
• Heavy cylinder load (rich, dense mixture)
• Misfires—Excessive ionization voltage with no arc (III)—plug or secondary
lead bad
Low voltage indicates:
• Narrow plug gap
• Shorted plug—No or very little voltage rise
• Shorted secondary—Low voltage with no arc (III)
• Transformer—No arc (III)
• Light cylinder load—Arc voltage (II) also low and duration (III) long
No voltage rise—Shorted primary or primary distributor problem
Point D—Arc voltage (II) and arc duration (III)
High arc voltage indicates:
• Bad plug or wide gap
• High resistance in the secondary lead
• Heavy cylinder load
Low voltage indicates:
• Narrow plug gap
• Light cylinder load
Things to Remember:
• Be sure to analyze the whole pattern.
• Watch for multiple fires. Voltage rises at wrong crankangles.
• Approach the ignition analysis systematically.
• Be sure all cylinders are firing at the correct crankangle. Variation is often
found between the cylinders.
• Know the characteristics of your ignition system.
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815 Vibration vs Crankangle
The purpose of vibration analysis is to display the vibration amplitude vs
crankangle and to analyze the pattern. The vibration is composed of many different
components as they vibrate at various frequencies, amplitudes, and degrees of
crankshaft rotation.
If you know the exact degree at which each event occurs, its amplitude of vibration,
and its shape, you can determine if this event is normal for this type cylinder, the
condition of the various components, and even predict failures or schedule the exact
repairs as needed before the unit fails.
Refer to Figure 800-8 for typical vibration patterns and problems associated with
power cylinders. Although not discussed, similar patterns are evident on compres-
sion cylinders. Figure 800-9 shows typical compression-analysis signals.
Fig. 800-8 Typical Vibration Patterns with a 2 Stroke Power Cylinder. (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Fig. 800-9 Typical Vibration Patterns with Compression Cylinders (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
Point A
Peak Pressure Vibration. The flame front is moving at maximum velocity at this
point and usually causes this normal vibration. If detonation occurs, this vibration
becomes a high-amplitude sharp spike. Piston slap also occurs at or near this point,
since the piston will rock in a worn cylinder under the maximum pressure.
Excessive wear in the wristpin or bushing is often seen at this point.
A badly worn rod bearing will knock at this point or slightly later, normally detected
at BDC long before it appears at this point. The same is true of a worn wristpin. We
normally look for the rod bearing, wristpin, or a piston loose on the hanger at
10 degrees before and after BDC when it is in the early stages of wear.
Point B
Top Ring Enters the Exhaust Port. If the top ring is doing its job, the pressure will
be released when this event occurs. If this ring becomes worn, stuck, broken, or the
piston or cylinder port area wear, this vibration becomes a high-amplitude, sharp
spike. If something happens to the top ring, the second ring will hold most of the
pressure, resulting in a vibration spike when it enters the port. (This spike will occur
earlier, since the second ring enters the port at an earlier degree of crank rotation.)
Evaluate the ring condition by watching this area. Also watch for carbon buildup in
the ports, which will cause the rings to clip. This can occur in the intake port as well
as the exhaust. Normally, a ring is not picked up as it enters the intake port unless
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there is a problem. The same is true of the rings going back up through the ports on
the compression stroke. Since there is no pressure to hold the rings against the
cylinder walls, they do not clip in the ports on the compression stroke unless there is
a problem with the rings or the cylinder port.
If one of the lower rings is broken, it will cause a sharp spike in the exhaust port on
the power stroke, indicated by the degree at which it occurs.
Watch these ring vibrations, and they will increase in amplitude as the condition
gets worse. A new set of rings will clip in the ports until they wear in. Then the
vibration will drop down to a normal level until they begin to deteriorate.
Point C
Exhaust Blowdown—This is vibration of the gas as it leaves the cylinder. This
vibration will be present when the cylinder fires on a normal cycle and will disap-
pear when the cylinder has no combustion within the cycle. Use the exhaust blow-
down as a standard to compare all other vibrations within the pattern. If the
mounting or transducer changes, it will affect the whole pattern amplitude, which
the operator will note if he compares to a standard within the pattern.
The exhaust will elongate if the ports are restricted by carbon.
The operator may also note that on V-type units with a common exhaust manifold
between the V, the exhaust blowdown from the cylinder on the other bank may carry
over in the vibration trace. This blowdown (or ghost vibration) will always be
there and in the same place or crankangle. The operator can disregard it once he
identifies it.
Point D
Injection Valve Opens—This vibration is caused by the slack taken out when the
valve train activates the injection valve. The operator can get a fix on the CAM
timing and lobe condition from this vibration and the closure vibration. Some units
with hydraulic lifters will not have this vibration unless there is a problem with the
CAM or lifter. To pick up this vibration on such a unit, put the pick-up directly on
the rocker arm pin.
This vibration will be excessive if there is any wear in the valve actuation assembly.
Pressure applied to the rocker arm sometimes will eliminate much of the vibration
and allow the operator to make a true analysis of the rest to the pattern, possibly
distorted by this vibration.
Point E
Injection Valve Closes—The front (flat) side of this vibration is the degree at
which the valve hits the seat. The higher the amplitude, the harder the valve hits the
seat. The wider the vibration spike, the wider the mating surfaces. This is a good
indication of valve lash, CAM timing, injection valve, and seat condition.
If the vibration fades into the baseline, it is a good indication that the valve has
sealed. If it balloons out or continues to vibrate for too long, the valve is leaking.
Note the pattern in Figure 800-10.:
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Fig. 800-10 Vibration Patterns (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
816 Hardware
A variety of electronic equipment is used to make the program analysis. This equip-
ment is continually being improved and perfected to obtain additional or more
precise information. The system components are as follows:
Analyzer—This unit is the control center for the analyst. Various signals are
selected, calibrated, and controlled for accuracy of display, and if applicable
computing the horsepower. There are two available types
• Type I—Maintenance Analyzers—These devices display ignition, vibra-
tion/ultrasonic and pressure waveforms on an oscilloscope versus crankangle or
time for condition analysis.
• Type II—Performance Analyzers—These devices have all the capabilities of
the maintenance analyzers plus RPM, and accurate pressure versus volume
display, and digital readouts of horsepower developed or consumed by a
cylinder. These are the most expensive.
Oscilloscope—The oscilloscope displays electrical signals. It only understands
voltage. The signals it receives can be amplified and changed, but it primarily
displays the signals it receives as voltage wave forms. Scopes have one or more
vertical inputs and at least one horizontal input. The scope then provides a dynamic
X-Y plot of the wave form. These wave forms are observed or photographed for
analysis or evaluation.
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Transducers—A transducer is a device that takes a mechanical or nonelectrical
signal and converts it into an electrical signal that can be displayed on the oscillo-
scope. The program analyzer uses various types of transducers. These transducers
are:
• Ignition—Since ignition is an electrical signal, it requires no transducer, only
an ignition pickup. The ignition pickup carries the voltage from any point on
the ignition system (excluding direct secondary ignition voltage) to the oscillo-
scope form display. A 10:1 ignition attenuator is provided for voltage reduction.
• Vibration—The accelerometer uses a piezoelectric crystal device to convert
the physical or mechanical movement (1 Hz to 6 Hz) of the transducer into an
electrical signal proportional in amplitude to the actual movement or vibration.
• Pressure—Pressure transducers convert the instantaneous pressure into elec-
tronic signals that can be displayed or processed by the programming unit. The
pressure transducers can be used to sample the pressure inside any cylinder or
at any accessible point on the engine/compressor system. The transducers are
current state-of-the-art strain gage pressure transducers that can be automati-
cally calibrated by the program analyzer.
• Crankshaft Position—The encoder converts the physical crankshaft position
into electronic pulses. The crankangle may be determined by key-phasors
measuring each revolution, or by an encoder which produces one pulse for each
degree of crankshaft rotation.
• Ultrasonic—The ultrasonic probe converts the high-frequency vibrations
(36 Hz to 44 Hz) to lower frequency electronic signals that can be displayed on
the oscilloscope or evaluated audibly through headphones.
X-Y Plotter—This is a multi-pen X-Y plotter for large-scale, hard-copy records of
pressure traces and alphanumeric data.
Commercial Hardware Available
Listed in Appendix M are the established analyzer systems on the market today
(December 1988). These analyzers will be upgraded as electronic and digital tech-
nologies are expanded. Long-term digital storage of the various parameters is
currently being incorporated into these analyzers.
817 Example of a Typical Predictive Maintenance Program
The philosophy of predictive maintenance is to predict when, and what mainte-
nance will be necessary. It is best implemented as an element of an integrated reli-
ability program, as outlined below:
Record Keeping. Records of maintenance history, cost, performance and vibration
data are essential.
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Machinery Surveillance and Diagnostics. Routine surveillance to monitor online
conditions: vibration diagnostics, performance testing, oil analysis are utilized.
Design Review. Excessive maintenance and down time usually indicates a design
fault or misapplication.
Quality Control. Provide detailed maintenance checklists, inspection by qualified
personnel, and on-the-job technical advisors.
Machinery Protection. Shut the unit down before catastrophic failure, utilizing
appropriate shutdown protection, such as vibration, low-lube-oil pressure, high-
discharge temperatures, etc.
The above are the standard elements developed by the CUSA Manufacturing IMI
(Integrated Machinery Inspection) Program.
The essential philosophy behind a predictive maintenance program is a concen-
trated effort to gather pertinent data on a periodic basis. Data acquisition includes
the recording of visual inspections, temperature and pressure readings, along with
photographs of pressure, vibrations, and ultrasonic patterns. The conditions listed in
Figure 800-11 should be checked on a periodic basis: typically every 30 days on
critical machinery and 60 to 90 days on basic units.
Fig. 800-11 Summary of Typical Records Maintained: Reciprocating Compressor/Engine Predictive Maintenance
Program (1 of 2)
General Operating
Power Cylinders Compressor Cylinders Conditions Scavenger Cylinders
Original specifications, or baseline data, plus recent trends as appropriate:
Horsepower per cylinder Horsepower per Oil temperature
head-end and crank-end
Power loss per cylinder, Jacket water temperature
suction and discharge
Compression per cylinder RPM during test Oil pressure
RPM during test Suction and discharge pres- Oil filter differential
sure and temperature
RPM surge Effective horsepower Crankcase pressure
Ignition timing Brake horsepower Scavenging air pressure
Exterior examination of fuel Percent of rated load Exhaust pressure
valves, rocker arms, push Operation of unloaders and Motor amperage, power
rods, coils, plug wiring, clearance pockets factor, field current, etc.
starting air valves, etc.
Valve cover and cylinder System parameters, knock-
temperatures outs, pot liquid level, spill-
Visual inspection of cylinder back operation, flow rates,
parameters, jack stands, specific gravity, etc.
piping, etc.
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-11 Summary of Typical Records Maintained: Reciprocating Compressor/Engine Predictive Maintenance
Program (2 of 2)
General Operating
Power Cylinders Compressor Cylinders Conditions Scavenger Cylinders
Photographic/X-Y Plot Records:
Pressure versus crank Pressure versus crank Vibration verses crank
angle degree angle degree angle degree
Vibration versus crank Vibration versus crank Ultrasonic versus crank
angle degree angle degree angle degree
Pressure versus volume Pressure versus crank
Ultrasonic versus crank angle degree
angle degree
Followup Surveillance
During the time between periodic compression analysis, plant personnel may
perform followup surveillance of equipment highlighted by the analysis team. This
followup surveillance consists of the following:
• Visually inspect the compressor/engine;
• Record gage pressures and temperatures per individual equipment “road maps;”
• Monitor and record valve cover temperatures;
• Note oil levels; i.e., crankcase, McCord, Trabon, etc.;
• Use ultrasonic translator to help locate leaking and broken valves, valve covers,
rod packing, and auxiliary equipment leaks; and
• Monitor temperatures on fuel injection valves and starting air check valves.
Plant personnel should also review the surveillance schedule to determine which
compressors are due for analysis the next period. Notification should be given
responsible parties to make sure the equipment is online and available.
A periodic surveillance report should be prepared for each piece of equipment in
order to inform operations of any problems in their plant. Care should be taken to
ensure that all interested parties understand this information.
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Machinery Surveillance and Diagnostics
An engine/compressor surveillance program's main objective is to keep machinery
running reliably as long as possible, thereby reducing maintenance expense and
supporting production. Scheduled maintenance is recommended only when it is felt
that the machine will not “last” until the next surveillance period. The term “last”
can mean: (1) if equipment continues to operate, a failure could cause machinery to
become unsafe, or (2) a catastrophic failure could occur resulting in extended down-
time and more expensive repairs.
The following parameters may be established to classify machinery conditions:
Phase I. Potential problem. Symptom of a potential problem is present, but of low
magnitude. If, however, the unit is shutdown for another reason, before the next
analysis, it would be advantageous to make the repair.
Phase II. Predictable failure stage. Schedule maintenance within a few days. Condi-
tions call for scheduled maintenance. Experience indicates that machinery in this
condition can deteriorate rapidly.
Phase III. Failure imminent. Recommended immediate shutdown. Analysis indi-
cates probable catastrophic failure. The shutdown surveillance team will gather
needed data and then immediately contact the operator to shut down the unit. The
surveillance team will then notify proper personnel and present them with
supporting data.
Through coordinated efforts between the surveillance team, operations, and mainte-
nance, the recommended repairs are scheduled, and when complete, are recorded for
review by interested personnel.
Design Review
Repetitive failures are almost always caused by design deficiencies. A design
review consists of first identifying repetitive problems, then reviewing and rede-
signing the system to eliminate them.
The following case history is one example of a persistent problem solved by an
analysis program, combined with a design review. The problem was excessive fail-
ures of inboard suction valves on a high-stage hydrogen-booster compressor in a
large refinery.
Compression analysis showed several instances of cylinder-pressure variations.
Normal compressor valves required an average differential pressure of 20 psig to
open suction valves. Prior to valve failure, however, the differential pressure
increased to as high as 220 psig. With this information, the surveillance crew began
to gather data on a twice-per-month basis to study valve life in relation to the pres-
sure differential. They concluded that after the differential exceeded 75 psig, less
than two weeks valve life could be expected.
A criterion was established for these valves to be considered in a “Phase II” condi-
tion when the pressure differential exceeded 50 psig. After this criterion for repair
was established, the breakage of inboard suction valves ceased.
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Investigation also showed that the only time failures occurred were during, or after
the outboard end of the cylinder had been operated in the unloaded position.
Subsequent investigation of the valve repairs found that the plates and seats were
being honed to a mirror-like surface. With oil between the seat and plate, it was
impossible to lift the plate off the seat. This phenomenon was labeled “stiction.”
Valves were subsequently rebuilt with machined surfaces which alleviated a large
percentage of this “stiction”. Inboard valves were breaking because all the oil
supplied to the cylinder was dissipated during each stroke, except when the
outboard end was unloaded. This allowed oil to travel back through the outboard
suction valve and coat the inboard valve with excess oil. The following steps were
taken to eliminate the excessive failures of inboard suction valves:
• Valve surfaces were closely monitored to ensure proper finish.
• Lubrication rate to the cylinder was modified to the minimum required.
• Operations alternated outboard loads when notified of Phase I conditions by
the surveillance team.
Machinery Protection
Instrumentation for shutdowns and alarms are monitored, repaired, and upgraded as
necessary to prevent catastrophic failures of reciprocating equipment. The following
parameters are commonly considered critical for constant monitoring:
• Oil pressure,
• Discharge temperature,
• Jacket water temperature,
• Liquid knockout level,
• Vibration,
• Lubrication rate, and
• Amperage.
An important element of machinery protection is periodic testing of alarms and
shutdowns. In locations where there are regular, documented testing programs, tests
are conducted as often as weekly, but more commonly monthly. Longer intervals are
also used. One thing is clear: You cannot rely on shutdown protective devices if
they are not being tested and documented regularly.
Analysis worksheets used in the Warren Petroleum program are included in
Appendix M. They may be ordered from Warren or used as models to develop local
checklists.
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
818 Examples of Program Benefits
The justification of an analyzer program depends on many factors which must be
analyzed for each individual location. Several locations have adopted programs, and
several others use less-sophisticated, less-costly methods such as periodic moni-
toring of valve temperatures.
Some factors worth considering include the cost of the program itself, the level of
attention the equipment gets from operators and/or other predictive maintenance, the
remoteness, number and sizes of machines, criticality of service (production value),
and past maintenance costs.
Warren Petroleum and the El Segundo Refinery currently (1988) have active
programs in place. The following text illustrates some typical savings noted by
Warren, who have primarily integral-engine compressors. The cost-justification
worksheet (Figure 800-12) at the end of this sub-section was developed at
El Segundo, where most machines are slow-speed, motor driven.
In summary, the following discusses:
• Background,
• Fuel savings,
• Problems and cost,
• Power cylinders,
• Compressor cylinders, and
• Cost justification worksheet.
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-12 Cost Justification Worksheet (1 of 2)
Engine/Compressor Analyzer
Part I. Operating and Maintenance Data:
1. Horsepower
2. Cost per installed horsepower:
3. Fuel cost, per year:
4. Value of production per year:
5. Repair material cost, per year:
6. Load factor:
II. Cost Justification—Calculations
1. Reduced fuel consumption (per BHP Hr.) resulting from the following:
a. Correct Engine Balancing, using horsepower measurements of the
Engine/Compressor Analyzer:
5.0% of I (3)
b. Elimination of Defects in Ignition System using ignition analysis:
1.0% of I (3)
SUBTOTAL, Reduced Fuel Consumption
2. Added Production, or throughput:
a. Elimination of restriction on horsepower utilization, through the
following:
1. Measurement of indicated horsepower to help accomplish:
a. Correct loading, to utilize 100% of installed H.P.:
3% of I (4)
b. Proper balancing of power cylinders using H.P.
measurements:
1.0% of I (4)
2. Elimination of defects in ignition system using ignition analysis:
0.25% of I (4)
3. Elimination of improper firing conditions through pressure-time analysis:
0.25% of I (4)
b. Elimination of excessive compressor power or valve loss through
measurement of HP.
2% of I (4)
c. Improved volumetric efficiency through measurement of V.E. on
P-V card display:
1.0% of I (4)
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Fig. 800-12 Cost Justification Worksheet (2 of 2)
d. Elimination of excessive downtime which may result from:
1. Catastrophic failure.
2. Shutdown for visual inspection.
0.5% of I (4)
SUBTOTAL, ADDED PRODUCTION
3. Reduction in cost of repair parts through reduction of:
a. Catastrophic failure.
b. Periodic inspection.
5% of I (5)
4. Reduction in manpower costs resulting from reduced maintenance
requirements:
TOTAL ESTIMATED VALUE, operation and maintenance savings, and
added production:
Per Year
Multiplied by:
Additional conservative factor: .05
Estimated Value of operation and maintenance savings and added
protection
Per Year
Background
Typical maintenance programs consist of repairs only after failures, or doing peri-
odic overhauls. Needlessly, all power pistons and cylinders would be pulled and
inspected for damage, when only one or two pistons or cylinders on each engine
might need repair or replacement. A complete power cylinder overhaul of a Clark
RA-8 can cost a conservative $40,000 in parts, not including labor.
With a routine analyzer program, power piston rings that are worn, broken, or stuck
can usually be spotted and pulled for repair before the cylinder is damaged. A costly
overhaul, or worse, catastrophic damage, is thereby avoided.
Fuel Savings
When an engine is not balanced, some of the power cylinders carry more than their
share of the load. Consequently, the unbalanced engine will use more fuel to carry
the same load. This extra fuel varies depending on the severity of unbalance and the
type of engine. Besides the extra fuel, maintenance problems will arise from the
overloaded cylinders.
Balancing the horsepower between the power cylinders evenly distributes the load,
and wear is not excessive on any one cylinder. This is a basic preventive mainte-
nance procedure.
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Ignition problems and poor ignition timing will cause the engine to use more fuel
than required. If there is no combustion in a power cylinder due to ignition difficul-
ties, then the fuel will be swept out the exhaust. If the spark is early or late by as
little as four degrees, it will cause the engine to consume more fuel than necessary.
Other problems that will cause excessive fuel consumption are improper fuel and air
quality, improper air/fuel ratios, engine load, and engine RPM. The result of these
problems can cause the engine to consume as much as 15 to 25% more fuel than
necessary.
Example: A Cooper Bessemer GMVA-8, rated at 1350 HP, consumes 250 MCFD at
an estimated price of $1.50/MCF. If it consumes 20% extra fuel, or 50 MCFD, the
annual cost of the extra fuel would exceed $27,000.
Problems and Costs Summary
An analyzer program can discover many compressor engines running at less than a
full load. It can determine if the cylinder is moving the assumed amount of gas. It
checks the indicated horsepower consumed for each compressor cylinder.
Typical problems are listed below that are frequently found from an analysis
program. In all cases, simple, inexpensive problems are caught and corrected before
they lead to serious, very costly repairs. The approximated costs are typical for the
West Texas region. The costs do not reflect any labor cost to install or replace the
various components. Labor typically runs 100 to 150% of parts costs.
A Clark RA is a medium-sized, slow-speed integral engine. A Clark BA is a slightly
larger, slow-speed integral engine.
Problems and Costs: Power Cylinders
Piston Slap—This creates a major wear pattern in the cylinder and piston which
will have to be completely changed out. If the cylinder and piston have to be
replaced, the costs are approximately $2500 to $4500 for a Clark RA and Clark BA,
respectively.
Ring Blow-by—This leads to oil contamination and also leads to piston slap if left
undetected and allowed to progress. If the repair is limited to piston ring changeout,
the cost is approximately $250 to $450 for a Clark RA and a Clark BA, respec-
tively. If the cylinder and piston require repair, the cost is about 10 times higher.
Detonation—This can be a very serious problem if allowed to continue for very
long. It breaks rings, cracks pistons, cracks heads, and wears piston bearings out
very quickly. The costs for replacing broken rings are noted under Ring Blow-by.
The reworking of the piston dome and cylinder costs approximately $700 each, and
the piston bearings cost $400 for a Clark RA. If the crankshaft is cracked or ruined,
a used RA-8 crankshaft costs $25,000, and a new one costs $65,000, with an
extended delivery time.
Cracked Head—This leads to detonation and visa versa. The costs for this are
detailed under Detonation.
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Carbon in Ports—This only takes labor and gaskets to fix, but leads to a loss in
horsepower, which causes the other cylinders to overload, and high cylinder temper-
atures. This eventually leads to a major wear pattern detailed in Piston Slap. If the
carbon begins to get hot and cause premature ignition or detonation problems, then
more maintenance costs are incurred as a result of this relatively simple problem.
Note that excess carbon can also be caused by improper lubricating oils.
Knock in Wristpin/Bushing—This can be replaced for approximately $400. If the
condition is allowed to deteriorate, it creates excessive wear in the piston, cylinder,
and rings. These costs are noted in Piston Slap.
Bad Valves—If the intake and exhaust valves on a 4-stroke engine are leaking,
worn, or need adjustment, the cylinder loses horsepower, causing the other cylin-
ders to overload and have high cylinder temperatures. This can also lead to head
repair, which costs $600 to $1000, depending on the type of head.
Worn Rocker Arms Bushing—This is relatively simple to repair for $10 to $20.
If it is not repaired, it can cause a fuel valve, pushrod, and rocker arm to fail,
costing $200.
Problems and Cost: Compressor Cylinders
Leaking Valves—Repair this valve before it completely fails. Minor repair can cost
about $20; a new 7¼-inch valve costs $400. Replacing a cylinder destroyed by a
broken valve can easily exceed $10,000.
Ring Wear—One cause may be hot valves not changed before the rings were
damaged. If the rings fail, the compressor cylinder might be damaged. Relining a
compressor cylinder costs approximately $100 per diameter inch. Compressor rings
cost approximately $25 per diameter inch.
820 Maintenance Checklists
Experience has invariably shown that complex machinery cannot be reliably
repaired without using detailed checklists and without documenting the details of
disassembly and reassembly.
Maintenance checklists which are employed in the Manufacturing Organization of
CUSA are included in Appendix N. They may be helpful in other locations. They
are as follows:
Centrifugal Compressors
• IMI Guidelines for Completing the Overhaul Checklist for Centrifugal
Compressors
• Centrifugal Compressor Overhaul Checklist
• IMI Guideline for Inspection and Repair of Centrifugal Compressor Rotors
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Reciprocating Compressors
• Compressor Lubricating Systems
• Compressor Piston and Piston Rod
• Compressor Packing Box and Packing
• Compressor Cylinder and Crosshead
• Compressor Valves and Unloaders
• Compressor Valve Gaskets and Cages
• Compressor Crankshaft and Bearings
• Repair Sheet for Clark Engines
• Compressor Cylinder Repair Report
• Compressor Crankcase Repair Report
• Engine Repair Sheet for Ingersoll-Rand XVG
• Ingersoll-Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Procedure
• Ingersoll-Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet
• Ingersoll-Rand Packing Box and Packing Worklist
• Engine Driven Reciprocating Compressor Regrout
• Four and Eight Month Maintenance Checklist Prior Shutdown Information
• Ingersoll-Rand HHE Connecting Rod Rebuilding
• Aluminum Bronze Pin Bushing HHE Cylinder Connecting Rod
• Splitting HRA Engine CAM Lobes
• Clark HRA—Engine Power Cylinder Reconditioning
• Clark HRA—Power Cylinder Repair Flow Chart
• Clark HRA Main Crosshead Rebuilding
• Clark HRA Power Cylinder Head Rebuilding
• Clark HRA Gas Injection Valve Rebuilding
• Clark HRA Wesco Valve Lifters
• Clark HRA Power Piston and Connecting Rod Rebuilding
• Clark HRA Packer Rebuilding
• HRA Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet
• Clark Compressor Air Starting Check Valves
• Crankshaft Inspection and Reconditioning
• Crosshead Rebuilding
• Connecting Rod Reconditioning
• Connecting Rod Check Sheet
• Piston Reconditioning
• Piston/Rider Ring Clearance Tables
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
830 Reciprocating Compressor Piston-Rod Reconditioning
831 Introduction
This section summarizes field experience and provides guidance on reconditioning
reciprocating compressor piston rods. Sections 832 through 836 contain back-
ground information; Section 837 contains recommendations. (It may save you time
to refer directly to the Recommendations Section, 837.)
When equipment is not spared, any improvement in component service life can have
a significant effect on plant availability. Properly selected and applied hard facings
can improve reciprocating compressor reliability.
In many cases, worn or scored piston rods may be reconditioned at a fraction of the
cost of new rods.
This section is also applicable to reconditioning positive displacement pump
plungers. (In addition, certain processes used for rod and plunger reconditioning are
also applicable to reconditioning centrifugal compressor and turbine journals and
seal areas.)
832 Rod Leakage/Surface Finish
Factors Affecting Rod Packer Leakage
Any packing will weep or bleed a certain amount of gas. Minor amounts of weeping
will occur due to gas forced into rod pores or into the lubrication film. This gas is
released when the rod comes out of the high pressure portion of its stroke. In some
cases, dissolved gases reduce the effectiveness of the lubricant, possibly resulting in
increased friction. More commonly, leakage occurs due to incorrect fit of packing
rings to rod and disturbances along the sealing surfaces.
Excessive leakage, if permitted over long periods of time, will cause deterioration to
the point that it will become difficult to correct. Even new packing cannot be
expected to seal adequately if the surface condition of the piston rod is poor or rod
runout is excessive. For any given service, factors such as rod undersize or over-
size, surface finish, taper and runout significantly influence the degree of leakage.
Surface Hardness and Finish
Rod wear rates are greatly influenced by whether a packer is lubricated or not, and
the operating pressure and corrosivity of the gas. API 618 provides design stan-
dards for hardness and surface finish for various services. Without proper hardness,
rod wear rates can be excessive. Surface hardness and finish become increasingly
important as the amount of lubrication is reduced. In general, most rod and packing
materials will perform well against each other if the surface finish and fitup are
correct.
Manufacturers' standard piston rods are normally made of case hardened, highly
polished steels. Two common rod surface hardening techniques are induction and
flame hardening. Both processes involve heating the surface of rods above the upper
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
critical temperature followed by rapid quenching using water or other suitable cool-
ants. Typical case thicknesses range from 1/16 to 1/8 inch, with surface hardnesses
in the range of Rockwell C50 to 60.
In certain cases, the hardness must be limited due to potential embrittlement prob-
lems. Sour hydrocracking services are one such service. For these applications, rods
are often fabricated from softer steels, then hardfaced for wear resistance in the
packing and oil wiper ring areas.
Figure 800-13 provides general guidance on appropriate hardness and surface
finishes for various applications. These hardnesses and finishes have normally
resulted in acceptable packer sealing and life.
Fig. 800-13 Hardness and Surface Finish Recommendations
Minimum Rod Surf. Finish(1)
Operating Lube or Hardness(1) (Micro-inches
Service Pressure (psi) Non-Lube Rod Material (Rockwell C) RMS)
Noncorrosive Through 6000 L,NL Low-Alloy Steel, 50 10-20
Through Hard-
ened or Surface
Hardened
Above 6000 L 55 10-20
Above 6000 NL Hardened or 60 6-8
Coated
Corrosive Through 1000 L, NL 17-4 PH(2) 50(3) 10-20
(3)
Above 1000 L 55 10-20
(3)
Above 1000 NL Plated or Coated 60 6-8
(1) Hardness and surface finish recommendations apply to the packing area of the rod.
(2) Commonly used material for corrosive applications. Review each material selection specifically for service intended.
(3) These are general guidelines. Determine appropriate hardness and hardening procedures for each specific service.
As metal is removed from the surface of case hardened rods, hardness decreases.
Wear rates accelerate and susceptibility to galling and abrasion increases. The
acceptable degree of packer leakage depends to a large extent on the nature and
severity of the process application. In less severe applications such as lubricated,
low-pressure service, it is possible to accept much greater wear before replacing or
reconditioning a rod. In high-pressure hydrogen applications, however, leakage of
hydrogen results in further heating of packing, lubricant and the rod (due to Joule-
Thompson effect). An unacceptable operating condition quickly results.
833 Rod Deviations
Undersized Rods
Using standard size packing rings with an undersized rod can still result in an effec-
tive seal as long as the rod is truly circular and is without taper. However, this
generally results in an extended break-in period, with leakage greater during break-
in. In lubricated applications, there is an additional possibility that lubricant may be
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
blown away at gas pressures in the packing. Contact surfaces become dry and
subsequently overheat. Some packing materials, such as Teflon, will degrade rapidly
if they become dry after once having been lubricated. Under this condition, an abra-
sive paste or small, hard beads are formed in the packing area. Beads and abrasive
paste can quickly cause deterioration in rod and packing contact surfaces.
For normal applications, standard size packing rings can be used successfully on
rods which are not undersized by more than approximately 0.002 inch per inch of
rod diameter. For high-pressure applications (1000 psi), experience indicates that
standard size packing should be used only if rods are no more than 0.003 inch
undersize. When rod undersize exceeds the above guidelines, specially bored
packing can be purchased. The major problem with the use of special bore packing
is the chance that the wrong size may be installed. Additionally, the use of various
bore packings creates stocking problems.
Oversized Rods
When packing rings have a slightly smaller bore than the piston rod diameter, the
segments contact only at one end. The center portion of each ring segment provides
a direct gas passage along the rod surface. This condition is permissible if it is not
too severe. During the break-in process, packing will gradually wear to the point of
conformation with the general rod surface curvature.
The potential for overheating due to lack of proper lubrication exists for oversized
rods for the same reasons stated for undersized rods.
Tapered Rods
In lubricated services, a certain degree of rod taper can be tolerated. Lubricating
films tend to block small passages through which gas can escape. A tapered rod
combines both the effects of oversized and undersized rods in that packing rings
constantly try to adjust to the variations in surface profile. Excessive amounts of
taper, however, will rapidly destroy the packers' ability to seal.
Generally, the worst taper condition occurs at one end of the stroke. Reasonable
leakage rates and packer life can be expected if the degree of taper does not
exceed approximately 0.0005 inch per inch of stroke. For non-lubricated and high-
pressure, low molecular weight gas services, acceptable taper will be less than this
value.
Misalignment
Misalignment of piston rod and packer rings cause another leak path. Rod-to-ring
surface contact area is reduced. In addition, edges of rings at the bore become worn.
This permits gas flow from one radial cut in the ring to another. In API 618, the
maximum allowable rod runout at operating temperature is 0.00015 inch per inch of
stroke. Alignment of cylinder, distance piece and crosshead guides should be
adjusted in order to meet this guideline. Runout should always be checked following
installation of piston rods, crossheads, wrist pins, etc. Noncontacting probes can be
used very effectively to measure and monitor rod runout.
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Wear
Wear mechanisms include abrasion, adhesion, corrosion, fretting, erosion, surface
fatigue, etc. Adhesive and abrasive wear are the principal kinds encountered in the
sliding sites of a gas compressor or positive displacement pump packer.
Adhesive-type wear occurs when two parts make metal-to-metal contact and adhere.
Fragments are detached from one surface and welded to the other surface. To mini-
mize this type of wear, one surface must have films and coatings to minimize the
initial adhesion.
Abrasive wear is a cutting-type action where hard fragments embedded in the softer
component (packing) or trapped between relatively hard packing and rod material
act as a cutting tool.
834 Rod Reconditioning
When Is Reconditioning Advisable
Leaking rod packing is not a problem unless it is excessive. Depending upon the
particular service, excessive leakage can result in reduction of cylinder discharge
pressure, release of toxic or noxious gases, and in some cases, contamination of
crankcase lubricants. Excessive leakage eventually results in the need for a mainte-
nance shutdown. In many cases, it also results in some loss in plant throughput since
compressors may not be fully spared.
In many instances, rod condition is partially or totally responsible for this excessive
leakage. A rod should be reconditioned before wear is so excessive that required
coating thicknesses (to build it back to original dimension) exceed 20-30 mils. In
many cases, coating processes are less successful when more than a 30-mil
buildup is required. Peeling, spalling and fragmentation problems are commonly
encountered.
Rods are most successfully reconditioned if required coating thickness can be held
to less than 10 mils.
Other factors which affect the sealing ability of a packer include:
• Gas pressure,
• Gas properties (molecular weight, corrosivity, wetness),
• Supply of proper quantity and type of lubricant,
• Break-in procedure (refer to Section 700), and
• Type of packing material and packer design.
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Reconditioning Processes
In selecting a wear-resistant coating for rods, the following factors are important:
• Coating roughness and surface texture (smoothness, porosity),
• Coating hardness,
• Combination of sliding materials (rod coating and packer material),
• Corrosion resistance,
• Adhesion of coating to base metal (bond strength), and
• Previous coating/heat-treating history.
Numerous reconditioning processes are available today for restoring worn rods to
their original size and surface conditions. These processes may also be used to
provide extended life of rods in new equipment, especially in difficult services. In
general, only rods in sound condition should be considered as candidates for recon-
ditioning. Base metal surface condition must be carefully inspected prior to use of
any type of coating (discussed later).
Major hardfacing processes include the general categories of flame spraying (metal
spray and plasma spray), electroplating (chrome plating) and flame plating (detona-
tion gun). Figure 800-14 summarizes the relative characteristics of these processes
and the resultant coatings they produce. The acceptability of each process depends
on the service conditions, i.e., lubricated or non-lubricated, sour, corrosive or dirty
gas, etc. Only certain coatings applied by each major process are suitable for recon-
ditioning rods to resist adhesive and abrasive sliding-type wear. For the relatively
low-service temperatures of interest here (up to 400F), changes in physical proper-
ties and strength of various coatings are of minimal concern.
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800-36
800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Fig. 800-14 Comparative Characteristics of Major Coating Processes
Effect of
Maximum Application Lubrication Surface
Coating Procedure on Holding Finishing
Corrosion Bond Thickness Rod Base Characteris- Characteris-
Process Porosity Hardness Resistance Strength (Approx.) Metal tics tics Comments
1. Metal Spray High Low-Moderate Poor-Sealer Poor-Fair 0.040 inch None Good Fair
Required
2. Metal Spray Low Mod-High Excellent Excellent 0.065 inch Significant Good Good Not permitted on
with fusion hard-enabled
1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
(Wall (SAE 4041, etc.)
Colmonoy rods. Must
Spraywelding) consider effect of
fusion process on
base metal phys-
ical properties.
3. Plasma Spray Moderate Moderate Fair-Sealer Fair 0.006 inch None-Slight Good Good
Required
4. Flame Plate Low Very High Fair-Good Good-Excel- 0.010 inch None Good Good
(Linde D-Gun) Sealers occa- lent
sionally used
5. Electroplate Post-plating heat
(Hard Chro- treatment at
mium) approximately
350-375F
required to liberate
hydrogen.
a. Porous Mod-High High Good-Excel- Good-Excel- 0.015 inch Causes H2 Good Depends
lent lent occlusion largely on
Compressor Manual
base metal
surface finish
December 1998
b. Non- Low High Excellent Good 0.015 inch Causes H2 Poor-Fair Ditto
Porous occlusion
Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
835 Rod Coating Processes
In selecting appropriate coating processes and compositions consider the following:
• Bonding
Bond strength between the coating and base metal is of paramount importance.
• Residual Stresses
Residual stresses are a primary concern for spray coatings. Residual stresses
have a significant effect on coating bond strength. Generally, the outer portion
of the spray coating is in tension. This reduces the stress required to cause frac-
ture. Thick electroplated chrome coatings, on the other hand, may develop
compressive residual stresses, increasing their resistance to cracking.
• Density
The density of spray coatings depends on individual particle size and density,
degree of oxidation during deposition, and kinetic energy of the impinging
particles. Density of electroplating processes depends primarily on plating bath
temperature and current density.
• Corrosion Resistance and Porosity
The corrosion resistance of all coatings is determined by chemical composi-
tion. In addition, coating porosity and cracking may allow corrosion of the base
metal. For lower temperature applications, various epoxy, silicone wax, and
vinyl materials may be used to seal coatings. For high-temperature applica-
tions, sintering (a heat-treating process) may be needed to seal spray coatings.
• Thermal Properties
Thermal conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion must be considered
when selecting coatings for a particular application. High-pressure, high-
temperature applications require coatings which effectively remove heat from
the contacting surfaces and are resistant to thermal shock.
• Lubricant Retention
Surface porosity and cracks provide storage voids for lubricant.
Friction
Friction depends on the materials, surface roughness, and the lubricant.
Flame Spray—The Metal Spray Process
Metal spray is the process of applying molten metal to the surface of the rod to form
a hard, wear-resistant coating. The coating material is melted in a flame and its
minute particles are sprayed at relative low velocities onto a prepared surface by a
stream of air. The molten particles impinging on the rod are flattened and inter-
locked to provide a mechanical bond. Alloying with the base metal does not occur.
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
A subsequent diffusion or sintering heat treatment may be required to obtain accept-
able bonding conditions. The metal spray process requires roughing of the base
metal (sandblasting, rough turning, etc.) prior to coating. Both pure metal and alloy
materials in powder and wire form can be applied. The term “metallizing” is often
used to describe the type of metal spray process which uses metal in wire form. The
term “thermospray” is used to describe the process of using metals in powder form.
Oxyacetylene torches or electrodes are common methods of melting coating mate-
rials. To seal the resulting porous coating, several types of sealers are employed.
Phenolic sealers and silicone-alloyed resins are two common examples. Powders
and application equipment are available from suppliers such as Metco, Wall
Colmonoy, Stellite Division (Cabot), and others.
Advantages include:
• Low base material temperatures are maintained during application.
• Minimal distortion or warping (if diffusion heat treatment is not required).
• Applicable to a wide variety of rod base materials.
• Good lubricant retention characteristics.
• Relatively low cost.
• Can be applied to thicknesses up to approximately 40 mils.
Disadvantages include:
• Bond strength is low. Coatings are mechanically bonded to the base metal.
• Fracture/peeling will occur unless the coating is continuously bonded to itself.
• Coatings are very porous. Must be impregnated with suitable sealers to mini-
mize porosity (and avoid base metal corrosion).
• Coatings have relatively low hardness (Rc 30-40).
• Surface preparation prior to coating is critical to adequacy of bond.
• Coating quality is likely to vary widely from shop to shop.
• Relatively slow powder/wire heating results in greater oxidation and some
change in coating chemical composition.
• Fair surface finishing characteristics.
• Finish machining is required.
An extension of the basic metal spray process is the post-application fusing of coat-
ings. Coatings are applied in the manner described above. Then one additional step
is taken. The deposited metal spray coating is fused with the base metal by use of an
oxyacetylene torch or controlled furnace atmosphere. The resulting bond is molec-
ular in nature and is claimed to be much stronger. Coatings up to 0.065 inch can be
applied. Hardness ranges from approximately Rc 55 to 63. Corrosion resistance is
excellent.
In order to utilize the metal spray and fusion process, the base metal must have a
melting point higher than 1950F. High temperatures required to achieve fusing of
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
the coating may result in rod distortion. In addition, when the carbon content of
steel rods exceeds 0.25%, special precautions must be taken to avoid an annealed
metal. Any previous heat treatment applied to the rod to achieve improvement in
physical properties is lost. Annealed rods must be derated to maintain safe oper-
ating stress levels. Fusing followed by air cooling could result in the formation of
brittle martensite, depending on the hardenability of the base metal alloy.
Flame Spray—The Plasma Spray Process
Plasma spray coatings are produced by passing powdered material through a
specially designed gun which ionizes an inert gas to form a plasma. Flame tempera-
tures of 10,000 to 30,000F are reached. Powder is then injected into the plasma
flame. This rapidly heated powder is propelled at speeds of 400 to 1000 feet per
second onto the part being reconditioned. The resultant coating microstructure
consists of thin lenticular particles, or “splats.”
The principal value of the high temperatures of the plasma process is that the
melting point of the material being sprayed is reached very quickly. Unlike the
oxyacetylene flame (6000F), powder remains in the hot zone a much shorter time.
There is little oxidation and little change in powder chemical composition. Also, the
powder can be propelled through the plasma at higher speeds and reach the part
being coated with greater impact. In addition, spraying may be done entirely within
a protective atmosphere chamber in order to further protect the sprayed material.
Minimizing oxides produces a more cohesive coating capable of being finished to a
better surface condition. Numerous powder formulations are available to suit the
particular application. Powders are available from suppliers such as Metco, Wall
Colmonoy, Stellite Division (Cabot) and others.
Advantages include:
• Low base material temperatures of 400 to 500F (205 to 261C) are main-
tained during application. No head affected zone is created.
• Minimal distortion or warping.
• No subsequent stress relief or heat treatment required.
• As applied, coatings are relatively smooth and require little grinding to achieve
finished dimensions.
• Applicable to a wide variety of base materials.
• Good lubricant retention characteristics.
• Reasonably dense coating structure.
• Low oxide content.
• Low-moderate cost.
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Disadvantages include:
• Fair bond strength. Coatings are susceptible to spalling.
• Coatings are porous. Base metal corrosion protection is poor unless sealers are
used.
• Thickness of coating is very limited (.006 inch). Excessive coating thickness
increases susceptibility to chipping and spalling.
• Coatings may reduce base material fatigue life.
• High dependence on proper base material cleaning and surface preparation.
• Powder quality and application process parameters must be carefully
adhered to.
• Coating quality can vary from shop to shop.
• Finish machining is required.
Piston rods usually require a grit blasting, grooving, or knurling operation to
achieve an adequate bond between base metal and plasma coatings. It is mandatory
that all parts in the process be clean and dry. Frequent in-process and product
quality control checks are also necessary.
Because a plasma spray coating is relatively porous, it allows gas to penetrate. Upon
release of the gas pressure, the coating may separate from the base metal if a secure
bond has not been achieved. Peeling can result in considerable damage to packing
and perhaps cylinder components.
To obtain a reasonable degree of corrosion protection, plasma coatings must be
impregnated with suitable sealers to minimize porosity.
Flame Plating—Linde Detonation Gun Process (D-Gun)
Flame plating procedures such as Linde's Detonation Gun provide a bond which is
both mechanical and metallurgical in nature. The Detonation Gun procedure is a
process patented by Union Carbide (Linde Division). Coatings are produced by
passing measured quantities of powder, oxygen and acetylene into a firing chamber.
A timed spark then detonates the mixture, creating a hot (6000F) high-speed gas
stream which in turn instantly heats the powder particles. Powders are composed
principally of tungsten carbine particles. Nearly molten particles leave the firing
chamber at approximately 2500 fps, impinging on the surface of the piston rod and
produce a microscopic welding-type bond. Because of the intense noise generated,
the operation is carried out in a soundproof room, remotely controlled by an oper-
ator. Rapid-fire detonations, as the firing chamber moves along the rod, build up the
coating to the specified thickness. Linde provides several D-Gun powder composi-
tions to suit a variety of process conditions.
Advantages include:
• Low base material temperature [less than 300F (149C)] are maintained during
application. No metallurgical changes to the base material occur.
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
• No distortions or warping.
• No subsequent stress relief or heat treatment required.
• Bond strength is very good (10-25 ksi). Bond is both mechanical and metallur-
gical in nature. (For some coatings, bond strength can be further improved by
post-application heat treatment.)
• Can be applied to a wide variety of base materials.
• Low porosity (sealers can be used to further reduce porosity).
• Good oil retention characteristics.
• Good corrosion protection.
• Very hard coating (Rc 67-76).
• Proprietary process closely controlled by Union Carbide. Good quality control.
Disadvantages include:
• Relatively high cost.
• Limited coating thickness (generally <0.010 inch).
• Finish grinding required.
Electroplating—Porous and Non-porous Hard Chrome Plating
Electroplating procedures, such as chromium plating, have been widely used for
many years. The combination of high hardness, corrosion resistance, and low coeffi-
cient of friction have made chrome plating a commonly used reconditioning proce-
dure. Basically, the chrome plating process involves depositing chromium on the
rod surface by setting up the part (rod) as the cathode in an electrolytic bath. The
bath consists of a solution of chromic acid, water, and one more acid radicals
(usually sulfate and fluoride). The gap between anode and cathode is controlled to
ensure that chrome is deposited evenly along and around the circumference of the
rod. Time, current density, bath temperature, and proprietary chemical additives are
critical parameters which must be carefully regulated. To achieve more rapid plating
rates, bath temperature is normally increased.
Cleanliness and integrity of the base material is critical in assuring good bonding.
Extremely good adhesion to the base metal is required for hard chrome deposits to
perform acceptably in service.
In general, two types of chrome plating are available, non-porous and porous. Non-
porous platings are used not only in restoring piston rods but also to restore such
components as crankshaft journals, crosshead pins, bearing journals, etc. In lubri-
cated service, non-porous chrome platings provide minimal lubricant retention capa-
bility. This in turn causes additional friction and the need for increased lubrication.
For non-lubricated services, non-porous chrome is a poor choice, because packing
material does not adequately deposit on the rod surface. Again, this causes increased
friction, heating, and packing wear.
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
The difficulty of assuring adequate wettability led to the development of porous
chrome having a high degree of porosity. Porous chrome platings are etched after
the plating has attained a predetermined thickness. For a short time, chromium is
removed selectively from the plated rod surface through an electroetching process.
Small pores or channels are thus produced. These act as lubricant reservoirs. Pores
do not extend entirely through the chrome plating. This process is a patented devel-
opment of the Van der Horst Corporation under the trade name of “Vanderkrome.”
Although the patent has since expired, few chroming shops have demonstrated a
capability to duplicate the electroetching process.
A detrimental effect of chrome plating is hydrogen occlusion. During plating,
hydrogen penetrates the base metal, causing a reduction in mechanical properties,
most importantly, poor resistance to crack propagation. Many chrome plating
control procedures incorporate a final baking to remove this hydrogen. Common
baking temperatures employed are in the range of 350 to 370F (177 to 191C).
Approximately 50 to 60% of the total hydrogen present is removed at these temper-
atures with minimal effect on plating hardness. Higher temperatures result in
removal of a greater amount of hydrogen at the expense of decreasing plating hard-
ness and corrosion resistance.
Advantages include:
• Low base metal temperatures are maintained during plating. Original heat treat-
ment of the rod is unaffected.
• Good lubricant retention and wettability (porous chrome plating only).
• Good bonding strength. Molecular type bond.
• Minimal distortion or warping.
• Corrosion resistant (reduces pitting susceptibility of rods in standby service).
• High thermal conductivity. Aids in maintaining low surface temperatures.
• Moderately thick coatings can be applied (up to 0.015 inch).
• Moderately hard coating.
• Can be applied to a wide variety of base materials (ferrous and nonferrous).
• Moderate cost.
• Ease of application and control.
• Low coefficient of friction.
Disadvantages include:
• Quality of workmanship varies widely from shop to shop.
• Bond is highly dependent on proper cleaning and surface preparation.
• Surface finish of chrome plating is highly dependent on smoothness of the base
metal before plating (should be 20 micro-inches RMS or better).
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
• Fair to poor lubricant retention and wettability (non-porous platings).
• Hydrogen penetrates base metal during coating process causing base metal
hydrogen embrittlement and reduction of fatigue strength. Final baking is
required.
• In services badly corrosive to base metal, chromium plating tends to flake off.
Undercoating
In some instances, a metallic undercoat such as nickel or nickel alumide is applied
between the base metal and the hardface coating. Metallic undercoats are applied to
increase the coating system's resistance to thermal shock and to improve bond
strength. Bonding of the metallic undercoat to the base metal is stronger than the
bond between coating and base metal. In addition, the as-sprayed undercoat
provides a good surface for the coating to mechanically bond. Undercoating is most
frequently used with the weaker bond strength metal and plasma spray processes.
Coating Composition and Compatible Packing
Figure 800-15 summarizes composition of the various types of commonly used
coatings plus compatible packing materials.
Fig. 800-15 Common Coating Compositions and Compatible Packing Materials (1 of 2)
Vendor
Coating Coating Recommended
Process Vendor Designation Composition Packing Materials
1. Flame Plating UCAR - Linde LW-1 91% W Reinforced Teflon,
(Detonation-Gun) Division (AMS 2435A) 9% Co Carbon, Bronze, Cast
Iron
LW-15 86% W Reinforced Teflon,
10% Co Leaded Bronze
4% Cr
LW-1N30 87% W Reinforced Teflon,
13% Co Carbon, Bronze, Cast
Iron
LW-1N40 85% W Reinforced Teflon,
(PWA-46) 15% Co Carbon, Bronze, Cast
Iron
2. Electroplating Van der Horst Vanderkrome 100% Cr Cast Iron, Reinforced
(Hard Chrome) Teflon (limited appli-
cations only), Bronze
3. Plasma Spray Metco #2 High Cr. Stainless Bronze, Reinforced
Steel Teflon
#439 50% W Bronze, Reinforced
50% Co Teflon
#451 Hi Ni w/Ni-Al Bronze, Reinforced
Teflon
(1) Recommended packing materials depend on the nature of the gas handled (corrosiveness, wetness, type of gas,
pressure, etc.). For specific applications, consult compressor vendor, packing suppliers and Company experience.
