Centrifugal Compressors

ExxonMobil Proprietary
COMPRESSORS Section Page

XI-E 1 of 48
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
DESIGN PRACTICES November, 2003
Changes shown by ➧
CONTENTS
Section Page
SCOPE.......................................................................................................................................................4
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................................4
DESIGN PRACTICES ................................................................................................................................4
GLOBAL PRACTICES................................................................................................................................4
OTHER REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................4
DEFINITIONS.............................................................................................................................................5
BACKGROUND .........................................................................................................................................5
GENERAL ..................................................................................................................................................5
SERVICEABILITY AND SPARING.............................................................................................................5
OPERATING PRINCIPLES ........................................................................................................................5
COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CURVES .............................................................................................6
HEAD CAPACITY CHARACTERISTIC CURVES ......................................................................................6
FAN LAWS.................................................................................................................................................7
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR TYPES COMMONLY APPLIED.............................................................7
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR DESIGN FEATURES.............................................................................8
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................................................8
COMPRESSOR SECTION.........................................................................................................................8
COMPRESSOR DUTY DEFINITION..........................................................................................................9
INTERSTAGE DIAPHRAGMS..................................................................................................................10
MAIN PROCESS CONNECTION ORIENTATION....................................................................................10
SHAFT SEALS .........................................................................................................................................11
LUBE OIL, SEAL OIL AND GAS SEAL SYSTEMS ..................................................................................15
CONTROLS AND INSTRUMENTATION..................................................................................................15
INLET SYSTEMS .....................................................................................................................................19
COMPRESSOR TESTING .......................................................................................................................19
DESIGN FLOW PLAN CONTENT............................................................................................................20
DESIGN PROCEDURES .........................................................................................................................20
NOMENCLATURE ...................................................................................................................................20
TABLE
Table 1 Selection Guide For Compressor Main Shaft Seals.................................................................21
ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Company – Fairfax, VA

Section Page COMPRESSORS
XI-E 2 of 48
November, 2003 DESIGN PRACTICES
CONTENTS (Cont)
Page
FIGURES
FIGURE 1 End View Of A Centrifugal Compressor Gas Inlet Path ........................................................ 22
FIGURE 2 Side View Of A Centrifugal Compressor Gas Inlet Path ....................................................... 22
FIGURE 3 Centrifugal Compressor Diffuser And Return Channel Passages ........................................ 23
FIGURE 4 Final Impeller Of A Centrifugal Compressor Section ............................................................ 23
FIGURE 5 Centrifugal Compressor Discharge Volute............................................................................ 24
FIGURE 6 Examples Of Section Performance Curves For An 8 Stage Centrifugal Compressor .......... 25
FIGURE 7 Centrifugal Compressor Performance Curve Terminology ................................................... 26
FIGURE 8 Typical Variable Speed Performance Curves For Centrifugal Compressor.......................... 27
FIGURE 9 Axial Split Centrifugal Compressor ....................................................................................... 28
FIGURE 10 Radial Split Centrifugal Compressor (Barrel)...................................................................... 28
FIGURE 11 Single Stage, Overhung, Centrifugal Compressor.............................................................. 29
FIGURE 12 High Speed Vertical Single Stage Centrifugal Compressor................................................ 29
FIGURE 13 Integrally Geared Centrifugal Compressor ......................................................................... 30
FIGURE 14 Impeller Types & Nomenclature.......................................................................................... 31
FIGURE 15 Sealing Locations ............................................................................................................... 32
FIGURE 16 Typical Head Per Compressor Stage ................................................................................. 33
FIGURE 17 Conventional Centrifugal Compressor Casing Arrangements ............................................ 34
FIGURE 18 Effect Of Changing Gas Conditions On A Centrifugal Compressor Operating At Constant
Speed ....................................................................................................................................................... 35
FIGURE 19 Centrifugal Compressor Curve Rise ................................................................................... 36
FIGURE 20 Centrifugal Compressor Curve Rise ................................................................................... 37
FIGURE 21 Centrifugal Compressor Stability Range............................................................................. 38
FIGURE 22 Labyrinth And Restrictive Ring Seal Arrangements............................................................ 39
FIGURE 23 Oil Seal Arrangements........................................................................................................ 40
FIGURE 24 Single Gas Seal Arrangement ............................................................................................ 41
FIGURE 25 Double Gas Seal Arrangement ........................................................................................... 42
FIGURE 26 Plain Tandem Gas Seal Arrangement ................................................................................ 43
FIGURE 27 Tandem Gas Seal With Intermediate Labyrinth.................................................................. 44
FIGURE 28 Typical System Characteristics........................................................................................... 45
FIGURE 29 Impact Of Compressor Control Methods On Power Requirements .................................... 45
FIGURE 30 Interaction Of Compressor And System Characteristics .................................................. 46
FIGURE 31 Surge Protection Definitions ............................................................................................... 47
FIGURE 32 Surge Protection System Input Requirements.................................................................... 48
EXXONMOBIL RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FAIRFAX, VA.