December 1998 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 800-43
800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-15 Common Coating Compositions and Compatible Packing Materials (2 of 2)
Vendor
Coating Coating Recommended
Process Vendor Designation Composition Packing Materials
4. Metal Spray Wall Colmonoy Wallex 55 45% Co Reinforced Teflon
19% Cr
18% Ni
10% W Balance Fe,
B, C, Si
Walcoloy #2 420 Stainless Steel Bronze
Colmonoy #6 74% Ni Reinforced Teflon,
14% Cr Cast Iron
5% Fe Balance Si, B,
C
(1) Recommended packing materials depend on the nature of the gas handled (corrosiveness, wetness, type of gas,
pressure, etc.). For specific applications, consult compressor vendor, packing suppliers and Company experience.
836 Experience
Company Experience
Figures 800-16 and 800-17 summarize the results of a May, 1978 Company-wide
survey of experience with various hardface reconditioning processes. These summa-
ries reflect both refinery and producing field experience. Refinery experience covers
gas compressor applications in plants such as Catalytic Reformers, Isomax, Isomer-
ization, Ammonia, FCC, Naphtha Hydrotreater and Crude Units. Producing experi-
ence generally covers the handling of sweet (wet and dry) natural gas in low- and
high-pressure separation and gas lift services.
Fig. 800-16 Rod Reconditioning Survey Summary (Sweet, Non-Corrosive Gas Services) (1 of 2)
Maximum
Operating Lubricated or Non-
Pressure lubricated Process Unit Experience
Below 500 psig Lubricated Ammonia 4+ yrs service life w/chromed rods. Tinized C.I. packing.
Low-pressure (165 psi), medium piston speed
(700 ft/min) compressor. Total of 12 D-Gun coated rods
in service w/carbon-filled Teflon packing. 1-2 yr service
without signs of wear.
Below 500 psig Lubricated Producing 10 yrs average life w/metal spray (Metco SS # 2)
4140 rods. Bronze packing. Low-pressure (vacuum to
150 psi) services. Wide range (low to high) piston speed
compressors.
Below 500 psig Non-lubricated Air 2-3 yrs service life w/chromed rods. Carbon-filled Teflon
w/bronze backup packing. Low-pressure, high-tempera-
ture (320F) air compressor.
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Fig. 800-16 Rod Reconditioning Survey Summary (Sweet, Non-Corrosive Gas Services) (2 of 2)
Maximum
Operating Lubricated or Non-
Pressure lubricated Process Unit Experience
500-1000 psig Lubricated HGO 2-1/2 yrs life w/plasma-coated (Metco # 450/451) on
X20CR13 rods. Carbon-filled Teflon packing higher
wear rate and cracking of coating noted. Bare X20CR13
rods lasted 4-1/2 yrs.
500-1000 psig Lubricated Cat Ref New 4140 rods coated w/D-Gun (LW-1) installed 10/77.
Teflon w/C.I. backup packing. Good service experience.
No problems reported to date.
500-1000 psig Lubricated Cat Ref 1-2 yrs life w/D-Gun coatings. One month life w/chrome
plating.
500-1000 psig Lubricated Cat Ref Varied experience w/chromed (non-porous) rods. Teflon
and tinized C.I. packing. Chromed rod lasted
4-7 months.
500-1000 psig Lubricated Naphtha Good (5-6 yrs) service on chromed 4140 rods. Glass-
HDTR filled Teflon packing. Low pressure ratio per stage, 760
ft/min piston speed.
500-1000 psig Lubricated Producing Good service experience metal spray (420SS) on
4140 rods. Bronze packing. 3-5 years life for gas lift
service (500-1000 psig).
500-1000 psig Non-lubricated Isomerization Chrome plating wears and peels within 6 months.
1+ year service w/spray-welded (Wall-Colmonoy Wallex
55) 4140 rods. Carbon packing. Low (490 ft/min) piston
speed.
1000-1500 psig Lubricated FCC Feed 3-4 yrs service life w/chromed 4140 rods. Carbon-filled
Hydrofiner Teflon w/C.I. backup ring packing. 1200 psi maximum
discharge pressure, 700 ft/min piston speed.
1000-1500 psig Lubricated Isomax 3+ yrs service life w/plasma spray (Metco #439) on
4140 rods. Teflon packing. 760 ft/min piston speed.
Above 1500 psig Lubricated Isomax 2 yrs life w/D-Gun (LW-1 w/nickel undercoat) over 4140
rods. Teflon with C.I. backup ring packing. High (2870
psi) discharge pressure, moderately high (810 ft/min)
piston speed.
Above 1500 psig Lubricated Ammonia 1+ year life w/D-Gun (LW-15) 4140 rods. Bronze
packing. 4780 psi discharge pressure. High (850 fit/min)
piston speed. No wear after 1 yr.
Above 1500 psig Lubricated Producing Acceptable service life reported w/sprayed and fused
(Tuftin 500 Twin Arc Process) coating on 4140 rods.
Bronze packing. Bond reportedly good up to 6000 psig.
Metal or plasma sprayed steel rods failed after 1 month
at Swanson River.
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-17 Rod Reconditioning Survey Summary (Sour, Corrosive Gas Services)
Maximum
Operating Lubricated or non-
Pressure lubricated Process Unit Experience
Below 500 psig Lubricated HDS Less than 1 yr service w/plasma spray (Comp. Products #3)
on steel rods. Steel/babbitt packing. 800 ft/min piston speed.
Below 500 psig Lubricated Isomax Good (6 yrs) service life w/chromed rods. Teflon w/tinized C.I.
backup ring packing. Low-pressure (195 psi) service.
Moderate (750 ft/min) piston speed. Total of 18 D-Gun coated
rods in service, carbon-filled Teflon packing life exceeds
2–3 yrs.
Below 500 psig Lubricated Crude 2–3 yrs service w/plasma spray (Metco #2) on 18-8 SS rods.
Teflon packing. 150 psi max. discharge pressure, low
(520 ft/min) piston speed.
Below 500 psig Lubricated Flare Gas 2+ yrs. service with D-Gun (LW-1N30) rods. Teflon packing.
Recovery
Below 500 psig Lubricated FCC 1–1/2 yr service w/chromed steel rods. Micarta packing. Low
(165 psi) discharge pressure, 660 ft/min piston speed.
500-1000 psig Lubricated HDS 10–18 months service w/plasma spray (Comp. Products #3)
on steel rods. Steel/babbitt packing. 800 ft/min piston speed.
500-1000 psig Lubricated Rhen. 1–2 yrs. service for plasma spray (Metco #2) on 4140 rods.
Carbon-filled Teflon packing. 750 ft/min piston speed.
Above 1000 psig Lubricated HDN 3+ yrs. service w/D-Gun (LW-1N30) 4140 rods. Carbon-filled
Teflon packing. High (1650 psi) discharge pressure, high
(890 ft/min) piston speed.
Results show that for lubricated, low-pressure (less than approximately 1000 psi)
services, good service lift has been afforded by chroming, plasma spray, metal spray
and D-Gun coating processes. Average service life of reconditioned rods when used
with various grades of Teflon packing has been approximately four years in sweet,
noncorrosive gas services and approximately two years in sour, corrosive gas
environments.
For difficult, high-pressure (above 1000 psi) services, Linde D-Gun coatings have
proven superior. D-Gun coatings have performed consistently well (two to three
years and longer) in high-pressure (up to 5000 psi) lubricated, low- and high-molec-
ular weight gas services. Producing reports acceptable service from metal sprayed
and fused coatings at elevated pressures.
No Company experience was reported for coated rods in high-pressure,
non-lubricated service.
Other petrochemical company users report mixed success with metal spray and
plasma spray restoration of compressor rods. One user stated that Linde D-Gun
flame-plated rods were found to perform much better than new (bare) rods.
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Compressor Vendor Experience
General experience and recommendations from reciprocating compressor vendors
on various reconditioning processes are summarized in Figure 800-18. Flame
Plating (Linde D-Gun) and porous hard chroming (Vanderkrome) processes are
reported to be the most reliable reconditioning techniques. Specific comments
offered by compressor equipment vendors are summarized below.
Fig. 800-18 Reciprocating Compressor Vendor Experience Summary (Reconditioning Process)
Vendor Chroming Flame Plating Plasma Spray Metal Spray
A Not recommended. Not Linde D-Gun highly No comment. Not considered good
considered a reliable recommended. Excel- technique. Possible rod
procedure. lent field experience. distortion problems with
metal spray and fusing
process
B Not generally recom- No experience Not considered accept- Not considered accept-
mended due to enor- able able
mous quality variations
between platers. Only
porous-type chroming
considered acceptable
C Recommends only No experience No comment Mixed experience.
porous chrome coating. Problem with changing
Good experience in H2 base metal
and H2S (up to 2%) strength/hardness
services
D Not recommended. Linde D-Gun Coating Not recommended. Not recommended. Metal
Peeling problems. Teflon LW-1 highly recom- Peeling problems spray plus fusing is
packing (lube and non- mended on 4140 rods, recommended in corro-
lube) not recommended noncorrosive gas sive gas services.
service. Outlasts Consider effect of fusing
noncoated rods by at on base metal
least a factor of 2
E Fairly good experience. No experience Experience varies: some Many peeling failures
Chroming quality varies good, some bad reported.
widely from shop to shop
Electroplating (Chroming)
Two major compressor vendors indicate generally poor experience restoring piston
rods with various chroming processes. Vendor “A” recommends against recondi-
tioning by any electroplating procedure because of the high number of oilers
reported. In addition, there is also a concern that the electroplating process intro-
duces the risk of fatigue failure from hydrogen penetration into the rod. Vendor “B”
recommends against chrome plating due to the wide variation in the quality of the
plating operation from shop to shop.
If rods are reconditioned by the electroplating process, Vendor “B” strongly recom-
mends that: (1) plating be of the “porous” type; (2) plating thickness not exceed
0.005 to 0.006 inch; (3) rod surface finish prior to plating be 20 micro-inches RMS
or better; (4) rods be ground undersize along their full length, plate only on top of
the undersize area, allowing the plate to fade to the undersize diameter outside the
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
packing travel area; and (5) inspect the rod surface carefully prior to and after
plating.
Vendor “C” recommends only porous type chrome platings. These platings are
normally provided as original manufacture on such service as high-pressure
hydrogen and sour gas (up to 2% H2S). These environments require moderate hard-
ness base materials with high hardness wear-resistant coatings.
Flame Plating (Linde D-Gun)
Vendor “A” highly recommends the Linde D-Gun process due to its “wide adapt-
ability to a variety of operating conditions.” Field reports indicate long wear life in
services where cylinder discharge pressures are both above and below 1000 psig.
Vendor “A” recommends that: (1) final coating thickness be in the range of 0.002 to
0.003 inch, and (2) rods be in their final heat-treated condition before coating.
Vendor “D” recommends reconditioning of 4140 rods in noncorrosive gas service
by use of Linde D-Gun type LW-1 coatings. Good field experience is cited.
Metal Spray
In general, metal spray coatings were not recommended by compressor vendors.
Vendor “A” does not consider the metal spray and fusing process to be a good
reconditioning procedure. Main problems reported are (1) distortion of rod's
finished surface, and (2) overlay of steel rod whose carbon content exceeds 0.25%
without special proper precaution. Vendor “B” similarly recommends against this
restoration method.
Vendor “C” cites mixed experience with this technique. In one case a 5-inch diam-
eter rod in hydrogen service was hardfaced to a 50-mil thickness by Spraywelding.
Shortly after startup, the rod cracked in half, causing significant damage to the
compressor. Later investigation showed base metal hardness in the range of
500 BHN (originally 240 BHN). Hydrogen embrittlement was thought to be the
cause of this failure.
Plasma Spray
Vendor “B” indicated that their experience shows “no acceptable or successful
process exists to restore rods reliably by plasma spray.” Vendor “D” cited peeling
problems with this reconditioning technique.
Experience Summary
Overall, consistently best service experience in low-pressure and even high-
pressure, difficult services has been afforded by the use of the Linde D-Gun coat-
ings. In addition to favorable Company and compressor vendor experience, Union
Carbide cites numerous applications throughout the domestic petrochemical
industry where D-Gun coatings have performed well. These coatings have been
used in both lubricated and non-lubricated services up to 6000 psi.
Experience with chrome plating and flame spray (metal and plasma) coatings varies
throughout the industry. Most diversity is noted in the chroming process. Quality
control varies enormously from shop to shop. Many chroming problems are likely
the result of changes in chrome shop personnel and the use of new shops seemingly
800-48 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1998
Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
offering comparable quality at lower cost. Because commonly used non-porous
chrome has poor lubricant retention quality, special precaution must be taken to
insure adequate lubrication. Many times, these steps are not taken, resulting in short
packer and rod life.
Metal and plasma spray coating processes are generally less successful (especially
at higher pressures) due to low bonding strength and the need for strict quality
control during the preparation and coating processes. Where reliable shops have
been established, metal spray has proven an economical, reliable reconditioning
technique in lubricated low-pressure services. Metal spray and fused coatings are
good choices in very corrosive services as long as proper attention is given to the
metallurgical effects of the fusing operation. Little experience is available
supporting the general use of plasma spray.
837 Recommendations
Based on service experience available to date, the following procedure is recom-
mended when considering reconditioning used rods or coating new ones.
1. Confirm the technical adequacy and quality control procedures for every
coating shop to be used. Do this periodically for shops used repeatedly for
years.
2. Avoid reconditioning rods which are scored, galled or worn to a depth of more
than 20 to 30 mils; 5 to 10 mils is preferred.
3. Consider hardfacing new rods before putting in service.
4. Complete Figure 800-19 for each individual rod sent to a coating shop. Require
the vendor to complete and return Part II of this figure after all coating and
machining operations are complete. Retain this as a permanent record in the file
for that compressor.
5. For difficult and critical services, consider in-shop inspection prior to, during,
and following coating application.
6. Unless otherwise dictated by local service experience, the following restoration
processes are recommended in order of preference:
a. Union Carbide Linde D-Gun flame plating (most lubricated and
non-lubricated, high- and low-pressure services), and
b. Metal spray and fuse (extremely corrosive services only).
c. Porous chrome, Van der Horst Corp. “Vanderkrome” (lubricated services
up to moderate pressures)
d. Plasma spray (limited to low-moderate pressure, lubricated services)
e. Metal spray without fusing (limited to low-pressure, lubricated services)
f. Non-porous chrome (limited to low-pressure noncritical, lubricated
services)
7. Maintain a record of the service life of the coated rod (Part III of
Figure 800-18).
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-19 Specification Worksheet for Reconditioned Reciprocating Compressor Rods (1 of 2)
Compressor No. K-_______________________
Stage No.______________________________
Cylinder No.____________________________
Rod Designation No. (if any) ______________
Part I. Information to be completed by Purchaser
A. Service Conditions
1. Gas Composition Yes No Composition (Mol. Pct.)
H2
HC
CO2
O2
N2
H2S
NH3
Air
Chlorine
Other Describe _________
2. Nature of Gas
Wet Dry
Clean Dirty
If wet, liquid is
If dirty, foreign matter is
3. Operating Conditions
Cylinder Discharge Pressure: ______ (psia) ( )
Cylinder Discharge Temperature: ______ (F) (C)
Piston Speed: _______ (ft/min) ( )
B. Packing and Lubrication
1. Packing Material Used:____________________________________________
2. Lubrication: Non-Lube _____ Mini-Lube _____ Lubricated _______________
3. Type Lube-Oil Used:_______________________________
4. Is Packer Cooling Provided: Yes _____ No _____
C. Piston Rod Metallurgy
1. Base Material Specification:
2. Rod Prev. Plated/Coated? Yes _____ No _____ Not Known ___________________________
If yes, describe type coating and approximate thickness:___________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
D. Piston Rod Dimensions/Finish
1. Surface Finish in Packing Area ____ (Micro-inches RMS) ( )
2. Description of Area of Rod to be Plated/Coated:
(Attach Sketch) _____________________________________________________________
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Fig. 800-19 Specification Worksheet for Reconditioned Reciprocating Compressor Rods (2 of 2)
3. Finish Tolerances (Attach Sketch):
Diameter: _____ (in)(mm) Length: _____ (in)(mm)
Part II. Information to be completed by Vendor after finishing
A. Date:________________________________________________________________
B. Location of Coating Shop:________________________________________________
C. Vendor Coating Designation:______________________________________________
D. How Applied:__________________________________________________________
E. Finish Thickness (in)(mm): Min____, Max____
F. Undercoat used? Yes _____ No _____
G. Surface Hardness: _____ (Rc)( )
H. Sealer Used? Yes ____ No ____
If yes, describe_________________________________________________________
I. Max. Base Metal Temp. During Coating: ____ (F)(C)
J. Heat Treatment After Coating? Yes _____ No _____
If yes, describe:______________________________________________________________
K. Was Previous Coating, if Any, Removed Prior to Recoating?
Yes _____ No _____
L. Rod Diameter After Grinding/Blasting, but Prior to Coating (in)(mm):
Min_____, Max____
M. Description of Pre- and Post-Coating Inspection Techniques Used:
Part III. Maintenance Service Record
A. Service Life of Original Bare Rod:_____ (yrs)(mos)(wks)
B. New Coated Rod Placed in Service, Date: __________________________________________
C. Measured Rod Runout (in)(mm): Horiz____, Vert_____
D. Rod Removed from Service for Regrinding, Date:____________________________________
Remaining Coating Thickness (in)(mm):______________________________________________
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
838 Inspection and Specifications
Inspection and Quality Control
Reconditioned rods must be closely inspected for proper bonding, surface finish,
taper at ends of coating, hardness, thickness and finish dimensions. Of these items,
verification of proper bonding between coating and base material is of primary
importance. Careful inspection is mandatory when machining or working the
finished coating. Any spalling during machining indicates an inadequate coating
job. Coatings should be completely removed and reapplied. Lack of adequate bond
can result in peeling and spalling with consequential rapid deterioration of packing.
Disbonding can also result in cylinder bore and piston ring damage.
Following initial grinding of a used rod, but prior to plating or coating, the rod must
be carefully inspected for cracks and grinding heat checks by magnaflux or equal
inspection techniques. In addition, base metal surfaces must be properly cleaned.
Certain coating processes demand much closer attention to surface cleanliness than
others. The importance of clean base metal is underscored by a recent two-year
survey by a major chrome plating company. Results showed 80% of the premature
plating failures were attributable to lack of cleanliness. Contamination can arise
from (1) nonmetallic, abrasive particles embedded in the surface or adhering elec-
trostatically from grinding, sandblasting, polishing, and honing operations,
(2) residual traces of metal working fluids, coolants, lubricants used during
machining operations, (3) dusty, moisture-laden coating environment, (4) insuffi-
cient interim protection during various stages of coating, and (5) lack of caution by
people handling parts (dirty or perspiring bare hands).
Close review of a coating shop's quality control standards is essential. Microscopic
examination of rods before and after coating, intermittent inspection between
coating phases and strict adherence to proper handling procedures are mandatory
requirements for every coating process.
When a particular coating has not been previously applied by a coating shop, it is
recommended that the vendor be required to demonstrate the adequacy of his
proposal. One method is to require coating of a short rod of identical material and
similar heat treatment to the proposed rod. After coating, this specimen should be
bent repeatedly on a diameter equal to the diameter equal to the diameter of the rod,
until it fractures.
Acceptable coating adhesion will show no separation from the base metal.
In general, it should be noted that the quality of work by coating shops varies
widely, except for such proprietary processes as Linde D-Gun, which is closely
controlled by Union Carbide.
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Specification for Reconditioning Rods
Obtaining proper coatings to achieve acceptable rod life depends largely on
(1) good communications between user and coating vendor, (2) selection of quali-
fied coating facilities, and (3) adherence to appropriate quality control standards.
Potential areas which may lead to unacceptable rod repair include:
• Rod base metal metallurgy not known. Previous coating history unknown.
• Improperly selected coating for actual operating conditions.
• Inadequate quality control prior to and/or during coating application.
• Poor compatibility of coating with packing material.
• Incorrect or incomplete specification of rod area to be coated.
• Finished rod dimensions and tolerances not specified.
• Improper taper at ends of coating.
• Desired surface finish not stated.
• Excessive coating thickness required to build up badly worn or gouged rod.
• Poor bond strength between undercoat, if any, and base metal.
Figure 800-18 (Part I) includes basic operating, design, dimensional, and metallur-
gical information essential to the coating vendor. This section should be carefully
completed by the Purchaser and included with each piston rod sent to a recondi-
tioning shop. Purchase orders for coating work should require that Part II of
Figure 800-18 be completed by the coating vendor after coating work is complete.
The completed figure, specifying the as-finished coating condition, should then be
returned with the reconditioned rod and become part of the compressor
maintenance records. Any refinishing performed after the rod has been in service
should be noted in Part III of Figure 800-18. This information will assist in evalu-
ating the extension of service life afforded by the coating process.
840 Troubleshooting
841 Introduction
Machinery problems can be exceptionally complex; however, practical solutions
can, in many cases, be simple.
No machine operates perfectly, nor in a perfect environment. Numerous deviations
exist in every machine, yet do not normally surface as operational or maintenance
problems. For example, every machine operates with some imbalance, some
misalignment, some imperfections in installation, etc.
Therefore, when called upon to solve a problem that has surfaced, expect to find
several “deviations” during the investigation. The job is not to find a deviation (or
even several), but to find the deviation, or combination of deviations which are
causing the problem that needs to be corrected.
As in any problem-solving effort, one of the most important steps is to define the
problem. A problem given as “lube-oil pump will not put out—repair as neces-
sary” can result in considerable time and expense spent on overhauling the pump
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
when replacing a faulty pressure gage or adjusting a turbine governor may have
been all that was required. Look for the simple cause/solution first!
Many problems with compressors fall into one of the following categories:
1. Improper component assembly.
2. Component wear or failure.
3. Deposit-buildup imbalance or flow restriction.
4. Controls/instrumentation out of calibration or faulty.
5. Auxiliary system/driver malfunction.
6. Support system (seals, lubrication, alignment, piping strain, foundation settling,
baseplate warped or poorly grouted).
7. Off-design operating conditions.
By considering the above categories when attempting to define a problem, it will
often be discovered that there is no real problem with the compressor at all. Recali-
brating instrumentation, adjusting piping supports, etc., are all solutions which are
far less expensive than compressor overhaul. Be sure simple solutions are consid-
ered and eliminated before going to more costly solutions.
842 Troubleshooting Guidelines
Step 1
Define the desired performance. Define the deviation from that performance. This is
the real problem.
Step 2
Analyze the cause of the deviation, based on a combination of practical and tech-
nical knowledge.
Use all available resources. Do not attempt to solve the problem single-handedly.
Input from both technical and non-technical personnel operators, maintenance
mechanics, process engineers, etc., can be invaluable. Obtain the manufacturer's
input as appropriate.
Accurate and current performance and maintenance records should be maintained
on all equipment. Use these records as a valuable source of data to identify changes
since the unit was last operating properly.
Keep an open mind. Avoid jumping to conclusions. Make every attempt to obtain
and analyze all relevant facts. Do not resist changing conclusions if warranted by
discovery of new information.
Step 3
Take corrective action to eliminate the cause.
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Step 4
Monitor performance following corrective action.
Step 5
Document the important points and communicate to those who will benefit from the
knowledge gained.
843 Problem Solving Guides
Although the troubleshooting checklists that follow are generally aimed at helping
in Step 2, it is important to remember Steps 1 through 5. Repetitive problems are
usually caused by failing to complete one of the steps listed previously. The check-
lists which follow are:
• Reciprocating Compressor Troubleshooting Checklist
• Centrifugal Compressor and Lube System Troubleshooting Checklist
Both checklists reproduced from Reciprocating Compressors, by Bloch and
Hoefner. Copyright 1986 by Gulf Publishing Company. Used with permission.
All rights reserved.
Reciprocating Compressor Troubleshooting Checklist
Symptoms Possible Causes
Noise Vibration
Knocking 7-8-9-10-11-12-14-15-17-18-25
Vibration 3-11-14-18-19-25-32
Pressure
Discharge Pressure High 3-25
Discharge Pressure Low 1-3-5-23-24-32
Inter-Cooler Pressure High 2-4-6-27
Inter-Cooler Pressure Low 1-3-5-21-22
Discharge Temperature High 1-3-13-14-17-25-27-30
Temperature
Outlet Cooling Water Temperature High 1-3-13-25-27-30
Overheating Valves 1-3-25-31
Overheating Cylinder 1-3-13-14-17-25-30-32
Overheating Frames 15-25-32
Flow
Low Capacity 1-3-5-21-22-23-32
Inspection Findings
Abnormal Carbon Deposits 1-3-5-16-17-21-25-26-27-30-32-33
Excessive Piston Ring/Cylinder Wear 5-14-17-21-28-29
Valve Wear/Breakage 1-3-14-16-17-20-21-28-29
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Reciprocating Compressor Troubleshooting Checklist
Symptoms Possible Causes
Possible Causes
1. L.P. Valves Wear Breakage 18. Foundation/Grouting Inadequate
2. H.P. Valves Wear Breakage 19. Piping Support Inadequate
3. L.P. Unloading System Defective 20. Resonant Pulsations (Suction or Discharge)
4. H.P. Unloading System Defective 21. Suction Filter Dirty/Defective
5. L.P. Piston Rings Worn 22. Suction Line Restricted
6. H.P. Piston Rings Worn 23. System Leakage Excessive
7. Piston Rod Nut Loose 24. System Demand Exceeds Compressor Capacity
8. Piston Loose 25. Discharge Pressure Too High
9. Head Clearance Too Small 26. Discharge Temperature Too High
10. Bearing Clearance Too High 27. Intercooler Fouled
11. Flywheel or Pulley Loose 28. Liquid Carry-Over
12. Crosshead Clearance Too High 29. Dirty/Corrosive Products Into Cylinder
13. Cooling Water Quantity Too Low 30. Cylinder Cooling Jackets Fouled
14. Cylinder Lubrication Inadequate 31. Running Unloaded Too Long
15. Frame Lubrication Inadequate 32. Speed Incorrect
16. Cylinder Lubrication Excessive 33. Suction Pressure Too Low
17. Lubricating Oil Incorrect Spec.
Centrifugal Compressor and Lube System Troubleshooting Checklist
Symptoms Possible Causes
Excessive Vibration 1-4-5-6-8-9-10-11-12-13-14-15-22-23-24-25
Compressor Surges 6-7-16-17
Loss of Discharge Pressure 18-19-20
Low Lube-Oil Pressure 27-29-30-31-32-36-37-38-39-40-41
Excessive Bearing Oil Drain Temperature 2-3-21-28-33-34-35-42-43-44
Units Do Not Stay in Alignment 25-26
Water in Lube-Oil 45-46
Possible Causes Possible Solutions
1. Excessive Bearing Clearance Replace bearings
2. Wiped Bearings Replace bearings
Determine and correct cause
3. Rough Rotor Shaft Journal Surface Stone or restore journals
Replace shaft
4. Bent Rotor (caused by uneven heating or cooling) Turn rotor at low speed until vibration stops, then gradually
increase speed to operating speed.
If vibration continues, shut down, determine and correct the
cause
5. Operating in Critical Speed Range Operate at other than critical speed
6. Build-up of Deposits on Rotor Clean deposits from rotor
Check balance
7. Build-up of Deposits in Diffuser Mechanically clean diffusers
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Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Possible Causes Possible Solutions
8. Unbalanced Rotor Inspect rotor for signs of rubbing
Check rotor for concentricity, cleanliness, loose parts
Rebalance
9. Damaged Rotor Replace or repair rotor
Rebalance rotor
10. Loose Rotor Parts Repair or replace loose parts
11. Shaft Misalignment Check shaft alignment at operating temperatures
Correct any misalignment
12. Dry Gear Coupling Lubricate coupling
13. Worn or Damaged Coupling Replace coupling
Perform failure analysis
14. Liquid “Slugging” Locate and remove the source of liquid
Drain compressor casing of any accumulated liquids
15. Operating in Surge Region Change operating point
16. Insufficient Flow Increase recycle flow through machine
17. Change in System Resistance due to Obstructions or Check position of inlet/discharge valves
Improper Inlet or Discharge Valve Positions Remove obstructions
18. Compressor not up to Speed Increase to required operating speed
19. Excessive Inlet Temperature Correct cause of high inlet temperature
20. Leak in Discharge Piping Repair leak
21. Vibration Probably imbalance or coupling.
Refer to IMI Candidate Manual, or other references.
22. Sympathetic Vibration Adjacent machinery can cause vibration even when the unit is
shut down, or at certain speeds due to foundation or piping
resonance.
A detailed investigation is required in order to take corrective
measures.
23. Improperly Assembled Parts Shut down, dismantle, inspect, correct
24. Loose or Broken Bolting Check bolting at support assemblies
Check bed plate bolting
Tighten or replace
Analyze
25. Piping Strain Inspect piping arrangements and proper installation of pipe
hangers, springs, or expansion joints.
26. Warped Foundation or Bed plate Check for possible settling of the foundation support
Correct footing as required
Check for uneven temperatures surrounding the foundation
casing
27. Faulty Lube-Oil Pressure Gage or Switch Calibrate or replace
28. Faulty Temperature Gage or Switch Calibrate or replace
29. Oil Reservoir Low Level Add oil
30. Clogged Oil Strainer/Filter Clean or replace oil strainer or filter cartridges
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800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
Possible Causes Possible Solutions
31. Relief Valve Improperly Set or Stuck Open Adjust relief valve
Recondition or replace
32. Incorrect Pressure Control Valve Setting on Operation Check control valve for correct setting and operation
33. Poor Oil Condition/Gummy Deposits on Bearings Change oil
Inspect and clean lube-oil strainer or filter
Check and inspect bearings
Check with oil supplier to ascertain correct oil species being
used
34. Inadequate Cooling Water Supply Increase cooling water supply to lube-oil cooler
Check for above design cooling water inlet temperature
35. Fouled Lube-Oil Cooler Clean or replace lube-oil cooler
36. Operation at a very Low speed without the auxiliary oil Increase speed or operate auxiliary lube-oil pump to increase
Pump Running (if main L.O. pump is shaft driven) oil pressure
37. Bearing Lube-Oil Orifices Missing or Plugged Check to see that lube-oil orifices are installed and are not
obstructed
Refer to lube-oil system schematic diagram for orifice locations
38. Oil Pump Suction Plugged Clear pump suction
39. Leak In Oil Pump Suction Piping Tighten leaking connections
Replace gaskets
40. Failure of Both Main and Auxiliary Oil Pumps Repair or replace pumps
41. Oil Leakage Tighten flanged or threaded connections
Replace defective gaskets or parts
42. Clogged or Restricted Oil Cooler Oil Side Clean or replace cooler
43. Inadequate Flow of Lube-Oil If pressure is satisfactory, check for restricted flow of lube-oil to
the affected bearings
44. Water in Lube-Oil Probably a steam leak condensing in bearings or lube-oil
cooler leak.
45. Leak in Lube-Oil Cooler Tube(s) or Tube Sheet Hydrostatically test the tubes and repair as required
Replace zinc protector rods (if installed) more frequently if
leaks are due to electrolytic action of cooling water
46. Condensation in Oil Reservoir During operation maintain a minimum lube-oil reservoir
temperature of 120F to permit separation of entrained water
When shutting down, stop cooling water flow to oil cooler
Commission lube-oil conditioning unit
Refer to lube-oil management guide
NOTE: Vibration may be transmitted from the coupled machine. To localize vibration, disconnect coupling and operate driver
alone. This should help to indicate whether driver or driven machine is causing vibration.
800-58 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1998
2100 Specifying and Purchasing
Procedure
Abstract
This section outlines a suggested procedure for specifying and purchasing
compressors. The detailed sequence of steps is applicable to both large and small
projects and can be used by engineers at all experience levels. This is a general
procedure that does not address local practices or administrative and approval
requirements. It may be modified for local preferences or used as is.
Contents Page
2110 Introduction 2100-2
2120 Procedure 2100-3
Revision History 2100-21
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2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure Compressor Manual
2110 Introduction
This procedure is a guide to assist engineers in specifying and purchasing compres-
sors. Generally, this procedure applies to small as well as large projects.
Note This procedure does not address local administrative and approval require-
ments. Engineers should determine these from their own organization.
Although many compressor purchases are straightforward, several aspects can be
quite complex, and involvement by a Company machinery specialist may be benefi-
cial. Consult a machinery specialist if:
• You are unsure of any steps.
• You need a recommended Vendor list.
• A post-award design audit should be conducted.
• Shop performance and mechanical tests are to be witnessed.
Section 2120 describes in detail the recommended steps for specifying and
purchasing a compressor listed below. Also included are two checklists, one for
centrifugal and one for reciprocating compressors, to assist in the selection and bid
process.
Recommended steps for specifying and purchasing a compressor:
1. List the user’s requirements and site conditions.
2. List maintenance considerations.
3. List physical and chemical properties of the gas.
4. Calculate and list the gas inlet and discharge conditions, including sidestreams
if applicable.
5. Select the compressor type (axial, centrifugal, reciprocating, or rotary).
6. Select the driver type.
7. Complete the compressor data sheet.
8. Select and/or develop the purchase specification.
9. Prepare a recommended Vendor list.
10. Obtain quotations.
11. Evaluate quotations.
12. Conduct bid clarification meetings.
13. Award the order.
14. Conduct design coordination, and Pre-Inspection meetings in the Vendor’s
plant.
15. Review rotor response reports and conduct a Design Audit meeting.
2100-2 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual 2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure
16. Review Vendor drawings.
17. Coordinate a quality assurance surveillance program in the Vendor’s plant
(large projects only).
18. Witness mechanical and performance tests in the Vendor’s plant.
2120 Procedure
1. List the User’s Requirements and Site Conditions
Discuss requirements and conditions with the party who wants you to buy the
compressor (operating managers, project managers, etc.). He/she may have
strong feelings, based on experience, about one type versus another and may
want special features in the equipment train.
The user may have additional requirements. For example, safety and fire
considerations, space limitations, environmental factors or matching existing
machines could dictate the type of compressor to buy.
Finally, check with the user to determine the reliability of utilities available. For
example, is reliable cooling water readily available? If not, you may have to
specify air coolers. Is there adequate electrical capacity? Are emission controls
required?
2. List Maintenance Considerations
Maintenance considerations could influence:
– Compressor selection
– Manufacturer selected
– The type or Vendor for auxiliaries
For example, does maintenance stock spare parts, or do they rely on the
Vendor? If the quotations were otherwise equal, this may be the deciding factor.
The local maintenance group usually has some preferences which should be
considered. However, you should evaluate them to ensure a safe and cost-
effective installation.
3. List the Physical and Chemical Properties of the Gas
This includes site ambient conditions, unusual conditions, a complete gas anal-
ysis for each compression stage, and gas analyses for alternate services. Be sure
to list ranges if physical or chemical properties vary. It is important to list trace
substances in the gas such as H2S because they may greatly affect materials
selection and complexity of auxiliary systems.
4. Calculate and List the Gas Inlet and Discharge Conditions
This includes temperatures, pressures, mass flow rate, etc., for inlet, side-
streams, final discharge, and each stage or casing. Consider turndown or part
load operating conditions. The Compressor Profile Worksheet, CMP-EF-876,
January 2011 (E) 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 2100-3
2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure Compressor Manual
can be used to log results of these calculations. Refer to Sections 100, 200 and
300 of this manual for detailed discussions. Initially, these may only be esti-
mates of the final operating conditions. They may need continual refinement as
the order progresses through the quotation and design phases.
If it becomes evident that a small process design change might save a consider-
able amount of money, the change should be referred back to the process
designer. In some cases the process design can be conservative, allowing a
substantial savings.
5. Select the Compressor Type
Refer to Section 150, “Application and Selection Criteria” of this manual for
assistance in compressor selection (axial, centrifugal, reciprocating or rotary).
Refer to Sections 200 and 300 to help confirm your choice for centrifugal and
reciprocating compressors, respectively.
6. Select the Driver Type
In process plant environments, electric motors are typically preferred because
of lower initial cost and higher reliability. Less costly and available utilities or
fuels such as steam, natural gas or field gas may dictate selection of steam
turbines, internal combustion engines, or combustion gas turbines.
Refer to the Driver Manual for additional information. Consult a specialist if
you have difficulty selecting the driver.
Driver selection depends on:
a. The utility most readily available.
For example, a natural gas engine may be used in areas where electricity is
not available.
b. Sparing considerations.
In process plants, an electric motor driven compressor is sometimes spared
by a steam turbine driven spare to accommodate a power failure.
c. Energy costs.
Energy costs are a major factor in evaluation of overall compression costs.
The cheapest utility may dictate the driver type. However, the cheapest
available utility may actually cost more when all things are considered.
The driver could be less-efficient than another type. The choice depends on
a net present-value economic evaluation.
d. Local preferences.
Pick the appropriate driver for your application. Complete the driver data
sheet (where applicable) and obtain the appropriate specification for inclu-
sion in the bid package.
7. Complete the Compressor Data Sheet
The type of compressor selected dictates which data sheet to use. For example,
for a heavy-duty reciprocating compressor, use the data sheet included in
2100-4 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual 2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure
API 618. This material is located in the Specifications section of this manual.
(Figure 2100-1 lists the specifications, data sheets, and Industry Standards
included in the Compressor manual.)
8. Select and/or Develop the Purchase Specification
A detailed purchase specification should be developed consistent with the
complexity of the equipment to be purchased. If the compressor type selected
falls into a category covered by the specifications listed in Figure 2100-1, the
task is easier. If available, obtain a copy of the applicable specification without
comments. This copy can be used whole, or in part by deleting sections that do
not apply to your unique application. Make sure the “bulleted” (·) paragraphs of
your tailor-made specification correspond correctly to the appropriate para-
graphs in the industry standard and to items on the data sheet.
If the compressor type selected is not covered by a model specification, a
job-specific specification will need to be developed. Consult a Company
machinery specialist for help if needed. The ETC Machinery and Power
Systems Team or other Company engineering groups may have a speci-
fication on file for similar equipment used on a previous project.
9. Prepare a Recommended Vendor List
This is an important but often overlooked step. Extending a bid invitation to an
unacceptable bidder can lead to significant problems. Bids should only be
requested from those Vendors who are both technically and commercially qual-
ified to supply the equipment. Do not invite a Vendor to quote on your equip-
ment unless you are prepared to accept their bid. Keep in mind this list is only a
recommendation.
Purchasing is responsible for the selection of bidders invited to quote. This
includes consideration of their commercial qualifications (financial condition
past delivery performance, etc.) and quality assurance programs. However, you
should recommend bidders for inclusion (or exclusion) when project, tech-
nical, quality or other considerations make it advisable. In such instances,
state the reason for your recommendation on the requisition form or in a sepa-
rate letter.
10. Obtain Quotations
Work through your local Purchasing Department to obtain quotations. Discus-
sions between engineers and suppliers’ representatives should be limited to
technical matters, except that estimated prices and deliveries may be obtained.
No firm or contract prices or deliveries would normally be discussed except in
the presence of a buyer from your Purchasing Department.
Make sure the Vendor fills out the rest of the data sheet. Vendors often use their
own data sheets which may be confusing, or omit valuable information. Data
sheets are important documents for both bid evaluation and as a permanent
record of the machine. This permanent record is very important to technical and
maintenance personnel.
January 2011 (E) 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 2100-5
2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure Compressor Manual
Fig. 2100-1 Compressor Manual Specifications, Data Sheets and Industry Standards
Company Company Offshore
Consolidated Topsides Industry
Compressor Type Specification Specification Standard Data Sheet
Process Centrifugal and CMP-DS-5241-SI PAK-OU-17.14 API 617; CMP-DS-5241-SI
Axial and (Package with CGT Chapters 1, 2 and
CMP-DS-5241-US driver) CMP-DS-5241-US
PAK-SU-17.16
(packaged with induc.
Motor driver)
PAK-SU-17.19
(packaged with induct.
Motor driver)
Integrally-geared Process API 617; Use data sheet in
Centrifugal Chapters 1, 3 API 617
Integrally-geared Instru- API 672 Use data sheet in
ment and Utility Air API 672
Expander-Compressor PAK-SU-17.25 API 617; Use data sheet in
(Turboexpander) Chapters 1, 4 API 617
Heavy Duty API 618 Use data sheet in
Reciprocating API 618
Packaged High-speed PAK-SU-17.17 API Spec 11P Use data sheet in
Reciprocating API Spec 11P
Rotary Dry Screw API 619 Use data sheet in
API 619
Packaged Oil-flooded API 619 Use data sheet in
Screw for Process Gas API 619
Packaged Oil-flooded PAK-SU-17.12
Screw for Air Service
Rotary Lobe Blower
Rotary Vane Blower PAK-SU-17.18
(for Vapor Recovery
service)
Packaged Liquid Ring API 681 Use data sheet in
(Liquid Ring Vacuum API 681
Pump)
Fans and Blowers
Lubrication, Shaft- CMP-SC-4762 API 614 Use data sheet in
sealing, and Control-oil API 614
Systems
2100-6 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual 2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure
Besides filling out the data sheet, the Vendor will provide prices, delivery, and
usually a list of exceptions to your specification.
The equipment guarantee is usually a part of the specification attached to the
QR. In cases where the specification does not include a guarantee clause, or
where there is no specification, and Engineering does not furnish a guarantee
clause, Purchasing will attach a standard guarantee form.
11. Evaluate Quotations
A “committee approach” to compressor quotation request review is often
useful. The committee may consist of the purchasing engineer, operating repre-
sentative, machinery specialist, QA engineer, and others, as appropriate. The
goal of the bid review is to achieve a thorough understanding of the Vendor’s
proposal. In particular, concentrate on technical aspects such as:
– Materials of construction
– Operating requirements and restrictions
– Energy efficiency
– Rotor dynamics
– Exceptions to specifications
– Testing and inspection
Note Due to the high cost of energy, particular attention should be paid to oper-
ating costs.
It is easy to lose sight of the drive train, resulting in design deficiencies and
cost additions after placing the order. Therefore, a thorough review of the entire
train (drive train and driven equipment) must be made. Optional features for the
equipment train must be selected based on Vendor’s quoted cost extras.
Before placing the order, be sure that all process conditions originally specified
in the quotation request are still correct. In many cases, process designs mature
considerably during the bidding and bid evaluation stages. Also confirm that
startup, shutdown, and power-outage effects on process conditions are correctly
shown on the data sheets.
12. Conduct Bid Clarification Meetings
Prior to the award of the purchase order, bid clarification meeting(s) are neces-
sary for almost all large or critical equipment trains. The purpose of the meeting
is to:
– Review engineering details of what the Vendor has proposed.
– Discuss all exceptions to specifications.
– Obtain appropriate price adjustments to comply with specifications.
– Discuss how the Vendor proposes to coordinate the job if awarded.
– Agree to a schedule for the Vendor’s work (including drawing approval).
– Understand the detailed experience the Vendor can demonstrate on similar
equipment in similar applications.
January 2011 (E) 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 2100-7
2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure Compressor Manual
Generally, each equipment Vendor is invited to the engineering office to clarify
a proposal. Also present may be project, design engineering, purchasing, oper-
ating, inspection and specialist personnel with equally responsible Vendor
representatives. The meetings usually last one-half to two days, depending on
the complexity of the equipment train, the number of different services
involved, etc. Use the checklists at the end of this section as a guide to cover
items in a bid clarification meeting. These checklists may also serve as a guide
during bid reviews.
13. Award the Order
The responsible engineer needs to prepare a complete requisition package (all
applicable drawings, list sheets, specifications, etc.) and forward it to the Mate-
rial Control Section or local Purchasing office. Consult a Purchasing represen-
tative for any needed assistance.
Instructions to Vendors should normally be in writing. Engineers should avoid
oral instructions to suppliers’ representatives which change the provisions of
the order, or which might affect the contract price or delivery date. If oral
instructions are absolutely necessary, they must be made in the presence of a
Purchasing representative and promptly confirmed by a revision to the requisi-
tion, and supplement to the Purchase Order.
It is a good idea to keep a written log of all communications (written or oral)
with Vendors, in case of future disputes.
Contact with suppliers’ representatives concerning equipment quotation
requests or purchase orders is arranged through the Purchasing Department.
14. Conduct Design Coordination and Pre-Inspection Meetings (complex or
critical trains only)
Design coordination meetings ensure the Vendor’s factory personnel thoroughly
understand specification and Company requirements. They are normally held at
the responsible Vendor’s office within four to eight weeks after placement of
orders for special purpose, critical and large equipment. The responsible Vendor
should arrange for any major equipment Sub-Vendor(s) to be present. Company
representatives should be similar to those participating in the bid clarification
meeting.
Prior to this meeting, communication with the Vendor will have been made
through their marketing representatives. Engineering capabilities of the equip-
ment may have been misunderstood or possibly misrepresented.
For some large, complicated or critical equipment trains, more than one coordi-
nation meeting may be needed. The first coordination meeting includes a
detailed line-by-line review of all data sheets for the equipment train, including
auxiliary systems. In addition, significant time is spent reviewing equipment
outline drawings, discussing proposed testing methods, discussing detailed
inspection and quality control requirements, and reviewing preliminary P&IDs
of auxiliary systems. For equipment trains involving critical auxiliary systems
(such as API 614 type lube- and seal-oil systems), a second coordination
2100-8 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual 2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure
meeting is held within approximately eight to sixteen weeks of order place-
ment. This meeting covers a detailed review of final system P&IDs, auxiliary
equipment layout, access, etc.
It is usually convenient for the QA inspector to conduct a Pre-Inspection
meeting at the time of the first (or only) Design Coordination meeting. In this
meeting the inspector establishes all hold points and observation points for both
the prime and Sub-Vendor equipment items.
15. Review Rotor Response Reports and Conduct Design Audit Meeting
(complex, or critical trains only)
A Design Audit, usually conducted by a mechanical equipment specialist, is
held in addition to Design Coordination meeting(s) for large or critical equip-
ment. To resolve questions more efficiently, Design Audits are almost always
held at each equipment Vendor’s engineering/manufacturing facility when all
engineering is essentially complete, (i.e., rotor response reports are complete,
Campbell and Goodman diagrams are finalized for steam turbines, transient and
steady torsional analyses have been performed, and all engineering design
details of bearings, seals, rotors, impellers, etc., are finalized).
To minimize changes to equipment delivery schedules, hold Design Audit
meetings within six to 10 weeks after order placement. Also as an incentive to
complete engineering design in a timely manner, establish specific engineering
milestones with appropriate payment schedules. Otherwise, Vendors may
attempt to delay the timing of a Design Audit to freeze the design, insisting that
changes will cause delivery delays.
If specific areas need further clarification, advise the Vendor in advance that
detailed discussions will be held at the time of the Design Audit. Therefore,
prior to conducting a Design Audit, thoroughly review required rotor-dynamic
(lateral and torsional) reports, Campbell and Goodman diagrams, and calcula-
tions. In cases requiring transient analyses (such as for synchronous-motor-
driven equipment), the entire equipment train should be closely analyzed. A
careful understanding of the assumptions made, data used, and sensitivity of
results is strongly recommended.
16. Review of Vendor Drawings
Remember that the equipment is not isolated; it must be integrated into the rest
of the plant or installation. Be alert to interfaces between Vendor supplied
equipment and Company supplied equipment. To avoid Vendor claims of
missed delivery because of slow turnaround on drawings, keep a log of the
drawings indicating the date received and date returned.
17. Coordinate a Quality Assurance Surveillance Program (complex or crit-
ical trains only)
A quality assurance surveillance program is different (and separate) from the
inspection of the equipment, and can only be justified on large projects. The
purpose of the program is to ensure that the machinery system is fabricated
January 2011 (E) 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 2100-9
2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure Compressor Manual
from the correct materials, within the specified fits and finishes, properly
assembled, balanced, piped and wired.
Selection of the right Quality Surveillance people for this job is extremely
important. They must be located at the Vendor’s plant to follow the job through
the factory, to get a good machine shipped on schedule and to avoid any hang
ups in the factory. They must be available so that no advance notice on the part
of the Vendor is necessary, and production does not stop. They must under-
stand mechanical equipment assembly and problem diagnosis, machining and
balancing, and also be capable of writing informative, periodic status reports. A
good working relationship with the Vendor’s personnel is also important to
avoid antagonism.
Chevron has had good luck using people from its refinery and chemical plant
machine shops. Also, retired machine shop supervisors and experienced consul-
tants in machinery manufacturing and servicing have worked out well. Contact
a specialist from the ETC Mechanical and Power Systems Team or from IMI in
Global Refining.
18. Witnessed Mechanical and Performance Tests
Equipment testing, together with in-plant inspection, has proven to be one of
the most effective methods of minimizing field startup problems. A machinery
specialist generally participates in shop performance and mechanical testing of
large and critical equipment items. Vendor shop testing is about the only
feasible method of uncovering major operational and design problems.
Primarily, the advantage is to minimize the possibility of transferring major
problems to the field which result in much higher costs, startup delays,
unscheduled shutdowns, and the need for costly field repairs and retrofitting.
Another advantage is the high degree of attention the equipment gets from
Vendor management and availability to Vendor technical expertise. These
advantages are lost almost entirely when a major problem occurs in the field.
Once a piece of equipment is paid for and shipped, Vendor interest decreases
dramatically.
One disadvantage of a Vendor shop test is the inability to simulate all field
operating conditions. In addition, shop tests are usually conducted for rela-
tively short periods of time (one to six hours depending on equipment
involved). This is sufficient only to identify major mechanical problems.
At least two months before starting shop tests, specific test agendas (proce-
dures) should be obtained from the equipment Vendor and carefully reviewed.
All pertinent test conditions, procedures and acceptance criteria should be
reviewed for acceptability and conformance to the purchase order and pertinent
test codes. It is critical that all aspects of the test be mutually agreed upon in
writing in the form of a final test agenda. This final test agenda must be
completed prior to the start of any testing program. Failure to resolve any
aspects will lead to disagreement and conflict on the test stand.
2100-10 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual 2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure
Checklist for Purchasing a Centrifugal Compressor
1. Plant Layout and Site Conditions
Nozzle Orientation ____________________________________________
Arrangement and Location of Auxiliaries __________________________
Area Classification ____________________________________________
Tropicalizing/Weather Protection _________________________________
Drains ______________________________________________________
Utility Conditions _____________________________________________
Steam ___________________________________________________
Electricity _______________________________________________
Water ___________________________________________________
2. Compressor Selection
Place of Manufacture __________________________________________
Component Selection __________________________________________
Casing __________________________________________________
Impellers ________________________________________________
Guide Vanes ______________________________________________
Diaphragms ______________________________________________
Bearings _________________________________________________
Seals ____________________________________________________
Couplings ________________________________________________
Safety Mechanisms ________________________________________
Controls _________________________________________________
Impeller Stage Layout in Comp Case ______________________________
Alternate Offers ______________________________________________
3. Indicate details of components or assembly which do not have at least two
years satisfactory operating experience in similar service.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
January 2011 (E) 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 2100-11
2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure Compressor Manual
Checklist for Purchasing a Centrifugal Compressor (Continued)
4. Compressor Performance
Final Process Conditions ________________________________________
Performance Curves ____________________________________________
Selection Curves ___________________________________________
Overall Curves ____________________________________________
Air Operation _____________________________________________
Pressure Rise to Surge ______________________________________
Constant Pressure Stability ___________________________________
Curve Shape Guarantees _____________________________________
ICFM & Z Values __________________________________________
Sideload Pressure Level Guarantee ____________________________
Speed Tolerance to Meet Specification _________________________
Max Surge Pressure and Case Ratings ______________________________
Horsepower Guarantees and Steam Rates ___________________________
Alternate Offers _______________________________________________
Run-in On Nitrogen ____________________________________________
Low Temperature Operation _____________________________________
5. Compressor Construction
Internal Layout - Gas Path - Space for Sidestream Flow _______________
Impeller Stress Levels __________________________________________
Critical Speeds ________________________________________________
Thrust Bearings and Loads ______________________________________
Journal Bearings and Loads ______________________________________
Coupling _____________________________________________________
Manufacturer _____________________________________________
Type ____________________________________________________
Hydraulic Fit ______________________________________________
2100-12 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual 2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure
Checklist for Purchasing a Centrifugal Compressor (Continued)
Coupling Guards ______________________________________________
Thrust Disc __________________________________________________
Shaft Sleeves _________________________________________________
Materials ____________________________________________________
Allowable Flange Forces and Moments ____________________________
Flange Ratings and Facings _____________________________________
X-Ray Quality Castings ________________________________________
Vibration ____________________________________________________
Noise Levels _________________________________________________
Dry Air Purge and Vents to Bearing Housings _______________________
Alternate Offers ______________________________________________
Flanged Casing Drains _________________________________________
6. Lube- and Seal-Oil Systems
Vendor Schematics ____________________________________________
Major Equipment - Sub-Vendor List ______________________________
Compliance with API 614 _______________________________________
Separate or Integral Lube/Seal Oil System __________________________
Driver Lube and Control Oil Requirements _________________________
Subcontracting of Consoles _____________________________________
Welding Standards ____________________________________________
Piping Standards ______________________________________________
Stainless Piping Downstream of Filters ____________________________
Seal Type: Contact, Labyrinth, Cone, etc. __________________________
Seal System Design Pressure ____________________________________
Seal System Overhead Tanks ____________________________________
Seal System Expected and Guaranteed Inner Seal Leakage _____________
Seal System Inner Seal Leakage Balance ___________________________
Heating Coils ________________________________________________
January 2011 (E) 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 2100-13
2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure Compressor Manual
Checklist for Purchasing a Centrifugal Compressor (Continued)
Buffer Gas Arrangements _______________________________________
Oil Cooler Materials ___________________________________________
Oil Centrifuge or Connections for Centrifuge ________________________
Console Shop Tests (if no string test) ______________________________
Console Flushing and Clean Up __________________________________
Low Point Drains ______________________________________________
Emergency Rundown Tanks _____________________________________
Filling Spare Filters and Coolers from Active Equipment Accumulators ___
Filter Design P _______________________________________________
Reservoir Alarm Level __________________________________________
7. Instrumentation
Scope _______________________________________________________
Site Requirements _____________________________________________
Panels _______________________________________________________
Local Gage Boards _____________________________________________
Instrumentation Standardization __________________________________
Sub-Vendor List _______________________________________________
On Stream Testing of Protective Devices ___________________________
Thermowells _________________________________________________
Thrust Bearing Temperature Measurement __________________________
Outer Seal Oil Flow Temperature Measurement ______________________
Vibration Probes Per API 670 ____________________________________
Instrument Lagging ____________________________________________
Surge Control Involvement ______________________________________
Tropicalizing/Weather Protection _________________________________
Terminal Boxes for Wiring ______________________________________
2100-14 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual 2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure
Checklist for Purchasing a Centrifugal Compressor (Continued)
8. Shop Tests
Hydrotests
Division Plate ____________________________________________
Pressure _________________________________________________
Test Fluid ________________________________________________
API Mechanical Test ___________________________________________
ASME Performance Test _______________________________________
Procedure ________________________________________________
Re-number Correction ______________________________________
Curves Before Unit Leaves Stand _____________________________
Critical Speed Survey __________________________________________
Seal Oil Flow and Leakage Rates _________________________________
Internal Inspection After Test ____________________________________
Spare Rotor Testing ___________________________________________
Rotor Response Tests __________________________________________
Noise Level on Test ___________________________________________
Impeller Shaker Tests __________________________________________
“String” Tests ________________________________________________
9. Applicable Specifications and Vendor Comments
API 617 _____________________________________________________
API 614 _____________________________________________________
Vendor’s Standard Specifications _________________________________
Specifications Not Yet Commented On_____________________________
10. Manufacturing and Inspection
Radiograph Quality Castings_____________________________________
Repair of Castings
Compressors _____________________________________________
Turbines _________________________________________________
January 2011 (E) 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 2100-15
2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure Compressor Manual
Checklist for Purchasing a Centrifugal Compressor (Continued)
Piping Materials _______________________________________________
Welding Requirements __________________________________________
Head Welds __________________________________________________
Impeller Welding ______________________________________________
Impeller Cover Thickness Variation _______________________________
Shop Balance _________________________________________________
Plating of Shafts _______________________________________________
11. Miscellaneous
Tools and Maintenance Equipment ________________________________
Cradles for V.S. Comp. Internals __________________________________
Sound Enclosures ______________________________________________
Site Storage and Export Boxing ___________________________________
Spare Rotor Containers. Five Years Storage _________________________
Companion Flanges ____________________________________________
Preparation for Shipment ________________________________________
Alignment Provisions __________________________________________
Compressors ______________________________________________
Turbines _________________________________________________
Electrical Grounding of Baseplates ________________________________
Painting _____________________________________________________
Contract Maintenance __________________________________________
On-site Balancing _____________________________________________
2100-16 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual 2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure
Checklist for Purchasing a Reciprocating Compressor
1. Plant Layout and Site Conditions
Nozzle Orientation ____________________________________________
Arrangement and Location of Auxiliaries __________________________
Area Classification ____________________________________________
Tropicalization/Weather Protection _______________________________
Drains ______________________________________________________
Utility Conditions
Steam ___________________________________________________
Electricity _______________________________________________
Water ___________________________________________________
2. Scope Major Components
Place of Manufacture __________________________________________
Compressor __________________________________________________
Motor Drivers ________________________________________________
Acoustical Simulation Study (Pulsations) __________________________
Instrument Panels _____________________________________________
Capacity Controls _____________________________________________
Packing Cooling ______________________________________________
Cylinder Jacket Cooling System __________________________________
Lube-Oil Consoles ____________________________________________
3. Compressor Performance
Review of Final Engineering Figures ______________________________
Verify Forces and Moments _____________________________________
Capacity and HP Data __________________________________________
Motor Data:
Compressor, Breakway Torque and Torque-Effort Diagram _________
Frequency of Starts after Trip-out _____________________________
Speed and Torque Curve ____________________________________
January 2011 (E) 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 2100-17
2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure Compressor Manual
Checklist for Purchasing a Reciprocating Compressor (Continued)
Special Considerations for Startup and Shutdown ____________________
Capacity Control (Unloaders) ____________________________________
Clearances with and without Clearance Pockets ______________________
Guarantees - Valve Life and After Sales Service ______________________
4. Lube Oil System
Vendor’s Schematics ___________________________________________
Equipment Items-Description and
Make (Cooler, PSVs, Filters and Pumps) ___________________________
Auxiliary Pump Startup _________________________________________
Lubricator (Type, Number of Feeds) & Location _____________________
Corrosion Protection (Pickling or Stainless Steel) _____________________
Motor Lubrication _____________________________________________
5. Cylinder Jacket Cooling System
Vendor Schematics _____________________________________________
Equipment Items—Description and Make __________________________
Cooling Required when Cylinder Unloaded _________________________
6. Packing Cooling
Vendor’s Schematics ___________________________________________
Equipment Items—Description and Make __________________________
Type of Coolant _______________________________________________
Type of Packing _______________________________________________
7. Instrumentation and Electrical
Panel Requirement _____________________________________________
Protection Systems _____________________________________________
8. Piping
Extent of Fabrication ___________________________________________
Extent of Stainless Steel Piping and Tubing _________________________
Piping Materials _______________________________________________
2100-18 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual 2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure
Checklist for Purchasing a Reciprocating Compressor (Continued)
9. Shop Tests
Cylinder Clearance Test ________________________________________
Witnessed Tests per Data Sheet __________________________________
Helium Leak Tests (Cylinder and Valves) __________________________
Bar-Over Test and Acceptance Criteria ____________________________
Lube System _________________________________________________
Cylinder-to-Distance Piece-to-Crosshead-to-Frame Alignment _________
Crank Shaft Web Deflection _____________________________________
Field Performance Test _________________________________________
Piston To Head Clearance Both Ends ______________________________
Rod Run Out _________________________________________________
10. Pulsation Dampers
Pulsation Effects on Valve Performance ____________________________
Assumed Pressure Drop per Performance Calculations ________________
Simulation Study Coordination __________________________________
Sizing Guidelines for Preliminary Quotes __________________________
11. Operation on Nitrogen or Alternate Gases
Rod Loads ___________________________________________________
Valve Failure and Reversal ______________________________________
B.H.P. ______________________________________________________
Valve Performance (Different Valves Required?) ____________________
12. Nodular Iron Construction
Describe Where NI is Being Used ________________________________
Has Credit Been Taken for Increased Strength of NI Over CI Reducing
Material Thicknesses?
Describe in Detail. ____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
January 2011 (E) 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 2100-19
2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure Compressor Manual
Checklist for Purchasing a Reciprocating Compressor (Continued)
13. Rod Coating Requirements
What Type of Coating? _________________________________________
Coordination _________________________________________________
What Part of Rod is Being Coated? ________________________________
Inspection ____________________________________________________
14. Discharge Temperature
Adiabatic vs. Actual ____________________________________________
Maximum Suction Temperature __________________________________
Cylinder Maximum Allowance Temperature ________________________
15. Valve Design
Analysis Capability (Impact Velocities,
Flutter, Pressure Drop) __________________________________________
16. Miscellaneous
Distance Piece ________________________________________________
Shaking Forces ________________________________________________
Installation and Startup Supervision—Field Tests _____________________
Complete Frame to Foundation Mounting ___________________________
17. Indicate details of component or assembly which do not have at least two
years satisfactory operating experience in similar service.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
18. Rod Loads
Rod-load reversal calculation showing adequate reversal on valve failures
should be presented for all operating conditions including unload condition.
This is required for all cylinders including those with more than one valve per
corner. Also include partial valve failure to show sensitivity of non reversal to
valve failure. Weak link in reciprocating assembly. ___________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2100-20 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. January 2011 (E)
Compressor Manual 2100 Specifying and Purchasing Procedure
Checklist for Purchasing a Reciprocating Compressor (Continued)
19. Noise Level Guarantee
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
20. The Exceptions to API and Chevron Specifications
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
21. Torsional Analysis
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
22. Motor Bearing Cantilever Design
Bearing Loading ______________________________________________
Shaft Alternating Stress Levels ___________________________________
Overhung Weight and Deflection _________________________________
Revision History
Date Description Author Sponsor
1998 Initial release ATEU ATEU
June 2007 General revision ATEU ATEU
01/11 (E) Errata: Replaced references to CMP-SC-1876 with ATEU ATEU
references to CMP-DS-5241-SI and CMP-DS-5241-US.
January 2011 (E) 1998–2011 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. 2100-21
References
1. Compressors, Selection and Sizing. Royce N. Brown (Gulf Publishing
Company, 1986)
2. Compressed Air and Gas Data. Edited A. W. Loomis (Ingersoll-
Rand, 1982)
3. Compressed Air and Gas Handbook. Edited by John P. Rollins (Compressed
Air and Gas Institute, 1973)
4. Engineering Data Book (Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 1972)
5. Gas Properties and Compressor Data (Ingersoll-Rand, 1981)
6. PTFE Seals in Reciprocating Compressors, J.W. Blackwell, et al (ASME
Design Manual, 1975). This book is out of print.
7. Practical Machinery Management for Plants, Volume 2. Heinz P. Bloch (Gulf
Publishing Company, 1983)
8. Process Compressor Technology, Volume1. Ronald P. Lapina (Gulf Publishing
Company, 1982)
9. Sawyer’s Turbomachinery Maintenance Handbook, Volume 1. Edited by John
W Sawyer (Turbomachinery International Publications, 1980)
10. Turbomachinery Handbook (Gulf Publishing Company, 1974)
11. Compressor Handbook (Gulf Publishing Company, 1969)
December 1988 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. Reference–1
Appendix B Sample Problem
March 1991 1991 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. B-1
Appendix B Compressor Manual
B-2 1991 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. March 1991
Appendix C Equation List and Nomenclature
C1.0 Equation List
100-1 Perfect Gas Equation
pV = WRT
100-2 Modified Perfect Gas Equation
10.73wT-
PQ = ---------------------
M
100-3 Gas Equation Including Compressibility Factor
PQ = 10.73wTZ
--------------------------
M
100-4 Reduced Pressure
P-
P r = ----
Pc
100-5 Reduced Temperature
T-
T r = -----
Tc
100-6 Mole Fraction
N N N
X 1 = -------1- , X 2 = -------2- , X 3 = -------3- , etc.
Nm Nm Nm
100-7 Ratio of Specific Heats
C MC p m MC p m
k = -----p- = ----------------------------------
- = ---------------------------------------
Cv Ro MC p m – 1.986
MC p m – -------- -
778
December 1996 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. C-1
Appendix C Compressor Manual
100-8 Specific Gravity
Mm
S.G. = ------------
-
28.96
100-9 Relative Humidity
Pv
% R.H. = --------- 100
P sat
100-10 Specific Humidity
Wv 18 P v
S.H. = ---------- = ------------- ---------------
W da 28.96 P – P v
Pv
= 0.622 ---------------
P – Pv
100-11 Vapor Pressure of Water in Air
P – P v wb
P v = P v wb – ------------------------------------- t – t wb
2830 – 1.44t wb
100-12 Mole Percent of Water in Air
Pv
mol % H 2 O = ------ 100
P
100-13 Conversion of MPH to MMSCFD
MPH 379.4 24
MMSCFD = -------------------------------------------
10 6
100-14 Conversion of SCFM to ACFM
Q 1 = ACFM
= SCFM 14.7 T 1 Z 1
---------- --------- ------
P 1 520 Z 0
100-15 Conversion of ACFM to Weight Flow
P1 Q1 M
w = --------------------------
10.73T 1 Z 1
C-2 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1996
Compressor Manual Appendix C
100-16 Conversion of SCFM to Weight Flow
w = 14.7 SCFM M- = --------------------------
------------------------------------- SCFM M-
10.73 520 Z 0 379.4 Z 0
100-17 Isothermal Relationships
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = Constant
100-18 Isothermal Head
Hisot = RT1 ln r
100-19 Isentropic Relationship
P1V1k = P2V2k = C
100-20 Adiabatic Head
k-----------
–1 Z + Z
k - ------------------1 2-
r – 1 2
H ad = RT 1 --------------------------
k – 1-
-----------
k
100-21 Factor “X”
k-----------
– 1-
x = r k –1
100-22 Actual Discharge Temperature
T2(theo) = T1 (x + 1)
100-23 Adiabatic Discharge Temperature
T 2 = T 1 1 + --------
x
ad
100-24 Gas Horsepower - Adiabatic
wH ad
Ghp = -------------------------
-
33 ,000 ad
100-25 Constant Entropy Relationship
S2(theo) - S1 = 0
December 1996 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. C-3
Appendix C Compressor Manual
100-26 Theoretical Differential Enthalpy
h(theo)= h2(theo) - h1
100-27 Actual Enthalpy at Discharge Temperature
h theo
h 2 = -------------------
- + h1
ad
100-28 Adiabatic Head (Alternate Method)
Had = (778) h(theo)
100-29 Polytropic Relationship
n n
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = C
100-30 Polytropic Efficiency
k–1
p = ------------
k -
-----------
n–1
------------
n
100-31 Polytropic Head
n–1
------------
H poly = RT 1 r
n – 1
Z 1 + Z 2
-------------------------- ------------------
-
n–1 2
------------
n
100-32 Polytropic Discharge Temperature
n-----------
– 1-
T2 = T1 r n
100-33 Gas Horsepower - Polytropic
wH poly
Ghp = ----------------------
-
33 ,000 p
100-34 Polytropic/Adiabatic Head Relationship
p
H poly = H ad --------
ad
C-4 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1996
Compressor Manual Appendix C
100-35 Polytropic/Adiabatic Efficiency Relationship
k-----------
– 1-
r k –1
ad = -----------------------
k-----------
– 1-
k p
r –1
100-36 Step Pressure Ratio
1---
r oa n
r = ------------------------
-
0.98 n – 1
100-37 Steam Rate
2545
SR = --------------------------------
h1 – h2 i
200-1 Head/Velocity Proportionality
U2
H = K -------
g
200-2 Head/Velocity Relationship
U 2
H = ----------
g
200-3 Polytropic Head
n-----------
– 1-
r n –1
U 2
H poly = ---------- = Z avg RT 1 --------------------------
g n – 1-
-----------
n
200-4 Polytropic Efficiency
k–1
------------
k
p = ------------
n–1
------------
n
200-5 Stability Against Surge
QD – QS
% stability = --------------------- 100
QD
December 1996 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. C-5
Appendix C Compressor Manual
200-6 Inlet Mach Number
V rel
Mach No. = ---------
-
a1
200-7 Average Flow
cfm avg = Inlet ACFM + Discharge ACFM-
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
200-8 Polytropic Exponent
n–1 k–1
------------ = ------------
n k p
200-9 Polytropic Head
n-----------
– 1-
r n –1
H p = z avg RT 1 ---------------------
n – 1-
-----------
n
200-10 Polytropic Discharge Temperature
n–1
------------
T2 = T1 r n
200-11 Gas Horsepower - Polytropic
wH p
GHP = ----------------------
-
33 ,000 p
200-12 Actual Inlet Gas Velocity
Q
V = 3.06 -------
D2
200-13 Affinity Law Relating Head and Speed
H p 1---
N 2 = N 1 --------2 2
Hp
1
200-14 Gas Horsepower - Polytropic
w 2 H p2
GHP 2 = GHP1 -----------------
w 1 H p1
C-6 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1996
Compressor Manual Appendix C
200-15 Impeller Tip Speed
u = DN
---------
229
200-16 Maximum Impeller Speed
N max = 299 900 -
----------------------
D
200-17 API Vibration Amplitude Limit
1---
A v = 2 or 12000
--------------- 2 whichever is less
N
200-18 Dynamic Force for Foundation Designs
F = 4.3 10 – 8 N 2 W R A v
300-1 Clearance Volume
Vc
C = ---------- 100
V cyl
300-2 Theoretical Volumetric Efficiency
1
---
E v (theo.) = 100 – C r k – 1
300-3 Corrected Volumetric Efficiency
1
Z ---
E v = 97 – F r – C -----s- r k – 1
Z d
300-4 Actual Inlet Flow
ICFM = Q = VdEv
300-5 Conversion of MMSCFD to MMCFD
T s Z rc
MMCFD = MMSCFD 14.7
---------- --------
14.4 520 Z
- --------
o
December 1996 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. C-7
Appendix C Compressor Manual
300-6 Conversion of SCFM to MMCFD
SCFM T Z rc
MMCFD = ----------------------------s -------
-
353 ,742 Z o
300-7 Conversion of Weight Flow to MMCFD
wT s Z rc
MMCFD = ------------------
932 M
300-8 Brake Horsepower from Bhp/MMCFD
Bhp = ----------------------
Bhp - MMCFD
MMCFD
300-9 Inlet CFM from MMCFD
14.4 Z s
Q = MMCFD 10 6 ---------- -------- --------------------------
day
P Z 1 ,440 min.
s rc
10 4 Z s
= MMCFD -------- --------
P Z
s rc
300-10 Inlet CFM, Bhp/MMCFD Relationship
Bhp 10 4 Z S
Q = V d E v = -------------------------------------------------------------
-
Bhp MMCFD Z rc P s
300-11 Rough Horsepower
Bhp = (22) (MMCFD) (f) (n) (r)
300-12 Approximate Stage Pressure Ratio
r = roa 1/n
300-13 Brake Horsepower Per MMCFD
k–1
------------
r k – 1
46.9 Zs + Zd
----------------------- = ---------- -------------------------- ------------------
Bhp
MMCFD Z k–1 2
rc ------------
k
300-14 Corrected Brake Horsepower Per MMCFD
Corrected Bhp/MM = Basic Bhp/MM + Bhp/MM (SG)
C-8 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1996
Compressor Manual Appendix C
300-15 Class A Valve Loss Correction - High
Bhp MM SG = 4 ,320 SG -
--------------------------
T s Z rc
300-16 Class A Valve Loss Correction - Low
Bhp MM SG = 3 ,624 SG + 696-
-----------------------------------------
T s Z rc
300-17 Class B Valve Loss Correction - High
6 ,027 SG -
Bhp MM SG = --------------------------
T s Z rc
300-18 Class B Valve Loss Correction - Low
5 ,672 SG + 335
Bhp MM SG = ------------------------------------------
T s Z rc
300-19 Moisture Correction Factor
Ps
MF = ----------------
-
Ps – Pv
300-20 Total Corrected Power
Total adjusted ----------- = Basic ----------- MF NLCF + ---------------------
Bhp Bhp Bhp
MM MM MM SG
300-21 Adiabatic Discharge Temperature
k-----------
– 1-
td = ts + 460 r k – 460
300-22 Allowable Pressure Ratio
k
t d + 460 ------------
r = ------------------- k – 1
t s + 460
300-23 Cylinder Displacement - Single Acting
V cyl = --- D 2 S = 0.785D 2 S
4
December 1996 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. C-9
Appendix C Compressor Manual
300-24 Cylinder Displacement Rate -Single Acting
D 2 SN D 2 SN-
V d = --- --------------- = --------------
4 1 ,728 2 ,200
300-25 Cylinder Displacement - Double Acting
Vcyl = 0.785 (2D2 - d2) S
300-26 Cylinder Displacement Rate - Double Acting
V d = ----------------------------------
2D 2 – d 2 SN-
2 ,200
300-27 Cylinder Displacement - D.A. With Tail Rod
Vcyl = 1.571 (D2 - d2 ) S
300-28 Cylinder Displacement Rate - D.A. With Tail Rod
D 2 – d 2 SN
V d = --------------------------------
1 ,100
300-29 Average Inlet Valve Velocity
288V
V = ---------------d-
A
300-30 Average Piston Speed
A.P.S. = SN/6
C-10 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1996
Compressor Manual Appendix C
C2.0 Nomenclature
A Area
ACFM Compressor volume flow rate at any conditions specified
A.P.S. Average piston speed of reciprocating compressor pistons
Av Peak-peak vibration amplitude
a1 Speed of sound in gas at inlet conditions
Bhp Brake horsepower
Bhp/MM Brake horsepower per million cubic feet per day
Bhp/MM(SG) Bhp/MM correction factor for specific gravity
C Cylinder clearance in %; constant
cfmavg Compressor volume flow rate at average conditions
Cp Specific heat at constant pressure
Cv Specific heat at constant volume
D Inlet nozzle diameter (ID); impeller diameter
DCFM Compressor volume flow rate at discharge conditions
Ev Volumetric efficiency of reciprocating compressor
F Molecular weight factor in volumetric efficiency equation for
reciprocating compressor
f Factor in rough horsepower equation for reciprocating compressor
g Constant in Newton's law
GHP Gas horsepower
GHP1, GHP2 Gas horsepower at conditions specified
H Compressor head
Had Adiabatic head
Hisot Isothermal head
Hpoly Polytropic head
Hp , Hp Polytropic head at conditions specified
1 2
h 1, h 2 Enthalpy at conditions specified
h2(theo) Theoretical enthalpy at conditions specified
December 1996 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. C-11
Appendix C Compressor Manual
ICFM Compressor volume flow rate at inlet conditions
K Constant
k Ratio of specific heats
M Molecular weight
Mach No. Mach number in gas at inlet conditions
MCp Molal heat capacity of a gas
MCp(m) Molal heat capacity of gas mixture
M.F. Moisture factor in BHP/MM equation
Mm Molecular weight of a mixture
MMCFD Million cubic feet per day at 14.4 psia pressure and compressor
inlet temperature
MMSCFD Million cubic feet per day at standard conditions
MPH Moles per hour
N Rotating speed
n Polytropic exponent; or number of compression steps
N.C.L.F. Non-lube factor in BHP/MM equation
Nm Total moles in a gas mixture
Nmax Maximum impeller speed
N1, N2 Operating speed at conditions specified
N1,2,3...i Number of moles of a gas component in a gas mixture
p Pressure in pounds per square foot
P Pressure in pounds per square inch (gage or absolute)
Pc Critical pressure of a gas
Pc(m) Critical pressure of a gas (Mixture)
Pd Discharge pressure
Pr Reduced pressure
Ps Suction pressure
Psat Partial pressure of water vapor in air when fully saturated
Pv Partial pressure of water vapor in air
Pv(wb) Vapor pressure corresponding to wet bulb temperature
P1, P2 Pressure at conditions specified
Q Voltage flow rate
QD Volume flow rate at discharge conditions
C-12 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1996
Compressor Manual Appendix C
Qs Volume flow rate at suction conditions
Q1, Q2 Volume flow rate at conditions specified
R Gas constant for a specified gas
r Pressure ratio
Ro Universal gas constant
roa Over-all pressure ratio of several compression steps
S Reciprocating compressor stroke
SCFM Cubic feet per minute at standard conditions
S.G. Specific gravity of a gas relative to air
S.H. Specific humidity
SR Steam rate
S 1, S 2 Entropy at conditions specified
T Absolute temperature
t Drybulb temperature
Tc Critical temperature of a gas
Tc(m) Critical temperature of a gas mixture
Td Absolute discharge temperature
td Fahrenheit discharge temperature
Tr Reduced temperature
Ts Absolute suction temperature
ts Fahrenheit suction temperature
twb Wetbulb temperature
T1, T2 Absolute temperature at conditions specified
T2(theo) Theoretical discharge temperature
U Impeller tip speed
V Volume, Velocity
Vc Reciprocating compressor cylinder clearance volume
Vcyl Reciprocating compressor cylinder displacement volume
Vd Reciprocating compressor displacement rate
Vrel Inlet gas velocity relative to an impeller blade
V1, V2 Volume at conditions specified
December 1996 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. C-13
Appendix C Compressor Manual
W Weight
w Weight flow rate
Wda Weight of dry air
Wv Weight of water vapor in air
w1, w2 Weight flow rate at conditions specified
X A factor
X1,2,3...i Mole fractions in a gas mixture
Z Gas compressibility
Zavg Gas compressibility at compressor average conditions
Zd Gas compressibility at discharge conditions
Zo Gas compressibility at standard conditions
Zrc Gas compressibility at 14.4 psia pressure and suction temperature
Zs Gas compressibility at suction conditions
Z1, Z2 Gas compressibility at conditions specified
Individual impeller flow coefficient
Individual impeller head coefficient
ad Adiabatic efficiency
i Isotropic efficiency
p Polytropic efficiency
C-14 1996 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1996
Appendix D Conversion Factors
D1.0 Conversion Factors
Units of Length Multiply units in left column by proper factor below
in. ft. yd. mile mm.* cm.* m.* km.*
1 inch 1 0.0833 0.0278 — 25.40 2.540 0.0254 —
1 foot 12 1 0.3333 — 304.8 30.48 0.3048 —
1 yard 36 3 1 — 914.4 91.44 0.9144 —
1 mile — 5280 1760 1 — — 1609.3 1.609
1 millimeter* 0.0394 0.0033 — — 1 0.100 0.001 —
1 centimeter* 0.3937 0.0328 0.0109 — 10 1 0.01 —
1 meter* 39.37 3.281 1.094 — 1000 100 1 0.001
1 kilometer* — 3281 1094 0.6214 — — 1000 1
*SI Metric Units
(1 micron = 0.001 millimeter)
Units of Weight Multiply units in left column by proper factor below
grain oz. lb. ton gram* kg.* metric ton*
1 grain 1 — — — 0.0648 — —
1 ounce 437.5 1 0.0625 — 28.35 0.0283 —
1 pound 7000 16 1 0.0005 453.6 0.4536 —
1 ton — 32000 2000 1 — 907.2 0.9072
1 gram* 15.43 0.0353 — — 1 0.001 —
1 kilogram* — 35.27 2.205 — 1000 1 0.001
1 metric ton* — 35,274 2205 1.1023 — 1000 1
Units of Density Multiply units in left column by proper factor below
lb/cu. in. lb/cu. ft. lb/gal. g/cu. cm. kg/m3*
1 pound/cu. in. 1 1728 231.0 27.68 27,680
1 pound/cu. ft. — 1 0.1337 0.0160 16.019
1 pound/gal. 0.00433 7.481 1 0.1198 119.83
1 gram/cu. cm. 0.0361 62.43 8.345 1 1000
1 kilogram/cu. meter* 0.0000361 0.0624 0.00835 0.001 1
December 1998 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. D-1
Appendix D Compressor Manual
Units of Area Multiply units in left column by proper factor below
sq. in. sq. ft acre sq. mile sq. cm.* sq. m.* hectare
1 sq. inch 1 0.0069 — — 6.452 — —
1 sq. foot 144 1 — — 929.0 0.0929 —
1 acre — 43,560 1 0.0016 — 4047 0.4047
1 sq. mile — — 640 1 — — 259.0
1 sq. centimeter* 0.1550 — — — 1 0.0001 —
1 sq. meter* 1550 10.76 — — 10,000 1 —
1 hectare — — 2.471 — — 10,000 1
Units of Volume Multiply units in left column by proper factor below
cu. in. cu. ft. cu. yd. cu. cm. cu. meter* liter* U.S. gal. Imp. gal
1 cu. inch 1 — — 16.387 — 0.0164 — —
1 cu. foot 1728 1 0.0370 28317 0.0283 28.32 7.481 6.229
1 cu. yard 46656 27 1 — 0.7646 764.5 202.0 168.2
1 cu. centimeter 0.0610 — — 1 — 0.0010 — —
1 cu. meter* 61,023 35.31 1.308 1000000 1 999.97 264.2 220.0
1 liter* 61.025 0.0353 — 1000.028 0.0010 1 0.2642 0.2200
1 U.S. gallon 231 0.1337 — 3785.4 — 3.785 1 0.8327
1 Imperial gallon 277.4 0.1605 — 4546.1 — 4.546 1.201 1
*SI Metric Units
Units of Multiply units in left column by proper factor below
Pressure
lb/sq. in. lb/sq.ft. int. atm. kg/cm2 mm Hg at in. Hg at ft. water at kPa*
32F 32F 39.2F
1 pound/sq. in. 1 144 — 0.0703 51.713 2.0359 2.307 6.895
1 pound/sq. ft. 0.00694 1 — — 0.3591 0.01414 0.01602 0.04788
1 intern. 14.696 2116.2 1 1.0333 760 29.921 33.90 101.33
atmosphere
1 kilogram/sq. cm 14.223 2048.1 0.9678 1 735.56 28.958 32.81 98.07
1 millimeter- 0.0193 2.785 — — 1 0.0394 0.0446 0.13307
mercury—
1 torr (torricelli)
1 inch mercury 0.4912 70.73 0.0334 0.0345 25.400 1 1.133 3.387
1 foot water 0.4335 62.42 — 0.0305 22.418 0.8826 1 2.989
1 kilopascal* 0.14599 20.898 0.009869 0.010197 7.5146 0.29526 0.33456 1
D-2 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1998
Compressor Manual Appendix D
Units of Energy Multiply units in left column by proper factor below
ft.-lb. Btu g. cal. Joule* kw-hr. hp-hr.
1 foot-pound 1 0.001285 0.3240 1.3556 — —
1 Btu 778.2 1 252.16 1054.9 — —
1 gram calorie 3.0860 0.003966 1 4.1833 — —
1 int. Joule* 0.7377 0.000948 0.2390 1 — —
1 int. kilowatt-hour 2655656 3412.8 860563 — 1 1.3412
1 horsepower-hour 1980000 2544.5 641617 — 0.7456 1
Units of Specific Energy Multiply units in left column by proper factor below
absolute Joule/g int. Joule/g cal/g int. cal/g Btu/lb.
1 absolute Joule/gram 1 0.99984 0.23901 0.23885 0.42993
1 int. Joule/gram 1.000165 1 0.23904 0.23892 0.43000
1 calorie/gram 4.1840 4.1833 1 0.99935 1.7988
1 int. calorie/gram 4.1867 4.1860 1.00065 1 1.8000
1 Btu/lb 2.3260 2.3256 0.55592 0.55556 1
Units of Power Multiply units in left column by proper factor below
(rates of energy use)
hp watt* kw* Btu/min. Btu/hr. ft-lb/sec. ft-lb/min. g. cal/sec. metric hp
1 horsepower 1 745.7 0.7475 42.41 2544.5 550 33.000 178.2 1.014
1 watt* — 1 0.001 0.569 3.413 0.7376 44.25 0.2390 0.00136
1 kilowatt* 1.3410 1000 1 56.88 3412.8 737.6 44,254 239.0 1.360
1 Btu per minute — — — 1 60 12.97 778.2 4.203 0.0239
1 metric hp 0.9863 735.5 0.7355 41.83 2509.6 542.5 32.550 175.7 1
Units of Multiply units in left column by proper factor below
Refrigeration
Btu(IT)/min. Btu(IT)/hr. kg. cal/hr. ton (U.S.) ton (Brit) frigorie/hr.
comm comm
1 ton (U.S.) comm 200 12,000 3025.9 1 0.8965 3025.9
1 ton (Brit) comm 223.08 13,385 3375.2 1.1154 1 3375.2
1 frigorie/hr. 0.06609 3.9657 1 0.0003305 0.0002963 1
Note: Btu is International Steam Table Btu(IT). 1 frigorie = 1 kg cal (Not IT).
*SI Metric Units
December 1998 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. D-3
Appendix D Compressor Manual
D2.0 Temperature Conversion Chart
Temperature Conversion Chart
Centigrade Fahrenheit Centigrade Fahrenheit Centigrade Fahrenheit Centigrade Fahrenheit
-273.17 -459.7 -20.6 -5 23.0 11.1 52 125.6 54.4 130 266
-268 -450 -17.8 0 32.0 11.7 53 127.4 57.2 135 275
-262 -440 12.2 54 129.2 60.0 140 284
-257 -430 -17.2 1 33.8 12.8 55 131.0 62.8 145 293
-251 -420 -16.7 2 35.6 13.3 56 132.8 65.6 150 302
-246 -410 -16.1 3 37.4 68.3 155 311
-240 -400 -15.6 4 39.2 13.9 57 134.6 71.1 160 320
-234 -390 -15.0 5 41.0 14.4 58 136.4
-14.4 6 42.8 15.0 59 138.2 73.9 165 329
-229 -380 -13.9 7 44.6 15.6 60 140.0 76.7 170 338
-223 -370 -13.3 8 46.4 16.1 61 141.8 79.4 175 347
-218 -360 16.7 62 143.6 82.2 180 356
-212 -350 -12.8 9 48.2 17.2 63 145.4 85.0 185 365
-207 -340 -12.2 10 50.0 17.8 64 147.2 87.8 190 374
201 -330 -11.7 11 51.8 90.6 195 383
-196 -320 -11.1 12 53.6 18.3 65 149.0 93.3 200 392
-190 -310 -10.6 13 55.4 18.9 66 150.8 96.1 205 401
-10.0 14 57.2 19.4 67 152.6 98.9 210 410
-184 -300 -9.4 15 59.0 20.0 68 154.4 100.0 212 414
-179 -290 -8.9 16 60.8 20.6 69 156.2 102 215 419
-173 -280 21.1 70 158.0 104 220 428
-169 -273 -459.4 -8.3 17 62.6 21.7 71 159.8 107 225 437
-168 -270 -454 -7.8 18 64.4 22.2 72 161.6 110 230 446
-162 -260 -436 -7.2 19 66.2 113 235 455
-157 -250 -418 -6.7 20 68.0 22.8 73 163.4 116 240 464
-151 -240 -400 -6.1 21 69.8 23.3 74 165.2
-5.6 22 71.6 23.9 75 167.0 118 245 473
-146 -230 -382 -5.0 23 73.4 24.4 76 168.8 121 250 482
-140 -220 -364 -4.4 24 75.2 25.0 77 170.6 124 255 491
-134 -210 -346 25.6 78 172.4 127 260 500
-129 -200 -328 -3.9 25 77.0 26.1 79 174.2 129 265 509
-123 -190 -310 -3.3 26 78.8 26.7 80 176.0 132 270 518
-118 -180 -292 -2.8 27 80.6 135 275 527
-112 -170 -274 -2.2 28 82.4 27.2 81 177.8 138 280 536
-107 -160 -256 -1.7 29 84.2 27.8 82 179.6 141 285 545
-1.1 30 86.0 28.3 83 181.4 143 290 554
-101 -150 -238 -0.6 31 87.8 28.9 84 183.2 146 295 563
-96 -140 -220 0.0 32 89.6 29.4 85 185.0 149 300 572
-90 -130 -202 30.0 86 186.8 154 310 590
-84 -120 -184 0.6 33 91.4 30.6 87 188.6 160 320 608
-79 -110 -166 1.1 34 93.2 31.1 88 190.4 166 330 626
-73.3 -100 -148.0 1.7 35 95.0 171 340 644
-67.8 -90 -130.0 2.2 36 96.8 31.7 89 192.2 177 350 662
-62.2 -80 -112.0 2.8 37 98.6 32.2 90 194.0
3.3 38 100.4 32.8 91 195.8 182 360 680
-59.4 -75 -103.0 3.9 39 102.2 33.3 92 197.6 188 370 698
-56.7 -70 -94.0 4.4 40 104.0 33.9 93 199.4 193 380 716
-53.9 -65 -85.0 34.4 94 201.2 199 390 734
-51.1 -60 -76.0 5.0 41 105.8 35.0 95 203.0 204 400 752
-48.3 -55 -67.0 5.6 42 107.6 35.6 96 204.8 210 410 770
-45.6 -50 -58.0 6.1 43 109.4 216 420 788
-42.8 -45 -49.0 6.7 44 111.2 36.1 97 206.6 221 430 806
-40.0 -40 -40.0 7.2 45 113.0 36.7 98 208.4
7.8 46 114.8 37.2 99 210.2 227 440 824
-37.2 -35 -31.0 8.3 47 116.6 37.8 100 212.0 232 450 842
-34.4 -30 -22.0 8.9 48 118.4 40.6 105 221 238 460 860
-31.7 -25 -13.0 43.3 110 230 243 470 878
-28.9 -20 -4.0 9.4 49 120.2 46.1 115 239 249 480 896
-26.1 -15 5.0 10.0 50 122.0 48.9 120 248 254 490 914
-23.3 -10 14.0 10.6 51 123.8 51.7 125 257 260 500 932
5 9
The formulas at the right may also be used DegreesCent.,C = --- F + 40 – 40 DegreesFahr.,F = --- C + 40 – 40
for converting Centigrade or Fahrenheit 9 5
degrees into the other scales. 5 9
= --- F – 32 = --- C + 32
9 5
DegreesKelvin,K = C + 273.2 DegreesRankine,R = F + 459.7
NOTE: The center column of numbers refers to the temperature in degrees, either Centigrade or Fahrenheit, which it is desired to convert into the other scale. If converting
from Fahrenheit to Centigrade degrees, the equivalent temperature will be found in the left column, while if converting from degrees Centigrade to degrees Fahrenheit, the
answer will be found in the column on the right.
D-4 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1998
Compressor Manual Appendix D
D3.0 Flow Measurement Nomograph SCFM to ICFM
(Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
December 1998 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. D-5
Appendix D Compressor Manual
D4.0 Flow Measurement Nomograph LB/MIN to ICFM
(Courtesy of Gas Processors Suppliers’ Association)
D-6 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1998
Appendix E Physical Factors
December 1998 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. E-1
Fig. E-1 Properties of Hydrocarbon and Special Refrigerant Vapors From Gas Properties and Compressor Data, Form 3519 1967. Courtesy of
E-2
Appendix E
Dresser-Rand.
1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
Compressor Manual
December 1998
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Fig. E-2 Properties of Miscellaneous Gases From Gas Properties and Compressor Data, Form 3519C 1967. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand.
1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
Appendix E
E-3
E-4
Appendix E
Fig. E-3 Vapor Pressure Curves From Gas Properties and Compressor Data, Form 3519C 1967. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand.
1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
Compressor Manual
December 1998
Appendix F Generalized Compressibility Charts
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. F-1
Fig. F-1 Generalized Compressibility Chart No. 1 From “Chemical Engineering,“ July 1954. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
F-2
Appendix F
1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
Compressor Manual
December 1988
Fig. F-2 Generalized Compressibility Chart No. 2 From “Chemical Engineering,“ July 1954. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988
Compressor Manual
1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
Appendix F
F-3
Fig. F-3 Generalized Compressibility Chart No. 3 From “Chemical Engineering,“ July 1954. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
F-4
Appendix F
1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
Compressor Manual
December 1988
Fig. F-4 Generalized Compressibility Chart No. 4 From “Chemical Engineering,“ July 1954. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988
Compressor Manual
1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
Appendix F
F-5
Appendix G Compressibility Charts
Contents Page
G1.0 Compressibility Chart for Air G-2
G2.0 Compressibility Chart for Ammonia G-3
G3.0 Compressibility Chart for Carbon Dioxide G-4
G4.0 Compressibility Chart for Nitrogen G-6
G5.0 Compressibility Chart for Hydrogen G-7
G6.0 Compressibility Chart for Methane G-8
G7.0 Compressibility Chart for Ethylene G-9
G8.0 Compressibility Chart for Ethane G-11
G9.0 Compressibility Chart for Propylene G-13
G10.0 Compressibility Chart for Propane G-14
G11.0 Compressibility Chart for Isobutane G-16
G12.0 Compressibility Chart for N-Butane G-18
G13.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.60 Specific Gravity) G-19
G14.0 Compressibility Chart for N-Butane G-20
G15.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.65 Specific Gravity) G-21
G16.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.70 Specific Gravity) G-22
G17.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.75 Specific Gravity) G-23
G18.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.80 Specific Gravity) G-24
G19.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.90 Specific Gravity) G-25
G20.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (1.00 Specific Gravity) G-26
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-1
Appendix G Compressor Manual
G1.0 Compressibility Chart for Air
Fig. G-1 Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-2 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix G
G2.0 Compressibility Chart for Ammonia
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-3
Appendix G Compressor Manual
G3.0 Compressibility Chart for Carbon Dioxide
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-4 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix G
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-5
Appendix G Compressor Manual
G4.0 Compressibility Chart for Nitrogen
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-6 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix G
G5.0 Compressibility Chart for Hydrogen
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-7
Appendix G Compressor Manual
G6.0 Compressibility Chart for Methane
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-8 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix G
G7.0 Compressibility Chart for Ethylene
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-9
Appendix G Compressor Manual
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-10 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix G
G8.0 Compressibility Chart for Ethane
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-11
Appendix G Compressor Manual
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-12 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix G
G9.0 Compressibility Chart for Propylene
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-13
Appendix G Compressor Manual
G10.0 Compressibility Chart for Propane
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-14 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix G
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-15
Appendix G Compressor Manual
G11.0 Compressibility Chart for Isobutane
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-16 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix G
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-17
Appendix G Compressor Manual
G12.0 Compressibility Chart for N-Butane
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-18 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix G
G13.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.60 Specific Gravity)
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-19
Appendix G Compressor Manual
G14.0 Compressibility Chart for N-Butane
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-20 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix G
G15.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.65 Specific Gravity)
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-21
Appendix G Compressor Manual
G16.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.70 Specific Gravity)
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-22 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix G
G17.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.75 Specific Gravity)
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-23
Appendix G Compressor Manual
G18.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.80 Specific Gravity)
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-24 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix G
G19.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.90 Specific Gravity)
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. G-25
Appendix G Compressor Manual
G20.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (1.00 Specific Gravity)
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
G-26 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Appendix H Thermodynamic Property Charts
Contents Page
H1.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Air H-2
H2.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Ammonia H-3
H3.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Carbon Dioxide H-4
H4.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Nitrogen H-5
H5.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Hydrogen H-6
H6.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Methane H-7
H7.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Ethylene H-8
H8.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Ethane H-9
H9.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Propylene H-10
H10.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Propane H-11
H11.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Isobutane H-12
H12.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for N-Butane H-13
H13.0 Properties of Saturated Steam—Temperature Table
32F to 212FH-14
H14.0 Properties of Saturated Steam—Pressure Table H-18
H15.0 Psychrometric Charts H-22
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. H-1
Appendix H Compressor Manual
H1.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Air
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
H-2 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix H
H2.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Ammonia
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. H-3
Appendix H Compressor Manual
H3.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Carbon Dioxide
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
H-4 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix H
H4.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Nitrogen
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. H-5
Appendix H Compressor Manual
H5.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Hydrogen
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
H-6 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix H
H6.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Methane
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. H-7
Appendix H Compressor Manual
H7.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Ethylene
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
H-8 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix H
H8.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Ethane
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. H-9
Appendix H Compressor Manual
H9.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Propylene
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
H-10 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix H
H10.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Propane
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. H-11
Appendix H Compressor Manual
H11.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Isobutane
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
H-12 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix H
H12.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for N-Butane
Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. H-13
Appendix H Compressor Manual
H13.0 Properties of Saturated Steam—Temperature Table 32F to 212F
From “Thermodynamic Properties of Steam” by Keenan and Keyes, 1936, Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
H-14 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix H
From “Thermodynamic Properties of Steam” by Keenan and Keyes, 1936, Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. H-15
Appendix H Compressor Manual
From “Thermodynamic Properties of Steam” by Keenan and Keyes, 1936, Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
H-16 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix H
From “Thermodynamic Properties of Steam” by Keenan and Keyes, 1936, Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. H-17
Appendix H Compressor Manual
H14.0 Properties of Saturated Steam—Pressure Table
From “Thermodynamic Properties of Steam” by Keenan and Keyes, 1936, Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
H-18 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix H
From “Thermodynamic Properties of Steam” by Keenan and Keyes, 1936, Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. H-19
Appendix H Compressor Manual
From “Thermodynamic Properties of Steam” by Keenan and Keyes, 1936, Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
H-20 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix H
From “Thermodynamic Properties of Steam” by Keenan and Keyes, 1936, Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. H-21
Appendix H Compressor Manual
H15.0 Psychrometric Charts
From Pressure-Enthalpy Charts for Selected Engineering Substances by Short, Kent and Walls, 1970 by Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used by permission.
H-22 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix H
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. H-23
Appendix H Compressor Manual
H-24 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Appendix I Miscellaneous Charts
Contents Page
I1.0 Synchronous Speeds I-2
I2.0 Altitude and Atmospheric Pressures I-2
December 1998 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. I-1
Appendix I Compressor Manual
I1.0 Synchronous Speeds
From Gas Properties and Compressor Data, Form 3519C 1967. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand.
I2.0 Altitude and Atmospheric Pressures
From Gas Properties and Compressor Data, Form 3519C 1967. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand.
I-2 1998 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1998
Appendix J Reciprocating Compressor Lubrication
Contents Page
J1.0 Overview J-2
J2.0 Part 1: General J-2
J3.0 Part II: Detailed Discussion J-5
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. J-1
Appendix J Compressor Manual
J1.0 Overview
Appendix J consists of two parts, which collectively cover compressor cylinder and
packing lubrication. In summary:
• Part 1 - This is an overview of compressor cylinder and packing lubrication,
discussing the importance of cylinder and packing lubrication. It defines the
differences between distribution block and pump-to-point lubrication
schemes. Part 1 also provides oil feed rates, and outlines precautions necessary
for a trouble-free installation.
• Part 2 - This is a vendor discussion of the subject (Courtesy of Cooper
Cameron Corporation). It is primarily intended for field personnel, concen-
trating on the “nuts and bolts” of cylinder and packing lubrication. It provides
enlarged illustrations, and installation and maintenance procedures.
J2.0 Part 1: General
Compressor cylinder and packing lubrication is required for reciprocating compres-
sors to:
• lubricate moving parts with a fluid film;
• reduce energy consumption;
• seal against pressures and minimize packing losses; and
• minimize corrosion by coating metal with a protective oil film.
Cylinder and packing lubrication systems are usually mounted externally on the
compressor. They provide oil to cylinders, rod packing, and other devices that
require lubrication. The lube rates normally encountered are measured in drops per
minute or pints per day. There are two main types:
• Distribution Block (e.g., Trabon)
• Pump-to-Point (e.g., McCord)
The distribution block system uses one large pump to supply oil to all the lube
points. The oil flow is divided in distribution blocks so that each point receives the
correct amount of oil, at the proper time. Distribution block systems are used for
many lubrication points, at pressures up to 2000 psig. Special high-pressure distri-
bution blocks are also available, for pressures up to 7500 psig.
The pump-to-point system uses individual pumps (called “oilers” or “lubricators”)
to supply each lube point with oil (see Figure 5B-1). Pump-to-point systems are
used for only a few lubrication points, and for pressures above 2000 psig.
Cylinder and packing lube-oil is consumed. It is injected into the compressor, and
either drains out through the packing glands or exhaust valves, or is burned in power
cylinders. Since oil is consumed on a regular basis, it is necessary to provide a
constant supply. For distribution block systems, the compressor crankcase is a good
source, provided the same oil can be used for both services (cylinder and packing oil
as well as crankcase oil). As crankcase oil is withdrawn for injection, it is constantly
replaced with fresh oil. This extends the oil change interval because fresh oil
J-2 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix J
continuously dilutes the old, maintaining the correct viscosity and beneficial effects
of the additives. If the crankcase oil is not compatible with cylinder oil, distribution
block systems then use separate reservoirs. Pump-to-point oilers have self-contained
reservoirs and do not use crankcase oil.
The quantity of cylinder and packing oil is critical. If too much oil is injected, it
may build up inside the cylinder or lead to valve deposits; it can flood the packing
and lead to a housekeeping mess; and it will increase operating costs. Too much oil
can also damage teflon parts. If too little oil is injected, metal-to-metal contact will
occur, leading to overheating problems, scored cylinders, worn rings, and other
repairs.