XI-E 3 of 48
Revision Memo
11/03 Throughout document: Process Compression Stage changed to Compressor Section

Gas Seal Max Pressure from 1450 to 3000 psi
GP/API titles revised.
Reworded to show increasing use of Integrally Geared Compressors in process service.
Included mixed flow impellers in Impeller Design paragraphs.
Clarified origination of Figure 16.
Placed emphasis on use of gas seals over oil seals.
Gas Seal Standards changed to reflect API & GP revisions.
Clarified gas seal paragraphs to reflect API & GP revisions.
Reworded Parallel Operation paragraph slightly.
Changed testing types per PTC10 revision. Corrected required and optional tests per API.
Table 1: Changed per new gas seal limits.
Figure 14: Added Mixed Flow Impeller.
Figure 17: Process Compression Stage to Compressor Section
Figure 19-22: Used MW for mole weight rather than M.
Figure 29: Unefficient replaced with inefficient.

XI-E 4 of 48
SCOPE
This section presents aspects of centrifugal compressors relating to compression service design. Background material is
included to acquaint the compression service designer with the fundamentals of centrifugal compressors, and detail design
considerations are provided to aid with the selection of specific design features of centrifugal compressors and associated
auxiliary systems.
REFERENCES
DESIGN PRACTICES
(Besides other subsections of this section).
Section XV-B Minimizing the Risk of Fire, Explosion or Accident
Section XVIII Guidelines and Considerations for Industrial Hygiene
GLOBAL PRACTICES
➧ GP 03-03-03 Flushing and Drain Piping for Centrifugal and Rotary Gas Compressors.
GP 03-03-10 Strainers for Mechanical Equipment.
➧ GP 10-03-01 Axial and Centrifugal Compressors and Expander-Compressors
GP 10-03-02 Packaged, Integrally Geared Centrifugal Air Compressors.
GP 10-14-01 Lube and Seal Oil Systems for Machinery.
GP 15-01-02 Instrumentation for Compressors and Drivers.
GP 15-07-02 Protective Systems
GP 15-11-01 Control Panels
OTHER REFERENCES
➧ API-614 Lubrication, Shaft-Sealing, and Control-Oil Systems and Auxiliaries for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry
Services.
➧ API-617 Axial and Centrifugal Compressors and Expander-Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry
Services.
API-672 Packaged, Integrally Geared Centrifugal Air Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry
Services.
➧ ASME-PTC10 Performance Test Code on Compressors and Exhausters.
CPEE 241 CompCalc, PC Program for Compressor Network Simulation and Design.
Exxon Engineering Standard EXES 10-15-1B, Dry Gas Seals Purchase.
Hallock, Donald C., Centrifugal Compressors - The Cause of the Curve, Air and Gas Engineering, 1 (1), January 1968.
Hampel, John, What Control Engineers Need to Know About Anti Surge Protection, Controls Expo'84, May 24 1984.
Staroselsky, N., and Ladin, L., Improved Surge Control for Centrifugal Compressors, Chemical Engineering, May 1979.
Staroselsky, N., and Carter D., Protecting Multicase Compressors, Hydrocarbon Processing, March 1990.