Figure J-1 is a chart listing typical oil requirements based on cylinder diameter and
piston speed.
Fig. J-1 Oil Feed Rates (Extracted from Salesfax)
Piston Oil Feed per Cylinder
Cylinder Diameter Displacement Rubbing Surface
(inches) (cfm) (sq ft/min) Drops per Minute Pints per 10 Hours
Up to 6 Up to 65 Up to 500 2 in 3 min 0.05
6 to 8 65 to 125 500 to 750 1 0.08
8 to 10 125 to 225 750 to 1100 4 in 3 min 0.11
10 to 12 225 to 350 1100 to 1500 1 to 2 0.14
12 to 15 350 to 600 1500 to 2000 2 to 3 0.20
15 to 18 600 to 1000 2000 to 2600 3 to 4 0.27
18 to 24 1000 to 1800 2600 to 3600 4 to 5 0.36
24 to 30 1800 to 3000 3600 to 4800 5 to 6 0.48
30 to 36 3000 to 4500 4800 to 6000 6 to 8 0.60
36 to 42 4500 to 6500 6000 to 7500 8 to 10 0.74
42 to 48 6500 to 9000 7500 to 9000 10 to 12 0.90
Note Numbers in the “Pints per 10 Hours” column are based upon 8000 drops per pint at 75F.
One way to vary the lube-oil feed rate is to control the speed of the lubricator. When
several are connected together, the entire assembly must be driven at the slowest
speed that will satisfy all the points. This speed can drive some lubricators in the
train too fast, leading to over-lubrication. See Part 2, Page 5B-1 for additional infor-
mation on oilers.
Pump maintenance is described on Page 5B-3 of Part 2. In addition, it is important
to:
1. Keep oil reservoirs closed.
2. Regularly check inside reservoirs for accumulation of water and dirt, espe-
cially after washing down the machinery.
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. J-3
Appendix J Compressor Manual
When starting and priming the lubrication system, it is important to check ruptured
disks (if so equipped). Replace any broken ones. Also see Part 2, Page 5B-3.
Distribution block systems often incorporate their own specific reservoir. However,
where the crankcase oil is compatible with cylinder/packing oil, it is suggested that
the crankcase be the sole reservoir for both systems.
For example, oil from a drum (typically mounted on a stand above the crankcase
level) is metered and gravitates to the compressor crankcase. A level controller is
used to maintain the proper level.
A sidestream of low pressure crankcase oil is supplied by the crankcase pump to a
25 micron filter and pressure regulator. The filter should be mounted with the
connections on the top so that waste will be trapped inside the disposable housing.
Note that if oilers with dedicated cylinder/packing reservoirs are used, they must be
checked for the proper level periodically, as make-up oil is not available from the
crankcase.
J2.1 Precautions
Distributor block systems can be trouble free, providing they are properly installed
and maintained. Consider the following:
• Oil must be kept clean and dry.
• Replace filters regularly.
• Keep any disconnected lines closed. Also, block the connection on the
machine.
• Replace damaged tubing with new stock—do not reuse old tubing. Blow
through tubing with air to remove any debris, before installation.
• Do not attempt to clean up the pistons or cylinders of the distributor blocks
with coarse abrasive paper. This will destroy the very close clearances
(0.0005 inch) and unbalance oil distribution.
• Do not install a higher pressure than specified rupture disk or more than one
disk in a single fitting to prevent ruptures. Repetitive disk ruptures always indi-
cate trouble—either an oil outlet is restricted, the system is incorrectly designed
for existing conditions, the wrong viscosity oil or the wrong rupture disks are
in use.
• Paper oil filter elements are preferred over sintered metal ones because they are
disposable, and it is impossible to tell when a sintered element is clean enough.
Debris lodges inside where it is impossible to see.
J-4 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix J
J3.0 Part II: Detailed Discussion
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. J-5
Appendix J Compressor Manual
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
J-6 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix J
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. J-7
Appendix J Compressor Manual
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
J-8 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix J
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. J-9
Appendix J Compressor Manual
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
J-10 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix J
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. J-11
Appendix J Compressor Manual
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
J-12 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix J
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. J-13
Appendix J Compressor Manual
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
J-14 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix J
(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. J-15
Appendix K Distance Piece/Packer Venting For H2S
Contents Page
K1.0 Introduction K-2
K2.0 Section I: Vent/Purge System Designs K-3
K3.0 Section II: Basic Considerations K-7
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. K-1
Appendix K Compressor Manual
K1.0 Introduction
Environmental protection and maintaining safety require close attention to contain-
ment of gas contaminated with hydrogen sulfide. Reciprocating compressors will
always have some gas leakage from the cylinders. The leakage occurs along the
piston rod and through the rod packer. This appendix outlines requirements for
preventing the escape of toxic, corrosive gas into the atmosphere or the compressor
crankcase. Leakage into the crankcase not only will result in atmospheric contami-
nation but, also, can result in crankcase explosions. The principles described herein
may also be applied to other compression services where controlled disposition of
leakage is required.
K1.1 Summary
Six designs for preventing the escape of gas from a compressor cylinder packer into
the atmosphere are discussed in Section I.
Designs 1 and 2 are conventional, non-purged arrangements which provide limited
protection. Designs 3 and 4 use purge gas to block the entry of gas into the distance
piece. Using a purge will prevent any leakage of H2S containing gas into the atmo-
sphere except when poor compressor rod or packer condition results in excessive
packer leakage. Designs 5 and 6, using expensive and space consuming double-
compartment distance pieces, will provide some additional protection in the event of
excessive packer leakage. However, the probability of needing this extra protection
is low.
All designs require venting to a gas disposal system operating at a pressure less than
10 psig and preferably, near atmospheric pressure.
Basic considerations and mechanical design features are discussed in Section II. It
must be emphasized that packer and wiper designs discussed in the following
require careful consideration of pressures to be encountered and of other applica-
tion details. Design must be a coordinated effort between the user, the compressor
manufacturer, and the packing manufacturer.
K1.2 Recommended Designs
Designs 3 or 4 are recommended where operation free from H2S odor is required or
where highly toxic H2S concentrations (500 PPM and over) of gas are being
compressed. Designs 1 or 2 are recommended for isolated compressors which are
handling lower H2S concentration gas. Shelters for such compressors should have at
least three open sides. Designs 5 or 6 are not recommended unless there is an abso-
lute need to prevent H2S gas escape even if an unlikely combination of poor
mechanical condition and system malfunction occurs.
K-2 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix K
K2.0 Section I: Vent/Purge System Designs
K2.1 Selection Tables
Figure K-1 lists factors which must be considered in the selection of a vent/purge
system. Figure K-2 lists the mechanical and system design details for specific
designs. The columns for each figure are headed by a system design number ranging
from one to six. The degree of protection provided, cost, and complexity increase
from a minimum for Design number 1 to a maximum for Design number 6.
Referring to Figure K-1, the governing factor for selecting a design is the permis-
sible concentration of H2S in the surrounding atmosphere. This allowable environ-
mental contamination depends upon the other factors listed in Figure K-1.
Fig. K-1 Guide to the Selection of Packer & Distance Piece Venting Systems for H2S Service (1 of 2)
Design No.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Governing Selection Factor
Allowable Atmospheric Contamination
(a) Continuous, Non-Toxic (odor ok) x
(b) None During Normal Operating x
(1)
(c) None, With Exceptions x x
(d) None(2) x
Secondary Selection Factors
A. H2S Concentration In Gas
(a) Mildly Toxic, 100 PPM x x
(b) Toxic, 100-500 PPM x x
(3) (3)
(c) Highly Toxic, 500 PPM x
B. Compressor Housing
(a) Open - 3 Side Minimum x x x x x x
(b) Closed (3) (3) x x
C. Environment
(a) Unpopulated Areas x
(b) In-Plant, Populated Areas x x x x x
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. K-3
Appendix K Compressor Manual
Fig. K-1 Guide to the Selection of Packer & Distance Piece Venting Systems for H2S Service (2 of 2)
Design No.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Relative Ranking (A=Preferred, B=Acceptable, C=Undesirable)
D. Other Considerations
(a) Operator Safety C B A- A- A A
(b) Minimum Crankcase Contamination A B+ B+ B+ A- A
(c) Installed Cost A A- B B- C C
(d) Maintenance Effort A A- B B C C
(e) Equipment Space Required A A A A B B
(f) Purge Gas Use Rate - B- B C C C-
(g) Adaptability to Existing Compressors A B B B C C
(1) Some H2S escape permitted for short periods in the event of unforeseeable failures
(2) Least H2S escape possible under any circumstance
(3) Design not recommended unless safety devices recommended in Figure K-2 are used
Fig. K-2 Design Details, Packer & Distance Piece Venting Systems for H2S Service (1 of 2)
Design No.
1 2 3 4 5 6
IB(1) OB(1) IB(1) (2) OB(1)
Distance Piece
No. of Compartments 1 1 1 1 2 2
Solid Access Covers R x x x x x x x
Cover Gaskets x x x x x x
Vent to Disposal System x x x
Vent to Atmosphere x x
Nitrogen Purge x x x
Rod Packer
Vent to Disposal System x x x x x x
Nitrogen Purge x x x
Sweet Gas Purge (2) (2)
Preloaded Outer Rings R x x
Rod Wiper
Oil Control Rings x x x x x x
Preloaded Seal Rings x x x x
Nitrogen Purge (3)
Rod-Diaphragm Packer x x
Code: x=required; R=recommended option. Superscripted numbers refer to footnotes.
K-4 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix K
Fig. K-2 Design Details, Packer & Distance Piece Venting Systems for H2S Service (2 of 2)
Design No.
1 2 3 4 5 6
(1) (1) (1) (2)
IB OB IB OB(1)
Safety Devices
(4) (4) (4)
Dist. Piece Safety Valve x x x
(5) (5) (5)
Dist. Piece Hi Press Alarm R x
Packer Hi Temp. Alarm R R R R R R
Purge Gas Failure Alarm(6) R R R R
Indicators
Purge Gas Flow Rate R R R R R
(5) (5) (5)
Distance Piece Pressure R
Code: x=required; R=recommended option. Superscripted numbers refer to footnotes.
(1) IB=inboard (compressor side) compartment; OB=outboard (cylinder side) compartment
(2) May be used if non-toxic and non-corrosive
(3) Recommended if normal distance piece venting pressure is over two psig or if frequent vent system pressure surges can
cause backflow of hazardous gases into distance piece.
(4) Required if vent disposal system pressure can exceed distance piece maximum allowable internal pressure
(5) Recommended if PSV required per Note 4
(6) Can be actuated by purge gas supply low pressure or by low differential pressure between purge gas and vent gas system
The appendices in API 618 include figures that show the locations of vents and
purges for the designs discussed below.
K2.2 Design 1: Conventional for “Sweet Gas” Service
Design 1 is normally used for general service, sweet gas compressors. It can be used
in H2S services for unhoused compressors in a remote area where H2S odor can be
tolerated. However, if the concentration of H2S in the compressor gas is highly toxic
(500 PPM) or if the compressor is located in a fully enclosed room, the possibility
of injury to operating personnel is too great to allow the use of this design. A poorly
maintained packer or a sudden packer failure could release enough H2S to pose a
significant risk to personnel.
K2.3 Design 2: Purged Packer
Design 2 injects purge gas into the packer to block the escape of compression gas
into the distance piece. No compression gas will escape where the packer and rod
are in good condition, providing the purge gas pressure is always greater than the
packer vent system pressure. However, poor mechanical condition will probably
result in gas blowing through the distance piece and into the atmosphere. Failure of
the purge gas system will have the same result. Therefore, Design 2 should not be
used for compressors handling highly toxic concentrations of H2S, particularly if the
compressor is housed. It should not be used for any H2S service when odor from
escaping gas is highly objectionable.
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. K-5
Appendix K Compressor Manual
K2.4 Design 3: Purged Packer, Pressure-Tight Distance Piece
Optional Purged Assembly
Design 3 provides additional protection over Design 2 by gasketing the distance
piece side covers and adding pressure seal rings to the crankcase wall rod wiper
assembly. The distance piece must be vented to a gas disposal system. This design
will prevent gas escape except when poor mechanical condition allows excessive
leakage through the packer and pressure seal rings in the wiper.
Wiper purging may be included in Design 3 where needed to more positively
prevent undesirable gas leakage into the crankcase. Such purging may be needed
where distance piece vent system pressure is normally above two psi or where pres-
sure surges in the vent system could cause frequent backflow of undesirable gases
from the plant vent system into the distance piece.
K2.5 Design 4: Purged Distance Piece
Design 4 is approximately equivalent to Design 3 in that it uses purge gas to block
the escape of packer leakage into the distance piece. However, the purge gas is
introduced into the distance piece rather than into the packer. Design 4 will use
more purge gas if the distance piece to cover gaskets leak and if the wiper seal rings
are worn. The design can be applied to existing compressors more easily than
Design 3 since it does not require a special rod packer.
K2.6 Design 5 and 6: Double Compartment Distance Pieces
Designs 5 and 6 use double-compartment distance pieces. These are expensive and
require additional plot area. Their only advantage (other than for oxygen service
where they prevent the entrance of lube-oil into the compressor cylinder) is some
additional protection against the escape of H2S gas in very abnormal circum-
stances. A sudden packer failure could result in relative high gas pressure in the
distance piece with Designs 3 and 4 if the packer and/or distance piece vent system
capacity is exceeded. H2S gas could leak through worn seal rings in the wiper,
through the crankcase and into the atmosphere. However, Designs 5 and 6 as well as
Designs 3 and 4 will allow H2S leakage if the purge gas system fails. In addition,
Designs 5 and 6 have only slightly higher reliability.
K-6 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix K
K3.0 Section II: Basic Considerations
K3.1 Gas Leakage Paths
By design compressor rod packing always allows some gas leakage through the
packer assembly rings and cups. Normally, leakage rates will be less than 0.5 CFM.
Mechanical wear or damage to the packing or piston rod, or bad fouling deposits
can greatly increase the leakage rate up to 50 CFM. Gas leaking through the packer
must escape, either through a vent connection on the packer case or into the distance
piece, or both. Gas leaking into a closed distance piece, if not properly vented, will
be forced through the rod wiper assembly into the compressor crankcase.
Leakage of gas contaminated with H2S into the crankcase has caused the following
mechanical, safety, and pollution problems:
• Corrosion of exposed machine parts;
• Reaction with the crankcase oil resulting in poor lubrication and/or crankcase
deposits;
• Crankcase explosions; and
• Gas escape into the atmosphere through crankcase breather vents, shaft oil
seals, or gasketed crankcase and cover joints.
K3.2 Packer Venting and Purging
Conventional rod packer designs generally include a venting connection at the first
(or second) cup of the assembly. Thus there are one (or two) packer rings sepa-
rating the vent connection space from the distance piece. Special packer designs
(see Figure K-3) can provide separate connections at two or more ring spaces at
optional locations. These designs allow purge gas injection between the packer vent
connection ring and the first (or second) ring adjacent to the distance pieces. Purge
gas pressure must be at least two inches Hg higher than the vent line pressure to
block the leakage of compression gas into the distance piece. Both packer and
distance piece vent systems from each compressor should be designed to provide 50
CFM per cylinder vent gas capacity.
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. K-7
Appendix K Compressor Manual
Fig. K-3 Vented and Purged Packer Assembly
K3.3 Packer Ring Pre-loading
Packer ring sealing action depends, in part, on gas pressure holding the ring axially
against the cup's side mating surface. Rings adjacent to the distance piece which are
side-loaded only with pressure in the vent-cup space will not seal adequately if the
vent pressure is near atmospheric. Special pre-loaded designs must be used to insure
positive sideload on these rings.
K3.4 Crankcase Oil Wipers
Rod wiper assemblies attached to the crankcase wall are designed to minimize
transfer of crankcase oil into the distance piece. Double-action wipers also prevent
cylinder and packing lubricating oil from entering the crankcase. Neither of these
wiper assembly types are effective gas seals. However, they can be modified to seal
gas by adding one (or more) sealing rings (the same type used in packers). One such
modification is shown in Figure K-4. The sealing rings must be side-loaded with
springs for effective sealing if distance piece pressures are near atmospheric.
K-8 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix K
Fig. K-4 Two Cup Wiper Assembly with One Set of Seal Rings
K3.5 Distance Piece Types
Single compartment distance pieces are usually used. These are normally provided
with solid covers on the access openings, vent connections on the top, and drain
connections on the bottom.
Double-compartment distance pieces are generally used only for very hazardous
services, such as near 100% concentration of highly toxic or corrosive gases, or
oxygen. These distance pieces have a partition containing an auxiliary rod packer to
isolate the two compartments. Either or both compartments may have solid covers
and vent connections. Both compartments should have drain connections.
K3.6 Distance Piece Venting and Purging
Any compartment can be vented or purged, depending on the application. Where
positive pressure venting or purging is needed, the distance piece and access covers
must be able to contain the pressure. Typically, these parts are designed to with-
stand up to 10 psig internal pressure. However, their actual maximum pressure capa-
bility should be verified by the manufacturer. A pressure relief valve must be
installed to protect the distance piece if the maximum allowable pressure can be
exceeded in service.
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. K-9
Appendix K Compressor Manual
Gasketed access covers are required where leakage is undesirable. The rod wiper
assembly in the crankcase wall must contain pressure seal rings (refer to “Crank-
case Oil Wipers”) where a single compartment is used. Pressure seal rings must also
be included when the inboard (crankcase side) compartment of a double-distance
piece is pressured.
K3.7 Wiper Assembly Purging
Additional protection against undesirable gas leakage into the crankcase can be
provided, where necessary, by introducing a suitable purge gas in between two pres-
sure sealing rings in the wiper assembly. The purge gas will block any flow through
the wiper assembly as long as the purge gas pressure is higher than the distance
piece internal pressure. Wiper assemblies must have at least one pressure sealing
ring on each side of the purge gas adaptor plate or entry port.
K3.8 Vent Gas Disposal
Packers and distance pieces must be vented to a lower pressure disposal system to
prevent escape of leakage gas into the atmosphere:
• Distance piece vents should be connected to a disposal system which operates
in a pressure range of zero psig (minimum) to the maximum internal pressure
rating of the distance piece (10 psig is typical). Ideally, a zero psig to two psig
vent system design range should be used. Normally, distance-piece vent-line
flow rates will be less than 0.5 CFM and venting to an atmospheric flare system
is economically acceptable.
• Packer vents can be connected to disposal systems which operate at a vacuum
or at pressures of 20 psig and higher. However, where vent system pressures are
outside of a 0-10 psig normal range, the packer design should be closely
reviewed. Packer vent gas flow rates normally are less than 0.5 CFM. Rates
may exceed five CFM with worn or damaged rods or packers. If this leakage
gas is usable for fuel it can be vented to a vapor recovery system.
• Distance piece and packer vents may be piped separately to different gas
disposal systems. They also can be connected to a single disposal system
through common piping outside of the compressor. In either case, it is essential
that the piping does not restrict the flow of vented gas. Any unnecessary restric-
tion will increase the gas pressure in the packer vent cup or in the distance
piece. Increased pressure in either will increase the possibility of leaking unde-
sirable gas to the atmosphere.
K-10 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix K
K3.9 Purge Gas
Nitrogen is preferred for purging. Other gases may be used for packer purging but
possible hazards should be carefully considered. The purge gas must not react unfa-
vorably with the compression gas or with the packing lubricant. Flammable purge
gases (such as sweet hydrogen or light hydrocarbon gases) may be usable in some
applications but should not be used for purging single compartment (or inboard side
of double compartment) pieces. Corrosive gases, including CO2, are not suitable for
packer or distance piece purging.
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. K-11
Appendix L Reliability and Availability Analysis
Contents Page
L1.0 Reliability and Availability Analysis L-2
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. L-1
Appendix L Compressor Manual
L1.0 Reliability and Availability Analysis
The criticality of the service is related to the availability and reliability expected of
the installation. These terms are often defined as follows:
P – F- 100
Reliability % = -----------
P
Availability % = P – F – S- 100
---------------------
P
where:
P = hours in measurement period
F = hours of downtime caused by forced outages in period
S = hours of downtime in period caused by scheduled outages (main-
tenance)
The period P is often taken as the expected length of a continuous run of the plant in
which the compressor is installed. However, most published reliability and avail-
ability values are based on average annual downtimes. In the case of availability,
averaging is necessary because a particular machine probably does not have consis-
tent maintenance needs from year to year. For example, a hypothetical machine may
only require 100 hours of downtime annually for routine inspection and mainte-
nance for the first four years. But in the fifth year, it might need fifteen days or more
of downtime for a major overhaul. The availability of the compressor system should
be compatible with the desired availability of the plant.
If possible, the cost of downtime in terms of lost production should be determined.
This will provide a better perspective of the requirements for reliability and avail-
ability.
In some process plants, a forced outage may pose a risk of losses in addition to
production losses. For example, an emergency trip of a recycle compressor could
cause a damaging high temperature excursion in the reactor if the backup quench
system failed to respond soon enough. This might be a rare double-jeopardy situa-
tion, and it would be difficult to do a numerical evaluation of the risk because there
would probably have to be a number of excursions before the reactor failed. Never-
theless, a qualitative consideration of the potential catastrophic loss might give reli-
ability the utmost priority among the major factors to be considered in selecting the
compressor. Such potential risks should be discussed in detail with the client.
L1.1 Parallel Machines
The availability and reliability of equipment in a particular service can, of course, be
improved by increasing the number of machines performing the service duty. Two
100%-capacity machines installed in parallel would obviously be more reliable
than a single machine. Likewise, the reliability of three 50% machines in parallel
would be better than that of one 100% machine. For comparison, Figure L-1 shows
the overall reliability of various combinations of a hypothetical machine having a
unit reliability of 90%.
L-2 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix L
Fig. L-1 Machine Reliability vs. Number of Machines
One 100% Machine
Ra = 0.90 (converted to a decimal value)
Two 100% Machines
Ra = Rb = 0.90
Ua = Ub = 1 - Ra = 1 - Rb = 1 - 0.90 = 0.10
Rab = 1 - UaUb = 1 - (0.10)(0.10) = 0.990
Three 50% Machines
Ra = Rb = Rc = 0.90
Ua = Ub = Uc = 1 - 0.9 = 0.10
Rab = RaRb = (0.90)(0.90) = 0.81
Uab = 1 - RaRb = 1 - 0.81 = 0.19
Rabc = 1 - UabUc = 1 - (0.19)(0.10) = 0.981
Four 33-1/3% Machines
Ra = Rb = Rc = Rd = 0.90
Ua = Ub = Uc = Ud = 0.10
Rabc = (0.90)3 = 0.729
Uabc = 1 - 0.729 = 0.271
Rabcd = 1 - UabcUd = 1 - (0.271)(0.10) = 0.973
(1) R = Reliability
U = Unreliability
(A single subscript on R or U denotes reliability or unreliability of the referenced unit by
itself. A multiple subscript denotes the overall or combined reliability or unreliability of the
referenced units.)
(2) Overall availability may be calculated in the same manner by substituting availability and
unavailability values in these formulas.
In the case of two 100% machines, the system is treated as two fully parallel units
because only one machine has to be running at any given time to achieve 100%
capacity. Therefore, the individual or unit reliabilities are not multiplied by each
other. When two 100% machines are in series in a system, the overall system reli-
ability is the product of the individual reliabilities.
In the case of three 50% machines, two machines are treated as though they are in
series, despite the fact they are piped in parallel. Two machines must run simulta-
neously to achieve 100% capacity. Therefore, to make 100% capacity, they act as
though they are piped in series. The spare 50% machine is treated as a unit in
parallel with the other two.
If a 100%-capacity booster machine with an individual reliability of 97% were put
in series with the three 50% machines in the foregoing example, the overall reli-
ability would be 0.952 (0.97 x 0.981).
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. L-3
Appendix L Compressor Manual
Historically, two 60% capacity machines (in parallel) have been used where the
process plant could still operate stably at 60% capacity when one compressor was
down. Theoretically, overall mechanical reliability of such a system would be 81%
if the reliability of each machine were 90%. However, the overall reliability calcu-
lated in this simple manner would be misleading from the viewpoint of production
because the plant would be producing at a 60% rate when one unit is down. There-
fore, this arrangement would have a production reliability of about 92%.
It is necessary to use probability theory to calculate the percentage of time that one
machine would be down and both machines would be down simultaneously. Proba-
bility theory is beyond the scope of this manual, but this example points out the fact
that reliability analysis is not always a simple task. First of all, we cannot find an
accurate reliability value for a certain type of compressor in a handbook. It can vary
significantly among manufacturers, with the sophistication of the design, and with
operating and maintenance practices. Then there is always the question of allotting
downtime to a machine that caused a plant shutdown. For example, a minor
compressor failure could shut a plant down and at the same time cause a problem
for another equipment item in the plant. If it takes a longer time to correct the addi-
tional problem than to repair the compressor, how much downtime should be
assigned to the compressor for this outage? Opinions vary. In the case of standby
equipment, starting reliability can affect overall reliability.
Availability is actually the best index for annual production and on-stream time.
Availability is markedly affected by the widely inconsistent factors of the time
required to repair or maintain the machine, maintenance skills and planning, and
accessibility of spare parts.
Although reliability and availability analyses are complex, these factors must be
considered in the application of compressors. The formulas shown in Figure L-1,
although not elaborate mathematically, will provide good guidance for evaluating
the relative merits of different combinations of compression equipment if the input
data are reasonably good. Many plants have well established procedures for
recording reliability and availability data. These data become reasonably accurate as
they are averaged over a period of years. Any specific data the client may have
should be utilized in preference to applying generalized data.
Before embarking on the process of selecting compressors, it is important to acquire
a feel for the economic trade-off between investment cost and production costs. It
may be useful to review with the client the benefits of investment cost increments to
improve reliability, expand maintenance facilities and manpower to reduce over-
haul time, use peak maintenance crews, and enlarge spare parts inventory.
Although many installations have been operated for over thirty years, the service
life of heavy-duty compressors is usually assumed to be a minimum of twenty
years. The client's expectations should be determined.
L-4 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Appendix M Equipment Vendors
Contents Page
M1.0 Equipment Vendors M-2
M2.0 Engine/Compressor Worksheet M-3
M3.0 Engine and Compressor Analyzer Report (Work Request) M-4
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. M-1
Appendix M Compressor Manual
M1.0 Equipment Vendors
Vendor Equipment
Type I - Maintenance Analyzers
Gas Equipment Testing GET 2000
Roanoke, Texas
(817) 431-3980
PMC/Beta Corporation Beta 350
Houston, Texas
(713) 820-2224
Cooper Energy Services EN-SPEC 2000
Mount Vernon, Ohio
(614) 397-0121
Beta Monitors and Controls Ltd.
300, 1615-10 Ave. S.W.
Calgary, Alberta,
CANADA T3C0J7
(800) 661-9160
Type II - Performance Analyzers
Gas Equipment Testing PRM 2000
Roanoke, Texas
(817) 431-3980
PMC/Beta Corporation Beta 250
Houston, Texas
(713) 870-2224
Cooper Energy Services EN-SPEC 3000
Mount Vernon, Ohio
(614) 397-0121
Beta Monitors and Controls Ltd.
300, 1615-10 Ave. S.W.
Calgary, Alberta,
CANADA T3C0J7
(800) 661-9160
M-2 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Compressor Manual Appendix M
M2.0 Engine/Compressor Worksheet
December 1988 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. M-3
Appendix M Compressor Manual
M3.0 Engine and Compressor Analyzer Report (Work Request)
M-4 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. December 1988
Appendix N Maintenance Checklists
Contents Page
N1.0 Centrifugal Compressors N-5
N1.1 Centrifugal Compressor Rotor Repair Data Sheet
N1.2 IMI Guidelines for Completing the Overhaul Checklist for
Centrifugal Compressors
N1.3 Centrifugal Compressor Overhaul Check List
N1.4 IMI Guideline for Inspection and Repair of Centrifugal Compressor Rotors
N2.0 Reciprocating Compressors N-22
N2.1 Compressor Lubricating Systems
N2.2 Compressor Piston and Piston Rod
N2.3 Compressor Packing Box and Packing
N2.4 Compressor Cylinder and Crosshead
N2.5 Compressor Valves and Unloaders
N2.6 Compressor Valve Gaskets and Cages
N2.7 Compressor Crankshaft and Bearings
N2.8 Repair Sheet for Clark Engines
N2.9 Compressor Cylinder Repair Report
N2.10 Compressor Crankcase Repair Report
N2.11 Engine Repair Sheet For Ingersoll Rand XVG
N2.12 Ingersoll-Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Procedure
N2.13 Ingersoll Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet
N2.14 Ingersoll-Rand Packing Box and Packing Worklist
N2.15 Engine Driven Reciprocating Compressor Regrout
N2.16 Four and Eight Month Maintenance Checklist Prior Shutdown
Information
N2.17 Ingersoll-Rand H.H.E. Connecting Rod Rebuilding
N2.18 Aluminum Bronze Pin Bushing HHE Cylinder Connecting Rod
N2.19 Splitting H.R.A. Engine Cam Lobes
February 2004 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. N-1
Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.20 Clark HRA - Engine Power Cylinder Reconditioning
N2.21 Clark HRA - Power Cylinder Repair Flow Chart
N2.22 Clark HRA Main Crosshead Rebuilding
N2.23 Clark HRA Power Cylinder Head Rebuilding
N2.24 Clark HRA Gas Injection Valve Rebuilding
N2.25 Clark HRA Wesco Valve Lifters
N2.26 Clark HRA Power Piston and Connecting Rod Rebuilding
N2.27 Clark HRA Packer Rebuilding
N2.28 HRA Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet
N2.29 Clark Compressor Air Starting Check Valves
N2.30 Crankshaft Inspection and Reconditioning
N2.31 Crosshead Rebuilding
N2.32 Connecting Rod Reconditioning
N2.33 Connecting Rod Check Sheet
N2.34 Piston Reconditioning
N2.35 Piston/Rider Ring Clearance Tables
N3.0 Texaco Guide for Overhaul and Repair of
Process Reciprocating Compressors N-84
N3.1 Introduction
N3.2 Guidelines for General Running Clearances
N3.3 Compressor Alignment
N3.4 Web Deflection Measurements
N3.5 Compressor Cylinder Alignment
N3.6 Foundation Problems and Repairs
N3.7 Compressor Bearing Maintenance and Replacement
N3.8 Cylinder Repair and Maintenance
N3.9 Oversize Piston Rings
N3.10 Compressor Piston Maintenance
N3.11 Rebuilding Worn or Scuffed Compressor Pistons
N3.12 Installing Pistons on Piston Rods
N3.13 Setting Piston End Clearance
N3.14 Inspection and Reconditioning Piston Rods
N3.15 Manufacture of Compressor Piston Rods
N-2 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
N3.16 Other Compressor Component Repairs
N3.17 Compressor Part Replication
N4.0 Cylinder Liner Renewal for Cylinders Installed with
Field Removable Liners and Hydraulic Fasteners N-154
N4.1 Preparation for Maintenance of Compressors
N4.2 Additional Post Maintenance Checks to be Performed
N5.0 Crankshaft Repair Using HVLF Chrome Carbide Coating N-159
N5.1 Scope
N5.2 Crankshaft Repair Standards
N5.3 Cleaning
N5.4 Initial Inspection
N5.5 Straightening
N5.6 Stress Relieving
N5.7 Undercutting
N5.8 Secondary Magnaflux Inspection
N5.9 HVLF Coating
N5.10 Finish Grinding
N5.11 Polishing
N5.12 Final Inspection
N5.13 Shipment
N6.0 Crankshaft Repair Using Standard Chrome Plating or Welding N-163
N6.1 Scope
N6.2 Initial Inspection
N6.3 Standard Chrome
N6.4 Preparation for Welding
N6.5 Welding
N6.6 Post Weld Heat Treatment
N6.7 Shipment
N7.0 Chevron Simplified Lubrication Recommendations
(by Gas Being Compressed) N-167
N8.0 Texaco Simplified Lubrication Recommendations
(by Gas Being Compressed) N-168
February 2004 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. N-3
Appendix N Compressor Manual
N9.0 Interference Fit Calculations (Cylinder Press Fit) N-170
N9.1 General
N9.2 Interference Fit Calculations (Cylinder Press Fit)
N9.3 Applicable Equations
N9.4 Sample Problem
N10.0 Cylinder Measurement Record Sheet N-175
N11.0 Compressor Maintenance Checklist N-176
N12.0 Oil Wiper Packing Installation N-178
N13.0 Valve Knock Checklist N-179
N14.0 Uploader Overhaul Checklist N-180
N15.0 Pressure Packing Leak Checklist N-181
N16.0 Compressor Knock Checklist N-182
N17.0 Pressure Packing Replacement Checklist N-183
N18.0 Compressor Overhaul Checklist N-184
N19.0 Mathcad File for Interference Fit Calculations
(Electronic File Only - Requires Mathcad) N-186
N-4 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
N1.0 Centrifugal Compressors
N1.1 Centrifugal Compressor Rotor Repair Data Sheet
Reference API 687, 1st Edition
February 2004 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. N-5
Appendix N Compressor Manual
PAGE 1 OF
ROTOR REPAIR DATA SHEET JOB NO. ITEM NO.
CUSTOMARY UNITS CONTRACT NO. DATE
CHAPTER 1 INQUIRY NO. BY
ROTOR REPAIR REVISION NO. DATE
1 APPLICABLE TO: (2.4.1) X PHASE I INSPECTION PHASE II INSPECTION UPGRADE/RERATE
2 FOR Chevron Products Company LOCATION
3 UNIT SERVICE
4 EQUIP. NO. SERIAL NO.
5 MANUFACTURER MODEL
6 NO. STAGES COUPLING MFG. MODEL
7 MAX. CONTINUOUS OPERATING SPEED (RPM) ROTOR TRIP SPEED (RPM)
8 ROTOR ORIGINALLY SUPPLIED IN CONFORMANCE TO: (2.3.1) API EDITION
9 ROTOR REPAIRED IN CONFORMANCE TO API 687, 1ST EDITION X REQ'D
10 INFORMATION TO BE COMPLETED: BY PURCHASER BY VENDOR BY VENDOR OR PURCHASER
11 DESCRIBE ANY EXCEPTIONS OR MODIFICATIONS TO API STANDARD THAT AFFECTED "AS BUILT" ROTOR CONSTRUCTION (2.3.1)
12
13
14
15 BRIEFLY DESCRIBE ROTOR HISTORY SINCE LAST REPAIR (2.3.3)
16
17
18
19 BRIEFLY DESCRIBE INTERNAL OPERATING CONDITIONS IN WHICH THE ROTOR OPERATES (2.3.4)
20
21
22
23 INDICATE WHY THE ROTOR WAS SENT IN FOR REPAIR AND ANY TIME CONSTRAINTS (2.3.7)
24
25
26
27 DESCRIBE UPGRADES, RERATES, AND/OR IMPROVEMENTS TO BE INCORPORATED INTO REPAIRED ROTOR (2.4.1)
28
29
30
31 INCLUDE RADIAL AND/OR THRUST BEARING INSPECTION IN REPAIR SCOPE (2.4.5) REQ'D
32 DESCRIBE SPECIAL BEARING INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS NOT INCLUDED IN SECTIONS 7 AND 8 OF THE STANDARD
33
34
35
36 REFER TO THE VENDOR DRAWING AND DATA REQUIREMENTS AND AUDITORS CHECKLIST FORMS FOR REQUIRED INSPECTION
37 ACTIVITIES (2.4.6, G, H) X ATTACHED
38 DESCRIBE COATINGS TO BE APPLIED TO ROTATING OR STATIONARY COMPONENTS TO HELP PREVENT CORROSION OR EROSION,
39 OR FOR PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT (2.5.2)
40
41
42 DESCRIBE ANY APPLICABLE INSPECTION PROCESSES, ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA, AND REFERENCE STANDARDS TO BE APPLIED
43 WITHIN THE REPAIR SCOPE (2.6.4)
44
45
46
N-6 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
PAGE 2 OF
ROTOR REPAIR DATA SHEET JOB NO. ITEM NO.
CUSTOMARY UNITS CONTRACT NO. DATE
CHAPTER 1 INQUIRY NO. BY
ROTOR REPAIR REVISION NO. DATE
1 COMPONENT CHEMISTRY AND HARDNESS TO BE DETERMINED (7.2.4) X REQ'D
2 THE VENDOR SHALL MAINTAIN AND MAKE THE FOLLOWING DATA AVAILABLE PRIOR TO SHIPMENT: (8.1.1)
3 MATERIALS CERTIFICATES AS DESCRIBED
4 X FINAL ASSEMBLY, MAINTENANCE AND RUNNING CLEARANCES
5 OTHER DATA AS DESCRIBED
6
7
8 HIGH-SPEED BALANCE (10.1.1, 10.6.1) REQ'D X NOT REQ'D
9 RESOLVE THE FOLLOWING PRIOR TO HIGH-SPEED ROTOR BALANCE: (10.6.4)
10 USE JOB-TYPE BEARINGS
11 IDENTIFY INSTRUMENTED DATA DURING BALANCING
12
13
14 ADDITIONAL PAIR OF RADIAL NON-CONTACTING PROBES REQUIRED FOR THIRD PLANE
15 IDENTIFY RECORD DATA FORMATS USED DURING HIGH-SPEED BALANCING RUNS
16
17
18 HIGH-SPEED BALANCING RUNS TO BE WITNESS TESTED AT SUB-VENDOR SHOP (10.6.5) REQ'D
19 TERM OF STORAGE (11.1.3) 6 MONTHS X LONG-TERM
20 LONG-TERM STORAGE METHOD X CLIMATE CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT PURGED CONTAINER
21 METHOD OF SHIPMENT (11.1.3) X DOMESTIC IMPORT
22 STEEL ROTOR CONTAINER TO BE SUPPLIED (11.2.3) REQ'D
23 COMPONENTS MAY BE RESTORED TO ORIGINAL DIMENSIONS/CLEARANCES BY CHROME OR NICKEL PLATING: (D.5)
24 ACCEPTABLE
25 IDENTIFY COMPONENTS AND PLATING METHOD
26
27
28 RESTORATION OF SHAFT STRAIGHTNESS MAY BE ATTEMPTED: (D.6)
29 ACCEPTABLE METHOD USED
30 COMPONENTS MAY BE RESTORED TO ORIGINAL DIMENSIONS/CLEARANCES BY PLASMA SPRAY PROCESS: (D.8)
31 ACCEPTABLE
32 IDENTIFY COMPONENTS
33
34
35 CALIBRATION CURVE FOR EACH PROBE SYSTEM TO BE DETERMINED USING THE ACTUAL SHAFT (F4.3) X REQ'D
36 VENDOR SHALL PREPARE A STEP-BY-STEP ROTOR DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE (G.8) X REQ'D
37 NOTE ANY SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS NOT COVERED IN API 687:
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
February 2004 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. N-7
Appendix N Compressor Manual
PAGE 3 OF
ROTOR REPAIR DATA SHEET JOB NO. ITEM NO.
CUSTOMARY UNITS CONTRACT NO. DATE
CHAPTER 2 INQUIRY NO. BY
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS REVISION NO. DATE
1 DRIVER TYPE NACE MR0175 MATERIALS COMPLIANCE REQUIRED
2 GAS HANDLED H2S CONCENTRATION (PPM)
3 INLET TEMPERATURE (F) CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION (PPM)
4 INLET PRESSURE (PSIG) CORROSIVE/EROSIVE AGENT
5 DISCHARGE TEMPERATURE (F) REACTIVE CHEMICALS
6 DISCHARGE PRESSURE (PSIG) SOLIDS
7 INFORMATION TO BE COMPLETED: BY PURCHASER BY MANUFACTURER BY MANUFACTURER OR PURCHASER
8 IMPELLER CONSTRUCTION TYPE: (1.1)
9 WELDED BRAZED CAST RIVETED MACHINED
10 COMPLETELY DISMANTLE ROTOR AFTER PHASE 1 INSPECTION (2.2.1) YES X NO
11 REPAIR IMPELLER FITS BY INCREASING BORE SIZES AND MANUFACTURING A NEW SHAFT (3.2.3.3)
12 YES X NO
13 COAT IMPELLERS AND/OR SEAL AREAS FOR ANTI-FOULING, EROSION, OR CORROSION PROTECTION (3.3.1)
14 REQ'D
15 IDENTIFY COATING AREA, COATING, AND PROTECTION OFFERED
16
17
18
19 FABRICATED REPLACEMENT IMPELLERS SHALL HAVE THEIR NATURAL FREQUENCIES/MODE SHAPES MEASURED AND
20 RECORDED (3.6.2) REQ'D (WHEN "REVERSE" ENGINEERED PER CHAPTER 1, SECTION 9.7)
21 REFER TO THE AUDITORS CHECKLIST FOR REQUIRED INSPECTION ACTIVITIES (E) X ATTACHED
22 NOTE ANY SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS NOT COVERED IN API 687:
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
N1.2 IMI Guidelines for Completing the Overhaul Checklist for
Centrifugal Compressors
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
N1.3 Centrifugal Compressor Overhaul Check List
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N1.4 IMI Guideline for Inspection and Repair of Centrifugal Compressor
Rotors
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.0 Reciprocating Compressors
N2.1 Compressor Lubricating Systems
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.2 Compressor Piston and Piston Rod
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.3 Compressor Packing Box and Packing
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.4 Compressor Cylinder and Crosshead
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.5 Compressor Valves and Unloaders
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.6 Compressor Valve Gaskets and Cages
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.7 Compressor Crankshaft and Bearings
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.8 Repair Sheet for Clark Engines
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.9 Compressor Cylinder Repair Report
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.10 Compressor Crankcase Repair Report
N-40 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.11 Engine Repair Sheet For Ingersoll Rand XVG
N-42 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.12 Ingersoll-Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Procedure
N-44 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
N2.13 Ingersoll Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.14 Ingersoll-Rand Packing Box and Packing Worklist
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.15 Engine Driven Reciprocating Compressor Regrout
N-50 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
N2.16 Four and Eight Month Maintenance Checklist Prior Shutdown
Information
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N2.17 Ingersoll-Rand H.H.E. Connecting Rod Rebuilding
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
N2.18 Aluminum Bronze Pin Bushing HHE Cylinder Connecting Rod
February 2004 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. N-55
Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.19 Splitting H.R.A. Engine Cam Lobes
N-56 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
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N2.20 Clark HRA - Engine Power Cylinder Reconditioning
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
N2.21 Clark HRA - Power Cylinder Repair Flow Chart
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.22 Clark HRA Main Crosshead Rebuilding
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
N2.23 Clark HRA Power Cylinder Head Rebuilding
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.24 Clark HRA Gas Injection Valve Rebuilding
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
N2.25 Clark HRA Wesco Valve Lifters
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.26 Clark HRA Power Piston and Connecting Rod Rebuilding
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N2.27 Clark HRA Packer Rebuilding
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
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N2.28 HRA Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
N2.29 Clark Compressor Air Starting Check Valves
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N2.30 Crankshaft Inspection and Reconditioning
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
N2.31 Crosshead Rebuilding
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N2.32 Connecting Rod Reconditioning
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
N2.33 Connecting Rod Check Sheet
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N2.34 Piston Reconditioning
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N2.35 Piston/Rider Ring Clearance Tables
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N3.0 Texaco Guide for Overhaul and Repair of Process Reciprocating
Compressors
N3.1 Introduction
1. This guide provides background information for overhaul and repair of slow
speed (less than 500 rpm), long stroke (10 to 22 inches), reciprocating compres-
sors used principally in refining, chemical plants, and large gas processing
facilities, as well as some large scale enhanced oil recovery facilities.
2. Slow speed long stroke compressors are most commonly driven by induction or
synchronous motors. Occasionally, they are driven by integral gas engines or
separable steam turbines.
3. This guide could also be applied to high speed (900+ rpm) reciprocating
compressors or oil field type gas compressors.
4. The information in this guide should never supersede manufacturers’ recom-
mendations.
5. This document is not a specification but a guide intended for internal use only.
6. This guide serves as a base document. Plants are invited to submit plant
requirements for development as a Location Specific Appendix (LSA) to meet
individual requirements.
N3.2 Guidelines for General Running Clearances
N3.2.A General
1. Before an overhaul is attempted, the instruction manual supplied by the
compressor manufacturer should be read and understood. Recommended clear-
ances given for various components of the compressor should be determined.
2. If the manufacturer’s data for running clearances are not available, the esti-
mates given in Section N3.2.B may be used as guidance for rule of thumb
running clearances. Repair and overhaul procedures may not lead to restoration
of the original dimensions. Nevertheless, the correct tolerances and clearances
between mating parts should be maintained.
N3.2.B Rule of Thumb Running Clearances
1. Piston to cylinder bore or liner clearances are as follows:
a. Cast iron pistons = 0.00125 in. per in. of bore diameter
Example: Clearance for 20 in. diameter cylinder = 20 x 0.00125 in. =
0.025 in.
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b. Aluminum pistons = 0.003 in. per in. of bore diameter
Example: Clearance for 20 in. diameter cylinder = 20 x 0.003 in.=
0.060 in.
2. Main bearing and crankpin bearing to journal clearances are as follows:
a. Cast iron or steel backed shells = 0.00075 in. per in. of journal diameter
b. Aluminum bearing shells = 0.001 in. to 0.0015 in. per in. of journal diam-
eter
3. Crosshead Pin to Crosshead Bushing
Clearance = 0.0005 in. to 0.0015 in. per in. of pin diameter
4. Crosshead Pin to Crosshead
Clearance = 0.0005 in. to 0.002 in. per in. of pin diameter
5. Crosshead to Crosshead Guide
Clearance = 0.00075 in. to 0.001 in. per in. of crosshead diameter
6. Piston ring end gap clearances are as follows:
a. Cast iron = 0.003 in. per in. of cylinder diameter
b. Carbon = 0.003 in. per in. of cylinder diameter
c. Bronze = 0.004 in. per in. of cylinder diameter
d. Teflonx = 0.024 in. per in. of cylinder diameter
e. Phenolic = 0.005 in. per in. of cylinder diameter
7. Piston ring side average clearances are as follows:
a. Cast iron = 0.003 in. to 0.004 in. per in. of ring width
b. Carbon = 0.003 in. per in. of ring width
c. Bronze = 0.004 in. per in. of ring width
d. Teflonx = 0.010 in. per in. of ring width
e. Phenolic = 0.015 in. per in. of ring width
8. Minimum clearances between rider ring and cylinder bore in middle of piston
adjacent to piston rings are as follows:
a. Cast iron piston = 0.00125 in. to 0.0015 in. per in. of cylinder diameter
b. Aluminum piston = 0.002 in. per in. of cylinder diameter
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N3.2.C Estimating Clearances by Calculating Thermal
Expansion
1. Equation for Estimating Clearance
L = (t) L + 20%
where:
= 0.000006 inch per inch per F (coefficient of expansion of cast iron or
steel)
2. Crosshead to crosshead guide clearance:
Example: Crosshead diameter: 8 1/2 inch
t = 75°F (ambient) to 170°F = 95°F
L = (0.000006)(95)(8.5) x 1.2 = 0.006 inch
3. Piston to cylinder bore clearance:
Example: Piston diameter = 20 inch
Discharge temperature = 280°F
Ambient temperature = 80°F
Material of piston = cast iron
L = (0.000006) (280 80) (20) x 1.2 = 0.029 inch
N3.2.D Checking Bearing Clearances
1. General
Use of feeler gauges to check bearing clearances, while common, is subject to
error, due to the problem of inserting gauge in the limited space and because of
the round surfaces being checked. Other methods should be used.
2. Measuring Clearances by the Use of “Lead” or Plastigage
The clearance in a babbitt bearing or the clearance between piston and cylinder
head can be measured by opening up and inserting a soft fuse wire, then
measuring the thickness of the wire with a micrometer after the wire has been
compressed in the bearing or between piston and cylinder head. Plastigage is
used in the same manner and is preferred because it is softer and will not embed
in the soft babbitt of the bearing shell.
3. Measuring Clearances with a Dial Indicator
The most accurate and quickest method of measuring clearances is with a dial
indicator. Furthermore, no disassembly is required. Use a dial indicator as
follows:
a. Clamp dial indicator on connecting rod, with pin resting on crankshaft and
parallel with connecting rod.
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b. Place a bar under the lower bearing cap and bounce bearing up and down
to read clearance directly on the dial indicator.
c. To avoid errors in readings, prevent crankshaft from turning.
d. Regardless of compressor type or design, place the dial indicator in the
optimum position. Indicator should read bearing clearance by giving only
relative movement between bearing and journal, without lost motion being
added to the reading.
e. Crosshead pin clearance can be checked with a dial indicator by employing
a procedure similar to that for the bearings. Figure 1 shows a method of
checking main bearing clearances with a dial indicator.
Figure 1: Dial Indicator Method of Checking Main Bearing Clearance
N3.3 Compressor Alignment
1. The importance of proper foundations and grouting to maintain alignment and
correct elevation of the compressor/driver, as well as to minimize vibration and
prevent its transmittal to external structures, cannot be overemphasized.
2. Compressors can come loose on the foundations because of deterioration of the
grout that supports the compressor on the foundation. A loose compressor often
causes and transmits vibration and movement of the machine and associated
piping. In addition, looseness allows for misalignment of the compressor crank-
shaft running gear system and the compressor cylinders relative to compressor
frame or crankcase.
3. One of several methods may be employed to check the alignment of the
compressor crankshaft system and the relationship of the compressor cylinders
to the frame.
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4. When foundation or grout failure occurs, more serious distress may follow. The
compressor crankcase or frame takes on a new alignment pattern because the
foundation no longer provides precise support.
N3.4 Web Deflection Measurements
Contributed by Jim McNabb (Southern California Gas) and Leon Wilde (Indikon
Company, Inc., Somerville, Massachusetts).
N3.4.A General
1. Web deflection measurements are required for determining deviations in the
crankshafts of large industrial/marine engines and reciprocating compressors.
Web deflection measurements and their interpretation are vital in detecting
conditions that may lead to disastrous and expensive crankshaft failures. Accu-
rate periodic measurements, combined with careful analysis, will permit such
conditions to be corrected before they cause problems.
2. Web deflection is defined as any movement of the crank webs from their ideal
position during entire rotation of the crankshaft (360 degrees). Consider the
crankshaft in Figure 2, whose centerline, perhaps because of faulty equipment
support, has been forced into a curve. At 0 degrees of rotation, the web opening
A is less than ideal, while that at B is greater than ideal.
Figure 2: Crankshaft Deflection Mode
3. After rotating the crankshaft 180 degrees, the condition is reversed. Because the
centerline is the same, the crankshaft must now bend in the opposite direction.
The A opening has now increased, while B has decreased. Flexing of the crank-
shaft as it rotates represents cyclic stresses that, if of sufficient magnitude, can
lead to fatigue failure. Because deflections are small (less than 5 mils or 0.005
in.), accurate measurement of web deflection is essential. Permissible deflec-
tions vary with crankshaft stroke. Figure 3 can be used for general guidance.
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Figure 3: Permissible Crankshaft Deflection
Web deflection can be measured by using both dial indicator and electronic
instrument based measuring methods. Using traditional dial indicator methods,
Figure 4, crankshaft deflection is determined with a strain gauge or crankshaft
deflection gauge. The gauge is placed between the throws of the crankshaft
and, when the shaft is rotated, deflections or bending of the throw can be
measured.
Figure 4: Web Deflection Being Measured with Dial Indicator
(Strain Gauge)
4. An electronic digital web deflection indicator system (refer to Figure 5) was
introduced in 1983. The system makes deflection measurements safer, easier,
and more accurate than the dial indicator.
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Figure 5: Indikon Digital Web Deflection Indicator (Courtesy of Indikon
Company, Inc.)
5. The two components that make up digital web deflection measuring systems
are shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6, which shows a single crank. One of the
advantages of the Indikon system is that it permits readings to be taken from
outside the crankcase. In addition, an angle transducer also allows the crank-
shaft angle to be read simultaneously.
Figure 6: Schematic - Two Components of an Electronic Web
Deflection Measuring System (Courtesy of Indikon Company, Inc.)
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N3.4.B Causes of Web Deflection
1. The following factors may contribute to web deflection:
a. Compressor support grout condition.
b. Soleplate and chock adjustment and torque.
c. Shim packing, alignment of compressors, distance pieces, and cold
supports.
d. Rod runout, frame alignment.
e. Main bearings, clearances.
f. Good lubrication, oil analysis.
g. Compressor load, overload.
h. Soil conditions, fill.
2. Each factor must be examined before and during measurement of web deflec-
tion.
3. The factors listed in Section N3.4.B, item 1, either solely, together, or in any
combination, must be addressed and corrected before accurate conclusions can
be reached concerning the actual crankshaft condition.
N3.4.C Measurement Considerations
The factors discussed in Section N3.4.D through Section N3.4.I should be consid-
ered for accurate web deflection measurement.
N3.4.D Punch Marks
Crisp, correctly aligned punch marks on the webs are critical. A hollowed out punch
mark, instead of a precise, conical punch mark, may cause the measuring tool to
move as much as one mil (0.001 in.). Good punch marks must be readily identifi-
able and used for each future web deflection measurement. Lining out “extra or old”
punch marks is achieved simply by using a small cold chisel and brass hammer. (Do
not grind out punch marks, since weight is removed from the balanced webs.)
N3.4.E Equipment Condition
1. Web deflection measurements should be taken after a compressor has operated
for 3 to 4 days (72 to 96 hours) nonstop, thus allowing adequate time for the
entire compressor, foundation, frame, bearings, and crankshaft to achieve
normal operational temperature. Complete thermal expansion will occur and
reflect the normal operating mode of the crankshaft. “Hot” web deflection is
recognized as the best method for measuring web deflection. “Hot” usually
means machine temperatures of 120°F and higher (“cold” is usually 119°F and
less).
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2. The instrument to be used for measuring deflection should also be acclimated
to compressor temperature. A cold instrument in a hot crank will expand and
provide false readings.
N3.4.F Instruments
Precautions appropriate to each measuring instrument are necessary.
N3.4.G Dial Indicator
The dial indicator (strain gauge) was historically the standard precision instrument
used in taking web deflection. Dial indicator is accurate, provided the following
conditions are met:
1. Calibrate yearly or as often as necessary, such as after a severe blow to the
instrument.
2. All extensions for measuring varied throw widths are straight.
3. Needle on dial face moves with ease. There should be no needle movement
“hangup” or drag after preloading the gauge, approximately 1 to 1-1/2 revolu-
tions.
4. Needle points on instrument and all extensions are sharp and crisp so as to
correctly fit the web punch marks.
5. The dial face must remain visible to the observer throughout the entire crank-
shaft rotation.
N3.4.H Electronic Web Deflection Indicators
1. As shown in Figure 6, Electronic Web Deflection Indicators consists of two
units: a measuring head and a digital indicating instrument.
2. After selecting the correct extensions, place the measuring head between punch
marks. The following steps should then be taken:
a. Move the threaded adjustment to obtain the correct preload. Red and
yellow lamps on the measuring head indicate the required direction of
adjustment. When both lamps are out, the adjustment is correct and the
transducer is within its measuring range.
b. Attach the magnets at the center points to the adjacent web, thus driving
the centers in synchronism with the crankshaft as it is rotated and
preventing the center points from rotating or “squirming” in the punch
marks. Inaccuracies are thus minimized if the punch marks are not perfect.
c. Because one magnet also drives the angle transducer, position it to ensure
that the correct starting angle is obtained (usually 0 degrees and in the
direction the crank is rotated when operating).
d. Verify that the counterweight hangs freely to ensure correct angle readings.
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3. With the measuring head in position, readings of both web deflection and crank
angle may be taken from the digital indicator.
a. Checking for correct operation is easily accomplished before use. For
deflections, move the measuring plunger inward by hand while observing
the change in distance readings. For angle, rotate the transducer magnet
and observe the readings.
b. A rigid calibration stand is essential because the relatively large seating
force (approximately 5 pounds) can cause spurious deflections in conven-
tional outside micrometers. A complete calibration stand or fabrication
drawings for one may be obtained from the manufacturer.
N3.4.I User Skills
1. The engineer, technician, or mechanic making the web deflection measurement
should be skilled in web deflection measurement procedures and knowledge-
able enough to correctly interpret the information. Choice of instrument type
then becomes a matter of skill level and personal preference.
2. Regardless of the instrument used in taking web deflection readings, a well
trained technician or mechanic is the key to accurate web deflection measure-
ments.
3. The more accurate the measurements taken and the more precise the reading,
the greater the amount of information that will be available to determine the
condition of a compressor crankshaft. Combining this information with all
other factors and comparing it with previous records can be the difference
between a budget depleting crankshaft failure or an online profit producing
machine.
N3.4.J Use of Electronic Web Deflection Indicators
1. A well designed electronic web deflection system gives at least the same degree
of accuracy as the dial indicator and sometimes more.
2. Electronic systems can provide measurement readings of deflection to within
1/100 of 1/1000 of an inch (10 microinches). Because it is digital, the system
eliminates all guesswork regarding measurement readings, while also providing
movement indication of either positive or negative changes. The system
provides up to a 15 foot cable between the measuring instrument and the
receiving digital unit. All readings can be taken outside the crankcase, which is
a distinct advantage for safety reasons. “Hot” web deflection occurs when unit
temperature is 120°F and above. The monitoring of web deflection readings
during rotation of the crankshaft is greatly facilitated with the digital readouts.
3. A major advantage of any well designed electronic unit is ease of placement in
the webs. The preloading monitor lamps, digital angle and deflection readouts,
and ability to stay outside of the crankcase all make the unit easy to train on
and operate with confidence. An experienced technician or mechanic using the
electronic unit can take a series of web deflection readings on several units in
approximately half the time taken to use a conventional dial indicator approach.
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4. For the system operator, accurate, unambiguous readings and independence of
operator technique are additional advantages. System wide, historical records
allow the operator to monitor the performance of a single machine over a
period of time, as well as to compare similar machines within a system. In addi-
tion, maintenance procedures and repair methods, such as grouting, can be
evaluated.
N3.4.K Interpreting Web Deflection Readings
1. General
To interpret web deflection readings, some experience and care are required,
but the effort is worthwhile. Because problems with the lower end of the
machine are never the same, the best way to understand analysis of the data is
to examine several hypothetical cases. The following examples and subsequent
problems may be better followed by using a model crankshaft made from wire
or a paper clip.
2. Case 1
The readings shown in Figure 7 will be used as Case 1 and were obtained from
a machine with a 22 in. stroke. The compressor manufacturer assigned a
maximum deflection figure of 0.004 in. The 0.005 in. at the 180 degree posi-
tion for No. 3 throw is above the specified limit, indicating that something is
wrong. The 90 degree and 270 degree positions are normally used to determine
whether the main bearings are out of alignment in a horizontal plane. However,
when the 180 degree position has excessive deflection (caused by one journal
being low), the misalignment carries up to the 90 degree and 270 degree posi-
tion, which in this case results in the -0.001 in. reading. Furthermore, if the
bearing saddles were out of alignment in a horizontal plane, the signs at the
90 degree and 270 degree positions would be reversed. Therefore, nothing is
wrong with the horizontal alignment. (Actually, the 180 degree position read-
ings are the most significant, because rarely will main bearing saddles be found
in sidewise misalignment.)
Crank Posi- Crankshaft Deflections — Case No. 1
tion Throw (Inches)
(Degrees) 1 2 3 4 5 6
0(1) 0 0 0 0 0 0
90 0 0.00025 -0.001 0 0 -0.0005
180 0 -0.001 -0.005 -0.002 -0.00025 -0.001
270 0 0 -0.001 -0.00025 0 -0.00025
(1) Down Position 0.00025
Figure 7: Example Web Deflection Readings (Reprinted from Bloch, H.
P. and Geitner, F. K., Major Process Equipment Maintenance and
Repair, copyright 1985, with permission from Elsevir Science)
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Because the No. 3 throw 180 degree reading is the only one that is excessive,
this indicates that the bearing to the right of No. 3 throw is wiped. Note that
such a low bearing has caused distortion in the shaft past No. 3 as indicated by
the -0.002 in. reading of No. 4 throw. In this case, the correction is simple,
because it is only a matter of replacing the bearing.
3. Case 2
Figure 8 shows a set of crankshaft deflections that will be used to explain Case
2. The 180 degree deflections get worse from No. 1 to No. 3 throws and better
from No. 3 to No. 6, and all signs are minus. A condition such as this means
that the shaft is in a continuous bow. This can be verified by bending the wire
model crankshaft into a bow and by rotating it as is done in taking the read-
ings. All signs will be minus, and the highest separation of the webs would be
in the middle throw. This situation is not characteristic of one or more bearings
being wiped, because it is improbable that both end bearings would be wiped,
leaving the center high. A typical cause for this condition is for the bond
between the frame and grout at each end of the compressor to have broken
loose. The horizontal couple forces cause the frame to move relative to the
grout, which, over a period of a year, can actually wear it down.
Crank Posi- Crankshaft Deflections — Case No. 2
tion Throw (Inches)
(Degrees) 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
90 -0.00025 -0.0005 -0.0015 -0.001 -0.005 0
180 -0.001 -0.003 -0.006 -0.004 -0.0015 0
270 0 -0.00025 -0.0015 -0.001 -0.00025 0
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Crank Posi- Crankshaft Deflections — Case No. 3
tion Throw (Inches)
(Degrees) 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
90 0.00025 0.0005 0.0015 0.001 0.0005 0
180 0.001 0.003 0.006 0.004 0.0015 0
270 0 0.00025 0.0015 0.001 0.00025 0
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Crank Posi- Crankshaft Deflections — Case No. 4
tion Throw (Inches)
(Degrees) 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
90 0.00025 0.0015 0 +0.00025 +0.0015 +0.00025
180 0.001 0.004 0.0005 +0.001 +0.005 +0.001
270 0.00025 0.001 0 0 +0.001 0
Figure 8: Crankshaft Deflections Illustrating Different Types of
Deflection Problems that Might be Encountered (Reprinted from Bloch,
H. P. and Geitner, F. K., Major Process Equipment Maintenance and
Repair, copyright 1985, with permission from Elsevir Science)
If indeed Case 2 indicates a broken bond, the bond can easily be checked by
inserting long feelers (approximately 8 in.) between the frame and grout. If the
feeler thickness is too great (up to 0.025 in.), the situation is actually worse than
the deflections indicate because the frame is not supported. There are many
installations in which feelers can be inserted all the way at the end of the frame,
but the severity of the circumstance is determined by how far the feelers can be
moved from the end toward the middle once they are inserted. Regardless, the
deflections are excessive in Case 2, and if there is a loosening of the grout, with
frame movement, the unit may have to be regrouted. A common error is to
tighten the foundation bolts to restrict movement. Such tightening is useless
because, once the bond is broken, the foundation bolts cannot hold the
compressor down. The amount by which the maximum deflection can be
exceeded will be discussed in subsequent paragraphs.
If the inspection just described indicates that the bond between the frame and
grout is satisfactory and the grout has not broken up, then the bowed condition
of the shaft could be caused by a change in the shape of the foundation. There
is a possibility that it may be cracked. This can be verified by a thorough exam-
ination of the foundation. Almost all concrete structures have hairline cracks
that should be ignored. However, open cracks, regardless of the width, are a
good indication of trouble. A sketch showing the exact location of the open
cracks is sometimes useful in correlating their location to the crankshaft deflec-
tions.
4. Case 3
In Case 3, if the deflections were exactly the same as Case 2 but the signs were
all plus, then the grout or foundation is in a bad sag. Comments for this condi-
tion are the same as Case 2.
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5. Case 4
In Case 4, the changes in signs of the deflections show the shaft to be in a
reverse bend. This could be caused by bad bearings, grout, foundation, or
frame. In this case, as well as in the preceding three, the analysis should not be
confirmed or acted on until all main bearings have been inspected.
N3.4.L Maximum Deflection Specifications
1. The number of variables involved and the complexity of the problem make it
impossible for an equipment manufacturer to predict the deflection at which
shaft failure will occur. Therefore, a tight maximum figure has to be assigned to
any shaft such that all situations will be covered. It is for this reason that fail-
ures have happened to shafts with deflections slightly above specifications,
while other machines have run for years with deflections much higher than
compressor manufacturers’ limits. Furthermore, some locations make it diffi-
cult to keep a machine level enough to stay within the limits.
2. The problem is to decide how far one can go beyond recommendations. The
following discussion might help in making that decision:
a. In Case 1, the change in deflection from throws No. 2 to No. 3 is abrupt.
The web stress is high, and it is recommended that the specified maximum
deflection not be exceeded. This can be demonstrated by holding adjacent
main bearings of the wire model shaft and creating a bending motion. This
would break the shaft more quickly than by holding it at the end main bear-
ings.
b. Case 4 is also an undesirable situation in that there is a reverse bend or “S”
indicated by a change from plus to minus signs. The stress concentration in
the throw between the change of signs can become pronounced if the
deflection is much above the manufacturer’s standards.
c. Case 2, which is a bow, that is, all plus signs, should allow more deviation
from standards than the other examples, because the stress concentration,
as in the case of the sag, is not as dangerous. Also, a bow is better than a
sag because in the former the deflection is minus. Where a minus reading
is involved, the webs are inward from the neutral position when the throw
is up. On vertical compressors, the up position occurs when the peak pres-
sure exerts maximum force on the journal and tends to spread the webs
apart. Because the webs are already inward, the peak pressure does not
contribute as much to web stress as it does in the situation of a plus
reading, in which the webs are spread apart before the maximum force is
exerted.
3. From the above discussion, it should now be clear that assigning a maximum
deflection to any reciprocating machine is difficult, but if the value specified by
the manufacturer is not exceeded under any conditions, experience has shown
that the shaft should not break. Consult the manufacturer when deflection limits
are reached.
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N3.5 Compressor Cylinder Alignment
N3.5.A General
1. The relation of the compressor cylinders to the frame or crankcase should be
examined with laser-optical instruments or by the tight wire method. This
checks the relationship of the compressor cylinder bore, packing case bore,
housing bore, and crosshead guide bore to the crankshaft. Refer to Figure 9 for
reference points for wire alignment, which refers to Dresser-Rand HHE
Compressor.
2. If the alignment of the compressor cylinder is not correct or if the crankshaft
strain gauge readings are beyond acceptable limits, the compressor frame may
have to be regrouted and perhaps some of the foundation cap removed and
repaired. Such a repair is not uncommon and is performed with epoxy mate-
rials that are far superior to the sand and cement used on older installations.
3. Cracks in the foundation or grout under the compressor base and crosshead
guides are sometimes repaired by pressure injection. Pressure injection to repair
foundations is not recommended, since it is very high risk and often opens up
the cracks. These sorts of repair decisions should not be made by outside
contractors. Experienced consultants who can determine whether a compressor
foundation is bad and whether out of alignment should be utilized. (Refer to
Section N3.6.)
4. Operating a compressor with bad foundation/grout and misalignment is
extremely risky. Failure, damage, and degradation typically involve:
a. Main bearings.
b. Crankshaft breakage.
c. Piston scoring.
d. Packing failures.
e. Piston rod scoring.
f. Crosshead shoe wear.
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Figure 9: Reference Points for Wire Alignment (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand Co.)
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N3.5.B Piston Rod Runout
1. Piston rod runout is a measure of how well the cylinder is lined up with the
frame and, also, how well the internals of the compressor (piston, rod, cross-
head) are lined up with each other and the frame and cylinder combination.
Runout is checked and adjusted with all parts “cold.” The ambient temperature
should be in the 60°F to 68°F range.
2. Prior to performing runout measurements, cylinder and support, cylinder frame
head, and doghouse nuts should be correctly set or torqued. Oil scraper and
packing should be loosened to prevent binding. Runout should be set during
erection. Followup measurements are needed whenever regrouting, major parts
replacement, overhaul, etc., are performed.
3. The following procedure is a guide for obtaining and interpreting runout read-
ings using dial indicators:
a. Initial setup. Use a dial indicator with facilities to be securely fastened to a
nonmoving surface in or on the housing. The compressor piston is to be set
at its maximum outboard stroke by barring the unit. The dial indicator trav-
eling pin is placed at a convenient position anywhere along the rod.
b. To measure horizontal runout, set the pin on the horizontal centerline of the
piston rod. For vertical runout, the vertical centerline is used. Measure both
vertical and horizontal runout.
c. When setting the traveling pin in the desired position, depress the dial indi-
cator such that the needle makes at least one revolution, lock the indicator
neck, and set the dial face with the needle reading zero.
d. Reading the runout. Bar the unit over 360 degrees (one complete revolu-
tion). The dial will travel to a limit when the unit has been barred
180 degrees (the piston should be at its maximum inboard stroke). The
reading, whether plus or minus, is the total runout. The unit is then barred
over the remaining 180 degrees (piston is now at its maximum outboard
stroke) to ensure that the needle returns to the zero setting. If the needle
does not return to zero, retake the measurement after checking the indi-
cator arrangement for tightness and making sure the unit is well secured at
its base.
e. The vertical runout reading generally indicates how well the compressor
piston and rod are in line with the cylinder and frame. The best result is a
cold runout of a minus on the piston end. The expansion of the piston
while in service is thus anticipated.
f. A positive reading means that the piston is high in relation to the cross-
head, and a minus means that the piston is low, as desired, in relation to the
crosshead. If the piston is high or if it is lower than the desired limit,
adjustment must be made in accordance with the compressor manufac-
turer’s instruction manual.
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4. Figure 10 shows allowable piston rod runout (vertical and horizontal) as a func-
tion of cylinder running clearance (Cooper-Bessemer). Cylinders may be oper-
ated if they fall within these limits. After a period of time runout exceeding
allowable is an indication that wear has occurred and maintenance is required.
Figure 10: Allowable Piston Rod Runout vs Cylinder Running
Clearance (Courtesy of Cooper Cameron Corporation)
N3.5.C Proximity Probe Method of Monitoring
1. A more efficient method of measuring rider band wear is to use a proximity
probe, mounted vertically to the packing case, to measure the position of the
piston rod. Probe gap voltage can then be read with an electronic rod drop
readout device. Monitors such as Bently Nevada’s six channel rod drop monitor
use a keyphasor probe to provide a once per revolution crankshaft pulse. The
pulse is used as a reference, such that an instantaneous rod position can be
displayed. There are three main advantages to this method of rod drop measure-
ment:
a. By taking readings at only one point in the stroke, the effects of scratches,
wear, or rod coatings are minimized.
b. The most effective point in the stroke can be selected for taking the
reading. Typically, this will be just before or just after bottom dead center
(BDC), when the dynamic forces on the piston and crosshead have a
minimal effect on the reading.
c. Since the center of the piston is known at this instant, the monitor can
correct for the geometry of the machine and display the amount of actual
rider band wear.
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2. Bently-Nevada’s Model 3300/81 Monitor provides two levels of alarm, alert
and danger, for each channel. The monitor eliminates the need to periodically
stop the machine and inspect for rider band wear. In addition, the monitor
provides the information to develop a wear trend as part of a predictive mainte-
nance program, unlike other rod drop indicators that provide only an alarm on
excessive rider band wear.
N3.5.D Preliminary Checks if Runout Exceeds Limits
1. If the guidelines above have been closely followed and runout cannot be set at
the correct limits, the following checks are recommended:
a. Ensure that all the housing nuts are torqued correctly.
b. Ensure that the packing and scraper assembly are not binding the rod.
c. If the correct runout still cannot be attained, rotate the piston and rod
assembly 90 degrees. Make sure the frame and outer end piston clearances
are still adequate to prevent contact with their respective heads. Relock the
crosshead jam nut, take both vertical and horizontal runouts again, and
record them.
2. Always refer to the instruction book for acceptable piston rod runout readings
and the methods of correcting or determining unacceptable readings. Table 1
gives shimming guidelines for crosshead shoes.
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Table 1 Shimming of Crosshead Shoes for More Accurate Piston Rod Runout
Total Thickness of Shims between Crossheads and Shoes in In.
Individual Shim Thickness = 0.005 In.
Piston Diameters, In.
Crosshead Piston Crosshead 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45
Dia. In. Material Shoe 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
C.I. Top 0.020 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.035 0.035 0.040
1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved.
Bottom 0.045 0.045 0.040 0.040 0.035 0.035 0.030 0.030 0.025
25
Al. Top 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045 0.050
Bottom 0.045 0.040 0.040 0.035 0.030 0.025 0.020 0.015
C.I. Top 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.035 0.035 0.040
Bottom 0.035 0.030 0.025 0.025 0.020 0.020 0.015 0.015 0.010
19 to 22-1/2
Al. Top 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045
Bottom 0.030 0.025 0.025 0.020 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005
C.I. Top 0.020 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.035 0.035 0.040 0.040
Bottom 0.020 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.010 0.005 0.005 0.000 0.000
12-1/4 to
17-1/2 Al. Top 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.040 0.040
Bottom 0.020 0.015 0.015 0.010 0.005 0.000 0.000 0.000
C.I. Top 0.020 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.040
Bottom 0.020 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.010 0.005 0.000 0.000
10-1/2
Al. Top 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.035 0.040 0.040
Bottom 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005 0.005 0.000 0.000
Appendix N
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N3.6 Foundation Problems and Repairs
N3.6.A General
1. Reciprocating compressors experience alternating movement of the recipro-
cating parts. The resulting shaking or inertia forces must be contained by
mounting the machines on properly designed foundations.
2. Regrouting of oil soaked concrete is often required on old compressor installa-
tions. The new grout material should be an epoxy. However, epoxy should be
used as a cap only on top of sound concrete or for chocks only. Epoxy has
depth limitations, as several locations have discovered.
3. Regrouting oil saturated concrete is possible. Experience has shown that the
best method of preparing a concrete surface for bonding is through mechanical
removal to eliminate surface defects. To eliminate surface defects, chip away
the surface at least 1/2 inch. Sandblasting the surface on reciprocating equip-
ment foundations is not acceptable. Historically, acid washing was widely
accepted as a means of surface preparation, but this practice has not proved
reliable. Break the aggregate with a chipping gun.
4. Concrete can absorb oil, and once oil has been absorbed, a gradual reduction in
both tensile and compressive strengths will follow. Given enough time, the
compressive strength of the concrete may be reduced to the point where the
concrete can be crumbled between the fingers. Fortunately, the deterioration
process is slow and may take many years for complete degradation. When total
deterioration has occurred, the damaged concrete must be replaced with either
new concrete or epoxy grout.
5. Measures can be taken to prevent the absorption of oil by the concrete, such as
sealing the concrete with an epoxy sealer to provide an oil barrier. Sealing of
the foundation is usually done at the time of original construction. Concrete
foundations that are oil soaked yet have not undergone total loss of strength
may be salvaged with correct regrouting techniques. When contaminants, such
as oil or grease, are present, special consideration should be given to surface
preparation and epoxy thickness.
6. Ensure the correct epoxy grout thickness. In solid materials, forces resulting
from compressive loading are dispersed throughout the solid in a cone shaped
pattern with the apex at the point of loading. Consequently, the weaker the
concrete, the thicker the epoxy covering should be to allow loads to be suffi-
ciently dispersed before they are transferred to the concrete.
7. Other techniques may further enhance the remedial measures. For example,
tensile loads can be transferred by means of reinforcing steel to locations deep
in the foundation where good concrete still remains.
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8. Repair of a severely oil degraded foundation is not likely to last more than a
year or so. The damaged foundation may be capped with a thick layer of epoxy
grout laced with reinforcing steel correctly placed and bonded deep in the foun-
dation. The technique is similar to that used when a dentist caps a weak tooth.
If a weak material can be contained, its strength may be maintained.
Caution This is a band-aid approach that could result in a broken or damaged
crankshaft.
N3.6.B Investigating Whether Regrouting is Necessary
Measurements and analysis will help determine if regrouting is needed. One
proposed sequence is as follows:
1. Take precision laser profile readings of compressor base or main bearing
machined areas from permanent benchmarks and record for comparison with
future readings.
2. Take hot crankshaft web deflection readings of the compressor and record for
study and future comparison.
3. Check for correct compressor rod runout and record readings.
4. Check for correct foundation bolt material and correct torque values. Make a
record of any broken bolts, as well as torque value. Foundation bolt material
should be AISI 4140 (B-7) or comparable high tensile strength steel.
5. Inspect main bearings and record clearances.
6. Make a visual inspection of compressor movement at corners during operation
and note condition on outline diagram of compressor foundation.
7. Make a visual inspection of grout and concrete foundation and note condition
on outline diagram of compressor foundation.
8. Compare readings and conditions with previous records. Compare crankshaft
web deflections with the manufacturer’s suggested maximum permissible.
Discuss essential corrective measures, such as special bolts and washers that
assist in keeping the proper torque on fasteners, and minimize unbalanced
forces through proper weight balance. Develop a schedule for implementing
corrections.
N3.6.C Effects of Postponing Regrouting
1. Postponing routine maintenance of operating equipment, particularly when
regrouting is needed, will usually result in foundation failure. The most serious
type of failure is foundation cracking at a location in a plane parallel to the
crankshaft. Such cracks may be caused by inadequate design or by operating
conditions that exert excessive forces on the foundation. Unless the foundation
cracks are repaired at the time of regrouting, grout life will be greatly reduced
(usually to approximately 10% of its normal life).
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2. Lateral dynamic forces are generated by compressor pistons. Theoretically, if a
machine were perfectly balanced, only dead weight forces would be exerted on
the foundation. In such a condition, anchor bolts would not be needed. In
reality, a perfectly balanced reciprocating machine has never been built.
3. After establishing the fact that unbalanced forces exist on well designed and
maintained equipment, consider what happens when maintenance is postponed.
Suppose there are lubricating oil leaks that puddle on the foundation shoulder.
If any movement exists between the machine and grout, oil will penetrate voids
caused by the movement and hydraulically fracture any remaining bond
between the machine base and grout. As movement between the machine and
grout increases, forces exerted on the foundation increase at an exponential rate
because of change in direction and impact.
N3.6.D Repairing Foundation Cracks
1. The notch provided in the top of a foundation for the oil pan creates a perfect
location for stress risers. A moment is created by lateral dynamic forces multi-
plied by the distance between the machine base and transverse reinforcing steel
in the foundation below. The possibility of foundation cracking at this location
increases as the depth of the notch increases. The farther the distance between
the horizontal forces and transverse reinforcing steel, the greater the moment.
2. Figure 11 illustrates a method of repairing such cracks by drilling horizontal
holes spaced from one end of the foundation to the other.
Figure 11: Method of Repairing Compressor Foundations that are
Cracked Parallel to Crankshaft
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3. The procedure for drilling the horizontal holes is as follows:
a. Drill a series of holes at an elevation immediately below the oil pan trough.
b. Insert a high tensile strength alloy steel bolt into each hole and anchor the
bolt at the bottom of the hole. Alternatively, long bolts can be used to
extend all the way through.
c. Place a small diameter copper injection tube in the annular space around
the bolt.
d. Seal the end of the hole and tighten the nut to draw the two segments of the
block back together.
e. Inject an unfilled or liquid epoxy into the annular space around the bolt.
4. Air in the annular space around the bolt is pressed into the porous concrete as
pressure builds. After the annular space has been filled, injection continues and
the crack is injected from the inside out.
5. This repair method places the concrete in compression. Note that the concrete
would otherwise be in tension. The compressive condition must be overcome
before a crack could develop again. The repaired foundation is therefore
usually much stronger than the original foundation. This technique is often used
when the concrete in the foundation is of poor quality.
6. If post tension repair is performed, a concrete core analysis is advisable. It is
better to know ahead of time if the concrete has inherent problems.
N3.6.E Anchor Bolt Replacement
1. When anchor bolt failure is such that complete replacement is essential,
replacement can be accomplished by using techniques consistent with the illus-
tration in Figure 12.
2. Complete replacement of an anchor bolt is possible without lifting or regrouting
the machine. This is accomplished by drilling large diameter vertical holes
adjacent to the anchor bolt to be replaced and tangent to the base of the
machine. Once the cores have been removed, access is gained to concrete
surrounding the anchor bolt.
3. After the surrounding concrete has been chipped away, a two piece sleeved
anchor bolt is installed. When the replacement anchor bolt has been installed,
epoxy grout is poured to replace the concrete chipped from around the original
bolt and the concrete removed by the coring.
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Figure 12: Anchor Bolt Replacement
N3.7 Compressor Bearing Maintenance and Replacement
N3.7.A General
1. Premature bearing wear or failure is usually caused by a combination of factors.
Mechanical overload, dirt, and incorrect installation are sometimes involved.
Misalignment, incorrect lubrication, and overheating are by far the major
causes of serious journal, bearing, and mainframe damage. Such damage can be
difficult to spot and often goes undetected. Even though oil flow to one bearing
may drastically deviate from the norm, oil pressure and temperature indicated
on gauges may still appear normal if the problem is limited to a single oil line.
2. The insufficient oil flow to one bearing is one example of the many reasons
manufacturers’ recommendations on periodic inspection of bearings, crank-
shaft, and other components are worth noting. If there is a need to replace a
main or crankpin bearing, the analyst should ask why the bearing required
replacing. Always investigate possible causes and determine if other compo-
nents have been affected as well. Careful inspection of the area around a
replaced bearing is an essential step in preventive maintenance.
3. Crankshaft straightness, bedplate saddle alignment, and the bore diameter of
the connecting rod bearing bores are potential trouble spots. The localized over-
heating that often accompanies bearing failure creates dimensional changes that
can lead to distortion or cracking in related parts. Be sure to consult the manu-
facturers’ manuals and check all related components for damage whenever
bearing problems occur.
4. Regardless of other factors involved, most severe compressor alignment defi-
ciencies will ultimately lead to destructive overheating of major components.
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N3.7.B Bearing Maintenance
1. Many serious problems can remain hidden long enough to cause damage. Good
bearings may actually conceal a bearing saddle problem. A bent crankshaft can,
in some cases, give “zero” deflection readings. Sometimes the lack of normal
wear can indicate a problem. Thus, inspections should be a regular part of the
maintenance program. Be suspicious when anything out of the ordinary is seen,
even if the overall condition of the machine seems acceptable.
2. Expect wearing parts to wear out. In one catastrophic failure event, a
compressor broke a crankshaft. There was no abnormal crankshaft deflection at
the last inspection, and the crankshaft had run for over 15 years on the same
bearings.
3. During disassembly, the bearing surfaces of the mains appeared to be in good
condition but their backsides had become worn into the bedplate. Large
compressor components, such as crankshafts, are subject to considerable
flexing despite their mass. Such components should be supported along their
entire length or severe damage may result. In this case, the worn bearings failed
to provide that support. The distortion and fretting on the backs of the bearing
shells also impaired heat transfer.
4. The bearings should have been removed, inspected, and replaced thousands of
hours earlier. Spending approximately $12,000 on new bearings to protect a
$400,000 crank would have been a wise tradeoff. Compressor bearings should
be replaced every 5 to 8 years or at least thoroughly inspected at regularly
established intervals.
5. Bearings must be installed correctly. Incorrect installation is the most common
cause of bearing failure. Tightening bearings for correct crush is of prime
importance. Otherwise, bearings may come loose and fail from constant
pounding action or poor heat transfer. Check with the bearing supplier for more
specific information on bearing crush.
6. The importance of determining the cause and extent of damage when a bearing
fails has been established. Damaged or failed main bearings or rod bearings
should prompt checks of the crankshaft, main bearing caps, bedplate saddle
bores, and connecting rod bearing bores.
N3.7.C Check Top Clearance for Main Bearing Alignment
The clearance between the upper main bearing shells and main bearing journals
gives preliminary indications of bedplate alignment. All top clearances should be
within approximately 0.001 inch of one another (refer to Figure 13). A tight top
clearance may indicate a low saddle. If so, jack down on the crankshaft and check
the top clearance for settling.
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Figure 13: Compressor Main Bearing
N3.7.D Check Crankshaft for Deflection and Runout
1. Deflection readings give some indication of whether the crankshaft is straight,
correctly supported, and running in correct alignment. Deflection is normally
tested with a deflection gauge. Deflection gauges measure changes in the
spread between adjacent crank webs while the crank is rotated (refer to Figure 4
and Figure 6).
2. If a main bearing fails or any time bearings are replaced, both runout and
deflection must be checked. Reading deflection alone does not give the full
picture because zero deflection is no guarantee that the crankshaft is straight.
Actually, some nominal deflection on a straight crankshaft is expected. If there
is no deflection, a problem may exist.
3. As mentioned earlier, the deflection gauge should be read with the crankshaft
jacked downward after 180 degree rotation. This allows deflection to be seen
that otherwise might be missed if the crankshaft is bent sufficiently to be held
“straight” by the main bearings.
4. Journal runout is normally checked with a dial indicator on the side of the
crankshaft at the level of the main bearing parting line to cancel out the effects
of crank weight. With the bearing removed and the dial indicator against the
main bearing journal at the bearing oil groove location, rotate the crankshaft
and observe the readings at 90 degree intervals to obtain the complete picture.
If the crankshaft and bedplate are both straight and correctly aligned, the read-
ings should be within approximately 0.001 in. of the instruction or field service
manual.
N3.7.E Crank Bearing Failures
1. Failure of crankshaft bearings is more common than loss of mains. If failure
occurred, check the connecting rod bearing bore for signs of distortion and
destructive overheating.
2. Remove the connecting rod and check the bore for roundness with the bearing
removed. Before reinstalling the rod, temporarily install the new bearings and
torque the bolts. Then, check the rod bore for roundness again. An out of round
bore may show up during either, but not necessarily in both, checks.
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3. When installing replacement bearings, be sure to correctly torque the caps to
ensure correct bearing crush for good fit and effective heat transfer. The cross-
head pin bore of the rod should also be inspected for roundness and the clear-
ances checked whenever the connecting rod bearing is replaced. Good practice
confirms that the centerline is parallel through both bores of the connecting rod.
N3.7.F Bearing Assembly Checklist
The following items should be verified prior to and during assembly of crankshaft
bearings:
1. Ensure bearings are the correct design.
2. Ensure bearings are free from burrs and thoroughly cleaned.
3. Ensure housing, crankshaft, and oilways are thoroughly cleaned.
4. Ensure any locating dowels are satisfactory and free from burrs. The locating
tab should be correctly positioned.
5. Ensure the bearing has a positive free spread.
6. Clearly mark on the bearing its location within the compressor.
7. Clearly mark on one end of each bearing housing its position within the
compressor.
8. Do not apply oil between bearing back and housing bore.
9. Apply a liberal coating of oil between bearing bore and crankshaft surfaces.
10. Tighten bolts in the correct sequence to the correct torque or stretch, as defined
in the equipment instruction manual.
11. Check that the shaft can rotate freely.
N3.7.G Remanufacturing of Shell Type Bearings
Caution Reusing bearings is not recommended, since it is doubtful that rebab-
biting thin babbit bearings is practical.
1. Remanufacturing or rebabbitting of shell type compressor bearings should be
done only to specific styles.
2. The old bearing shells with thick babbitt, usually 0.032 in. to 0.064 in., can be
rebabbitted by a shop experienced in this type of work. Centrifugal casting or
spraying of the babbitt has been found superior to pouring babbitt in these
shells.
3. The newer shells with reduced babbitt thickness (0.007 in. to 0.015 in.) can be
rebabbitted by centrifugal casting if the backing is made of cast iron or steel.
Bearings made with bronze backing should not be rebabbitted, because the
bearing shell crush has been destroyed.
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4. Shells made of the trimetal construction should not be remanufactured or rebab-
bitted.
5. Any bearing shell that is rebabbitted should be checked by ultrasonic testing to
ensure the area between the babbitt and the backing is 100% bonded.
N3.7.H Compressor Component Repair and Rebuilding
In the overhaul and maintenance of reciprocating compressors, many repairs can
and are made to the major components. When making repairs, several aspects must
be considered to prevent jeopardizing the integrity of the part and to ensure that the
part performs as well or better than the original installed in the compressor by the
manufacturer. The following are some questions that should be asked:
1. Is the repair being made with the appropriate engineering decisions?
2. Is the repair being performed with care and the use of the correct manufac-
turing techniques, such as, squareness, parallelism, and finishes?
3. Are the materials being used in making the repair equal or better than the ones
available from the manufacturer?
4. Review the original and current service conditions, since the original materials
may not be appropriate.
N3.8 Cylinder Repair and Maintenance
N3.8.A General
1. A regular schedule for inspection of cylinder bore and piston should be deter-
mined as soon as the projected usage and service conditions can be established.
At the outset, make frequent inspections and keep a detailed record of observa-
tions. Tabulate the information, and once a pattern is recognized, adjust the
time span between inspections and service accordingly.
2. Thoroughly inspect all components for wear and damage. Inside and outside
micrometers should be used when checking cylinder bores, piston diameters,
and rod diameters. Cylinder bores should be measured at 6 to 12 o’clock and 3
to 9 o’clock, at both ends and the middle. Visually inspect the bore, counter-
bore, and valve ports for cracks. Use dye penetrate if cracks are suspected.
3. Problems generally found with compressor cylinders include:
a. Cylinder bores worn out of round, especially on horizontal machines.
(Wear is usually in an hourglass shape from front head to back head.)
b. Cylinders worn to an excessive (oversize) bore dimension.
c. Water passages fouled with deposits or water treatment chemicals.
d. Gas passages fouled with dirt and carbon deposits.
e. Lubricating oil passages clogged.
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f. Valve seat and cover gasket surface pitted or eroded.
g. Head to cylinder water ports eroded.
h. Cracks in cylinder bore.
i. Missing nameplates.
4. Be sure to keep the nameplates and tags.
5. Periodic hydrostatic testing of the cylinder is suggested especially after a break-
down.
N3.8.B Inspection of Cylinders
1. Cylinders are inspected either visually or with greater precision by measuring
bore size.
2. Visual inspection should be performed at every shutdown, for example on the
occasion of a valve changeout. This can be accomplished by looking through
the valve ports and inspecting the bore for any sign of scuffing or scoring. In
addition, the amount of cylinder oiling should be determined, that is, determine
whether the cylinder is being over oiled or not enough oil is being fed to the
cylinder. Adjustment to lubricator feed should be performed at this time.
3. A more detailed inspection should be performed at every overhaul. At that
time, the piston and piston rods are removed, exact measurements of the bore
are made, and the general condition of the bore is determined.
N3.8.C Types of Inspection
There are two types of cylinder inspections:
1. Visual. This inspection determines whether any roughness, scuffing, or
scratching has taken place.
2. Measurements. Measurements are taken to determine what wear has taken
place and whether that wear is within limits allowing operation to continue. If
measurements show that the wear is beyond acceptable limits, the measure-
ments determine what repair procedures should be implemented.
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N3.8.D Cylinder Bore Measurements
1. Compressor cylinder bore measurements are taken in the vertical and hori-
zontal directions and in at least three locations along the bore, each end of ring
travel, and in the center (refer to Figure 14 and Figure N4.1.1 in Section N4.0).
Figure 14: Measurement Locations Along Cylinder Bore
2. All measurements are taken with a micrometer and should be recorded on
appropriate inspection report forms. One form (CMP-DS-5055) should be used
for each compressor cylinder and all pertinent data entered.
N3.8.E Types of Cylinder Bore Wear
Cylinder bores usually wear in the following ways:
1. Compressor cylinder bores generally wear in a barrel shape manner, that is,
they wear more in the center than at either end of the compressor stroke (refer
to Figure 15).
2. Bores may also wear “out of round”, that is, larger in the vertical than hori-
zontal direction or the reverse.
3. Taper wear may also be evident, that is, larger at the head end than crank end or
the reverse.
Figure 15: Barrel Shaped Bore Wear Pattern
N3.8.F Repair Procedures
If a compressor cylinder is scored, scuffed, or worn such that operation should not
be continued without correction, there are three repair procedures that can be under-
taken. The correct action to take depends on the condition.
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N3.8.G Honing
1. When cylinder bore inspection shows that scuffing or scratches have occurred,
the problem can be corrected by correct honing. If the bore has deep scuffing,
boring is recommended first and then honing. Correction by honing may be
possible but is time consuming. A proper honed finish on cast iron cylinder
bores is achieved by honing with a coarse J13 stone, finishing with a fine J45
stone and then crosshatching the bore with a coarse stone for lubricated
cylinders.
2. Cylinder bore finish should be a minimum of 16 RMS for lubricated compres-
sors and a minimum of 8 RMS for nonlubricated cylinders or lubricated cylin-
ders used at operating pressures above 2500 psig.
Note A compressor cylinder bore that is “out of round” or tapered cannot be
corrected by honing. It must be rebored. Honing will only result in a smooth “out of
round” or “tapered” bore.
N3.8.H Cylinder Reboring
Correcting an out of round, tapered or barrel shaped bore should be performed by
reboring. After the cylinder has been corrected by boring, all tool marks must be
removed by honing as previously described. The clearances for cylinder reboring
are as follows:
1. Equation for calculating maximum allowable bore difference:
Maximum allowable bore = 0.00075 in. x nominal bore
2. Rebore cylinders when the maximum measured bore diameter is 0.00075 in.
times the nominal bore diameter. This difference applies to measurements
within any circumference or plane or to any difference in measurements along
the bore axis.
3. For example, assume a nominal bore of 10 in. diameter. The maximum allow-
able bore difference will be:
10 in. x 0.00075 in. = 0.0075 in.
4. Therefore, if the minimum bore diameter is 10.0025 in., the maximum
measured at any point should not exceed 10.010 in.
Note When compressing a gas with a molecular weight less than 17 or where a
pressure differential greater than 700 psi exists across the piston rings, reduce the
multiplier to 0.0005 in.times nominal bore diameter.
5. Calculate maximum out of round diameters for metallic rings as follows:
Maximum out of round diameters for metallic rings = 0.001 in.per in. of bore
diameter up to a maximum of 0.015 in. regardless of bore diameter.
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6. Calculate maximum out of round diameters for Teflon rings as follows:
Maximum out of round diameters for Teflon rings = 0.002 in. per in. of bore
diameter up to a maximum of 0.018 in regardless of bore diameter.
7. Calculate maximum allowable taper as follows:
Maximum taper for length of bore = 0.0005 in. per inch of stroke
8. Rebore all sizes if the ridges exceed the maximum allowable ridge tolerances as
follows:
Bore ridge = 0.007 to 0.010 in. at the end of piston ring travel
N3.8.I Quantity of Material to be Removed When Reboring
(Cylinders with No Liners)
1. The maximum diameter to which a compressor cylinder can be rebored is
usually limited by the counter bore. Generally, the counter bores are 1/8 in. to
1/4 in. larger than the cylinder bores.
2. While a cylinder may have sufficient strength to permit boring larger than the
counter bore diameter, such boring may be impractical because no means exists
to center the heads without major redesign (refer to Figure 16).
Figure 16: Cylinder Bore and Counter Bore Configurations
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N3.8.J Quantity of Material to be Removed When Reboring
(Cylinders with Liners)
1. On cylinders with liners, the liners may be honed, but not much boring can be
done. The amount of boring will depend on the liner thickness, which typically
varies from 0.375 in. to 0.750 in. When replacing a cylinder liner, the cylinder
bore should not be out of round or tapered. The OD of the liner requires full
support. Unsupported liners will distort, and the liner bore (ID) will take an out
of round or tapered shape. (Refer to Section N4.0.)
2. The cylinder may be rebored to 0.060 inch over the original liner diameter.
3. The amount removed from the cylinder bore must be added to the liner OD.
N3.9 Oversize Piston Rings
N3.9.A General
1. The amount of honing or reboring that can be performed before oversize rings
are needed is determined by considering piston ring gap. If honing or reboring a
cylinder, oversize rings become advisable when the ring gap becomes three
times normal due to the bore increase.
2. The ring gap will be increased 3.1416 times the amount of material removed
from the cylinder bore.
3. For example, consider a cast iron ring gap of 0.003 inch per inch of diameter.
Hence, a 10 inch cylinder would have a normal piston ring gap of 0.030 inch.
Since 3 x 30 = 0.090 inch or 0.090 0.030 = 0.060 inch, an increase of
0.060 inch would make the gap three times normal.
4. Therefore, 0.060 inch divided by 3.1416 = 0.019 inch would represent the
maximum allowable increase in cylinder bore size, without resorting to over-
sized rings. Table 2 can be used as a guide for the use of oversize rings,
although use of the example in Section N3.9.A, item 3 will lead to more conser-
vative results.
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Table 2 Guide for Oversize Rings
Max. Bore Diameter Increase Allowed Before Oversize Piston
Nominal Bore Diameter, In. Rings are Required, In.
3.999 0.015
4.000 - 5.999 0.015
6.000 - 7.999 0.020
8.000 - 9.999 0.030
10.000 - 14.999 0.040
15.000 - 17.999 0.050
18.000 - 22.499 0.065
22.500 - 29.999 0.085
30.000 - 34.999 0.100
35.000 - 42.000 0.120
N3.9.B Installation of Sleeves or Liners
1. If the practicality of overboring a cylinder is in question or the bore size is to
remain the same as original, installing a special liner may be considered. The
amount of material that can be removed from a cylinder for overboring remains
the same, but a suitable liner must be made for the cylinder. Installing a liner
will not strengthen the cylinder (refer to Figure 17).
Figure 17: Installing Cylinder Liner
2. A liner or sleeve can be manufactured from centrifugally cast, high strength
iron, with the outside diameter slightly larger than the cylinder bore. The inside
diameter should not be finished to size until installed into the cylinder. After
installation into the cylinder, the liner can be bored to finished size and honed
to achieve the proper finish.
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3. The interference fit between the liner OD and the cylinder bore should not be
excessive, or distortion of the liner will take place and the stress on the cylinder
may exceed the material strength. Generally, for liners with inside diameters up
to 16 inches, an interference fit of line to line maximum of 0.002 inch is used.
4. Even though the cylinder may have enough material that can be removed to
accept a liner, this option is not always available. In some cylinders, liners are
confined by specially configured head geometries. Thus, each case must be
examined and evaluated separately. (Refer to Section N4.0.)
N3.9.C Metal Stitching
1. If cracks are discovered, welding is not usually recommended. Cast iron is
difficult to weld. The welded cylinder may be damaged beyond repair. If
possible, a procedure called metal stitching is sometimes performed. This is a
cold repair. If done correctly, metal stitching can return the equipment to its
original strength characteristics and integrity (refer to Figure 18).
2. Cylinders crack for various reasons, and overheating or freezing are among the
most common. If a machine is inadvertently started with no cooling water flow,
do not apply the cooling water with the machine running. Shut the machine
down and allow to cool gradually without water flow. When sufficiently cool,
restart with the water circulating. If shut down in time, the worst that usually
happens is scoring of the piston and cylinders. If cold water is applied too soon,
the casting will crack. A high temperature discharge switch may prevent this
damage.
3. In the case of freezing, the protective measures are obvious. Cooling water
should not be left in cylinders that are not in service in subfreezing tempera-
tures. Simply opening drain valves does not guarantee that all water has been
removed. Discharge lines can be plugged. Note also that some cylinders have
several drain lines for each head and the cylinder.
N3.9.D Metal Spray
Worn or scuffed cylinder bores on compressors on low pressure air service may be
restored to original size by building up the bore with metal spray. The cylinder must
first be prepared by boring and undercutting, degreasing, and spraying. As much as
3/16 in. on the diameter has been replaced in this manner.
N3.9.E Inspection of Valve Seats
1. At the time of inspection and measurement of the cylinder bore, an in-depth
visual inspection should be performed on all the valve seats, paying particular
attention to the condition of the gasket seating area.
2. Valve seats become damaged if the valve jam screws or other devices that hold
the valves in position are not correctly torqued. If the jam screw is not torqued
to a high enough value, the valve may become loose during operation and
“pound” the seat, or if over torqued, distortion or cracking of the seat may
occur.
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3. Valve seat damage may also occur if the valve seat gasket is not in the correct
position to seal, which may cause wire drawing. A folded or wedged gasket can
cause indentations in the seating surface.
4. Many valve problems are not due to bad valves but rather to bad valve seat
gaskets or valve seats in such poor condition that seating cannot take place and
leakage occurs. Avoid trying to correct the leakage problem by tightening the
jam screw, which may break the valve seat in the cylinder.
Caution Impact wrenches must not be used to install compressor valves.
5. Another common cause of cylinder valve seat breaking is not backing off the
valve jam screws when the valve cover is unbolted. The cover is commonly
reinstalled using impact wrenches and, with the jam screw not backed off, too
much force is put on the valve, causing the seat to crack.
6. If visual inspection indicates possible damage to a valve seat, a dye penetrant
inspection should be performed to determine if the seat is cracked. If a valve
seat is found damaged, steps should be taken immediately to remachine the seat
to restore the seating surface. This can be done by the use of portable boring
equipment. Removal of the cylinder from the compressor may not be necessary.
N3.9.F Gasks
1. If reassembling the compressor cylinder assembly, new gaskets should be used
throughout. In particular, replace the gaskets for the front and rear heads, water
jacket covers, clearance pockets, and valve covers.
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Figure 18: Metal Stitching Sequence (Courtesy of Metalstitch® Division
of In-Place Machining Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin USA)
2. Correct materials must always be used. Room temperature vulcanizing (RTV)
cement (RTV) or similar material should not be used in place of cut gaskets for
any joint where fits are employed, since the thickness of the RTV will vary and
cause misalignment. The only places where use of RTV may be considered are
on water jacket covers and where specified by the OEM supplier.