XI-E 5 of 48
DEFINITIONS
Compressor Stage - A compressor stage consists of a set of inlet guide vanes, a single impeller, a diffuser and a return
channel. Compressor stages are employed singly, in series and in parallel within the same centrifugal compressor body.
➧ Compressor Section - A compressor section is the compression step between two adjacent pressure levels in a process
system. The compressor section may consist of a single compressor stage or multiple compressor stages arranged in series
between which there is no intercooling, loss or gain in flow, and whose rotational speeds are in fixed relationship (ratio) to each
other. The compressor section is also referred to as "process compression stage" by process personnel.
Maximum Allowable Working Pressure - This is the maximum continuous pressure for which the manufacturer has designed
the compressor when it is operating at its maximum allowable temperature.
Head - Work necessary to raise the pressure of a gas.
Settling Out Pressure - This is the maximum pressure level which can be reached in the compressor following a compressor
trip and before the pressure is vented.
Sealing Pressure - The pressure of the compressed gas against which the seal must operate.
Maximum Dynamic Sealing Pressure - The maximum pressure for which the compressor shaft seal should be designed with
the compressor rotor in operation.
Maximum Static Sealing Pressure - The maximum pressure for which the compressor shaft seals should be designed with the
compressor rotor stationary.
Note: API compressor data sheets specify pressures in psi, bar, and kPa. In this section, bar is the metric unit used for
pressure.
BACKGROUND
GENERAL
Centrifugal compressors handle more compression service flow in hydrocarbon processing plants, than all other compressor
types combined. They are applied in approximately the same numbers as reciprocating compressors, but each machine
handles typically between 10 to 50 times as much gas volume as does each reciprocating compressor. Despite this difference
in volume flow handling capability, the centrifugal machine is a compact unit; and due to its high level of reliability, is normally
installed as a single unspared machine. Services where it is fairly common to find a centrifugal compressor installed include
FLEXICRACKING unit light ends gas, POWERFORMING unit recycle gas, process plant refrigeration and gas pipeline
transmission.
SERVICEABILITY AND SPARING

See Design Practice XI Section C, Compression Machinery Serviceability and Sparing, for reliability factor information and
recommended sparing practices.
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
Compressor can be classified as either dynamic or positive displacement machines. The basic principal of any type of dynamic
compressor is the conversion of gas velocity to pressure. Centrifugal compressors belong to the dynamic category.
The operating principals of the centrifugal compressor are best understood by following the path of the fluid stream through the
compressor. See Figures 1 through 5. In Figure 1, gas enters the compressor through the inlet nozzle connected to the plant
pipework. From the inlet nozzle, it travels into an annular chamber called the inlet volute where it is directed towards the center
by guide vanes and baffles. Referring to Figure 2, the gas leaves the inlet volute and enters the eye of the rotating impeller in an
axial direction. In the impeller, the stream turns perpendicular to the shaft axis and energy is transferred to the gas by the
rotating impeller blades which increase the gas stream velocity. Upon leaving the impeller, the gas enters a circular chamber
called a diffuser where it loses velocity and increases in pressure. See Figure 3. The gas stream is turned through 180 degrees
in the return bend at the end of the diffuser section and then move radially inward in another annular passage known as the
return channel. Vanes are installed in this passage to straighten the spiral gas flow and thus obtain a radial outlet from the
return channel. These vanes are often referred to as de-swirl vanes. Once it leaves the return channel, the gas is turned to
provide an axial entry to the next impeller and the compression process is repeated. In some designs a further set of vanes are
provided at the impeller inlet(s) to modify the angle of gas entry. These are referred to as inlet guide vanes. The gas leaving the
last impeller flows into a diffuser and then into an annular chamber called a discharge volute. See Figures 4 and 5. The
discharge volute collects the gas stream from the diffuser and guides it to the discharge nozzle.

XI-E 6 of 48
BACKGROUND (Cont)
COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CURVES

Curves that define the performance of a centrifugal compressor in terms of head or discharge pressure versus flow rate are
often called compressor characteristic curves. The manufacturers normally provide curves for each compressor section.
These curves are produced by combining the characteristics of the individual compressor stages (wheel curves). Figure 6
shows a typical set of performance curves for an 8 stage centrifugal compressor.
HEAD CAPACITY CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