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N3.9.G Water Jackets
1. After years of operation, water jackets become dirty and fouled, particularly if
jacket water quality is poor and the jacket cooling effect may have deterio-
rated. The inside of the jacket walls may be covered with sand, lime, or magne-
sium, which interferes with normal heat transfer and cooling.
2. The solution to the problem is to clean not only the cylinder jackets but also the
water cooling passages in the front and rear heads. Chemical cleaning is the
only effective means. Figure 19 shows the correct hookup for chemically
cleaning cylinders and jackets.
3. Chemical cleaning is recommended at every fourth or fifth overhaul for normal
water conditions and more frequently with inadequate water conditions.
N3.9.H Nut and Bolt Torquing
The correct torque must be applied to all bolts/nuts used on the cylinders to prevent
distortion, damage to the components, and breakage of the castings, especially on
the valve jam screw and valve cover bolting.
Caution Cheaters should not be used to remove valve covers.
Figure 19: Hookups for Chemical Cleaning of Cylinder Water Jackets
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N3.9.I Inspection Forms
Forms should be available at the time of inspection to record the measurements.
Typical inspection forms for compressor cylinders are shown in Figure N4.1.1 in
Section N4.1.
N3.10 Compressor Piston Maintenance
Figure 20 illustrates the typical piston and groove dimensions and areas discussed in
this section.
Figure 20: Typical Piston and Groove Dimensions
N3.10.A Clearances
1. General
As noted in Section N3.2.A, item 2, maintaining the correct tolerances and
clearances between mating parts after each overhaul is essential.
2. Piston to Cylinder/Liner Bore
The piston to cylinder or liner bore clearances vary with piston design and
piston ring configuration.
3. Oil Lubricated Cylinders with No Rider Band
The clearance between the piston to cylinder bore or the liner bore on an oil
lubricated cylinder with no piston rider can be determined as follows:
Cast iron piston = 0.00125 inch per inch bore diameter (7)
Example: 20 inch diameter cylinder 20 inch x 0.00125 inch = 0.025 inch clear-
ance
Aluminum piston = 0.003 inch per inch bore diameter (8)
Example: 20 inch diameter cylinder 20 inch x 0.003 inch = 0.060 clearance
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4. Oil Free Cylinder Rider Band or Oil Lubricated Cylinders with Rider Bands
Table 3 illustrates the clearance between piston and cylinder (liner) bore on oil
free cylinders (conventional non lube) or lubricated cylinders with rider ring
(band).
Table 3 Clearance Between Piston and Cylinder
Cylinder Diameter, In. Clearance, In.
2 1/2 - 5 0.125
5-8 0.156
8 - 12 0.188
12 - 16 0.219
N3.10.B Rider Ring Diametrical Clearance
The clearance between the rider ring and cylinder (liner) bore on pistons equipped
with rider rings or rider bands can be determined as follows:
Diametrical clearance = cylinder bore diameter x k + 0.005 inch
where:
k = expansion factor based on piston material
k = 0.0015 inch (cast iron piston)
k = 0.0025 inch (aluminum piston)
N3.10.C Piston Ring Function
1. Two principal functions of piston sealing rings are to:
a. Prevent gas from blowing by the piston.
b. Transfer heat from piston to the cylinder walls and hence to the water
jackets.
2. Piston ring groove width variations can have a significant effect on these func-
tions. To ensure proper operation, good contact is required between the ring and
the side of the groove. If the grooves become tapered or edges are “dragged”
over as shown in Figure 21, poor sealing or ring fracture may be expected. If
shoulders or a tapered condition have developed, grooves should be trued up in
a lathe and rings of greater width installed. The dashed line “N” illustrates how
grooves should be remachined to their full depth.
Figure 21: Unacceptable Ring Groove Configurations
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N3.10.D Piston Ring Groove Depth
1. The groove depth must be slightly greater than the radial thickness of the ring.
One easy way of checking this is to put the ring in the groove and use a straight
edge as shown in Figure 22.
Figure 22: Groove Depth Must Exceed Radial Thickness of Ring
2. Each ring should be tried in the groove the ring is to occupy and rolled
completely around to make sure there is no obstruction in the bottom of the
groove at any point. The ring should move freely without sticking.
3. Rings used in conjunction with rider rings on the piston should be checked as
shown in Figure 23 to ensure they do not protrude beyond the rider.
Figure 23: Piston Ring Periphery Should be Below that of Rider Band
N3.10.E Piston Ring Sealing
1. For a piston ring to seal properly, the ring must have contact with the cylinder
wall, as well as the side of the groove. Piston rings are made with a free diam-
eter larger than the cylinder to ensure that, when installed, they exert outward
initial unit pressure against the cylinder wall as shown below.
Figure 24: Free Gap Must Exceed Operating Gap of Piston Rings
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2. The initial pressure varies from approximately zero in plastic or segmental
rings to potentially several hundred psig in some situations (with metallic
rings). Unit pressure will vary around the ring circumference, depending on
ring circularity. Positive circularity exists when A is greater than B and nega-
tive when A is less than B. Normally rings have positive circularity.
3. During operation, the primary sealing force, however, is a result of gas pres-
sure in the ring bore and against the side. This serves to hold the ring against
the cylinder and against the flat groove face as shown in Figure 25.
Figure 25: Gas Pressure Action on Piston Rings
N3.10.F Piston Ring Clearances
1. The suggested minimum side clearances between ring groove (side) and end
(gap) clearances for piston rings of various material are given in Table 4.
Caution should be taken to make sure that each ring has the minimum end
clearance. Unless there is sufficient clearance, ring ends may butt together from
thermal expansion, causing ring wear, cylinder scoring, and other damage.
2. The end clearances shown in Table 4 are for butt cut or step joint rings as
shown in Figure 26.
Table 4 End Clearances for Butt Cut or Step Joint Rings
End Clearance per Inch of Cylinder
Material Side Clearance per Inch of Width, In. Diameter, In.
Cast Iron 0.006 (0.002 min.) 0.002
Bronze 0.006 (0.002 min.) 0.003
Teflon 0.018 0.017
Carbon 0.006 (0.002 min.) 0.002
Figure 26: Butt or Step Joints in Piston Rings
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3. For angle cut joints, multiply the value in Table 4 for end clearance by the
amounts shown in Figure 27.
Figure 27: Angle Joints and Gap Multipliers Referred to in Table 4
N3.10.G End Clearances
1. One simple method of checking end clearance is to insert each ring in the
cylinder at its smallest or unworn section and check end clearance with a feeler
gauge. Making a measurement on small bore cylinders may be difficult. In this
case, a fixture or jig can be made. Turned to the exact bore measurement, a
fixture or jig will facilitate measuring the end gap. If clearance is insufficient,
the ring ends should be filed. Too much end clearance is preferable to too little.
If the ring is segmental, all but one cut should be held closed and a feeler gauge
inserted at the open joint. Any filing to adjust clearance needs be done at one
joint only.
2. When checking an angle cut ring, both ends of the ring must be held against a
flat surface, such as the end of the piston or another ring. A jig or fixture with a
square shoulder will again simplify the measuring task.
N3.10.H Side Clearances
1. The side clearances of piston rings are checked by installing the rings in their
grooves on the piston. The rings should then be rolled around completely to
ensure that there is no obstruction in the bottom of the ring groove at any point.
Side clearance should be checked with a feeler gauge.
2. The ring grooves must be in good condition, that is, not worn or tapered, if poor
sealing or breakage of the rings are to be avoided. Worn ring grooves must be
reconditioned.
N3.10.I Piston Ring Installation
1. Care should be taken if expanding rings over the piston. To prevent permanent
deformation or breakage, they should be spread no further than necessary to
clear the outside diameter of the piston.
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2. Thin steel strips placed as shown in Figure 28 will help prevent damage from
overstress or catching in unfilled grooves. Four strips are usually sufficient, one
near each ring end and the other two evenly arranged on the opposite side of the
piston.
Figure 28: Thin Metal Strips Facilitate Ring Installation
N3.10.J Rider Rings
1. Rider rings or bands are designed to support the weight of the piston and piston
rod assembly. Rider rings are available in a number of configurations that
include the following:
a. Cut type rider rings are snapped over the piston with the same care as
piston rings. Cut type rider rings are supplied either as butt cut or as angle
cut, similar to piston rings. Both types require side relief grooves to relieve
the gas pressure from behind the ring to ensure that they will not act as a
piston ring. Rider rings should not seal the gas pressure.
b. Solid rider rings or bands are made in one piece and are machined with an
interference fit to ensure that, once expanded over the piston end, they will
contract like a rubber band to provide a snug fit on the piston. This type
does not require pressure relief grooves.
2. The life of solid rider bands can be extended by rotating pistons 120 degrees to
180 degrees at each overhaul.
N3.10.K Rider Ring Clearances
1. The suggested minimum side and end clearances for rider rings of different
materials are shown below.
2. The clearances shown in Table 5 are for butt cut or step joint rings as shown in
Figure 26. For angle cut joints, multiply value in table by the amounts shown in
Figure 27.
Table 5 Minimum Side and End Clearances for Rider Rings of Different Materials
End Clearance per Inch of Cylinder
Material Side Clearance per Inch of Width, In. Diameter, In.
Cast Iron 0.001 (0.002 min.) 0.015
Bronze 0.001 (0.002 min.) 0.015
Teflon 0.012 0.035
Carbon 0.001 0.015
3. The side clearance for Teflon rider rings, which must be stretched to install,
applies after installation.
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N3.10.L Visual Inspection of Compressor Pistons
1. Visual inspection of the piston is recommended at every shutdown or if a valve
is removed. While inspecting the entire piston through the valve ports is not
possible, enough can be seen to determine if any scuffing is occurring. The
partial inspection gives an indication of piston problems and further corrective
action can be taken, if required.
2. Detailed inspection should be performed if the compressor is overhauled or if
necessary to remove the piston and piston rod assembly from the cylinder.
Caution Before disassembly of a hollow piston from the piston rod, check to
ensure that there is no pressure trapped inside the piston. All hollow
pistons should be self venting. A vent hole at the bottom of a ring
groove is included for this purpose. Vent holes should be checked to be
sure they are not plugged.
3. Detailed inspection of the piston includes:
a. Cleaning piston completely including ring grooves of all carbon, dirt, etc.
b. Visually inspecting all portions for signs of scuffing, breakage of ring
lands, galling at hubs and piston nut washer seat, and cracking of any
component part.
c. Dye penetrant inspection of ribbing on two piece pistons and of all piston
faces, particularly around the hub area.
d. Complete dimensional check of piston OD, ID of piston rod boss, piston
ring grooves, and dimension of OD face and hub.
e. Recording all dimensions and results of non destructive testing (NDT)
inspection on appropriate forms.
N3.10.M Physical Inspection of Compressor Pistons
The following procedures should be followed when inspecting compressor pistons:
1. Check piston in lathe or place in V-blocks, then indicate inside diameter of
piston boss.
2. Indicate counterbore or face of piston that bears against piston rod collar or
shoulder. This must be perpendicular with inside diameter of the boss within
0.0005 inch. If indication exceeds this amount, machine counterbore or face
until piston indicates within 0.0005 inch.
3. Indicate counterbore or face of piston where piston nut makes contact. This
must also be perpendicular to inside diameter of piston boss within 0.0005 inch.
If not within this amount, machine face or counterbore piston to ensure that
piston does indicate within 0.0005 inch.
4. Both counterbore or face of piston (piston rod shoulder, collar or piston nut
end) must not be galled or rough. If not in good condition, rough or marked,
machine to clean up.
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5. Measure the inside diameter of piston boss. If the diameter is greater than the
normal diameter of the bore by 0.002 inch, the piston will not have the correct
fit to the rod. Depending on the design of the piston and the boss, a repair may
be made by boring oversize and installing a bushing. If the design is such that
there is not enough material to install a bushing, the piston rod must be built up
and ground to an amount equal to the oversize bore. Clearance between piston
bore ID and piston rod OD is 0.001 inch to 0.0025 inch.
6. On two piece pistons, there must be a 0.002 inch difference between center hub
and the outside rim of the piston. Place a straight edge across the piston half
and with a feeler gauge measure from the hub to the bottom of the straight edge
(refer to Figure 29). This difference must be 0.002 inch. If less than that
amount, machine hub to achieve the 0.002 inch difference.
Figure 29: Verifying Acceptable Piston Dimensions
N3.10.N Piston Inspection Forms
Inspection forms should be available at the time of inspection to record measure-
ments and data.
N3.10.O Oversize Pistons
Oversize compressor pistons are required if:
1. Piston to cylinder bore clearance is too large to properly support rings.
2. Allowable piston rod runout cannot be obtained by adjustment of crosshead
shoes.
3. Clearance between bottom of piston rod and packing flange is less than 0.015
inch. Table 6 shows the maximum allowable cylinder bore diameter before
oversize pistons are required.
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Table 6 Maximum Allowable Cylinder Bore Diameter Before Oversize Pistons Are Required
All Piston Materials With
Nominal Bore Cast Iron (Riding on Bore), Aluminum Riding on Bore), Nonmetallic Rings and
Diameter, In. In. In. Riders, In.
3.999 0.050 0.050 0.015
4.000 - 5.999 0.075 0.070 0.015
6.000 - 7.999 0.105 0.085 0.035
8.000 - 9.999 0.125 0.085 0.040
10.000-14.999 0.125 0.085 0.050
15.000-17.999 0.125 0.085 0.050
18.000-22.499 0.125 0.085 0.065
22.500-29.999 0.125 0.085 0.085
30.000-34.999 0.125 0.085
35.000-42.000 0.125 0.085
N3.10.P Piston Failures
Figure 30 explains typical compressor piston defects and failure locations:
Figure 30: Types and Locations of Piston Failures
a. Piston mating surface fretting and wear on two piece pistons.
b. Ring groove side wall wear.
c. Cracked ring lands.
d. Fracture or cracking of ribs in hub area.
e. Crushing and galling of nut sealing surface.
f. Metal displacement or interference.
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N3.10.Q Failure of One Piece Casting Design
1. Some pistons are designed as a one piece casting and have been subject to
chronic failure.
2. In one case, an installation was plagued with piston failures in the first stage of
its two stage air compressor. An examination of broken piston parts showed
that there had been a core shift during casting. The problem recurred with
replacement pistons for this one piece design.
3. A specially designed two piece piston was recommended, using thin walled,
ribbed construction with the same material (aluminum). The new design incor-
porated clearance between hubs. Figure 31 shows the outer rim under compres-
sion when the piston was tightened. This keeps the joint tight. The new pistons
were fabricated and installed using the same piston rings and piston rod. The
breakage problem was eliminated.
N3.10.R Renewing Piston Rings
Piston rings must be replaced when the end gap (clearance) becomes too great and
blow-by of the gas occurs. End gap increases occur when:
1. Rings become worn.
2. Cylinder bore wear takes place.
3. Scuffing occurs on the surface of the ring due to lack of lubrication or cylinder
cooling is rendered ineffective or the cylinder bore becomes rough.
Figure 31: One and Two Piece Piston Designs
N3.10.S Oversize Piston Rings
Oversize piston rings are required when the ring gap has tripled. Normally, the ring
gap for a cast iron butt cut piston ring is 0.002 inch per inch of cylinder diameter.
Thus, a 10 inch cylinder bore requires piston rings to have a gap of 0.020 inch when
new. An increase of 0.040 inch would triple the ring gap to 0.060 inch. This increase
in ring gap would be due to an increase in bore size of 0.013 inch
(0.04 inch/3.1416 inch = 0.013 inch). The three fold increase of ring gap also
governs when worn rings should be replaced, even though the cylinder bore has not
worn. Table 7 shows the maximum increase in bore size before oversize piston rings
are required.
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Table 7 Maximum Increase in Bore Size Before Oversize Piston Rings Are
Required
Maximum Bore Diameter
Increase Allowed Before Oversize
Nominal Bore Diameter, In. Piston Rings Are Required, In
3.999 0.015
4.000- 5.999 0.015
6.000- 7.999 0.020
8.000- 9.999 0.030
10.000-14.999 0.040
15.000-17.999 0.050
18.000-22.499 0.065
22.500-29.999 0.085
30.000-34.999 0.100
35.000-42.000 0.120
Oversize rings are required to overcome an increase in ring gap due to an increase in
bore dimension. Oversize rings also are needed to overcome the inability of the
piston ring lands to properly support the rings (refer to Figure 32). As the ring
moves out to accommodate a larger bore size, less of the ring side is in contact and
supported by the groove wall. The ring is thus susceptible to breakage.
Note From a practical point of view, piston rings and rider rings should be
replaced whenever the piston is removed, regardless of cylinder bore size or ring
wear. The rings are inexpensive components and replacement is less costly than
having a failure and the attendant downtime risk.
Figure 32: Effect of Using Standard Ring in Oversize Bore
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N3.11 Rebuilding Worn or Scuffed Compressor Pistons
N3.11.A General
There are several types of repair and rebuilding needed with worn or scuffed
compressor pistons. These include the following:
1. Remachine piston ring lands to correct worn grooves, then install wider piston
rings.
2. Turn OD of piston to remove any scoring or scuffing. Build up OD with metal
spray of correct material and remachine OD to original diameter.
3. Repair cracks in ribs or hubs in cast iron pistons by appropriate grinding,
cleaning, and welding. Piston must be remachined after welding on OD hub
bore and counterbore to restore welding induced distortion.
Note The repair of aluminum pistons by welding is not recommended.
4. Reapplication of babbitt sprayed rider bands. Refer to procedure in Section
N3.11.B for correct repair.
5. Install bushing in worn hub bore and remachine to correct size to fit piston rod.
6. Install rider bands on pistons not originally so equipped to restore worn and
scuffed diameter. Remachine for rider bands and install by using spray bronze
or aluminum material. On some piston designs, Teflon rider bands may be
installed.
N3.11.B Reapplication of Babbitt Sprayed Rider Bands
The following procedures should be followed when reapplying babbitt sprayed rider
bands:
1. Surface Preparation and Spraying
a. Clean all old babbitt from the rider ring grooves by machining to base
metal. Take extreme care at this point to ensure that all babbitt is removed,
while keeping the depth of the groove to a minimum. If machining is not
necessary, sandblast the rider groove to bare metal.
b. Thread rider ring groove in accordance with Figure 33.
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Figure 33: Repair Instructions for Rider Bands (Courtesy of: Dresser-
Rand Co.)
c. Keep the cleaned area free of all oil and spray with Metco nickel aluminide
bond within 4 hours after sandblasting or recutting threads.
d. After cleaning, preheat piston to 175°F to 200°F and keep piston between
these temperatures during entire spraying operation.
e. Spray the grooves with 0.002 inch of Metco aluminide bond, turning spray
gun to 45 degrees alternating from one side to the other. Distribute bond
material evenly. Oil must not come in contact with the bond material either
before or after application.
f. Apply Metco spray babbitt A, completely building up one section to 1/16
inch to 3/32 inch over finished diameter. Turn spray gun at 45 degree angle
alternately from one side to the other until threads are filled and then at
90 degrees until completely built up.
g. After one groove of the piston is completed, proceed as outlined in steps 3
and 4, completely building up one groove before proceeding to the next
groove. Do not spray adjacent groove but alternate from one end of piston
to a groove in the opposite end to keep the heat more evenly distributed
(refer to Figure 34).
Figure 34: Rebabbitting Sequence for Rider Bands
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2. Finish Machining
a. After sprayed surface has cooled, take a rough cut across bands to a diam-
eter 0.002 inch to 0.030 inch larger than finished dimension of bands.
Finish bevels on ends.
b. Finish turn or grind sprayed surface to 0.025 inch
(+0.000 inch/-0.003 inch) over the nominal diameter of the piston.
Caution Take all possible precautions to ensure that all oil has been removed
from the rider area and that, after machining or sandblasting, the bond
coat is applied within 4 hours to prevent any oxidation of the rider ring
groove. The importance of this step cannot be overemphasized. The
integrity of the babbitt bond is directly related to the cleanliness of the
parent metal.
N3.12 Installing Pistons on Piston Rods
N3.12.A General
Before installing the piston on the piston rod, both should be thoroughly inspected.
Any deviations from standard must be corrected. Installation of a nonstandard
assembly will risk an unscheduled shutdown, with all of its well known conse-
quences.
N3.12.A Procedure for Torquing Piston Nuts
1. The following procedure has been developed for the torquing of piston nuts if
installing cast iron, aluminum, and steel pistons, either two pieces or one piece,
with straight bores. The procedure should not be used for pistons that use piston
rods with taper fit to the piston.
a. Clamp piston rod behind the collar in a suitable fixture similar to the one
shown in Figure 35. Care must be taken not to clamp on any coated surface
if the rod has been coated, because cracking or breaking the bond will
result.
b. The piston and piston rod should be inspected in accordance with the
instructions for inspection of compressor pistons (refer to Section N3.10.L
and Section N3.10.M).
c. Blue the piston to piston rod collar. (Blueing is the application of a thin
layer of dye that allows the detection of incorrect mating of mechanical
parts.) A minimum of 75% bearing contact should be evident; if not, lap
the surface of piston and collar until the minimum of 75% contact is
achieved. The bearing area should be uniform around the circumference
and across the bearing face.
d. Blue piston nut to piston. Again, a minimum of 75% bearing contact is
required. If not, lap until achieved. Remove all traces of compound by
cleaning with an approved solvent.
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e. Install piston on rod and coat the threads of the piston rod with an anti-
galling compound. Do not use a copper based compound, since seizing or
galling of the threads may result. Apply a thin coating of oil to the face of
the nut.
f. Torque the nut to the correct torque value as shown in the compressor
maintenance manual.
Dimension Table Drill
Rod Size A B C D E F G H J Size
Up to 2-1/4 3-1/2 1-3/4 6 4 1 7 2-1/8 5/8 2-1/2 1/4
2-1/4 and 8 2-1/2 6 4 1 13 2-3/4 1-3/4 4 1-1/8
Larger
Figure 35: Piston Rod Holding Fixture (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
Company)
2. If a suitable torque wrench is not available, another suitable method that can be
used is as follows:
a. With the piston properly located on the rod, tighten the nut to 150 ft-lb to
obtain good metal to metal contact.
b. Scribe a line (A) through the centerline of the piston rod, and extend the
line out to the piston as shown in Figure 36A.
c. Refer to the nomograph in Figure 37 to determine the number of degrees
the nut must be turned in relation to the piston rod.
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d. Measure from the original scribe line (A) the number of degrees the piston
nut must be turned in relation to the piston, and scribe a line through point
(B) and the centerline of the piston rod.
e. Install socket on piston nut and mark adjacent to the first scribe line (A) as
shown in Figure 36B.
f. Tighten the piston nut until the mark on the socket coincides with the
second scribe line.
g. The problem must be corrected before use or a broken piston rod will
result.
Figure 36: Alternative Torque Application Method (Courtesy of
Dresser-Rand Company)
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Figure 37: Torque Application Nomograph (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
Company)
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N3.13 Setting Piston End Clearance
1. If the piston rod has been removed or even turned in or out of the crosshead,
check the piston end clearance and make any adjustments to restore the correct
clearance. If the piston has not been removed from the rod, the original clear-
ance can easily be maintained by center punching both the rod and the cross-
head and making a suitable scribing tool, as shown in Figure 39, before
removing the rod from the crosshead.
Note The length of the scribing tool will vary depending on the size of the cross-
head nut, and care must be taken to locate scribe marks to ensure that during oper-
ation they will not enter the oil scraper rings and destroy the oil film.
Figure 38: Tramming Tool Used to Verify Location of Piston Rod
Relative to Crosshead
2. If installing pistons or adjusting end clearances, more clearance at the head end
than at the crank end is desirable, because expansion from running heat and
normal connecting rod bearing wear tend to increase the crank end clearance.
For this reason, if setting the piston end clearance, make the head end clear-
ance approximately two thirds of the total and the crank end clearance one-
third.
3. To adjust piston end clearance, use the following procedures:
a. Lock out the electrical switch to prevent accidental startup of the
compressor.
b. Remove all gas pressure from cylinders.
c. Remove one valve from each end of cylinder.
d. Bar compressor over until piston is at end of the stroke.
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e. Using feeler gauge, measure the distance between the face of the piston
and the cylinder head. Note this measurement.
f. Be sure that feeler gauges are long enough to ensure that hands are never in
the cylinder between piston and cylinder head. The measurement should
not be attempted with the compressor running.
g. Bar compressor again to bring piston to the end of its stroke at the oppo-
site end.
h. Measure this amount using feeler gauges.
i. An alternative method of checking the clearance between piston and head
is to use soft lead wire. Bar over until the lead wire is flattened, and
measure the thickness with a micrometer.
j. Take the difference in clearance between the two readings and screw the
piston rod in or out of the crosshead to make this clearance two-thirds on
the head end and one-third on the crank end.
k. If the piston rod cannot be turned by hand, use a strap wrench or a socket
on the piston nut. A pipe wrench should not be used on the rod.
l. Tighten the crosshead nut and fasten locking devices.
Caution Place a block of wood between the frame and the crosshead when the
nut is being tightened. This will prevent the crosshead from turning
and distorting the connecting rod and bearing. Add tram marks for
point of reference.
m. Be sure to record the crank end and head end clearance settings for future
reference.
N3.14 Inspection and Reconditioning Piston Rods
N3.14.A General
1. Before installing the piston/piston rod assembly in the compressor cylinder or
attempting to recondition a piston rod, inspect and measure the piston rod thor-
oughly. A part of this inspection is checking the piston rod and the piston to
ensure the assembly is able to run true to the centerline of the cylinder bore.
2. Inspection is by the following method:
a. Visually inspect for signs of scuffing, longitudinal scratches, and damaged
or pulled threads.
b. Measure all diameters and lengths to determine actual sizes and record on
suitable inspection forms.
c. Nondestructively test the rod by magnaflux or magnaglow to determine if
there are any signs of longitudinal scratches or signs of cracking at threads,
especially when inspecting coated or flame hardened piston rods.
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d. Determine runout by placing the piston rod between centers or in V-blocks
and using dial indicators.
e. Determine whether the rod had been previously chrome plated or whether
the rod had been replaced by suppliers other than OEM. If so, determine
the suitability of material and surface treatment.
N3.14.B Procedures for Inspection of Compressor Piston Rods
1. Use the following procedures to inspect compressor piston rods:
a. Remove piston from piston rod.
b. Place piston between centers (be sure existing centers are in good condi-
tion) or in V-blocks (refer to Figure 39).
c. With dial indicator, indicate over length of rod. Rod should not run out
more than 0.001 inch.
d. Measure diameter to be sure rod is round within 0.001 inch and not tapered
more than 0.001 inch over its length or worn undersize.
e. If rod is worn not more than 0.005 inch undersize and still round and not
tapered, it may be used. If rod is more than 0.005 inch undersized or out of
round or tapered more than 0.001 inch, it should be turned undersize to
remove out of roundness and taper and built up to size. Material and
method must be compatible with the rod base material, pressure, and gas
being compressed.
f. Indicate rod in the area of piston fit. The area must be concentric with
diameter of rod within 0.001 inch.
g. Measure the diameter of the fit area. If more than 0.002 inch undersize, the
rod must be built up and reground to size (normally no wear occurs in this
area).
Figure 39: Verifying Trueness of Piston Rod
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h. Indicate thread diameter at both the crosshead end and piston end. Both
ends must be concentric, with rod diameter within 0.001 inch.
i. Indicate shoulder or collar where piston fits to rod; shoulder or collar must
be perpendicular to diameter of rod within 0.001 inch. If indicator shows
more than 0.001 inch runout on the shoulder or collar, the rod must be
machined to ensure that runout does to exceed 0.001 inch.
j. With the crosshead nut and piston nut screwed on rod (be sure nuts are
facing in correct direction), indicate seating faces. Faces should not run out
more than 0.001 inch. If runout is greater than 0.001 inch, the faces must
be machined.
k. If the surface of the rod in the packing area is scuffed, scored, or scratched
in any manner, the rod must be turned undersize to remove all damage and
then built up to size. Both material and method must be compatible with
rod material, pressure, and gas being compressed. If indicating rod shows a
bend at piston fit area or at either of the thread ends, the rod should be
scrapped. Do not attempt to straighten.
N3.14.C Reconditioning of Compressor Piston Rods
A rod that is scratched, nicked, or worn or has a slight shoulder may be recondi-
tioned. If previous inspection has revealed any indication of cracks, inclusions, or
imperfections in material, the rod should be scrapped.
Note Piston rods should not be welded.
N3.14.D Regrinding
1. Piston rods may be ground undersize, and the standard packing rings can be
used. Generally, 0.002 inch to 0.003 inch per inch of piston rod diameter may
be ground for medium pressures, but as the operating pressure increases above
1000 psig, undersize should be limited to a total of 0.003 inch under the
nominal piston rod size.
2. On low pressure air service (125 psig), as much as 0.020 inch has been
removed and standard packing used. However, better practice is to grind under-
size and return to standard nominal size by one of several methods to be
discussed next. Generally, with an undersized rod, the packing rings will take
longer to break in, and the leakage will be greater during the break-in period.
N3.14.E Metal Spray
Metal spray application is an acceptable reconditioning technique on piston rods
used in pressures up to 400 psig. After cleaning and surface preparation, the rod
may be sprayed with 420 SS, which is equivalent to 413 SS. The rod is ground to
normal size after spray. Surface finish should be as shown earlier.
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N3.14.F Plasma Spray
Development of plasma spray and suitable coatings allow piston rods not only to be
reconditioned but to be given a surface treatment superior to that originally on the
rod. Overlays of tungsten carbide and chrome oxide can give the piston rod longer
wear life. Care must be taken to check the rod for straightness after spraying.
Plasma spray has superior bond strength over conventional metal sprays and is less
likely to “flake” off in service.
N3.14.G Chrome Plating
1. Chrome plating is used to restore piston rods to their original diameter, but its
success depends on the quality of the plating, which varies enormously
depending on the plater. Do not use this method, unless the quality of the
plating produced by a supplier is known.
2. The only chrome plating approved for piston rods is porous chrome, which is a
reverse etching process. The depth of the pores in the chrome produced by
reverse etching is in the order of 0.002 inch to 0.003 inch deep, and the plating
has approximately 40% porosity. Porosity on piston rods enhances the ability to
hold oil on the rod surface and provide adequate lubrication.
Caution Do not plate piston rods with hard chrome, such as used on automo-
bile bumpers.
3. For best results, the finished plating should have no more than 0.010 inch radial
thickness. Thicker plating is more susceptible to failure and should be avoided.
The finish on the rod diameter prior to plating should be 32 RMS or better to
ensure as smooth a plating as possible. If plating a rod, avoid abrupt steps from
the undersized area to the adjacent area. Two basic precautionary procedures
are possible:
a. Grind the entire rod undersize and plate on top of this undersized area,
allowing plate to fade to the undersized diameter outside the packing travel
area. In this case, polish the ends of the plating to ensure correct smooth-
ness.
b. Grind a groove to the undersized diameter then plate back to the finished
size. In this case, the ends of the groove should be reduced to minimize
stress.
4. Generally, the second procedure is not preferred because of the difficulty in
ensuring that the final grind will be sufficiently concentric to the original rod
diameter. In situations where greater than recommended plate thickness must be
used, the second procedure may be preferred.
5. With either procedure, after grinding undersize and prior to plating, the rod
should be carefully magnaflux inspected for grinding heat checks or other
cracks. Inspection should be repeated on final ground, plated surfaces. Circum-
ferential cracks or indication should not be permitted.
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Note The use of bronze packing rings with chrome plated piston rods cause
scoring of rods and is to be avoided. If the compressor uses bronze packing, chrome
plating of piston rods should not be used.
Caution All previous plating or spray must be removed before replating or
spraying. Do not attempt to chrome plate or spray over surfaces previ-
ously coated with fuseable alloy. Do not attempt to recoat fuseable alloy
piston rods with any coating, including fuseable alloy.
6. Regrind piston rods after coating or plating to size. Specify 16 RMS finish for
lubricated service and 8 RMS finish for nonlubricated service. Bent rods may
be straightened only if they have not been coated or plated and the bent area is
not at the piston fit area or at either of the threaded ends.
N3.15 Manufacture of Compressor Piston Rods
N3.15.A General
1. Piston rods may be manufactured if attention is paid to selection of material,
machining accuracies, heat treatment of materials, surface treatments, and
surface finishes.
Note Do not attempt to manufacture piston rod without first asking questions and
consulting on the various aspects of piston rods.
2. Before deciding to manufacture piston rods, the following factors should be
considered:
a. Determine operating conditions of compressor.
b. Material may be substituted from original design but only after consulta-
tion. Do not substitute new specifications without questions. Often, the
reasons for designs are not known and certain changes may be dangerous.
c. Coatings may be applied to piston rods that had originally been furnished
without these coatings.
Note Use induction hardened and tungsten carbide coating in the packing travel
area, especially at high pressure and/or H2S.
d. Threads on piston rods are now made either by grinding or rolling. Rolled
thread is superior in that it eliminates high stresses at the root of the
threads. There are few, if any, repair service facilities that have thread
rolling equipment; therefore, this work must be subcontracted. Do not
attempt to substitute cut threads without consultation and knowing all
details of the compressor design.
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3. In some cases, cut threads are possible (on a lathe, not die cut), but consider-
able prior investigation will be required. Modern designs make use of the
higher stress levels possible with rolled threads, and the unauthorized use of cut
threads could cause premature failure of the rod with catastrophic results.
Note Several non OEM shops can roll threads.
4. If cut threads have been deemed adequate on a given job, careful manufacture
is required. The tool bit must be correctly ground to ensure that no pulls or tears
occur. The thread must be correctly rounded at the root. The correct pitch diam-
eter must be used.
Caution Do not use cut threads with super bolts or premium fasteners.
N3.15.B Piston Rods in H2S Service
Piston rods in H2S service should be manufactured as follows:
1. Piston rod material should be Carpenter Custom 450 (UNS S45000) or 17-4 PH
(UNS S17400) that has been heat treated in accordance with NACE MR0175-
96, Section 3.8. Maximum hardness reading after final age hardening heat treat-
ment should be 31 HRC. Heat treatment records showing actual temperature
levels and duration for each rod should be provided.
Note NACE requirements may also apply to any components or fasteners in
contact with sour process gas.
Note Carpenter Custom 450 (UNS S45000) and 17-4 PH are excellent materials,
but there are other approaches to the problems of piston rods in sour process gas
service. Suggest reviewing the conditions of service and discussing with the OEM.
2. All threads on the rod should be rolled Class 2A and should be checked with a
gage.
3. The piston rod should have a polished thread relief area.
4. The fillet radius of the rod collar should be maximum possible up to 1/4 inch
and still enable the piston to seat correctly. All other fillet radii on the rod
should be a minimum of 1/8 inch.
5. Rods should be manufactured with an additional 6 inch coupon section that
should be removed after final age hardening. Coupon should be machined into
a tensile specimen and pulled to determine actual yield and ultimate strengths
of rod material. Hardness levels should also be verified.
6. Rods should be ultrasonically inspected twice by a person qualified to SNT
Level II or Level III in accordance with ASTM A 388. The first inspection
should be after rough machining and before age hardening. The second inspec-
tion should be immediately prior to rolling of threads. Discontinuity indica-
tions in excess of the response from a 3/64 inch diameter flat bottomed hole at
the estimated discontinuity depth is not acceptable.
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7. Rods should be wet magnetic particle inspected twice by a person qualified to
SNT Level II or Level III in accordance with ASTM E 709. The first inspec-
tion should be after rough machining and before age hardening. The second
inspection should be immediately prior to rolling of threads.
8. All rods should be coated in the packing and wiper ring areas with a high
impact thermal plating of tungsten carbide material using the Linde D-Gun or
Jet-Kote II. Flame metal sprays or plasma spray processes are unacceptable.
9. Supplier should recommend suitable TC coating material for specified service
and indicate depth of undercut tolerances. Coating procedure should be
submitted prior to actual coating of piston rods and should be subject to
Texaco’s written approval. A coating sample of batch to certify correct chem-
istry throughout coating procedure should be performed. Written certification
should be required.
10. Undercut should be ground, wet fluorescent dye penetrant inspected, and grit
blasted. Each edge of undercut should have a radius.
11. Coating area should be honed or polished to a surface finish of 4 to 8 micro-
inches RMS.
12. The finished rods should be wet fluorescent dye penetrant inspected by a
person qualified to SNT Level II or Level III in accordance with ASTM E 165.
13. ASTM E 18 and E 384 should apply. Minimum average of 10 Vickers (300 g)
microhardness readings should be 850 HV and minimum individual readings of
700 HV.
14. When examined with the unaided eye and reflected light, finished casting
should not have chips, flaking, cracks, patches or porosity (less than 2%
maximum), or discontinuities on finished coating. Questionable areas should be
examined at 10X magnification. Bond line strength should be a minimum of
10,000 psi. Diamond pyramid hardness should be a minimum of 1000 kg/mm2.
15. Finished piston rods and coating should comply with drawing requirements for
dimensional tolerances. Typical tolerances for finished rods are 0.0005 inch
(12.5 micrometers) for roundness and 0.001 inch (25 micrometers) for diamet-
rical variations over the length of the rod.
16. Piston rod runout should not exceed 0.00015 inch per inch (0.00015 mm per
mm) of stroke and 0.0025 inch (0.064 mm) side runout as measured with a dial
indicator.
17. Final dimensional and runout check should be conducted. A copy of results
should be shipped with the rod.
18. Full material traceability of piston rod material and piston rod coating,
including coating powder batch, should be required. Such records should be
maintained for a minimum of 20 years after shipment.
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N3.15.C Tightening Piston Nuts on Piston Rods
1. Tighten the piston nut to the correct torque to prevent loosening of the piston on
the rod. Loosening could result in damage to the piston or could cause
stretching of the piston rod at the thread end beyond the elastic limit of the
material.
2. Before tightening is attempted, an adequate means of holding the piston
rod/piston assembly must be available. Figure 36 shows one such arrangement
with V-blocks to hold the rod.
3. Piston rods that have been coated or plated must be held in the area that has not
been coated. The stress caused by tightening of the V blocks could easily cause
cracking of the coating or the plating.
4. In addition to adequate V-blocks to prevent the piston rod from turning if tight-
ening or loosening the piston nut, the piston must be properly supported to
prevent bending of the piston rod.
Caution Do not attempt to tighten a piston nut with piston rod assembly in the
cylinder and fastened to crosshead. Always tighten the piston nut
before installation of assembly in cylinder.
5. Again, under no circumstances should a pipe wrench be used to hold piston rod.
Note Copper based compounds (such as Fel-Pro) should not be used on threads
since the compounds may cause galling.
N3.15.D Torque Values for Piston Nuts
1. Correct tightening of piston nut to the piston rod includes torquing the nut to
the correct value. Approved torquing procedures include the use of a torque
wrench or the “stretch” method.
2. Table 8 includes torque values for various size piston rod thread sizes. Instruc-
tions for tightening and determination of prestress value are discussed in
Section N3.12.A
Table 8 Piston Nut Torque Values
Thread Diameter, In. (8 THD) Torque, Ft-lb
1 200
1-1/4 425
1-1/2 775
1-3/4 1250
2 1900
2-1/4 2775
2-1/2 3875
2-3/4 5200
3 6850
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3. Correct torquing and prestressing of the rod by the use of torque wrenches is
not practical on large diameter piston rods. Use heaters to expand (lengthen) the
rod, which allows the nuts to be easily turned the correct amount. Upon
cooling, the rod “shrinks”, setting up the correct prestress, which ensures tight-
ness.
4. In all cases where a nut is used, the nut is locked to the piston rod by means of
a cotter pin. Piston rod lock nuts are usually the castellated style.
N3.15.E Torque Values for Crosshead Nuts
1. On those piston rods that use a nut tightened to the face of the crosshead, the
correct torque value must be achieved to prevent loosening or overstressing the
rod.
2. Table 9 gives torque values for various size piston rod thread sizes at the cross-
head end.
Note Correctly block the crosshead to prevent the crosshead from “cocking” when
tightening the nut. Failure to take this precaution can damage the crosshead pin
bushing, as well as the connecting rod bearing.
Table 9 Crosshead Nut Torque Values
Thread Diameter, In. (8 THD except as shown) Torque, Ft-lb
2 1320 - 1340
2-1/4 1850 - 1950
2-1/2 2600 - 2700
2-7/8 4050 - 4150
3 4300 - 4500
3-1/2 6500 - 6750
3-5/8 8500 - 8600
4 11400 - 11500
4-3/4 - 6 THD 19200 - 19300
5 - 6 THD 29800 - 29900
5-1/4 - 6 THD 29800 - 29900
N3.16 Other Compressor Component Repairs
N3.16.A General
As long as the correct methods and materials are used, all components of the
compressor may be successfully rebuilt or repaired.
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N3.16.B Connecting Rod Repairs
1. Rebore the large end to reestablish the correct bearing crush and return the bore
to standard size.
2. Straighten rods with heat. Cold straightening is limited by the amount of bend.
3. Install new crosshead pin bushings. Fit pin to bushing.
4. Straighten the rod by machining the large end of the rod true to the crosshead
end. Avoid necessity to remove bend.
Note Repair by welding is not recommended.
N3.16.C Crosshead Repairs
Crossheads, as with other compressor components, may be successfully rebuilt if
the correct materials and procedures are used.
1. Nonadjustable. Rebabbitt and turn to size on babbitted crossheads. This may be
accomplished by metal spray.
2. Nonadjustable, not babbitted. Repair by machining round. Consider applica-
tion of babbitt to faces. This improved type of crosshead can also be welded up
and turned to size.
3. Rebore and bush to crosshead pin bores in crosshead. Use the same material as
the crosshead for bushings or use a bronze bushing with a flange on the inside
of the crosshead.
4. Repair damaged crossheads by welding and remachining. If the material is not
steel, repair may not be possible.
N3.16.D Crosshead Pins
Generally crosshead pins do not wear but may become galled or scored. Recondi-
tioning may be completed in either of the following ways:
1. Turn old pin down and make new pin bushing to suit.
2. Grind pin true and build up by chroming back to standard size.
N3.16.E Crosshead Guide Repair
Crosshead guides are either built integral with the compressor frame or are separate
and bolted to the frame. The guides form slides for the crossheads. The guides must
have a good surface finish and must be in line with the centerline of the cylinder.
1. Crosshead guides can be rebored in place or in the service center. Reboring in
the field may be preferred because of being cheaper to machine a guide in place
than it is to remove the guide from the foundation.
2. Removable guides, such as tail rod crosshead guides, can be plated back to
standard size.
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3. If a guide was overheated due to lack of lubrication, the guide will have to be
checked for cracks. Determine if the guide is cracked before boring is started.
4. Cracks or bad sections of the guide can sometimes be repaired by metal
stitching. This is similar to inserting a piece of cast iron in the damaged area
and remachining (refer to Section N3.9.C).
N3.16.F Crankshaft Repairs
1. Forged crankshafts can be repaired in many instances, depending on type of
damage, material of shaft, and size of shaft. Most crankshafts used in compres-
sors are carbon steel forgings; however, some are cast nodular (ductile) iron.
2. Historically, crankshaft journals were generally repaired by chromium plating.
Chrome plating is less desirable but an acceptable practice. A specific weld
procedure is covered in Section N5.0. The following also applies:
a. The shaft must be checked for straightness before and after welding.
b. Chips should be taken from the area to be weld repaired to confirm the
metallurgy to ensure that the correct weld rods and procedures are used.
c. The shaft should be machined down to good metal. The surface turned
down should be wet magnetic tested to confirm that no cracks remain.
d. The shaft can now be weld repaired and stress relieved. The procedure
should be reviewed by one of Texaco’s metallurgists beforehand.
e. The weld repair can then be rough machined, leaving at least 0.025 inch
per side for finish machining and ultrasonic testing (UT). No indications
are permitted.
f. The shaft should then be machined to the finished diameter and the surface
wet magnetic tested. The wet mag of the turndown, the UT of the weld
repair, and the wet mag of the finished surface should all be witnessed.
N3.16.G Weld Repair
1. Crankshaft journals, mains as well as throws, can be repaired by welding and
grinding back to standard. However, weld repairs are feasible only with steel
shafts. This technique requires correct weld repair expertise.
2. Because of the carbon content of the shafts, the material is difficult to weld
without inducing surface embrittlement and cracking. The cracks may be
microscopic and usually cannot be detected except by magnetic particle inspec-
tion or metal etch testing. If cracks are induced through welding and the shaft is
returned to service, the shaft will eventually fatigue and break.
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N3.16.H Weld Repair Procedure - General
1. The correct weld procedures must be followed if making weld repairs on crank-
shafts. An approved procedure, such as the following, will ensure the integrity
of the crankshaft:
a. Cracks in the crankshaft should be removed by grinding.
b. Crankshaft should be inspected with magnetic particle method to ensure
that the cracks are removed.
c. Crankshaft should be preheated to a temperature between 350°F and
800°F. This preheat temperature should also be the minimum interpass
temperature.
d. If weld repair of crankshaft is needed, weld depth should not exceed 0.250
inch.
e. Stress relief should be performed immediately after welding at a tempera-
ture between 1000°F and 1200°F. The minimal stress relief time should be
1 hour per inch of shaft diameter.
f. Nondestructive testing (NDT) inspection.
2. Journals can be ground undersize and special bearings used. There is a limit on
the amount of undersize a shaft may be ground. Journal grinding is often
feasible in place using portable equipment.
3. Journals may be trued up, prepared for plating, and chrome plated back to size.
However, chrome plating is not always accepted by insurance companies.
4. Refer to Section N5.0 for crankshaft repairs using HVLF.
N3.16.I Chrome Plating Procedure - General
1. The following procedures should be followed when applying chrome plating
(refer to Section N6.0) to compressor crankshafts:
a. Areas to be plated should be preground, followed by magnetic particle and
dye penetrant inspection of all ground surfaces.
b. Shaft area to be chromed should be shot peened, with care given not to
damage the collar surface.
c. Maximum chrome thickness should be 0.030 inch (radial thickness).
Note Journals that are not too badly damaged may be cleaned with a belt sander
and hand stoned. Care must be taken to avoid putting the journal in an out of round
condition that will cause further bearing failures.
Note Metal spraying has been successfully performed on smaller shafts but is
generally not recommended for large cranks.
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2. Some other general repairs of crankshafts that can be performed in the field or
shop include:
a. Straightening.
b. Machining rod size journals undersize.
c. Machining damaged keyways oversize and producing new key.
d. Machining outside diameter and faces of flywheel fit and bushing
flywheel.
e. Reaming damaged holes in shaft and flywheel and installing new over-
sized studs.
f. Boring and tapping damaged counterweight stud holes oversize and
producing new step studs.
3. Refer to Section N6.0 for crankshaft repairs using standard chrome plating or
welding.
N3.16.J Certification
Suppliers should certify that the repaired crankshaft meets or exceeds original
engine or compressor manufacturer requirements with regard to structural and
dimensional integrity. Alternatively, a supplier should detail all known deficiencies
that could, in the supplier’s judgment, affect the operational serviceability of a
particular shaft. This cataloging of deficiencies must be produced during the evalua-
tion phase with the Purchaser, prior to the repair being authorized by the Purchaser
and accomplished by the Supplier.
N3.16.K Compressor Frame Repair
If a compressor frame needs repair, catastrophic failure of another part, such as
bearing failure or breakage of a piston rod, may be the cause. Typical repairs
include:
1. Reboring of main bearing saddles on larger machines that can be done in place.
2. Cracked frames that may be metal locked (metal stitched) and remachined.
N3.17 Compressor Part Replication
1. The previous discussions have dealt with the repair, reconditioning, and
rebuilding of the major components of the compressor, which are subject to the
greatest wear and/or damage through accidents. In recent years, there has been
an increase in the number of companies other than the original equipment
manufacturer (OEM) that manufacture and supply replacement parts for
compressors.
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2. At one time, replacement parts were supplied by the OEM and users automati-
cally obtained all new parts from them. This has greatly changed due, in part, to
the OEM’s inability to furnish parts on a timely basis, particularly in the case of
emergencies, and due to the high prices that are sometimes charged for those
parts.
3. As with every type of service, there are some good part replicators. Many are
not qualified, however, and supply poor parts. Replacement parts should be
selected carefully. Moreover, only qualified suppliers should be selected.
Note Lowest price may not be the best bargain.
4. Virtually every compressor part can be and is being duplicated. In purchasing
these parts, care must be taken and the following basic considerations weighed:
a. The original dimension and tolerances of the part to be duplicated must be
obtained.
b. Specification for materials must be the same or better than the original
part.
c. Heat treating and hardness of the materials must be the same or superior in
quality.
d. Weights of the reciprocating parts must be close to original in order to
minimize unbalanced forces and resulting vibrations.
e. Nothing is done that will jeopardize the integrity of the mating parts.
5. Any deviation from these fundamentals will result in parts that are poor in
quality and that can adversely affect the operation and reliability of the
compressor. Remember, purchasers get exactly what they pay for.
N4.0 Cylinder Liner Renewal for Cylinders Installed with Field Remov-
able Liners and Hydraulic Fasteners
N4.1 Preparation for Maintenance of Compressors
1. Operations Department performs appropriate procedure.
Note Electrical isolation requires certification.
2. Obtain permits.
3. Blind off compressor(s). List blind procedure number by compressor item
number.
4. Remove side covers to give access to piston rod and crosshead.
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5. Take piston rod runout readings and measure gap under rod drop indicator.
With piston positioned at the end of its backward stroke, set dial test indicators
vertically and horizontally on shaft between cylinder packing and interstage
packing. Set at zero. Bar over machine and take readings at end of forward
stroke.
Typical limits are:
Horizontal: 0.08 mm
Vertical: 0.16 mm
Refer to data sheet CMP-DS-5055 and record readings.
6. Remove valve covers. Suction valve unloaders, if any, will have to be discon-
nected from air supply.
7. Remove all valve cages. Remove retaining screws.
Caution Discharge valves may drop out from location.
8. Remove cylinder valves. Refer to Operating and Maintenance manual. Remove
to workshop for cleaning, inspection, and overhaul.
9. Remove pocket unloader valves. Refer to Operating and Maintenance manual.
Remove to workshop for cleaning, inspection, and overhaul.
10. Undo and remove cylinder head.
11. Take measurements of piston to liner clearances.
Refer to data sheet CMP-DS-5055 and record readings.
12. Undo piston rod/crosshead nut. Fit hydraulic pump to crosshead nipple, pres-
surize to 670 to 680 bar, slacken locknut, depressurize pump and disconnect,
undo locknut completely. Ensure that small location key is retrieved. Refer to
Operating and Maintenance manual.