The three important components of the head capacity curve are slope, choke (or stonewall), and surge. See Figure 7 for an
illustration of head capacity curve terminology.
Curve Slope - The slope of the head capacity curve for a compressor stage is determined by impeller blade geometry and the
characteristics of the compressed gas. The curve slope for a compressor section is further influenced by rotational speed and
the number of compressor stages that make up the compressor section. Speed and gas characteristics affect the curve slope
due to their impact on gas volume reduction for a single compressor stage. These changes are compounded as the gas moves
form one compressor stage to the next.
The change in curve shape with changing gas characteristics is significant when attempting to predict compressor performance
over a range of gas mixtures and compressor speeds. Performance curves generated for one gas mixture cannot be used for a
significantly different gas mixture at the same compressor speed. Similarly, for a fixed gas composition, performance curves
cannot be used to predict performance at a significantly different speed.
A POWERFORMING unit recycle gas machine is a typical example where changes in gas composition occur. Normal operation
is on hydrogen rich process gas where molecular weight is in the 7-10 range while during the catalyst regeneration cycle, the
molecular weight is typically 30. The low MW curve will be flatter and at any given flow will produce less head than the high MW
curve. The low MW curve will, however, have a wider operating range from surge to choke. A similar effect is seen with
changing speed where curve slope becomes steeper and operating range reduces as speed increases. Changes in curve
shape and operating range will become more significant as the number of impellers in a compressor section increases.
Choke - For every compressor curve there is a maximum flow limit often referred to as choke or stonewall. This maximum flow
limit is approached as the velocity of the gas stream relative to the impeller blades nears the sonic velocity of the gas mixture
being compressed. For gases with heavier molecular weights (low sonic velocity) the region approaching choke is identifiable
by a rapid increase in the slope of the head capacity curve.
Surge - The minimum flow limit of a compressor stage is determined by the unstable cyclic phenomenon known as surge.
Operating a compressor in surge can result in serious damage. Surge occurs when a compressor losses its ability to develop a
pressure equal to that existing at its exit, and a reversal of gas flow takes place. The reversal of flow continues until the
pressure at the exit drops to a level where the compressor can again establish forward flow. Having reached this point, the
compressor continues to move the gas stream forward until it again reaches the point where the exit pressure exceeds the
pressure that the compressor is capable of producing, and another flow reversal occurs. This cycle continues to repeat itself
until the flow to the compressor is increased or the pressure ratio is decreased to a point where compressor can break the cycle
and operate in the stable region of the head capacity curve.
Stability and Turndown - The term “stability" is used to define the available operating range from the Normal duty point to
surge flow. Stability is defined in percentage terms as being 100% - (Surge Volume Flow/Normal Volume Flow x 100), when
operating at design inlet temperature and pressure and with design gas composition.
Another term used to define the operating range of a machine is turndown which, unlike stability, takes into account the effects
of control methods such as suction throttling or speed control. This term is better related to mass flow variation than volume flow
especially when a suction throttle valve is employed. Turndown with respect to Normal flow is defined as 100% - (Surge Mass
Flow/Normal Mass Flow x 100), when operating at design inlet temperature and with design gas composition.
Head Capacity Curves for Variable Speed Machines - A typical variable speed performance curve is shown in Figure 8. By
variation of speed, a wide range of operating conditions are achievable. The performance of the centrifugal compressor at
speeds other than design can be approximated by the fan laws.

XI-E 7 of 48
BACKGROUND (Cont)
FAN LAWS
Centrifugal compressor performance can be estimated for points other than the normal flow and speed point by use of the fan
laws. These laws reflect the basic operating principles of dynamic machines that volume capacity is proportional to the
peripheral blade speed, head is proportional to the square of the peripheral blade speed and power to cube. To use the laws,
compressor performance curves must be expressed in terms of head versus inlet volume flow.
Q2 N2
=
Q1 N1
2
H2 æ N2 ö
= ç ÷
H1 è N1 ø
3
GHP2 æ N2 ö
= ç ÷
GHP1 è N1 ø
The fan laws produce approximate results which are reasonable in the 80 to 105% speed range. The accuracy of the predicted
performance decreases as the speed change increases. The accuracy of these predictions also decreases with heavier gases
as the effects of volume reduction ratios become more pronounced.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR TYPES COMMONLY APPLIED

Multi-Stage Single Shaft - The most common type of centrifugal compressor found in process plant applications is the multi-
stage single shaft compressor. This category is divided into two groups based on casing joint orientation. These are axial split
(Figure 9) or radial split machines (Figure 10). Axial split machines have casing joints that are parallel to the shaft axis and are
often specified to have all process connections located in the lower half of the casing. This permits the removal of the upper
casing half for maintenance purposes without disturbing the process piping. Radial split machines have casing joints that are
transverse to the shaft centerline and may have process nozzle connections located in any position around the circumference of
the casing. Maintenance of radial split machines requires removal of the compressor internal assembly (bundle) from the non-
drive end of the compressor. Sufficient plot space must be provided for this operation. Radial split multi-stage machines are
often referred to as barrel compressors.
It is normally left to the manufacturers to select casing joint orientation based on operating experience. Typically for inlet flows
up to 10,000 ICFM (17,000 inlet m3/h) and pressures below 600 psig (41 barg), axial split casings are used. Radial split
machines would normally be used at higher pressures within this flow range. For higher flow rates, the axial split machine is
typically limited to pressures of 300 psig (21 barg). These guidelines reflect the fact that, as casing size or internal pressures
increase, it is more difficult to seal an axially oriented joint.
For services where the partial pressure of hydrogen at the casing maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) exceeds 200
psig (14.0 barg), API-617 requires that a radially split casing be used.
Single Stage Overhung - For services with high volumetric flows and low head requirements, single stage overhung machines
can be employed. See Figure 11. These machines use a cantilevered rotor design and have an axial inlet nozzle and a radial
discharge nozzle. They are available in direct drive or integrally geared configurations.
High Speed Single Stage Vertical - These compressors are similar to vertical in line high speed pumps. See Figure 12. They
operate at speeds of up to 33,000 RPM. Their range of application is determined by driver size and discharge pressure
limitations. For further information refer to Design Practice XI Section B, Compressor Type Selection.
➧ High Speed Integrally Geared - Typically used in plant or instrument air services, they are becoming increasingly popular for
use in process service. These machines employ a central gear unit with multiple high speed shafts located around the gear
wheel periphery. The compressor impellers can be mounted on both ends of these shafts or have a single impeller per shaft.
See Figure 13. For air services, interstage coolers and separators are typically provided with the machine as a package.
GP 10-03-02 covers the requirements for this machine type in utility and instrument air service. GP 10-03-01 contains the
requirements for this machine type in process service.

XI-E 8 of 48
BACKGROUND (Cont)
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR DESIGN FEATURES

➧ Impeller Design - Closed or semi-open type impellers are commonly used in process gas applications. The semi-open impeller
has no cover. See Figure 14. Impellers can be further classified as two dimensional (without inducers), or three dimensional
(with inducer). The blade leading edge in a two dimensional impeller does not start until the gas flow in the impeller is moving
radially. For the three dimensional impeller, the blades are extended such that the gas stream encounters the leading edge
while either moving in the axial direction or while it is in the process of turning perpendicular to the compressor shaft. Adding an
inducer section to the blades increases the head capability of an impeller by permitting operation at higher speeds and tends to
steepen the compressor stage performance curve. Even higher flows are being obtained through the use of mixed flow
impellers. In these impellers, the flow at the discharge is not perpendicular to the shaft but has an axial component.
Most impellers used in process plant applications are the closed, two or three dimensional type with backward leaning blades.
Impellers for high flow or heavy gas services are typically the three dimensional, closed, backward leaning blade type. For very
high flow, head or speed applications impellers are typically the semi-open, three dimensional design.
Rotor Support - Conventional multi stage centrifugal compressors are arranged with the impellers between bearings. The
bearing brackets are attached to the casing which is nominally center line supported . Movement of the rotor center line, as the
casing temperature changes from ambient to operating levels, is therefore minimized and coupling alignment is better
preserved. Single stage overhung compressor rotors are supported from a single bearing housing containing a thrust bearing
and a pair of radial bearings. The impeller is cantilevered beyond the pair of radial bearings.
Balance Pistons and Associated Leakage - Multistage centrifugal compressors develop a considerable thrust load from the
discharge end toward the inlet due to the pressure difference across each of the impellers. To minimize the load that must be
carried by the thrust bearing, a cylinder (balance piston) is installed on the shaft at the discharge end of the rotor. The balance
piston has discharge pressure applied to its inboard side and inlet pressure to its outboard side. Careful selection of the
balance piston diameter results in a thrust force approximately equal and opposite to that created by the impellers. Inlet
pressure is maintained outboard of the balance piston by providing a labyrinth seal at the piston and piping the chamber on its
outboard side to the compressor inlet. This pipe is referred to as the balance piston line. Sizing and cleanliness of this line is
critical to proper compressor operation. See Figure 15. An alternative means of limiting thrust bearing loading is to arrange the
compressor stages in two axially opposed groups (i.e., back to back), with the objective of balancing the thrust, although this
typically does not eliminate the need for a balance piston. This construction method is frequently employed on very high
pressure services and on intercooled compressors with two compressor sections installed within a single casing.
Seals - Figure 15 shows some of the various sealing locations in a centrifugal compressor. In addition to the main shaft seals
located at the point where the compressor shaft exits the pressure containing casing, there are seals located at the balance
piston, division walls (in multi-section casings), impeller eyes, and impeller hubs. For seals other than the main shaft seals,
labyrinths of varying designs are normally used. In these locations, the prime objective is to maintain differential pressures and
restrict rather than completely eliminate flow. The function of the main shaft seals is either to reduce or eliminate the outward
leakage of process gas and/or to prevent inward leakage of air.
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
COMPRESSOR SECTION
Determining the number of compressor sections required for any service, is a choice that is influenced by compressor discharge
temperature, compressor head generating capability, and the need for process connections at intermediate pressure levels.
Discharge Temperature - The factors which limit the allowable discharge temperature are as follows:
• Gas Fouling - Centrifugal compressor performance is sensitive to flow passage restrictions; therefore, fouling of the
compressor internals due to polymerization of gas must be avoided. This limits the allowable discharge temperature to
approximately 250°F (120°C) in acetylene, diolefin and olefin rich streams. See Section XI-A, Fouling Tendency.
• Material and Construction Limitations - The materials used for parts such as labyrinths and O-rings, limit the compressor
casing maximum allowable discharge temperature. Large axially split designs and multi-nozzle cast casings are susceptible
to distortion as the casing temperature rise increases. Casing distortion can cause casing joint leaks and alter critical
compressor internal clearances. For these reasons, the maximum discharge temperature of a compressor section should
be limited to 350°F (175°C). For applications in excess of this, machinery specialists should be consulted. For guidance in
determining centrifugal compressor discharge temperatures, see Design Practice XI Section D, Compression
Calculations.