13. Have Instrument Department disconnect rod drop indicator.
14. Withdraw piston. Ensure nose cone is fitted to piston rod for passage through
packing box. Refer to Operating and Maintenance manual. Special pulling tool
should be available in the compressor tool kit. As piston is withdrawn, if neces-
sary, wrap piston rings to keep them attached to piston. Rings that are to be
reused need to be clearly marked for refitting.
15. Measure cylinder wear.
Maximum wear: Measured at any point of piston sliding area.
Maximum allowable wear:
If 500 mm cylinder = +1.05 mm maximum allowable wear
If 340 mm cylinder = +0.71 mm maximum allowable wear
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Refer to CMP-DS-5055 and record readings. Refer to the OEM manual for
more information.
Cylinder Bore Diameters
Position A B C Drawing Size
Vert. 6-12
Horz. 3-9
Bore Condition
Measured Limit
Oversize
Out of Round
Taper
Figure N4.1.1 Inspection Form
16. Remove piston and rod to workshop. Inspect, clean, NDT. Measure piston rod.
Maximum allowable wear is 0.2% of nominal diameter.
If nominal diameter = 90 mm, minimum diameter = 89.82 mm.
Pay attention to areas of rod where rods pass through packings. Record
measurements on data sheet CMP-DS-5055.
17. Apply steam to the cylinder cooling water jacket to ease liner removal. Pull
cylinder liner. Use pulling gear and padjacks.
18. Remove cylinder liner to workshop. Inspect, clean, and check dimensions,
O-ring grooves, and liner faces.
19. Clean and inspect cylinder. Pay particular attention to area where O rings sit. If
fretting is evident, liner needs new O-ring groove machining 10 mm outside
existing.
20. Fit new O-rings to liner. Coat with cylinder lube oil.
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21. Mark liner axially in line with peg locator to ensure alignment.
22. Fit liner. Lubricate with cylinder lube oil. Use strongback to push liner home
ensuring soft packing is used between strongback and liner face.
23. Check cylinder lube system and all lube feeds. Start up lube oil pump and
ensure that oil flows into each cylinder and cylinder packing.
24. Install piston. Lubricate liner with oil. Crank positioned bottom dead center.
Hand tighten locknut to give BDC clearance of 2.5 mm to 4 mm. Ensure nut
key is in place. Care must be taken to ensure piston rings are located correctly
when inserting piston.
25. Take measurements of piston to liner clearances. Check wear of rider ring.
Minimum allowable (Teflon rider ring): 0.5 mm.
Refer to the OEM manual for more information. Refer to data sheet
CMP-DS-5055 and record readings.
26. Fit cylinder head. Ensure sealing faces on cylinder head and cylinder are clean
and free from marks. Torque to settings as specified in Operating and Mainte-
nance manual.
27. Hydraulically tighten locknut. Fit hydraulic pump to crosshead nipple, pres-
surize to 660 bar, tighten locknut, depressurize pump, and disconnect. Refer to
Operating and Maintenance manual.
28. Carry out bump check and adjust as necessary at crosshead locknut.
Figure N4.1.2 Position of Top Dead Center (TDC) and Bottom Dead Center
(BDC)
Allowable front clearance (TDC):3.5 mm to 5 mm
Allowable back clearance (BDC):2.5 mm to 4 mm.
Record the final readings on the data sheet CMP-DS-5055.
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29. Check rod runout. Minimum after rebuild. Checks wear of rider ring.
Minimum allowable: 0.5 mm.
If less than 0.5 mm, refer to the OEM manual. Refer to data sheet CMP-DS-
5055 and record readings.
30. Have Instrument Department set rod drop indicators.
31. Take slipper clearance measurements A, B, and C. Using feelers, measure
clearance at top of slipper in three places indicated in Figure N4.1.3.
Figure N4.1.3 Slipper Clearance Measurement Positions
Minimum clearance: 0.4 mm
Maximum clearance: 0.58 mm
Refer to data sheet CMP-DS-5055 and record readings.
32. Refit valves and pocket unloader, leaving one suction and discharge valve out
of each cylinder at each end for light running. Fit valve, cage, and gasket using
new caphead retaining screws (8 mm x 1.25 pitch) or as required. Fit cover and
torque up. Tighten jacking screw. Refer to Operating and Maintenance manual.
33. Refit side covers. Leave one side cover off each crosshead distance piece and
neutral chamber for running checks.
34. Reenergize electrically. To be performed by certificate holder.
35. Light run machine. Visual checks.
36. Electrically lock out machine. To be performed by certificate holder.
37. Fit remaining side covers.
38. Fit remaining valves. Fit valve, cage, and gasket using new caphead retaining
screws (8 mm x 1.25 pitch) or as required. Fit cover and torque up. Tighten
jacking screw. Refer to Operating and Maintenance manual.
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39. Have Operations Department nitrogen test machine.
40. Pull blinds. List blind procedure by compressor item number.
41. Sign off permit.
42. Reenergize electrically. To be performed by certificate holder.
N4.2 Additional Post Maintenance Checks to be Performed
1. Review with the Engineering Technician the condition of the crankcase oil.
2. Check the integrity of all bolting, paying particular attention to the distance
piece to cylinder and distance piece to crankcase on all cylinders. Where roto-
bolts have been fitted, check that the settings are still within specification.
3. Check the integrity of the crankcase anchor bolts.
4. Remove crankcase top covers and perform visual inspection of crank-
shaft/bearing keeps/con rods/counter balance weights, paying attention to
condition of all bolting, locking tabs, and split pins.
5. Check main PSV list to determine if there are any PSVs due.
6. Check operation of cylinder lubrication system. Disconnect the lube oil pipe-
work where the pipework enters the machine at the various points to check for
oil flow.
7. Check condition of pipework and gauges to the suction unloaders and repair as
necessary.
N5.0 Crankshaft Repair Using HVLF Chrome Carbide Coating
(Used with Permission from Praxair Surface Technologies, Inc. [Formerly Fusion,
Inc.])
N5.1 Scope
This appendix describes the procedure for using HVLF chrome carbide for
rebuilding worn crankshaft journals and other fits.
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N5.2 Crankshaft Repair Standards
Should a certified drawing or specification not be available, the allowances given in
paragraphs 1 through 5 may be used.
1. Diameter Tolerance
Rod Journal Diameter: +0/-0.001 inch
Main Journal Diameter: +0/-0.001 inch
Gear Fits: +0/-0.001 inch
Seal Areas: +0/-0.001 inch
2. Circular Runout Limits
Main Journals: 0.002 inch TIR with crankshaft supported at each end
3. Roundness Limits
All diameters: 50% of the available diameter tolerance.
For example: If the diameter tolerance is 0.001 inch, taper limit should be
0.0005 inch.
4. Taper Limits (Parallelism)
All diameters: 50% of the available diameter tolerance.
For example: If the diameter tolerance is 0.001 inch, taper limit should be
0.0005 inch.
5. Surface Finish Average
Regrinds
Rod and Main Journals: 16 RMS
Seal areas: 16 RMS
All other diameters: 16 to 32 RMS
With Nickel Chromium
Rod and Main Journals: 16 RMS
Seal areas: 16 RMS
Gear fits: 16 RMS; minimal grinding marks are acceptable
Tapered snouts: 16 RMS and above 85% blue contact
All other diameters: 16 to 32 RMS; minimal grinding marks are
acceptable
All other diameters: 16 to 32 RMS; minimal grinding marks are acceptable
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N5.3 Cleaning
1. Remove all parts that are needed to completely clean and inspect the crank-
shaft. Mark these parts with the crankshaft’s job number.
2. Remove all plugs and check all oil holes for blockage. Clear oil passages as
necessary.
3. Stamp the crankshaft with the issued job number in a location that will not
cause any damage.
4. Place the crankshaft in a hot caustic solution until oil and grease are no longer
present, except for crankshafts made from material having an ultimate tensile
strength of 150,000 psi and above, in accordance with Section N5.6 paragraph
1.
5. Remove crankshaft from caustic tank. Steam clean and rinse the entire shaft.
N5.4 Initial Inspection
1. Inspect and record the as received dimensions of the crankshaft, including the
bearing journals, thrust faces and widths, seal fits, and coupling fits. If tapered,
small end should be measured and any fretting noted.
2. Visually inspect and record the overall condition of the above mentioned areas,
together with any threaded holes and keyways.
3. Check and record hardness (in BN) of crankshaft on at least one position on the
main journal and at least one position on the rod journal.
4. If crankshaft has been previously repaired, check and record the depth of the
coating of chrome on each journal.
5. Inspect and record the total indicator runout of each main bearing journal.
6. Inspect the crankshaft for cracks or other indications using the DC current
magnetic particle method in accordance with ASTM A 456.
7. Degauss shaft to a residual level of 2 or less.
8. If base material of crankshaft is unknown, a material sample should be taken.
9. Record all steps taken.
N5.5 Straightening
1. Crankshafts that are bent more than 0.010 inch may be straightened.
2. Straightening should be performed by peening or in a hydraulic press.
3. No heat should be applied for straightening purposes.
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N5.6 Stress Relieving
1. Crankshafts made of a material having an ultimate tensile strength of 150,000
psig and above should be baked in the oven at 375F, ±25F for 3 hours or
more prior to cleaning and coating.
2. Crankshafts that have been cold straightened should be stress relieved at a
temperature of 50°F to 100°F below the tempering temperature for at least 1
hour per inch of shaft thickness but for not less than 1 hour.
N5.7 Undercutting
1. If a crankshaft contains keyways or other areas that are worn, such areas should
be reconditioned before surface preparation for the repair is begun.
2. Grinding wheels used to undercut diameters should be dressed with a corner
radius that conforms to the journal’s radius.
3. The journal diameters should be undercut to a diameter that will leave a final
minimum coating thickness of between 0.005 to 0.010 inch after finish grinding
or to the undersize limits specified by the OEM. A maximum of 0.040 inch on
diameter should be removed if required to remove wear or damage.
4. After pregrind, hot spots or rubs that have discolored the shaft should be
checked for hard spots.
N5.8 Secondary Magnaflux Inspection
1. After undercutting, a magnaflux examination should be performed by a Level II
or Level III inspector.
2. Degauss shaft to a residual level of 2 or less.
N5.9 HVLF Coating
1. Crankshaft should be masked and taped off on all areas not to be coated. Oil
holes should be plugged to protect from overspray or damage.
2. Grit blast with aluminum oxide #36, using new grit only, to attain desired
anchor profile on areas to be coated.
3. Journals should be sprayed using an HVOF nickel-chromium self fluxing alloy.
Coating, as sprayed, should allow stock for finish grinding.
4. Document temperature of journal at point of spray using an infrared gun.
Temperature should not exceed a maximum of 300°F.
5. After coating, allow the crankshaft to cool in still air to ambient temperature.
6. Record the lot number and the type of coating powder.
7. A sample coating coupon for metallurgical examination should be provided.
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
N5.10 Finish Grinding
1. Grind journal diameters to specified OEM dimensions. A diamond grinding
wheel should be used to grind journals within 0.001 inch of finish size.
2. Inspect coating using dye penetrant.
3. All journals should be diamond honed to size and RMS requirements.
N5.11 Polishing
Deburr and polish all oil holes and journal radii.
N5.12 Final Inspection
1. Visually inspect all repaired areas for signs of blemishes and defects.
2. Inspect and record the dimensions of all repaired areas on a crankshaft final
inspection report.
3. Record final TIR of each main journal.
4. Inspect and record coating thicknesses. Micrometers should be used to measure
coating thickness.
N5.13 Shipment
1. Clear all oil passages and reinstall counterweights if needed.
2. Locate and install any other loose components before packaging.
3. Verify flywheel and drive fits.
4. Review work order to ensure all operations have been completed.
5. Apply a rust preventive and prepare for shipment in accordance with
Purchaser’s instructions.
N6.0 Crankshaft Repair Using Standard Chrome Plating or Welding
(Based upon a procedure courtesy of Coastal Plating, Inc.)
N6.1 Scope
This section describes the procedure for using either standard chrome plating or
welding to rebuild worn crankshaft journals and other fits.
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N6.2 Initial Inspection
1. Remove all plugs. Vat and clean.
2. Inspect using DC current magnetic particle in accordance with ASTM A 456.
3. Inspect ultrasonically in accordance with ASTM A 503.
4. Check for straightness.
5. Check and record hardness (in BN) of crankshaft on at least one position on the
main journal and at least one position on the rod journal.
6. Measure incoming dimensional readings of all journals and gear or flywheel
fits.
7. Visually inspect all keyways and threaded or body fit bolt areas.
8. Evaluate repair for either standard chrome or welding procedure.
9. Degauss shaft to a residual level of 2 or less.
10. If base metal is unknown, take a material sample.
11. Record all steps.
N6.3 Standard Chrome
1. Straighten crankshaft before pregrind by peening.
2. Pregrind crankshaft with air lifts, if required, to remove sag from center of
crankshaft to ensure that rod journals are parallel to main axis to a minimum of
0.012 inch. The maximum tolerance depends on crankshaft type and applica-
tion.
3. Inspect using DC current magnetic particle in accordance with ASTM A 456.
4. Build up seal areas with either chrome, steel, or metal spray.
5. Bake crankshafts with a hardness of 40 HRC or more at 375F, ±25F, for
4 hours before shot peening. Do not heat treat crankshafts with a hardness
below 40 HRC.
6. Shot peen in accordance with MIL-S-13165 Almen A-2 with an arc height of
0.008 to 0.012 inch, achieving 200% coverage using S110 shot.
7. Spray clean shot peened surface with naphthalene or acetone before chrome
plating.
8. Chrome plate in accordance with approved procedures.
9. Heat hydrogen from chrome at 400F, ±25F, for 4 hours within 4 hours of
removal from chrome tank.
10. Check crankshaft for straightness and straighten before finish grinding by
peening.
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
11. Finish grind rod journals to OEM specifications with air lifts, if required, to
remove sag from center to ensure that connecting rod journals are parallel to
main journals.
12. Finish grind main journals and seals using air lift, if required, to control sag in
crankshaft.
13. Radius all oil holes and polish top radius.
14. Polish all journals to a maximum of 0.0015 inch out of round and 0.0015 inch
maximum taper to required RMS finish for the crankshaft application.
15. Inspect using DC current magnetic particle in accordance with ASTM A 456.
16. Verify chrome bond by means of dye penetrant.
Note Chrome is nonmagnetic.
17. Check crankshaft for straightness to a maximum allowable of 0.001 inch.
18. Hone body fit bolt and tap thread areas.
19. Clean crankshaft with naphthalene, install all plugs, preserve with rust protec-
tion, and box for shipment in accordance with Purchaser’s instructions.
N6.4 Preparation for Welding
1. Grind journal or journals to remove heat checks or cracks, with due attention to
radii or thrust collars.
2. If journal radii or thrust collars have checks or cracks, grind them at this point.
3. If journal radii or thrust collars do not need to be ground, leave 0.025 to
0.050 inch from bottom of radius before cut down for weld.
4. Cut journals with radius wheel so as not to weld up sharp corner.
5. Inspect for complete removal of heat checks or cracks using DC current
magnetic particle in accordance with ASTM A 456.
6. Check hardness (in BN).
7. Etch areas to be welded with nital or ammonium persulfate to ensure against
hard spots.
8. Record all steps.
N6.5 Welding
1. Preheat and interpass temperatures during welding should be a minimum of
500F. AISI 1040 material should have an interpass temperature of 650F.
2. Heat crankshaft for 24 hours prior to welding.
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
3. Minimize weld bead cross section to ensure tempering of the microstructure
from the preceding weld layers. Stagger successive weld layers.
4. The weld pass sequence should be such that the untempered weld metal of the
cover pass and the heat affected zone are removed.
5. Apply the weld passes above the final intended machine surface without
contacting the base metal but close enough to the edge of the underlying weld
pass to ensure tempering of the base material of the heat affected zone.
6. Restrict welding to within 5/8 inch of the edge of the weld/journal fillet, where
applicable.
7. Record all steps.
N6.6 Post Weld Heat Treatment
1. As a minimum, the total length of the area to be post weld heat treated should
be the sum of the length of the weld repair region plus two times the crankshaft
diameter added to each end of the weld repair region.
2. Furnace temperature should be a maximum of 800F at the time the crankshaft
is placed in the oven.
3. Above 800F, the rate of heating should not exceed 400F per hour, divided by
the crankshaft diameter in inches, but not less than 100F per hour. Thermocou-
ples should be used to monitor the temperature.
4. The crankshaft should be held at 1150F, ±25F, for 5 hours plus 15 minutes for
each additional inch over 5 inches in diameter.
5. Above 800F, the rate of cooling should not exceed 500F per hour, divided by
the crankshaft diameter in inches but not less than 100F per hour. At 800F
and below, the crankshaft may be cooled in still air.
N6.7 Shipment
1. Clear all oil passages and reinstall counterweights if needed.
2. Locate and install any other loose components before packaging.
3. Verify flywheel and drive fits.
4. Review work order to ensure all operations have been completed.
5. Apply a rust preventive and prepare for shipment in accordance with
Purchaser’s instructions.
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
N7.0 Chevron Simplified Lubrication Recommendations (by Gas Being
Compressed)
1. Following are Chevron recommendations.
2. Other lubricants and the recommendations of the compressor Manufacturer
should be considered and weigh heavily in the choice of lubricants.
3. Refer to Section N8.0 for Texaco Simplified Lubrication by Gas Being
Compressed.
Table 10 Gas Compressors
Compressor Type Item Gas Lubricant
Crosshead Machines Crankcase AIO 100, 150
(1)
Crankcase HDAX Low Ash Gas EO,
RPM Heavy Duty MO, Gas
Engine Oil
Cylinder Natural Gas Dry Below Syntholube Comp Oils, AIO
1000 Psig
Natural Gas Wet Below Cylinder Oil W
1000 Psig
Natural Gas Dry Above Syntholube Comp Oils, AIO
1000 Psig
Natural Gas Wet Above Cylinder Oil W 460, 680
1000 Psig
Natural Gas Sour HDAX Screw Comp. Oils,
Industrial Oil EP, RPM HD
Motor Oil, Delo 400
All Other Types Inert Gases(2) Syntholube Comp. Oils,
HiPerSYN Oils, Industrial Oil
EP, Tegra Synthetic Comp Oil
HC 220
Hydrocarbon Gases(3) Cylinder Oil W 460, 680,
Compressor Oil 260 and
HDAX NG SCO
Refrigeration(4) Utility Oil LVI, Refrigeration
Oil WF and Ammonia Refrig-
eration Oil
(1) For integral Engine - Compressor Units (Where same oil used for both the engine and compressor lubrication)
(2) Inert Gases: Carbon Dioxide (Oil field reinjection), Carbon Monoxide, Argon, Hydrogen, Neon, Nitrogen
(3) Hydrocarbon Gases: Methane, Acetylene, Ethane, Propylene, Propane, Butane, Butadiene, Butylene, Coke
Oven Gas
(4) Refrigeration: Propane, Butane, and Ammonia
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
Table 11 Air Compressors (Stationary Reciprocating)
Compressor Type Item Gas Lubricant
Trunk Machines AIO 100, 150
Crosshead Machines Crankcase AIO 100, 150
Cylinders Air Dry Below 1500 Psig Syntholube, Tegra Synthetic
Comp. Oil, Industrial oil EP
Air Moist Below 1500 Psig HiPerSYN, Industrial Oil EP
Air Dry Above 1500 Psig Syntholube, HiPerSYN,
Air Moist Above 1500 Psig Cylinder Oil W 460, 680
Rotary Vane and HiPerSYN Oils, Tegra Synthetic
Screw Flood Lubri- Comp. Oil, AIO, RPM HD Motor
cated Oil
N8.0 Texaco Simplified Lubrication Recommendations (by Gas Being
Compressed)
1. Following are Texaco recommendations.
2. Other lubricants and the recommendations of the compressor Manufacturer
should be considered and weigh heavily in the choice of lubricants.
3. Refer to Section N7.0 for Chevron Simplified Lubrication by Gas Being
Compressed.
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
Table 12 Gas Compressors
Compressor Type Item Gas Lubricant
Crosshead Machines Crankcase Regal R&O 100, 150
(1)
Crankcase Geotex LA, Geotex
Ashless, Geotex LF
Cylinder Natural Gas Dry Below 1000 Psig Cetus DE, Geotex Oils,
Canopus Oils, Regal R&O
Oils
Natural Gas Wet Below 1000 Psig Cepheus 150
Natural Gas Dry Above 1000 Psig Cetus DE, Alcaid 150, 220,
Regal R&O 150, 220
Natural Gas Wet Above 1000 Psig Vanguard 460, 680
Natural Gas Sour Ursa Engine Oils, Cetus
PGM
All Other Types Inert Gases
Carbon Dioxide (Oil Field Reinjec- Cetus DE, Cetus PAO,
tion), Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Regal R&O same as Air
Argon, Hydrogen, Neon, Nitrogen Cetus DE, Cetus PAO,
Regal R&O same as Air
Syngas no product
(Ammonia Production)
(Wet Syngas) no product
(2)
Hydrocarbon Gases Cepheus, same as Natural
Gas
Refrigeration
Propane, Butane and Ammonia Capella WF
Just Ammonia Capella P 68
(1) For integral Engine - Compressor Units (Where same oil used for both the engine and compressor lubrication)
(2) Hydrocarbon Gases: Methane, Acetylene, Ethane, Propylene, Propane, Butane, Butadiene, Butylene, Coke
Oven Gas
Table 13 Air Compressors (Stationary Reciprocating)
Compressor Type Item Gas Lubricant
Trunk Machines Regal R&O 100, 150 Regal R&O
N-100
Crosshead Machines Crankcase Regal R&O, Ursa Engine Oils
Cylinders Air Dry Below 1500 Psig Cetus DE, Cetus PAO, Regal R&O
N-100 Regal R&O, Alcaid Oils
Air Moist Below 1500 Psig Cepheus 150
Air Dry Above 1500 Psig Cetus DE 100, Regal R&O N-100,
150
Air Moist Above 1500 Psig Vanguard Oils
Rotary Vane and Screw Cetus PAO, Cetus DE, Ursa
Flood Lubricated Engine Oils,
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
N9.0 Interference Fit Calculations (Cylinder Press Fit)
N9.1 General
1. This appendix presents a Linear Interference Fit calculation method to select a
fit during a liner replacement based on both stress values and separation forces.
2. A broad statement of 0.002" interference fit on some replacement liners can
lead to looseness or premature liner failure.
3. This calculation method is based on engineering principles that should ensure a
long run time.
N9.2 Interference Fit Calculations (Cylinder Press Fit)
1. The Interference Fit calculations to determine the stresses in each component
are determined by calculating the pressure generated by the interference fit and
then applying the thick wall vessel theory equations to the applicable compo-
nents. These pressures are applied both internally and externally on each
component under uniform load. (Reference Mechanical Engineering Review
Manual Section 14-6 by M.R. Lindberg)
2. This document will generate the fit requirements for a range of interference fits,
and it is the user’s responsibility to compare the stress data to the material prop-
erties to ensure proper fits and an acceptable Factor of Safety is obtained.
N9.3 Applicable Equations
1. Calculating Stresses in Thick Walled Vessels
2 2
E Fit 0.001 2 2 b –a
PFt = --------------------------------- c – b ----------------------------------
2b 2b c –a
2 2 2
PFt = Pressure at interference fit conditions, lb
a = Inside Radius of hollow tube, inches (a=0 if liner is solid)
b = Inside Radius of outer sleeve, inches
c = Outside Radius of Outer Sleeve, inches
E = Modulus of Elasticity of Materials, psi
= Friction factor (normally 0.03 to 0.33)
L = Fit length, inches
Note (All formulas are acceptable for similar materials of construction only.)
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
2. Calculating the stresses in the liner and cylinder
2 2
c +b
t = P ----------------
2
-
2
c –b
t = Tangential stress, psi (inner surface of outer member)
2 2
b +a
to = P ----------------
2
-
2
b –a
to = Tangential stress, psi (outer surface of inner member)
3. Calculating Torque Capacity of fit
2
T max = 2 b L P
4. Calculating Separation Force to separate the liner from the cylinder proper
F = 2bLP
N9.4 Sample Problem
Find the stresses to install a press fit liner into a cylinder with the following condi-
tions: Interference fit of 0.003" to 0.004", Liner ID is 5.000", ID of Outer Sleeve is
5.521", OD of Outer Sleeve is 7.521". Liner material is ASTM A 536 Ductile Iron
Class 40 (Average BHN 241). Internal cylinder pressure is 450 psi. Calculations for
2nd stage cylinder of Urea Passavating Air Compressor. Assuming a 50% cylinder
contact length (Actual 20.860").
Given:
lb
IDliner = 5.00 in Pinternal = 450 -------
2
in
IDcylinder = 5.521 in
ODcylinder = 7.521 in
ID liner ID cylinder OD cylinder
a = ----------------
- b = ------------------------
- c = --------------------------
-
2 2 2
6 lb
E = 23 10 ------- Fit = 1.10 L = 10.43 in = 0.12
2
in
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
Solution: (Note: All formulas are acceptable for similar materials of construction
only.)
1. Calculating Stresses in Thick Walled Vessels
2 2
E Fit 0.001 in 2 2 b –a
P Fit = ---------------------------------------- c – b ----------------------------------
2b 2b c –a
2 2 2
2. Calculating the stresses in the liner and cylinder
2 2
c +b
t = P -----------------
2 2
c –b
2 2
b +a
to = – P -----------------
2 2
b –a
3. Calculating Torque Capacity of fit
2
T max = 2 b L P
4. Calculating the Separation Force from fit
F = 2bLP
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
5. The following tables identify the above calculated values.
Tangential Stress from Inner Surface of
Radial Stress Pressure from Fit Cylinder
0 0
0 0 0 0
1 309.529 1 1.033·103
2 619.058 2 2.066·103
3 928.588 3 3.099·103
4 1.238·103 lb- 4 4.132·103 lb-
P= 5 1.548·103
------ t = 5 5.165·103
------
2
2
in in
6 1.857·103 6 6.198·103
7 2.167·103 7 7.231·103
8 2.476· 103 8 8.264·103
9 2.786·103 9 9.297·103
10 3.095·103 10 1.033·104
Tangential Stress Separation Force to
from Outer Surface of Torque Capacity as a Slide the Compo-
the Liner result of fit nents Apart
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 -3.133·103 1 1.855·104 1 6.719·103
2 -6.266·103 2 3.71·104 2 1.344·104
3 -9.399·103 3 5.565·104 3 2.016·104
4 -1.253·104 lb- 4 7.42· 104 4 2.688·104
to 5 -1.566·104
------
2
T max = 5 9.275·104 lb·in F= 5 3.36·104 lb
in
6 -1.88·104 6 1.113"105 6 4.032"104
7 -2.193·104 7 1.298·105 7 4.704·104
8 -2.506·104 8 1.484·105 8 5.376·104
9 -2.82·104 9 1.669·105 9 6.048·104
10 -3.133·104 10 1.855·105 10 6.719·104
Compare the stresses in the liner and the cylinder to the tensile strength of the mate-
rials in both tension and compression as applies on the basis of the required interfer-
ence fit (specified). The liner material Tensile Strength is 42,500 psi and
Compressive Strength is 140,000 psi. A factor of safety of 4.0 minimum is accept-
able. In addition, the Separation Force shall be compared against the Force gener-
ated across the face of the cylinder from the internal pressure.
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Appendix N Compressor Manual
6. Calculating the Factors of Safety for the Liner and Cylinder
lb lb
t = 42500 ------- uc = 140000 -------
2 2
in in
uc
FS liner = -------
-
to
Note Compare the desired fit above with the compressive strength value
FS cylinder = -----t
t
Note Compare the desired fit above with the tensile strength value
7. Calculating the Force to separate the cylinder and liner from the internal pres-
sure.
2 2
F internal = P internal --- ID cylinder – ID liner
4
3
F internal = 1.937 10 lb
Note Compare this force to the separation force. The force required to resist sepa-
ration must be greater than the above value.
N-174 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
N10.0 Cylinder Measurement Record Sheet
GUIDE FOR OVERHAUL AND REPAIR OF
PROCESS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS P-G-6S1
CYLINDER MEASUREMENT RECORD SHEET PAGE 1 OF 1
1 GENERAL
2 Compressor Type: Compressor No: Repair Date:
3 MEASUREMENTS
4 Cylinder/Rod No. Drawing
5 Piston Rod Runout Prior to Stripdown (A1.5) Size
6 Vertical
7 Horizontal
8 Rod Drop Indicator Gap
9 Piston to Liner Prior to Stripdown (A1.11)
10
11 Cylinder Wear (A1.15)
12 Ovality: TDC:
13 Maximum
14 Minimum
15 Difference
16 Vertical 6 to 12 o’clock
17 Horizontal 3 to 9 o’clock
18 Center:
19 Maximum
20 Minimum
21 Difference
22 Vertical 6 to 12 o’clock
23 Horizontal 3 to 9 o’clock
24 BDC:
25 Maximum
26 Minimum
27 Difference
28 Vertical 6 to 12 o’clock
29 Horizontal 3 to 9 o’clock
30
31 Piston Rod Measurements (A16)
32
33 Piston to Liner After Rebuild (A1.25)
34
35 Bump Clearances (A1.28): TDC
36 BDC
37 Piston Rod Runout After Rebuild (A1.29)
38 Vertical
39 Horizontal
40 Rod Drop Indicator Gap
41 Slipper Clearances (A1.31)
42 A
43 B
44 C
45 Comments:
46
47 Craftsman’s Name (Print): Craftsman’s Signature:
12/99
February 2004 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. N-175
Appendix N Compressor Manual
N11.0 Compressor Maintenance Checklist
GUIDE FOR OVERHAUL AND REPAIR OF
PROCESS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS P-G-6S2
COMPRESSOR MAINTENANCE CHECKLIST PAGE 1 OF 2
1 GENERAL
2 Compressor Type: Compressor No: Repair Date:
3 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
4 Most manufacturers recommend that before attempting to remove any valve cap, that you make certain that all
pressure has been vented from the cylinder. A modification that is worth considering in addition to the above, is to
extend the valve cover retaining studs so as to allow any trapped gas to leak passed the valve, when the cover is
being removed, prior to the retaining nuts being completely free from the valve studs.
5 When commissioning a new unit always ensure that any pipework that connects various cylinder stages are cleaned to
a relevant standard, as not to assume that the original compressor manufacturer has included this pipework in his
commissioning scope of work.
6 DAILY (Performed by Operators)
7 Check and maintain crankcase oil level.
8 Check and maintain lubricator oil level.
9 Monitor suction/discharge temperatures/pressures.
10 Monitor lube oil temperature/pressure.
11 Check for oil leaks.
12 Listen for sound anomalies.
13 Check valve temperatures.
14 Check oil filter differential pressure.
15 Observe that all machinery guards are secure.
16 Report any pipework vibration and correct.
17 MONTHLY (Performed by Machinists/Analysts)
18 Perform RecipTrap analysis and overall visual inspection.
19 Collect oil sample for analysis.
20 Collect coolant samples for contamination check / or antifreeze protection.
21 Check crankcase vents for the migration of gas past the piston rod packing.
22
23 The defects found during daily and monthly inspections will be identified by writing a workorder. Workorders
should be specific to the problem to be corrected. These workorders will be planned and scheduled according
to the needs of operations and maintenance.
24 ANNUAL
25 Clean or replace permanent or single pot oil filters on crankcase and gearbox (if applicable).
26 Inspect crosshead pin, bushings and slipper shoes. Disassemble and check clearances if warranted by history or
RecipTrap analysis.
27 Check condition of safety wiring.
28 Check lubricator system flows and check valves for proper operation.
29 Replace the piston rod packing and recondition packing boxes.
30 Measure and record cylinder dimensions.
31 Measure and record piston and rod dimensions.
32 Replace unloader springs and check for proper operation of unloader.
33 Replace bad valves as identified by RecipTrap analysis or if nearing end of expected service life.
34 Test shutdown devices (performed by E&I).
35 If pistons are removed bump check and measure end clearances.
36 Keep records of valve condition and replacement.
37
38 Continued on Page 2 of 2
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Compressor Manual Appendix N
GUIDE FOR OVERHAUL AND REPAIR OF
PROCESS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS P-G-6S2
COMPRESSOR MAINTENANCE CHECKLIST PAGE 2 OF 2
39 MAJOR I&T
40 Perform all annual checks.
41 Replace all valves.
42 Replace piston rings.
43 Replace cylinder liner if warranted by annual inspections.
44 Refurbish unloader assemblies.
45 Refurbish pocket clearance valves.
46 Inspect main and rod journal bearings and repair as necessary.
47 Clean crankcase, change crankcase oil seal if necessary, change oil and filters.
48 Re-torque all bearing caps and counterweights, including locknuts and setscrews.
49 Replace piston wear bands (rider rings).
50 Check/clean lube oil coolers, intercoolers & aftercoolers.
51 Check to ensure correct torque on all foundation bolts.
52 Check relief valve settings on a test stand.
53 Service the frame breathers.
54 Clean suction KO Drum.
55
56 Comments:
57
58
59
60
61 Name (Print): Signature:
February 2004 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. N-177
Appendix N Compressor Manual
N12.0 Oil Wiper Packing Installation
GUIDE FOR OVERHAUL AND REPAIR OF
PROCESS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS P-G-6S3
OIL WIPER PACKING INSTALLATION CHECKLIST PAGE 1 OF 1
1 GENERAL
2 Compressor Type: Compressor No: Repair Date:
3 PACKING INFORMATION
4 If the compressor has not been worked in some time, the rod shall be removed or disconnected and slid back.
5 Remove side cover doors.
6 Remove wiper packing, and case noting its orientation.
7 Measure piston rod diameter and inspect it for nicks and scratches.
8 Disassemble and clean packing case.
9 Machine packing sealing areas as required.
10 Machine cup depth to packing manufactures specifications.
11 Lap all machined and mating surfaces of packing case.
12 Install packing case over rod in the correct sequence. The cup closest to the crosshead should have an opening
to allow oil to drain back to the crosshead area and it shall be on the bottom.
13 The packing rings farthest from the crosshead are usually pressure breakers, non-metallic and tangent cut.
14 The packing rings closest to the crosshead are the Liard type, this style has sharp lips on the ID and grooves cut
in the face. These rings must face the crosshead or the oil side.
15 The wiper packing shall be installed by hand without the use of an entering sleeve.
16 If the rod has been disconnected or removed, an inboard and outboard valve must be removed to facilitate the
piston clearance setting.
17 Set the piston clearance to OEM specifications.
18 Replace valve seat and cover gaskets, install valve and torque valve cover nuts.
19 Clean and stone the gasket surfaces on the removed side doors.
20 Install new gaskets and sealant.
21 Install side doors.
22 Pressure test cylinder and inspect for leaks.
23 Turn compressor back to operations, witness the startup and recheck for leaks.
24 Open drain on the distance piece and visually check for excess oil leakage.
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34 Comments:
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47 Craftsman’s Name (Print): Craftsman’s Signature:
12/99
N-178 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
N13.0 Valve Knock Checklist
GUIDE FOR OVERHAUL AND REPAIR OF
PROCESS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS P-G-6S4
VALVE KNOCK CHECKLIST PAGE 1 OF 1
1 GENERAL
2 Compressor Type: Compressor No: Repair Date:
3 COMPRESSOR VALVE KNOCK
4 Pinpoint the valve that is knocking.
5 Shutdown the compressor and isolate.
6 Loosen the jam bolt if applicable.
7 Remove unloader or valve cover.
8 Remove valve, valve seat gasket and valve cover gasket.
9 Inspect the cylinder for damage from the broken valve or broken gasket.
10 Inspect the valve gasket seat.
11 Replace the valve seat gasket and the valve cover gasket.
12 Replace the valve cover and torque to OEM specifications.
13 If unloader is applicable, check for the proper operation and repair as required.
14 Replace finger unloader spring if applicable.
15 Inspect the finger assembly for cracks or broken fingers, replace as required.
16 Install unloader and torque to OEM specifications.
17 Pressure up the cylinder and check for leaks.
18 Turn over to operations, witness the startup and compressor loading.
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33 Comments:
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February 2004 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. N-179
Appendix N Compressor Manual
N14.0 Uploader Overhaul Checklist
GUIDE FOR OVERHAUL AND REPAIR OF
PROCESS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS P-G-6S5
UPLOADER OVERHAUL CHECKLIST PAGE 1 OF 1
1 GENERAL
2 Compressor Type: Compressor No: Repair Date:
3 UPLOADER OVERHAUL
4 Cover workbench with wood or cardboard.
5 Disassemble unloader, keep individual parts separately for each unloader, i.e. do not mix caps and bodies.
6 Discard all o-rings and stems.
7 Clean all parts and inspect for wear.
8 Check the length of the bolts in the top of the cap, they should be no longer than flush with the inside of the cap.
Replace as necessary.
9 Remove all burrs from the inside of bushings and nuts to prevent scoring of the stem.
10 Clean out all vent and air lines.
11 Install new o-rings and seal rings.
12 Replace all gaskets and diaphragms.
13 Replace any worn bolts.
14 Assemble unloader per OEM drawing and/or instructions.
15 Shop test the unloader for proper operation.
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34 Comments:
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49 Craftsman’s Name (Print): Craftsman’s Signature:
12/99
N-180 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
N15.0 Pressure Packing Leak Checklist
GUIDE FOR OVERHAUL AND REPAIR OF
PROCESS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS P-G-6S6
PRESSURE PACKING LEAK CHECKLIST PAGE 1 OF 1
1 GENERAL
2 Compressor Type: Compressor No: Repair Date:
3 PRESSURE PACKING LEAKING
4 The crankshaft must be stabilized to prevent accidental rollover.
5 An impact gun shall not be used until an inboard and outboard valve have been removed.
6 An impact gun shall not be used at any time on assembly.
7 Any broken or damaged fasteners shall be replaced prior to assembly.
8 Compressor rod will be removed.
9 Rod to be miked, checked for scratches and straightness.
10 Packing box to be thoroughly cleaned, checked for pitting, wear and for the proper cup depth.
11 Machine cup depth to proper clearance as specified by OEM Each cup to be lapped. Packing is to be installed in
each cup to ensure that the clearances are correct.
12 Assembly shall be done on a soft surface, i.e., wood or cardboard. This is to ensure there won’t be any scratches
to the mating and gasket surfaces.
13 Check nose gasket surface on the bottom cup (prefer to change to the Dresser Rand style if possible).
14 Thoroughly clean inner head area where the packing case enters. The bottom of the head must be flat, clean and
have no groove so that the nose gasket can seal off. If the packing case is of the limited leak type, the
circumference must also be cleaned for the o-ring seal.
15 Air shall be blown through the vent ports, the lube ports and the purge ports to ensure there is no blockage in the
packing case.
16 Assemble case and tighten tie rods. Install case in the compressor cylinder leaving the main bolts loose.
17 Install the entering sleeve over the piston rod threads. Make sure there are no sharp edges, scratches or
extrusions on the sleeve, if any are found a new sleeve must be used. If a new sleeve is not available, the packing
must be installed by hand after the rod is installed.
18 On lubricated packing boxes a lubricant shall be used on the entering sleeve.
19 Remove the sleeve after it comes through the packing case.
20 On machines with partition cases that have Teflon rings, the sleeve may be pushed through it also.
21 Never use the sleeve on oil wiper sets or it will break off the sharp edge required to remove the oil from the rod.
22 After the rod stroke has been set and the cross head nut is tight, center the packing case and torque the hold
down bolts as required.
23 Check compressor rod run out.
24 Ensure that all the lube, purge and vent lines are clear before connecting.
25 After the compressor cylinder is sealed with valve covers, cylinder heads in place and Kiene valves closed,
pressure test for leaks with nitrogen.
26 Leaks shall be checked for with a soapy solution or leak detector (Snoop).
27 Areas to be tested for leaks are around the packing case, down the rod, all valve covers, inboard and outboard
heads and suction and discharge flanges.
28 Kiene valves should be capped when not in use.
29 Door gasket surfaces shall be cleaned to a smooth surface, free from gasket material, burrs and scratches. A
stone shall be used over bolt holes to remove any surface irregularities.
30 The doors shall be installed with new gaskets, sealed and tightened correctly to prevent leaks.
31 After successful leak detection, the isolation blinds shall be removed.
32 Again the machine should be pressured up with nitrogen against the block valves, and leak tested at the flanges
where the blinds were removed.
33 Upon successful completion of the second check, the machine can be turned over to operations.
34 The mechanics are to witness and stand by on compressor start up. Checks to be made shall be for side door
leaks and general inspection.
35 The crew may be released after the machine has reached operating conditions and Operations is satisfied.
36 Craftsman’s Name (Print): Craftsman’s Signature:
12/99
February 2004 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. N-181
Appendix N Compressor Manual
N16.0 Compressor Knock Checklist
GUIDE FOR OVERHAUL AND REPAIR OF
PROCESS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS P-G-6S7
COMPRESSOR KNOCK CHECKLIST PAGE 1 OF 1
1 GENERAL
2 Compressor Type: Compressor No: Repair Date:
3 COMPRESSOR KNOCK
4 If the compressor has a knock other than a valve, the RecipTrap will be used to determine the cause of the knock.
Typical causes include loose parts, excessive clearances, debris in the cylinder which displaces piston end clearance,
liquid in the process or low lube oil pressure. Low lube oil pressure can be caused by excessive clearances, worn
pumps, plugged filters or bad relief valves.
5 If the knock is unidentified, but the cylinder is known:
6 Blind the compressor as required.
7 Remove the crosshead doors.
8 Check the crosshead nut for tightness.
9 Check for excessive clearance on the crosshead shoes.
10 Check for excessive crosshead pin to bushing clearance.
11 If one of the above is found, repair as necessary.
12 If not:
13 Remove enough valves to visually check the piston.
14 Check for a loose piston nut.
15 Check for proper piston end clearances.
16 Check for damage to piston.
17 Check for damaged rings and rider bands.
18 Check for foreign material in cylinder.
19 Check for loose cylinder liner.
20 If one of the above is found, repair as necessary.
21 If not:
22 Check unloaders for proper operation.
23 Check for broken springs under finger unloader.
24 If one of the above is found, repair as necessary.
25 If not:
26 Remove crankcase covers.
27 Check for looseness on connecting rod.
28 Check rod bearing clearance.
29 Repair as necessary.
30
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12/99
N-182 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
N17.0 Pressure Packing Replacement Checklist
GUIDE FOR OVERHAUL AND REPAIR OF
PROCESS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS P-G-6S8
PRESSURE PACKING REPLACEMENT CHECKLIST PAGE 1 OF 1
1 GENERAL
2 Compressor Type: Compressor No: Repair Date:
3 CHECKLIST
4 Blinds installed as necessary.
5 Remove compressor rod.
6 Mic compressor rod, check for scratches and straightness.
7 Clean packing box thoroughly, all ports open.
8 Check packing box for pitting, wear and for the proper cup depth.
9 Cup depth machined to OEM specifications.
10 Each cup lapped.
11 Cup depth checked against new packing for proper fit.
12 Nose gasket surface OK.
13 Inner compressor head clean and free of grooves on all mating surfaces.
14 Vent lines open.
15 Lube lines open.
16 Purge lines open.
17 Assemble case with packing in correct orientation.
18 Install case in inner head, leave fasteners loose.
19 Entering sleeve is free of scratches, extrusions and sharp edges.
20 Entering sleeve is installed on piston rod and lubricated if required.
21 Entering sleeve removed before rod is pushed through wiper packing.
22 Rod stroke/piston clearances set and locknut tightened.
23 Packing case centered and fasteners torqued as required.
24 Cylinder leak tested.
25 Blinds removed.
26 Flanges leak tested.
27 Cover/door gasket surfaces clean and stoned.
28 Covers/doors installed with new gaskets.
29 Startup witnessed, no problems detected.
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February 2004 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. N-183
Appendix N Compressor Manual
N18.0 Compressor Overhaul Checklist
GUIDE FOR OVERHAUL AND REPAIR OF
PROCESS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS P-G-6S9
COMPRESSOR OVERHAUL CHECKLIST PAGE 1 OF 2
1 GENERAL
2 Compressor Type: Compressor No: Repair Date:
3 CHECKLIST
4 Prior to shutdown have the machine and foundation hydro-cleaned to remove all dirt and grease. Have the Recip
Trap check the compressor data to reveal any problems that the machine is experiencing.
5 Isolate equipment, perform Lock Out-Tag Out.
6 Ensure that all valves have been blocked in and the equipment has been depressurized.
7 Make sure that the equipment has been drained and purged.
8 Obtain necessary permits.
9 Install isolation blinds per blind list.
10 Make sure that any auxiliary equipment, such as lube oil or cooling pumps, has been locked out.
11 Drain oil and cooling lines. Check with operations for proper disposal or containment.
12 Stabilize crankshaft from accidental rollover. Block, chock or pin flywheel.
13 Remove associated piping from compressor as needed.
14 Remove valve unloaders as applicable, using lifting devices as necessary.
15 Remove valve covers. Make sure that the valve cover gasket has been removed and the cover is set aside on its
top so the gasket surface is not damaged.
16 Remove valve chairs and cages.
17 Remove valves from cylinder and remove valve seat gaskets.
18 Remove cylinder head and gasket. Use lifting devices as necessary.
19 Remove side doors.
20 Loosen piston rod nut. Unscrew rod from crosshead.
21 Remove piston and rod from cylinder. Use lifting devices as necessary.
22 Remove all packing cases.
23 Clean and inspect cylinder.
24 Clean and inspect all parts.
25 Blow out all oil passages and make sure that lubrication check valves work correctly when the cylinders are a
lubricated type. Run cylinder lube system if possible and check for proper operation, look for oil delivery to the
proper points.
26 Steam out air lines to unloaders (if applicable).
27 Check valve seats in cylinder for damage.
28 Check valve cover and unloader gasket surfaces for damage.
29 Measure the cylinder bore in the vertical and horizontal positions on the crank end, in the middle and on the head
end.
30 Record readings on data sheet. Refer to OEM for sizes and standard running clearances.
31 Measure the piston diameter, ring groove circumference, depth and width. Record readings on data sheet.
32 Measure the piston rider band groove circumference, depth and width. Record readings on data sheet.
33 If any measurements do not meet OEM specifications, notify supervision for further instructions.
34 Check crosshead for wear and measure shoe clearance. Record readings on data sheet.
35 Check crosshead pin and bushings for wear. Record readings on data sheet.
36 Remove top covers from crankcase.
37 Check counterweight bolts for the proper torque and have Inspectors UT for cracks.
38 Check connecting rod bearing Clearances by lift check. Record readings on data sheet.
39 Check main bearing clearances by lift check. Record readings on data sheet.
40 Check web deflection. Record readings on data sheet.
41 If any measurements do not meet OEM specifications, notify supervision for further instructions.
42 Check frame oil pump and drive mechanism for excessive clearance and wear.
43 Overhaul crankcase explosion relief doors if applicable.
44 Clean and stone all gasket surfaces.
45 Clean the crankcase and flush with a suitable solvent and then clean oil.
46 Replace oil filters.
47 Fill crankcase with the proper lubricant.
48 NOTE: UPON REASSEMBLY IMPACT GUNS ARE NOT TO BE USED. ALL FASTENERS ARE TO BE TORQUED
TO OEM SPECIFICATIONS.
12/99
N-184 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Compressor Manual Appendix N
GUIDE FOR OVERHAUL AND REPAIR OF
PROCESS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS P-G-6S9
COMPRESSOR OVERHAUL CHECKLIST PAGE 2 OF 2
49 Install crankcase covers with new gaskets and sealant.
50 Rebuild valve unloaders. Refer to unloader repair procedure.
51 Rebuild all packing cases. Refer to the packing case repair procedures.
52 Install pressure packing case in the compressor cylinder leaving the main bolts loose. Packing may be installed at
this time if an entering sleeve is available.
53 Install the entering sleeve over the piston rod threads. Make sure there are no sharp edges, scratches or
extrusions on the sleeve, if any are found a new sleeve must be used. If a new sleeve is not available, the packing
must be installed by hand after the rod is installed.
54 On lubricated packing boxes a lubricant shall be used on the entering sleeve.
55 Install piston and rod assembly.
56 Remove the sleeve after it comes through the packing case.
57 On machines with partition cases that have Teflon rings, the sleeve may be pushed through it also.
58 Never use the sleeve on oil wiper sets or it will break off the sharp edge required to remove the oil from the rod.
59 After the rod stroke has been set and the cross head nut is tight, center the packing case and torque the hold
down bolts as required. Record piston end clearances on data sheet.
60 Check compressor rod run out. Record measurement on data sheet.
61 Ensure that all the lube, purge and vent lines are clear before connecting.
62 Install valves, chairs and covers ensuring that new gaskets are seated correctly.
63 Torque valve covers to OEM specifications.
64 Install unloaders with new gaskets, and torque to OEM specifications.
65 Install associated piping that was removed previously.
66 After the compressor cylinder is sealed with valve covers, cylinder heads in place and Kiene valves closed,
pressure test for leaks with nitrogen.
67 Check for leaks with a soapy solution or leak detector (Snoop).
68 Areas to be tested for leaks are around the packing case, down the rod, all valve covers, inboard and outboard
heads and suction and discharge flanges.
69 Install the side door covers with new gaskets and sealant.
70 Remove flywheel chocks and bar compressor.
71 After successful leak detection, the isolation blinds shall be removed.
72 Again the machine should be pressured up with nitrogen against the block valves, and leak tested at the flanges
where the blinds were removed.
73 Upon successful completion of the second check, the machine can be turned over to operations.
74 The mechanics are to witness and stand by on compressor start up. Checks to be made shall be for side door
leaks and general inspection.
75 The crew may be released after the machine has reached operating conditions and Operations is satisfied.
76 All data sheets must be competed and forwarded to supervision.
77
78 Comments:
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82
83 Craftsman’s Name (Print): Craftsman’s Signature:
February 2004 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. N-185
Appendix N Compressor Manual
N19.0 Mathcad File for Interference Fit Calculations (Electronic File Only -
Requires Mathcad)
N-186 1988–2004 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 2004
Appendix O User Manual for Centrifugal Compressor Test Software
Abstract
This appendix gives instructions for using CompTest a spreadsheet-based
centrifugal compressor performance program for IBM compatible personal
computers. The program allows the user to study performance of existing machines
with varying operating conditions and/or operating modes. The user may also
compare a single field operating test point to original design data provided by the
manufacturer.