XI-E 9 of 48
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

Specially designed, single stage overhung machines are commonly used for hot regeneration gas service up to 500°F
(260°C) with little modification other than to seals and have been applied up to temperatures of 800°F (425°C).
➧ Head Capability - Figure 16 gives typical values of head that can be obtained from an individual compressor stage as a function
of gas molecular weight. While the impeller design sets the head capability, the molecular weight limits head that can be
obtained. A Mach number at the impeller discharge of one is a practical limit for most compressor designs. Since heavier mole
weight gases have lower sonic velocities, the tip speed of impellers in these services is lower restriciting the head produced.
A compressor stage consists of just one impeller and diffuser combination. Limits on shaft length place a practical limit on the
number of compressor stages that can be installed in a single casing. Most designs limit the number of compressor stages in a
single casing to 10; however, for casings with multiple compressor sections (intercooling or side streams), this number should
be reduced by one for each additional inlet or outlet nozzle required. For marginal applications where these guidelines suggest
more than a single casing is necessary, the possibility of using a single casing should be reviewed with a machinery specialist.
Single stage overhung machines with gearing can produce heads up to 40,000 ft (12,200 m) as can the individual stages of the
integrally geared centrifugal air compressors. The vertical in-line high speed machines can produce heads of up to 30,000 ft
(9,200 m).
Process Requirements - Process requirements influence the number of compressor sections. The need for side streams in a
refrigeration process and the use of two separation stages in a production facility are typical examples.
Compression Stage and Casing Arrangements - Figure 17 illustrates some common casing and compressor section
arrangements.
COMPRESSOR DUTY DEFINITION

Compressor Operating Conditions - Centrifugal compressor performance is particularly sensitive to variations in operating
conditions. All required operating conditions must therefore be given in the Design Specification. See Design Practice XI
Section A, Operating Conditions.
The centrifugal compressor is designed to produce a given head at a given inlet volume flow rate. Failure to completely define
all operating conditions can result in the purchase of a compressor with too little head generating capability and insufficient
discharge pressure. For example, consider the performance curve for a fixed speed compressor section shown in Figure 18.
Curve AB is for a machine designed to operate on air with an inlet pressure of 14.5 psia (1.0 bara), inlet temperature of 100°F
(38°C), a dry air MW = 29 and a specific heat ratio (k) of 1.4. Normal inlet volume flow, discharge pressure and power are
shown as being the 100% case. If the inlet temperature is reduced to 40°F (4.5°C) and all other conditions remain the same the
discharge pressure will increase to approximately 106% of Normal. The reduced inlet temperature will also result in a power
increase, see Curve 2. If inlet pressure is reduced to 12 psia (0.8 bara) and all other variables are held per the AB base case,
the discharge pressure and power requirements will fall by the amount shown by Curve 3. The next change will be to raise the
gas MW to 40 with all other variables as the base case. This will have the impact as defined by Curve 4 where significant
increases in discharge pressure and power requirements can be seen. Finally the specific heat ratio of the gas will be reduced
to 1.1 which will change the machine performance per Curve 5. This shows a small increase in discharge pressure but no
impact on compressor power requirements.
For evaluation of the impact of gas property changes on machine performance for a specific case, the calculation methods
defined in Design Practice XI Section D, Compression Calculations, should be used.
Specifying Curve Shape
• Pressure Ratio Rise - To ensure that a centrifugal compressor will be controllable and will operate stably within its required
operating range, the head-capacity curve of the compressor must rise continuously from Normal flow to the flow rate at
which surge begins. There is no rational method available for defining the minimum curve rise necessary to make the
machine controllable for a given installation. It is, however, possible to define the minimum curve rise that a well designed
compressor can reasonably be expected to provide. The most convenient method of specifying curve rise is in terms of
percent increase in pressure ratio (rr), e.g., a machine that produces a pressure ratio of 3.0 at Normal flow and 3.3 at surge
flow has an increase in pressure ratio of 10%.

XI-E 10 of 48

The pressure rise capability of a compressor is dependent on the number of compressor stages and the sonic velocity of
the gas steam at inlet conditions. Figures 19 & 20 provide a graphical relationship between pressure ratio, gas sonic
velocity and the number of compressor stages. Sonic velocity can be obtained by either using the equations given in
Figures 19 & 20 or by using the gas properties option in the EMRE PC Program for Compressor Network Simulation and
Design, CompCalc. The number of stages can be estimated using Figure 16 in conjunction with the head requirement for
the service. All well designed compressors can normally exceed the values produced by using this technique; therefore, the
Design Specification should quote the figure as the minimum acceptable rise in pressure ratio. GP 10-03-01 makes
reference to this requirement and states that values will be specified by the Purchaser.
• Stability Range - The Design Specification should state the required compressor inlet volume capacity at the surge point as
a specified percentage of normal capacity at normal speed and normal (unthrottled) inlet conditions.
Specifying a reasonable stability range will discourage the vendor from sacrificing operating flexibility and efficiency by
placing the normal operating point close to surge. Figure 21 can be used to establish the maximum percentage value of
Normal flow at which surge should occur. The number of compressor stages can be estimated using Figure 16. Well
designed compressors should have surge points at flow rates no higher than defined by this method; therefore, the Design
Specification should quote the figure as the maximum acceptable volumetric capacity at the surge point. GP 10-03-01 also
makes reference to this requirement.
• Choke - To prevent curve shape selections that place the normal operating point in the region of the curve where head
drops dramatically with increasing flow, GP 10-03-01 specifies that the head capability of the machine at 115% of Normal
flow should not be less than 85% of that produced at Normal flow. The ability of a compressor manufacturer to meet this
requirement is dependent on the molecular weight of the gas stream. It should be recognized that it is not always possible
to meet this requirement for high molecular weight gases; however, the intent is to ensure that the manufacturer selects
compressor stages loaded at or near their best efficiency flow point.
Manufacturers Performance Curves - API-617 requires the vendor to provide compressor section characteristic curves
showing discharge pressure, power, polytropic head, and polytropic efficiency versus inlet volumetric flow. In addition to this the
manufacturer must provide curves for variable speed machines at minimum speed, 80, 90, 100 and, 105 % of rated speed.
Curves can also be produced to show pressure ratio and suction pressure versus inlet volume flow or all the above variables
versus mass flow. If any curves, not requested by API-617, are needed they should be requested in the Design Specification.
When reviewing curves for parameters such as discharge pressure, inlet pressure or mass flow, care must be taken. These
curves are dependent upon an assumed set of inlet or discharge conditions and the reviewer must ensure that these conditions
are consistent with the analysis being performed. This is particularly true for curves of sections other than the first of a multi-
section machine or curves said to define the combined performance of all compressor sections as the performance of the
interstage equipment is assumed.
INTERSTAGE DIAPHRAGMS
When a centrifugal compressor casing with intermediate main process connections is specified, the Design Specification must
provide the maximum and minimum pressures at each connection considering all operating, startup, shutdown and trip
conditions. This data is used by the manufacturer to design the compressor internals to withstand the maximum differential
pressures imposed.
To illustrate, consider a compressor casing specified to have more than one compressor section with the stages intercooled.
The casing will have an internal wall or diaphragm separating the compressor sections. Depending upon the piping and system
arrangement, it may be possible to subject the diaphragm to higher differential pressures than the compressor manufacturer
anticipated. On shutdown, it is possible that the pressure in the low pressure section will settle out near to its normal inlet
pressure. The pressure in the high pressure section may settle out at a pressure between its normal inlet and discharge
pressures. The result would be a higher than normal differential pressure across the diaphragm separating the compressor
sections. This condition should be clearly specified.
MAIN PROCESS CONNECTION ORIENTATION

The Design Specification should identify the orientation of the compressor main process connections. The specified location will
be dependent to a large extent on the type of machine foundation employed, i.e., either on an elevated table or at grade.