Contents Page
O1.0 Introduction O-3
O1.1 Purpose
O1.2 History
O1.3 Plans for Future Development
O2.0 Quick Start Guide O-4
O3.0 User Instructions O-6
O3.1 Creating a New Project
O3.2 Main Menu and General Program Control
O3.3 Component Manager
O3.4 Program Tree
O3.5 Impellers
O3.6 Piping
O3.7 Baseline
O3.8 Test Points
O3.9 Graphs
O3.10 Trending
O3.11 Program Outputs With Microsoft Excel
O4.0 Applied Theory O-18
O4.1 Terminology, Definitions, and Symbols
O4.2 General Compressor Curves
O4.3 Real Gas Properties
O4.4 Piping Losses
October 2007 1991–2007 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. O-1
Appendix O Compressor Manual
O4.5 Statistical Methods
O4.6 Isentropic / Polytropic Calculations
O4.7 Fan Law Correction Factor
O4.8 Assumptions, Limitations, And Inaccuracies
O4.9 ASME PTC 10-1997 Performance Test Code
O5.0 References O-29
O-2 1991–2007 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. October 2007
Compressor Manual Appendix O
O1.0 Introduction
O1.1 Purpose
CompTest centrifugal compressor test software combines high-accuracy gas
properties and thermal-fluid compressor dynamics to quickly and easily evaluate
machinery behavior under various conditions. Machine behavior can be output
graphically to quickly compare performance relative to baseline data or predicted
performance. (For example, a four nozzle machine with intercooling between the
second and third nozzles is a two section compressor. Each section must be
analyzed independently. However, a train of two direct-coupled compressor casings,
piped in series without intercooling, could be evaluated as one section.)
O1.2 History
Chevron engineers wanted to independently verify factory compressor tests, and as
a result CompTest was developed. Earlier programs provided accurate results, but
were not user-friendly and lacked documentation. CompTest version 1.0 was
designed to answer the need for a stand-alone PC software program that would
accurately predict machine behavior.
O1.3 Plans for Future Development
The accuracy and precision of the CompTest program provides a platform for the
next generation of Chevron compressor software. Many business units have shown
interest in online monitoring of plant compressors. Plans for future program
enhancements include real-time input and predictive extrapolation to better predict
needed maintenance and downtime. Additional improvements could include control
room applets to allow operators and maintenance engineers access to real-time and
historical compressor efficiencies.
October 2007 1991–2007 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. O-3
Appendix O Compressor Manual
O2.0 Quick Start Guide
1. Create A New Project
a. Customary project
1. File > New > Project
b. SI project
1. File > New > SI Project
2. Equation Of State
a. Select Equation of State to be used in analysis
3. Add Impellers
a. Select Impellers from program tree
b. Input impeller quantity and diameter for each section
c. If needed, use multiple rows for each section
d. Save (Program Tree symbol is highlighted green upon saving)
4. Add Piping
a. Select Piping from the Program Tree
b. Select desired piping configuration based on piping losses between
pressure/temperature instrumentation and compressor
c. Enter required pipe data/dimensions after selecting piping configuration
d. Save (Program Tree symbol is highlighted green upon saving)
5. Add Baseline Design Data
a. Select Baseline from the Program Tree
b. Select Add Curve and name the curve
c. Enter inlet volume flow, head, and decimal efficiency for each design
curve point.
d. Select polytropic or isentropic baseline data from the radio button in the
upper right hand corner.
e. Repeat for each speed curve if necessary
f. Designate design speed (one only) and select which speed characteristic
curves to include in analysis.
g. Save (Program Tree symbol is highlighted green upon saving)
O-4 1991–2007 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. October 2007
Compressor Manual Appendix O
6. Add Test Points
a. Right click on Test Points and select Add Test Point
b. Complete required fields for each test point (both tabs)
c. Execute point by selecting the on the taskbar
d. Review and update gas composition (defaults to previous point if
unchanged)
e. Save (Program Tree symbol is highlighted green upon saving)
7. Output Graphs
a. Select desired graphs and select Output Graphs
b. Microsoft Excel opens with graphs produced
8. Output Data
a. Select desired output data and select Output Data
b. Microsoft Excel opens with output data in tabular form
October 2007 1991–2007 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. O-5
Appendix O Compressor Manual
O3.0 User Instructions
O3.1 Creating a New Project
1. To create a new project, select File > New > Project. As show below in
Figure O-1, projects can be created in the SI or customary unit system
Fig. O-1 Menu for Creating a New Project
CompTest requires that an equation of state be selected next. Carefully weigh
the benefits of each state equation before selecting. Once the equation of state
is selected, it may not be changed (See Figure O-2). See note below.
Fig. O-2 Selecting an Equation of State
O-6 1991–2007 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. October 2007
Compressor Manual Appendix O
Note The selection of the most appropriate equation of state should be based on a
number of factors. Of primary concern is maintaining a consistent equation of state
with the baseline data. If the baseline data provided is referenced to one of the three
equations of state provided, then all calculations should be performed using the
same equation of state. If the baseline equation of state is unknown or not included
as one of the choices, the following considerations should be made when selecting
the equation of state to be used for the performance calculations. If the gas mixture
reduced pressure (i.e. the pressure divided by the mixture pseudo-critical pressure)
is unity or less, the choice of the equation of state used is irrelevant because the gas
behaves nearly ideal. In all other cases, the BWRS or Lee-Kesler equation of state
should be the first choice, particularly for predominantly hydrocarbon mixtures. If
the gas mixture contains a significant amount (greater than 5% by mole fraction) of
hydrocarbons heavier than n-octane (below n-octane in the component list), the
Lee-Kesler equation of state should be used since the BWRS coefficients are esti-
mated for a number of these components. Ethylene, propylene and the non-hydro-
carbon gases are all furnished with accurate BWRS coefficients, so mixtures
containing these gases may utilize either the BWRS or Lee-Kesler equation of state.
BWRS is recommended if the constants are available.
O3.2 Main Menu and General Program Control
The Main Menu found at the top of the CompTest screen (see Figure O-3) provides
easy access to File Management, Window Management, and Help.
Fig. O-3 Main Menu
The File menu contains menu items for creating, opening, saving and closing
CompTest project files. The following screen print Figure O-4 shows the File menu
items.
Fig. O-4 File Menu Items
October 2007 1991–2007 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. O-7
Appendix O Compressor Manual
The Window menu (see Figure O-5) contains items for arranging and viewing
multiple windows.
Fig. O-5 Window Menu
The Help menu contains items for accessing help (see Figure O-6.
Fig. O-6 Help Menu
The toolbar is located just below the Main Menu (see Figure O-7). In addition to
providing some of the same functionality as the Main Menu, the toolbar provides
access to Component Manager and running CompTest calculations. From the left
the toolbar buttons are:
• New Project
• Open Project
• Save
• Save All
• Component Manager
• Run Calculations.
Fig. O-7 Tool Bar
O-8 1991–2007 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. October 2007
Compressor Manual Appendix O
O3.3 Component Manager
Component Manager is a library of component properties that CompTest uses for
thermodynamic calculations. CompTest comes pre-loaded with over sixty
components and their properties. However, the user can add components to the
program at any time.
Note Extensive data input is required for additional components. These constants
should be collected and entered with care to ensure program accuracy.
Fig. O-8 Component Manager
Component being viewed If editing, save constants prior to exit
Component constants viewable
by selecting each tab
Preset components have very
precise constants
WARNING: Consult ETC
Machinery group prior to
changing default values
O3.4 Program Tree
The Program Tree (PT) serves as the main point of project navigation. Both input
data and output data can be accessed from the PT. The PT also serves as a visual
indicator for each screen and its current data. When a screen is completed and
saved, it is highlighted in green on the PT. Each screen has a set of criteria which
defines the screen as complete. Once a project is created, it should be saved as a
unique project file. As baseline configuration data is added and saved, the
associated icons turn green.
Caution If data has been entered for a given category and the icon has not
changed to green as the data input is advanced to the next category, it
has not been saved.
October 2007 1991–2007 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. O-9
Appendix O Compressor Manual
Fig. O-9 Program Tree
For the icons to turn green, the following items must be completed (not necessarily
in order) and the work saved.
Screen Items to complete a screen
Impellers • Must contain at least one impeller with diameter.
• One of the three configurations must be selected along with
Piping data entered in all of the enabled textboxes.
Baseline • Must have at least one baseline data curve (tab) defined.
• Must specify the RPM and have one or more baseline points
defined in the grid.
• Suction, discharge and barometric pressure must be
Test Points non-zero.
• Suction and discharge temperatures must be entered.
• Applicable orifice or flow data must be entered depending on
which flow option is selected.
• Compressor speed much be entered and at least one
component must be added under gas composition.
O3.5 Impellers
Information about the compressor impellers must be entered for non-dimensional
analysis. This information includes the number of impellers and their diameter from
tip-to-tip. Multiple impellers having the same diameter can be entered on the same
line by specifying a quantity greater than one. Compressor sections with multiple
impellers of different diameters will require data input on multiple rows.
Figure O-10 shows the impeller screen layout with one section of five identical
impellers having diameters of 11.045 inches (28.054 centimeters).
If accurate impeller data (diameter and number) is not available, estimated values
may be input to the program that allow calculations to be completed. Estimated
impeller data does not affect the value or accuracy of a large portion of the output
data. Overall values of performance data (e.g., head, flow, power, efficiency) are
accurately calculated with estimated impeller information, however, the
non-dimensional output data (e.g., head coefficient, work input) is compromised. If
accurate impeller data is maintained, comparison of actual versus baseline data
remains valid.
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Compressor Manual Appendix O
Fig. O-10 Compressor Impellers
Eachrowisusedforeachuniqueimpeller
diameterinasection.
O3.6 Piping
The Piping screen allows the user to specify data about inlet and discharge piping
configurations relative to the pressure measurement locations. This information is
used by CompTest to calculate piping losses upstream and downstream the
compressor. The user may select one of three piping loss models:
• Dynamic and Frictional losses,
• Dynamic losses, or
• No Corrections.
Each of these models requires the user to specify a different set of information. The
dynamic loss option provides a correction to account for the dynamic (or velocity)
pressure that can be attributed to flow in different pipe sizes when only the static
pressure measurement is obtained, hence the requirement for providing piping inner
diameter for suction and discharge connections.
The total pressure is the sum of the static and dynamic pressures and should be used
for the most accurate performance calculations. The dynamic plus friction
correction adds piping pressure loss to the correction for velocity. In this case, the
equivalent length-to-diameter ratio of all piping and fittings between the
measurement point and the nozzles on the compressor is required as input. Dynamic
pressure corrections are most critical for lower pressure applications. Figure O-11
shows the piping screen layout.
Fig. O-11 Piping Screen
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Appendix O Compressor Manual
O3.7 Baseline
Baseline data is used for comparison against actual test or field data. One or more
speed characteristics can be added.
• The Add Curve button is used to add curves to the baseline set
• The Delete Curve button is used to remove curves from the set
Upon adding a new baseline curve the user is prompted to enter a Name. After
naming the curve, the user must enter the speed (in rpm) for the curve along with
flow, head, and efficiency for each point along the curve. A few key points are:
• Efficiency must be entered as a decimal and not a percentage.
• A single curve should be designated as the design speed by selecting the
Design Speed checkbox.
• Any of the curves can be omitted from the analysis by de-selecting the Include
in Analysis checkbox.
• Selecting the Polytropic or Isentropic option specifies to the program which
thermodynamic model is used to compare the baseline data against.
Figure O-12 shows the baseline data screen layout.
Fig. O-12 Baseline Screen
Including more than one speed characteristic allows a machine that operates at
variable speeds to be analyzed against a single, dimensionless performance
characteristic. This is helpful when performance data is collected at various speeds.
The dimensionless characteristic provides a correction to the fan laws that
“collapse” the various speed characteristics into a single, maximum accuracy
baseline. When entering more than one baseline curve, the Analyze button provides
a way to correlate the entered curves.
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Compressor Manual Appendix O
Correlation Coefficient
R2 is the term used for the correlation coefficient, which determines how well a set
of curves correlates. Clicking the Analyze button will return an R2 value: a value of
R2 = 1 (unity) describes a perfect correlation. The value of R2 should be as close to
unity as possible. In some cases, the inclusion of multiple speed lines will reduce
the value of R2. A sensitivity check should be made in these cases to
determine if the deletion of some speed characteristics will provide greater
accuracy. Deletion of speed characteristics outside the actual operating speed range
of data collection may provide a more accurate baseline data comparison.
when the calculated value of R2 falls below 0.99, it would be advisable to consider
reducing the number and/or range of speed characteristics. Figure O-13 illustrates
the layout of the Analysis Results screen.
Fig. O-13 Analysis Results
If baseline data is not available (or inputting it is not desirable), the program is still
able to provide valuable information concerning calculations of performance. This
information will require the input of some type of estimated baseline data. Overall
performance data such as head, flow, efficiency, and power can still be obtained
from the program. Any comparisons to baseline information will not yield
helpful information under these conditions.
O3.8 Test Points
The Test Points screen is where field or test point data is stored. There can be one
to hundreds of test points in any CompTest project. Each test point requires the user
to enter suction and discharge information along with compressor speed, flow and
gas composition. Figure O-14 is a screen print of the Test Point screen.
To add test points, right click on the Test Points icon in the Program Tree. From this
menu, you can add test points. Once test points are added, right-clicking on
individual points allows for removal of that point (see Figure O-15).
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Appendix O Compressor Manual
Fig. O-14 Add Test Point
Fig. O-15 Delete Test Point
The Test Point screen is divided into two sections; a section containing Operating
Parameters, and one containing Gas Composition.
Each test point also contains a time stamp located in the
Miscellaneous Information section. The time stamp is used for ordering the test
points. The Orifice/Flow Properties section has two options for entry. If a flow
measurement device other than an orifice meter is used, or if the inlet volumetric
flow is available, the flow rate can be input directly. The CompTest program will
also determine the flow from an orifice calculation once the orifice dimensions and
required process is provided. Accurate orifice calculations can be performed for
meters located on either the suction or discharge side of the compressor.
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Compressor Manual Appendix O
Fig. O-16 Test Point - Operating Parameters
The Gas Composition section allows for changes in gas composition to be provided
at a given test point. The layout of this section is shown in Figure O-17.
Components entered in component manager may be selected and used to specify the
gas composition. To include a component, the user must select the component from
the Available Components list into the Selected Components list. While the
component is highlighted, enter the mole fraction in the text box below and click the
Set Value button. After successfully saving the component, it will appear in the
Running List. Components may be added in mole fractions (summing to one) or
mole percent (summing to one hundred). CompTest will automatically determine
which was specified. The Normalize button can be used to adjust the component
total to one (or one hundred), however this button will change all entered values to
accomplish the new total. Figure O-17 shows the Gas Composition tab of the
Test Points screen.
Note It is important to save test point information after entering for each
successive test point. It is also important to check the gas composition for each new
test point. The program will default to the previously entered gas composition for
each new test point.
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Appendix O Compressor Manual
Fig. O-17 Gas Composition
O3.9 Graphs
CompTest provides seven standard graphs which can be displayed using Microsoft
Excel. The user can individually select one or more graphs for rendering or check
the Select All checkbox. Clicking the Output Graphs button will launch Microsoft
Excel and display each of the selected graphs on its own individual worksheet.
Figure O-18 shows the Graphs screen.
O3.10 Trending
The Trending screen provides output from CompTest in numerical format to a
Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. The user can individually select the data to output
from the list of checkboxes or check the Select All checkbox. When the user clicks
the Output Data button, CompTest launches Microsoft Excel and pastes the
selected numerical data in the first spreadsheet. The user is free to manipulate the
data and save. Figure O-19 shows the trending screen.
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Compressor Manual Appendix O
Fig. O-18 Graphs
Fig. O-19 Trending
O3.11 Program Outputs With Microsoft Excel
The interface with Microsoft Excel is one of the most advantageous aspects of
CompTest. Once computations are run in the program, the output graphs and
trending data can be formatted in Excel to the user’s preference for reports and
presentations. The flexibility of the output also allows for the inclusion or exclusion
of any compressor measurements.
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Appendix O Compressor Manual
O4.0 Applied Theory
O4.1 Terminology, Definitions, and Symbols
Nomenclature
Cp—Gas specific heat
—Efficiency
f—Schultz correction factor
GHP—Gas horsepower
H, h—Enthalpy
m—mass flow rate
—Head coefficient
n—Isentropic or polytropic volume exponent
P—Absolute pressure
R—Universal gas constant
R2, r2—Correlation coefficient
S—Entropy
T—Absolute temperature
U—Impeller tip speed
v—specific volume
V—Gas volume
W—Compressor work or head
Z—Gas compressibility factor
Subscripts
d—Discharge conditions
id—Discharge conditions at constant entropy with suction conditions
is—Isentropic
o—Standard ideal conditions
p—Polytropic
P—Constant pressure
s—Suction conditions
T—Constant temperature
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Compressor Manual Appendix O
O4.2 General Compressor Curves
Compressor performance can be mapped in a multitude of ways. General methods
for graphically showing performance include plotting pressure, polytropic head,
polytropic efficiency, or required power against some type of flow. The most
invariant form is head and efficiency versus inlet volumetric flow. An example is
shown in Figure O-20.
Fig. O-20 Compressor Performance
The compressor can operate anywhere on its map, with the exact operating point
being at the intersection of the system curve and a characteristic speed curve. Most
maps only include a few select speed characteristic curves.
All compressors have different characteristics and therefore, different compressor
maps. Compressor surge is an unstable operating condition in which impeller stall
induces flow reversals that can damage the compressor. The choke limit constrains
the high flow limit of the compressor at a specific speed.
• Operation to the left (or at a lower flow) of the surge line will result in unsteady
flow reversals and could result in mechanical damage to the machine if allowed
to continue.
• Operation beyond the choke (or overload) limit is possible, but not
recommended, nor is it allowed for extended periods of time by some
manufacturers.
• Operation that is deep in the overload region is indicative of choking flow
somewhere within the compressor flow path. The speed characteristics in deep
overload approach vertical lines, indicating a constant flow rate for varying
head or compression ratio.
Lines of constant efficiency can also be shown on the graph. Other plot formats can
also be provided for efficiency; the most common being efficiency versus flow.
When reading efficiency charts, remember that polytropic efficiency is invariant
with pressure while isentropic efficiencies will vary with pressure ratio.
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Appendix O Compressor Manual
O4.3 Real Gas Properties
Many situations exist in actual applications that require real gas physical and
thermodynamic properties instead of ideal gas relations to yield acceptable
accuracies and allow valid conclusions. Three real gas equations of state are
provided for use in CompTest:
• BWRS as modified by Exxon Research (Lin and Hopke) [8]
• LKP—Lee-Kessler as modified by Plocker [4]
• Peng-Robinson [5]
Real gas equations of state are derived from theoretical and empirically derived
relations between extensively measured parameters (pressure, temperature, density)
and are related by:
P = ZRT
(Eq. 2100-1)
Which is a correction to the ideal gas law:
P = RT
(Eq. 2100-2)
The compressibility, Z, is actually:
ideal gas
Z = --------------------
actual
(Eq. 2100-3)
Real gas equations of state and their constant values are derived from P-p-T
experimental data. Real gas thermodynamic properties are derived from:
1. Empirically based correlation for Cp (constant pressure specific heat):
2
C p = a + bT + cT + ...
(Eq. 2100-4)
2. Equation of state relationship for compressibility, Z.
Two important thermodynamic parameters used for compression calculations are
enthalpy and entropy which can be determined from:
2
RT Z
H = C p dT – ---------- ------ d
o
(Eq. 2100-5)
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Compressor Manual Appendix O
Cp Z
S = --------o dT – ------- + ------- ------ d
ZR RT
T T
(Eq. 2100-6)
Where H and S are enthalpy and entropy, respectively. As shown, these
properties can be obtained for real gases with only a relationship for Cp and Z.
Mixing rules apply for mixtures of gases and certain equations of state are superior
in estimating properties of specific gas mixtures.
The three equations of state utilized in CompTest are fundamentally different in
structure. It is beyond the scope of this document to go into detail about them.
Further information can found in the references provided in Section O5.0.
Chevron recommends the use of BWRS or LKP equations of state for compressor
calculations; however, the use of an EOS consistent with that of the predicted or
“as-tested” curves from the supplier needs to be maintained if possible.
Peng-Robinson equation of state is more useful for vapor-liquid equilibrium and
generally shows closer agreement near and within the phase envelope.
Choice of equation of state is less sensitive when pressure are below the critical
point since gas behavior is nearly ideal, particularly at higher temperature (i.e., Z
1).
O4.4 Piping Losses
Inlet pressures and temperatures are used in all calculations to derive densities and
other fluid properties. Having accurate measurements is key to producing quality
results. To correct for the distance between the pressure measurement and the inlet
flange, two options were added to the program for compensation.
• The Dynamic Pressure correction accounts for the fluid momentum. A subrou-
tine back-calculates fluid velocity from other parameters. The velocity, pipe
cross-sectional area, and the density of the fluid can then be used estimate a
dynamic pressure.
• The Fluid Friction correction factor takes into account losses due to frictional
effects that cause pressure drops in piping. These drops in pressure are usually
low, but longer runs where pressure measurement is remote from compressor
inlet and discharge flanges can impact accuracy of calculations.
O4.5 Statistical Methods
Cubic Splines
A cubic spline is a curve constructed of piecewise third-order polynomials which
pass through a set of m control points. The second derivative of each polynomial is
set to zero at the endpoints. This produces a smooth curve that CompTest uses to
interpolate between test points when comparing to collapsed baseline curves.
Figure O-21 illustrates a cubic spline.
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Appendix O Compressor Manual
Fig. O-21 Cubic Spline
Correlation Coefficients
Correlation coefficients are a measure of ‘goodness of fit.’ The correlation
coefficient is represented as R2 (or r2 as shown in Figure O-22) and is a number
between zero and one. An r2 value of one means that all data points lie on the fitted
line. A value of zero means that the data is a scatter and the fit is arbitrary.
Fig. O-22 Correlation Coefficient
The correlation coefficient can be calculated for any fit (linear, polynomial, cubic
spline, etc.) to any data set. The correlation coefficient displayed in Analysis
Results shows the goodness of fit for the fan law correction factor to the baseline
speed curves included in analysis.
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Compressor Manual Appendix O
Deviations
When output is generated in CompTest, test point deviations are computed against
the fan law corrected baseline curves. These deviations can be conveniently
displayed for each entered test or field data point. The following equation shows a
generally accepted method of computing percentage deviation.
Test – Baseline
% Deviation = ------------------------------------- 100
Baseline
(Eq. 2100-7)
O4.6 Isentropic / Polytropic Calculations
Many of the options in CompTest differentiate between isentropic and polytropic
calculations. Figure O-23 shows the difference in an actual process and an isen-
tropic process. The actual process is approximated more accurately with
polytropic calculations.
The isentropic process is an ideal process that cannot be replicated in the real world.
It is merely the best theoretical process possible. Isentropic processes are often
referred to as ideal processes.
Fig. O-23 Isentropic Versus Actual Process
The actual process bends to the right due to the inherent entropy generation in the
real process. This entropy generation raises the temperature of the discharge rela-
tive to the ideal process, as seen above. Flow turbulence, pressure drops, friction,
and mechanical losses all contribute to entropy generation.
A polytropic process is essentially a summation of isentropic processes where the
product of the individual pressure ratios is equal to the overall pressure ratios.
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Appendix O Compressor Manual
Fig. O-24 Polytropic Process
Whereas the isentropic efficiency of a compressor will change with changing
pressure ratio, the efficiency of a polytropic process should remain the same for
varying pressure ratios at a common flow point on the curve. Isentropic efficiency is
given as:
h dis – h s
= -------------------
-
hd – hs
(Eq. 2100-8)
where:
hdis = isentropic discharge enthalpy,
hs = suction enthalpy, and
hd = actual discharge enthalpy.
Polytropic efficiency is given as:
n
hi + 1 – hi
= i ------------------------
is
= -
hi + 1 – hi
i=s
(Eq. 2100-9)
where:
hi+1is = isentropic intermediate discharge enthalpy,
hi = intermediate isentropic suction enthalpy, and
hi+1 = actual intermediate discharge enthalpy.
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Compressor Manual Appendix O
The polytropic process chart shown in Figure O-24 illustrates this summation of
isentropic efficiencies. In the limit as the individual steps approach a pressure ratio
of unity, the summation becomes an integral.
When comparing curves in CompTest, be aware of the difference in isentropic and
polytropic models and their value in analysis.
The following equations are used to calculate isentropic and polytropic properties of
gas compression. These relations are consistent with the calculation procedures
provided in ASME PTC 10 - 1997.
Isentropic Exponent:
Pd
In ------
P
n is = ------------s
vs
In -------
v di
(Eq. 2100-10)
Isentropic Head:
n is – 1
---------------
n is
n is P d
: W is = h di – h s = --------------- fP s v s ------ –1
n is – 1 Ps
(Eq. 2100-11)
Isentropic Head Coefficient:
W is
is = -------------
-
2
U
(Eq. 2100-12)
Isentropic Efficiency:
h di – h s W is
is = -----------------
- = ----------------
hd – hs hd – hs
(Eq. 2100-13)
Schultz Polytropic Head Correction Factor
h di – h s
f = --------------------------------------------------------
-
n is
--------------- P d v di – P s v s
n is – 1
(Eq. 2100-14)
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Appendix O Compressor Manual
Polytropic Exponent:
Pd
In ------
P
n p = -----------s-
vs
In -----
vd
(Eq. 2100-15)
Polytropic Head:
np – 1
--------------
np
np P d
W p = -------------- fP s v s ------ –1
n p – 1 Ps
(Eq. 2100-16)
Polytropic Head Coefficient:
Wp
p = -------------
-
2
U
(Eq. 2100-17)
Polytropic Efficiency:
Wp
p = --------------------
-
hd – hs
(Eq. 2100-18)
O4.7 Fan Law Correction Factor
When normalizing compressor curves to speed, a correction factor must be used to
account for the deficiencies of the affinity laws created by matching of conditions in
the actual stages of multi-stage (or impeller) machines. In Figure O-25, the figures
to the left are speed normalized, but not corrected for fan law deficiencies. Once the
graphs are corrected, the correlation generally improves and in many cases is very
accurate. CompTest uses this method to collapse baseline curves for
analysis.
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Compressor Manual Appendix O
Fig. O-25 Correction Factor
This correction factor “collapses” the curves into a common curve that facilities
comparisons of test data to baseline data at various speeds.
The s-correction factor for correcting the flow coefficient Q/N is calculated from the
baseline curves. The accuracy of the factor is dependent on the correlation
coefficient of the curves. When the Analyze feature is used on baseline trends, the
s-correction factor and the correlation are computed and displayed. From this data,
baseline speed curves can be added or deleted to increase accuracy.
O4.8 Assumptions, Limitations, And Inaccuracies
A few factors which will impact the accuracy of CompTest results:
Gas Analysis—Getting good field gas analyses frequently proves to be difficult.
The amount of every gas component must be accurately known to get accurate
molecular weights, specific heat ratios, and compressibilities. This is particularly
challenging in wet gas compressors which operate at or near the gas dew points.
Another source of significant error is water (steam) in the gas which is not measured
by some chromatographs. One final problem is wet gas compressor wash fluids.
These confuse the gas analysis and the flow measurements and should be
temporarily turned off when collecting test data and a gas sample.
Temperature Measurements—CompTest calculates field polytropic efficiencies
from the inlet and discharge temperatures and pressures. A few degrees error in
temperature can often generate as much as 2 or 3% error in efficiency. Therefore, it
is best to install and use accurate temperature measurement located close to the
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Appendix O Compressor Manual
compressor flanges. Reading line surface temperature with a pyrometer several feet
away may yield unacceptable data.
Pressure Gages—The test gages or transmitters should have the optimum range for
the pressure and be freshly calibrated before the test. Watch for velocity head errors
if the gage is measuring a low pressure in a high gas velocity location.
Flowmeters—Each compressor section must have its own flowmeter. The flow
element should be checked to make sure its correct design data is entered into the
program. Before a test, the flowmeter must also be zeroed and spanned for accurate
reading.
Timing—Attempt to take the test data during a stable time in the process which
represents typical operation. If process conditions are variable, consider taking
several readings in a limited time period and averaging the input data.
O4.9 ASME PTC 10-1997 Performance Test Code
Program Compliance
CompTest adheres to the terminology and structure of the ASME performance test
code describing standard procedure for bench testing axial and centrifugal
compressors.
ASME PTC 10 allows for two standard tests—the Type I and Type II. A Type I test
is the most challenging; it brings the compressor at or very near the design
operating conditions. Although Type I conditions compare favorably to contract or
field conditions, the accuracy of the test may be lower than that of the Type II due to
increased measurement errors or instrument tolerances and required modifications
of test loop configurations or procedures. In the relatively rare case when Type I
tests are conducted as a portion of the machinery factory testing program, this may
be completed to establish the mechanical and rotordynamic characteristics of the
machine more than the performance.
Field testing always introduces additional error for a number of reasons including
differences in instrument configuration and accuracy as well as steady operation of
the process.
• The Type I test is constrained to deviations outlined in Table 3.1 of the ASME
PTC 10 standard as well as the constraints in Table 3.2.
• The Type II test only requires that the constraints of Table 3.2 are followed.
Type II tests can therefore be run at lower speeds with different gases. Using
dynamic similarity, CompTest reduces the data so that different speeds can be
compared to design parameters. The Output Graphs tool graphically and
numerically shows the deviation of the Type II test from the original design
specifications. This allows for less expensive and safer testing.
Note Axial compressors are not supported by CompTest at this time.
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Compressor Manual Appendix O
O5.0 References
1. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Performance Test Code on
Compressors and Exhausters PTC 10. Codes and Standards (1997).
2. Benedict, M., Webb, G. B., and Rubin, L. C., An Empirical Equation for Ther-
modynamic Properties of Light Hydrocarbons and Their Mixtures: I. Methane,
Ethane, Propane, and n-Butane. J. Chem. Phys., Vol. 8, No.4, pp. 334-345
(1940).
3. Starling, K. E., Fluid Properties for Light Petroleum Systems. Gulf Publishing
Company (1973).
4. Lee, B. I., Kesler, M. G., AlChEJ., 21 (3), 510 (1975).
5. Peng, DY, and Robinson, DB. A New Two-Constant Equation of State. Indus-
trial and Engineering Chemistry: Fundamentals. Vol. 15 pp. 59-64 (1976).
6. Plocker, U., Knapp, H., Prausnitz, J. Calculation of High-pressure Vapor-Liquid
Equilibria from a Corresponding-States Correlation with Emphasis on Asym-
metric Mixtures. Institut fur Thermodynamik und Anlagentechnik, Technische
Universitat. 1 Berlin 12, Germany.
7. Weisstein, Eric W. Correlation Coefficient. From MathWorld – A Wolfram Web
Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CorrelationCoefficient.html
8. Lin, Chen-jung, and Hopke, Scott W., Application of the BWRS Equation to
Methane, Propane, and Nitrogen Systems, AlChE Symposium Series, Vol. 70,
No. 140 pp. 37-47 (1974).
October 2007 1991–2007 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. O-29
Appendix P Separator Vessel and Filter Design Guide
Abstract
This appendix gives guidelines for designing and selecting knockout pots and high
efficiency filters for compressor suction systems.
Contents Page
P1.0 Vertical Separator Vessels P-2
P2.0 Horizontal Separator Vessels P-13
P3.0 High Efficiency Filters P-16
February 1998 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. P-1
Appendix P Compressor Manual
P1.0 Vertical Separator Vessels
P1.1 Determining Vessel Length (Height)
Vessel dimensions are determined by the liquid and gas flowrates and densities
during normal maximum operating conditions. This includes potential upset condi-
tions that can jeopardize the downstream equipment.
Liquid Storage Capacity
Vessel length is determined by the requirements for accommodating vessel inter-
nals, in addition to the amount of liquid surge volume required to ensure sufficient
level control. The design basis must take into account the potential volume of liquid
that might “slug” into the vessel during a process upset. This amount is determined
by evaluating the upstream process for its potential to entrain liquids in the gas
stream in the event of logical operating scenarios, such as a pump or valve failure.
This is a judgment requiring careful operations/engineering review.
Surge Volume
Surge volume is defined as the liquid capacity below the maximum allowable liquid
level. The designer must factor into this vessel dimension any additional capacity
necessary to control potential liquid loading. Figure P-1 illustrates surge volume and
other design features of a basic vertical knockout drum.
For compressor suction knockout service, a minimum recommended fill time of five
minutes, based on maximum potential liquid loading, should be provided between
the high level alarm (LAH) and the automatic compressor shutdown (LSH). This
time period is based on the amount of time necessary for operating personnel to
respond to the high level, and should be adjusted to suit the operating circum-
stances. Discussions with experienced operating personnel is recommended.
Liquid Drainage
Liquid drainage capacity must be addressed in a similar manner. Failure to
adequately size drain lines and level control valves for the above conditions can
result in uncontrollable high levels and consequential shutdowns. Part of this judg-
ment comes from understanding the location of the vessel and relative availability
of operating personnel during upset conditions. A two-inch outlet provision is
recommended as a minimum.
P-2 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 1998
Compressor Manual Appendix P
Fig. P-1 Basic Vertical Knockout Drum Configuration
February 1998 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. P-3
Appendix P Compressor Manual
P1.2 Determining Vessel Diameter
The vessel diameter is dictated by the desired mass velocity through the vessel. The
recommended allowable mass velocity takes into account the terminal, or free
settling velocity of aerosol particles at predetermined operating conditions. A
K factor is used to modify the velocity calculation for such factors as extreme pres-
sures (high or vacuum), suspended solids content, reduced surface tension, entrain-
ment loading and viscosity. The value of K in the formula for calculating maximum
allowable velocity depends on the nature of the gas contaminants and whether mist
elimination devices are to be used. Optimum velocity factored by K value is calcu-
lated using the following Souders Brown equation:
0.5
V = K L – G G
where:
V = Optimum gas velocity, ft./sec.
K = Factor used for optimum liquid/gas separation
G = Gas Density
L = Liquid Density
Empirical data suggests that when sizing the minimum inside diameter of a basic
vertical gravity separator (no impingement device), the following K values should
be used:
K = 0.11 or less Gas streams containing high liquid
loading with no impingement device
K = 0.15 - 0.17 Gas streams containing low liquid
loading with no impingement device
These values were largely determined through experiments with a perforated plate
column where tray spacing and liquid seal depths were varied to observe the effect
on K value. The K value was observed to level off between 0.17 to 0.19 at a disen-
gaging space of 28 inches, suggesting a reasonable value for simple gravity separa-
tion without the aid of impingement devices.
These values are consistent with the Scrubber Services Classes ‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’ as
described in API Specification 11P - Specification for Packaged Reciprocating
Compressors for Oil and Gas Production Services, however, slightly more conser-
vative. In the interest of maximizing compressor reliability, it is preferred to design
on the conservative side to provide a degree of process capacity contingency.
For further guidance regarding allowable mass velocities for system pressures above
and below 800 psi at given vapor/liquid densities, refer to Chevron Research chart
RE 690433-1. Charts RD 663794-1, and RD 663795-1 are also reference tools for
required vessel diameter as a function of gas rate and system properties.
Note Inside diameter of the annular support ring is the dimension to use in the
vessel area calculation when the vessel is equipped with a demister pad or vane mist
eliminator. This represents the velocity for the inlet surface area of the impingement
device.
P-4 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 1998
Compressor Manual Appendix P
P1.3 Mist Elimination Internals
The reliability and service life of all compressors is directly related to the inlet gas
cleanliness. To ensure optimum knockout drum performance, mist elimination
devices are necessary to increase impingement surface area in the gas flow path.
Reciprocating compressors are most sensitive to gas quality. It is highly desirable to
reduce the amount of aerosol contaminants to the lowest practical concentration.
Liquid and solid aerosols entrained in the inlet gas are the prime contributors to
premature valve failure, cylinder wear and corrosion damage. Although centrifugal
compressors are more forgiving to entrained aerosols, they are still susceptible to
efficiency losses due to particle induced fouling, erosion, and corrosion.
There are several methods commonly used in compressor suction service, each one
capable of achieving a certain degree of removal efficiency. They are:
1. Vane mist eliminators
2. Wire mesh pads (demister pads)
3. High efficiency coalescer filters
4. Brownian diffusion mist eliminators
Figure P-2 illustrates the approximate capture efficiency for these impingement
devices for a given range of particle sizes.
Fig. P-2 Approximate removal efficiency of conventional mist elimination devices for given particle sizes. Note that the
effectiveness of vane mist eliminators is marginal at the point where woven mesh efficiency is near its peak.
Although most installations use only one mist elimination device, a combination of
two or more of the above devices will provide additional protection for almost all
services. Selecting the combination depends primarily on the nature and volume of
the liquids to be removed. Generally, as the viscosity of the liquid increases, the
February 1998 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. P-5
Appendix P Compressor Manual
larger the entrained droplet size. Similarly, as liquid surface tension decreases, so
does the droplet size.
Selecting a Mist Eliminator
Figure P-3 will be useful as a guide in selecting a satisfactory type of mist elimi-
nator or combination of devices best suited for the application. Figure P-4 illus-
trates the relative operating range for each media type. This represents the
approximate particle size and concentration of water aerosols under controlled test
conditions.
Fig. P-3 Mist Eliminator Types
Wire Mesh Pad Vane (Chevron) High Efficiency Media
Ultra Fine Droplets (< 5 micron) X
Fine Droplets (5-15 micron) X X
Coarse Droplets (> 15 micron) X X
High Liquid Loads X X
Fouling Contaminants X
Corrosive Service X X
Maximum Efficiency X
Widest Range of Materials X
Lowest Differential Pressure X
High Pressure X X
Fig. P-4 The approximate range of water aerosols entrained in air is plotted in this graph to illustrate the aerosol
concentration versus particle size and type of media effective to use for control. Note that as the aerosol
particle size declines, higher efficiency media is required to achieve efficient particle contact.
P-6 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 1998
Compressor Manual Appendix P
Vane Mist Eliminators
Vane Mist eliminators (sometimes referred as chevron design mist eliminators) are
best used when liquid loading is high and/or the liquid is viscous or has fouling
characteristics (such as paraffins, hydrates). They are not recommended for use as
the sole mist elimination device for compressor suction service due to their high
particle size cut-off point. The expected particle size cutoff (98% efficiency) is
about 15 micron, resulting in a considerable amount of aerosols carried through with
the gas.
The ability of the vane mist eliminator to handle large volumes of liquid at rela-
tively high vapor velocity is one of its key benefits. As long as the actual vapor
velocity is restricted to proper design K values, reasonable liquid scrubbing effi-
ciency is achieved with minimum pressure drop and fouling.
When determining a vessel diameter for vane mist eliminators, the actual velocity is
calculated using the same Souders Brown equation previously discussed in
Section P1.2, Determining Vessel Diameter. The recommended K values for vane
mist eliminators in vertical vessels are:
• Minimum K value = 0.12
• Maximum K value = 0.54
• K value 0.60 and above = Re-entrainment
A maximum K value of 0.54 is recommended for vertical vessels. This is approxi-
mately 120% of design rate to protect against carryover during upsets and unusual
operating conditions. A minimum K value of 0.12 is a turndown limitation to
prevent an insufficient velocity condition such that aerosols tend to flow around the
vanes in laminar gas flows, as opposed to impinging on the vane surfaces.
Another benefit of the vane mist eliminator is its stout physical structure. In corro-
sive services, a wire mesh pad can be relatively short lived compared to a vane mist
eliminator. In this circumstance, a combination of wire mesh and vanes can be of
further benefit. In either case, a conservative corrosion allowance is recommended
when separating corrosive liquid/gas vapors.
Combination Installations
Vane mist eliminators can be used in tandem with wire mesh pads to control the
amount of liquid pooling within the pad. Contacting the bulk of vapor entrained
liquids with vane mist eliminators prior to flowing to the wire mesh pad enhances
the pad's ability to quickly drain. This application also increases the effective oper-
ating range of the demister pad, particularly during unusual liquid loading scenarios.
Figure P-5 plots the liquid scrubbing performance of a vane mist eliminator
installed upstream of a woven wire mesh pad.
February 1998 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. P-7
Appendix P Compressor Manual
Fig. P-5 The point at which pressure drop indicates flooding is plotted for different rates of liquid loading. The wide
range of liquid handling capacity is attributed to the installation of a vane mist eliminator in front of a
demister pad to relieve the pad of excessive liquid load.
In addition to the added removal capacity of vanes, another reason for enhanced
mesh pad performance in tandem configuration is the straightening of the gas flow
entering the pad. Swirling and lateral gas flow entry promotes pooling in the pad,
thus increasing the likelihood of pad flooding and re-entrainment.
Combination installations are well suited for minimizing mesh pad fouling and
corrosion. Fouling solids are effectively removed in the vane section and corrosive
liquids that pool in the mesh pad can be minimized.
The result of combination installations is reduced pad fouling and corrosion, as well
as enhanced removal efficiency over a wide range of loading. It is a good retrofit
alternative for systems that are operated beyond original design. Figure P-6 illus-
trates how a combination installation might look.
P-8 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 1998
Compressor Manual Appendix P
Fig. P-6 Combination Vane/Wire Mesh Knockout
February 1998 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. P-9
Appendix P Compressor Manual
Wire Mesh Mist Eliminators
Generically known as demister pads, wire mesh has been used for decades as a
contacting media for coalescing liquid aerosols. First introduced as a woven wire
screen, the construction was relatively stiff and usually applied as a thin, single
layer. The technically superior design now predominantly used is a thick knitted
wire mesh pad.
Knitted mesh pads possess high void volume and contact surface area. The result is
high removal efficiencies for aerosols smaller in size than what can be removed by
vane mist eliminators. Figure P-2 and P-4 illustrate these efficiencies.
The variables that control void volume, area and density of the mesh are:
1. Wire size - typically .002" to 0.020" in diameter
2. Size of knitted loops
3. Amplitude of wire crimping for added surface area.
Pad density varies from 2 to 24 lb per cubic foot and can possess surface areas from
44 to 1200 square feet per cubic foot of mesh. Separation efficiency is governed by
the relation of wire diameter and density. As wire diameter decreases, density and
efficiency increase. Practical application requirements and cost narrow the range
of styles readily available, although a large array of styles and materials are still
available.
As an example, a commonly used selection would consist of 0.011" diameter wire
mesh possessing a void volume of approximately 97%, have a density of
12 lb/cu.ft., and a surface area of approximately 110 sq. ft./cu. ft. The mesh is typi-
cally available in thicknesses of 4", 6" or 12", or can be rolled into a much thicker
pad configuration for special applications.
Mesh pads can be made from almost any material that can be extruded or drawn. In
addition to carbon steel alloys, some examples of other available materials are:
• 300 and 400 Series Stainless Steel
• Titanium, Tantalum
• Copper, Aluminum
• Synthetics (Polypropylene, Teflon)
The material of choice depends on the known characteristics of the contaminants in
the gas. Representative samples of the gas for analysis are recommended prior to
making design changes or specifying a new purchase. Mesh pad manufacturers and
ETC materials specialists are excellent resources for consultation on material
choice.
Figure P-7 is a guide of K values for standard demister pad and vane styles offered
by Otto York Company. Special conditions which change this value are discussed in
the Section, “Effects of Pressure on K Value.” Similarly, other manufacturers should
offer recommended K values for their products.
P-10 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 1998
Compressor Manual Appendix P
Fig. P-7 K Values for Common Otto York Demisters
Style K Application
709 .35 Heavy duty, high efficiency design for heavy liquid loading
172 .35 Generic style, good efficiency and capacity
708 .35 Low density for fouling and high liquid loading
194 .28 Ultra high efficiency at reduced capacity
241 .28 Polypropylene, corrosion resistance, good efficiency
221 .28 Teflon design for extremely corrosive services
Vane Type 1 .35 Chevron style vanes for fouling applications
Vane Type 3 .40 Chevron style vanes for fouling, high liquid loadings and low pressure drop
Vane Type 4 .65 Vanes designed for horizontal flows with a potential for fouling, high liquid load
and/ or low pressure drop.
Considerations for Retrofits
Often, little can be done to reduce mass velocity or contaminant loading. When
changes must be made in an attempt to increase the removal efficiency without
penalizing the process, combinations of vanes and mesh pads are often the best
choice. Figure P-6 illustrates a knockout drum configuration suitable for high liquid
loading or viscous, fouling contaminants such as paraffins.
Effects of Pressure on K Value
A K factor of 0.35 will give a safe velocity for practically all applications where
operating pressure is reasonably close to atmospheric. Giving account to the previ-
ously mentioned factors that can influence K value, Figure P-8 gives recommended
K values at various pressures:
Fig. P-8 Effect of Pressure on K Value
PSIA K
7.5 .34
10.0 .35
20.0 .35
50.0 .34
100.0 .33
Over 100 Subtract .01 for every 100 psi above 100
Note Pressure derating is influenced by drainage, while vacuum
derating is influenced by pressure drop.
Vessel Outlet Nozzle Clearance
The distance between the outlet nozzle opening and top of the mist elimination
device is recommended to be a minimum of 12 inches, increasing in relation to the
diameter of the mist elimination device. The objective is to prevent channeling by
February 1998 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. P-11
Appendix P Compressor Manual
promoting equal velocities across the entire surface area of the mist elimination
device. Two policies are commonly used for determining the appropriate distance.
The rule of thumb is 12 inches minimum or half the diameter of the mist elimina-
tion device, whichever dimension is greater. Figure P-9 illustrates examples for
minimum nozzle outlet distance.
Fig. P-9 Minimum Recommended Clearance Between Outlet Nozzle and Top of Mist
Elimination Device
P-12 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 1998
Compressor Manual Appendix P
P2.0 Horizontal Separator Vessels
P2.1 Determining Vessel Length
Vessel length is based on liquid holding volume and residence time. The length is
adjusted to achieve the necessary liquid holding volume to satisfy proper process
control. This is usually considered to be the minimum amount of time for liquid
surge. In general, the vessel length and diameter is sized to provide the required
vapor space (velocity) plus liquid retention volume.
Note It is a good idea to involve process design/control engineers when making
liquid volume determinations.
P2.2 Determining Vessel Diameter
The maximum allowable gas velocity determines the required vapor space area
above the highest liquid operating level. One method used to determine the required
vapor space uses a variation of Souders Brown equation. The method takes into
account particle settling velocity and horizontal gas velocity by ratioing them to the
distance each must travel per unit time.
The equation is expressed as:
Vh Vs = L t D t = L D
where:
Vh = horizontal gas velocity, ft/sec.
Vs = particle settling velocity, ft/sec.
t = time in seconds
L = length between inlet and outlet, ft
D = vessel diameter, ft
The equation is further modified to provide five feet for entrance and exit flow
stabilization. The allowable horizontal gas velocity is then expressed as:
V h = L – 5 D K L – g g 0.5
Re-writing the equation into the form of the Souders Brown equation, it is expressed
as:
V h = K h L – g g 0.5
where:
Kh = K L – 5 D
February 1998 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. P-13
Appendix P Compressor Manual
SEPDES
When designing or modifying two- and three-phase separators, an easier alternative
to hand calculations would be to use SEPDES, a PC program for designing
liquid/gas separators for hydroprocessing units. Information for this program is
available through your local process engineer or through ETC’s Process Engi-
neering Specialists.
Horizontal Knockout Vessels
The basic horizontal knockout pot shown in Figure P-10 can have internals config-
ured many different ways. As with vertical vessels, careful consideration must be
given to the nature of the fluids the impingement device is to deal with. Corrosives
and foulants play a significant role in the selection of the types of internals used.
Fig. P-10 Basic Horizontal Liquid / Gas Separator
The velocity limits described in Section P1.0 still apply, as they are meant to ensure
that the selected internals are operated within their efficiency range. As with all
other mist elimination applications, the inlet surface area of the mist elimination
device is used when determining the optimum velocity or K factor, not the cross-
sectional area of the vessel.
Figure P-11 illustrates an example of a horizontal vessel equipped with mesh pad
and liquid storage area. Figure P-12 illustrates several other alternative internal
configurations that, if designed within the criteria previously discussed, will provide
good protection from liquid carryover.
P-14 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 1998
Compressor Manual Appendix P
Fig. P-11 Horizontal Knockout Vessel (Example Configuration)
NOTES:
1. Upper and lower support grids are
required for physical strength. The
mesh pad and grid assembly is tied
together using "J" bolts and mounted
on an annular support ring. The
assembly is secured to the annular
ring using tie wires for most
applications. Bolting or other elaborate
methods for securing the mesh pad
are usually unnecessary.
2. Inlet surface area of the mesh pad is
used as the basis for determining
optimum velocity or K factor. Typical
to all mesh pad mist eliminator
applications, a K factor of 0.28 - 0.35
is used depending on the type of pad.
February 1998 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. P-15
Appendix P Compressor Manual
Fig. P-12 Variations of Horizontal Knockout Internals
P3.0 High Efficiency Filters
Liquid/Gas Coalescer Cartridge
Liquid/gas coalescer cartridges are similar to cartridge filters in appearance and
size. The media is designed for the gas flow inside to out, thus allowing the
coalesced liquids to “wick” down the special outer media wrap into a basin for
removal. This design is extremely effective due to the media pore structure of
0.3 micron absolute. Basically, this rating means that particles greater than
0.3 micron in size cannot flow through the media.
P-16 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 1998
Compressor Manual Appendix P
The extremely small pore structure is due to the unique flow characteristics of sub-
micron particles. Liquid and gas particles 0.1 to 0.6 micron in size tend to flow
along the path taken by the gas, as opposed to impinging on pipe walls and drop-
ping out. The particles are not large enough to be removed by inertial impingement
and not small enough to be removed by Brownian motion. The 0.3 micron pore
media is designed to trap this unscrubbed portion of gas.
This design has proven to be highly successful in numerous refinery and producing
field applications. In most instances, installing a high efficiency coalescer is less
costly and more effective than making machinery modifications or adding addi-
tional knockout capability. It is recommended for use in such applications as
produced gas streams, refinery hydrogen recycle streams, gas recovery compres-
sion and gas turbine fuel gas supply. Figure P-13 illustrates a high efficiency
liquid/gas coalescer.
Fig. P-13 Cartridge Design - High Efficiency Liquid/Gas Coalescer
February 1998 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. P-17
Appendix P Compressor Manual
Brownian Motion Media
Brownian motion media consists of a thick fiber mesh made from ultra-fine glass or
polypropylene fibers. The media is packed between reinforcing screens for strength
and can vary in thickness from one to several inches. Depending on the application
requirements, the fiber diameter, mesh density and thickness can be varied to
achieve very high removal efficiencies.
Configured into large “candles” or square columns, this design lends itself to high
volume, low velocity applications such as blowers. This design is best used for mist
elimination in highly corrosive services or applications where the gas is relatively
free of solids. It is not recommended for general compressor suction protection due
to its relative large size and difficult maintenance. Figure P-14 illustrates a
Brownian motion high efficiency mist eliminator.
Fig. P-14 Brownian Motion - High Efficiency Mist Eliminator
P-18 1988 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. February 1998
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