XI-E 11 of 48

Axially split compressors may be specified with inlet and discharge connections located in either the top or bottom half of the
casing. Connections in the bottom half of the compressor offer the advantage that the process piping need not be disturbed
when the casing top half is removed for maintenance. The largest connections in the casing top half normally point straight up
and those in the bottom half, straight down. However, horizontally oriented primary and side stream connections are available
on many models.
For a radially split multi-stage (barrel) type compressors, the connections can be located anywhere on the circumference of the
machine but not in the ends of the machine. Single stage radially split compressors have nozzles oriented as shown in
Figure 11.
If a compressor is specified with more than one compressor section in a single casing, it is possible that physical space
available may prevent the manufacturer from providing a machine with all main process nozzles oriented in the same direction.
SHAFT SEALS
Main Shaft Seal Types - The compressor main shaft seals are located at either end of the compressor shaft adjacent to the
machine bearing housings. See Figure 15. The seal will be balanced to compressor inlet pressure or if a buffer gas supply is
used they will be subjected to the supply pressure of the buffer gas. For machines that have the last compression stage located
next to the balance piston, the seal at that end of the machine will still be subjected to inlet pressure; however, the temperature
at that seal will be close to discharge temperature.
There are many types of seals available, with each manufacturer having their own particular variation of a given seal type.
Compressor main shaft seals may be one or a combination of five seal types which are labyrinths, restrictive rings, liquid film oil
seals, mechanical (contact) oil seals, and self acting gas seals.
• Labyrinth Seal - The labyrinth seal is the simplest and the least expensive of all the compressor shaft seal types. Three
varieties are used in centrifugal compressors, straight, stepped and interference types. These are illustrated in Figure 22A,
B & C. Labyrinth seals utilize a number of shaft or casing mounted teeth with a radial clearance between the teeth and the
opposing surface. The teeth act like a series of restriction orifices, with a pressure break down across each tooth.
Labyrinth leakage rates are a function of the clearance, differential pressure, and the geometry of the flow path. Stepped
and interference labyrinth leakage rates are approximately 50-60% of those for the straight labyrinth design.
• Restrictive Ring Seal - The restrictive ring seal operates on the same principle as a labyrinth, with the labyrinth teeth being
replaced by carbon rings. See Figure 22D. The rings are rub tolerant; however, close clearances are used and
replacement due to wear is more frequent than for labyrinth seals. The close clearances employed by the seal also make it
susceptible to fouling in dirt laden services. For this reason it should not be used on air compressor duties. Leakage rates
are approximately 20% of those for the straight labyrinth seal.
• Liquid Film Oil Seals - The liquid film oil seal is illustrated in Figure 23A. It contains two bushings arranged back to back.
Oil is injected into the cavity between the bushings at a pressure approximately 5 psi (0.35 Bar), above the internal gas
pressure. Oil differential pressure is controlled by maintaining an oil level in an overhead tank in which the vapor space at
the top of the tank is referenced to the compressor internal gas pressure. There is a small flow of oil through the inner
bushing which prevents the gas from flowing outwards. This oil flow exits the seal housing via an oil drain and can either be
returned to the compressor seal oil reservoir, or reclaimed, or discarded if contaminated by the process gas. The flow rate
is typically 10-15 US gallons per day per seal (35-55 liters/day). The majority of the seal oil flow is across the outer bushing
to atmosphere. This oil flow cools the seal and is returned to the seal oil reservoir.
• Mechanical (Contact) Oil Seal - See Figure 23B. This seal typically contains a pressure breakdown sleeve outboard and a
mechanical contact seal on the inboard or process gas side. Seal face contact is maintained by hydraulic pressure and
spring forces. Oil is injected at a pressure of 35-50 psi (2.5-3.5 bar) above the internal gas pressure. There is a small flow
of oil across the seal faces which prevents the outward flow of gas. This oil flow exits the compressor via an oil drain and
can either be returned to the compressor seal oil reservoir, or reclaimed or discarded if contaminated by the process gas.
The flow rate is typically 5-10 US gallons (20-35 liters) per day per seal.
• Self Acting Gas Seals (Dry Gas Seals) - The self acting gas seal does not require any liquid for sealing, lubrication or
cooling as it uses the sealed gas to perform these functions. The gas can be either the compressed process gas or an
external gas supply. A gas seal consists of a stationary face and a rotating seat etched with a spiral grooved pattern. The
rotating grooves raise the pressure of the gas which maintains a small gap between the seat and face of 0.06 to 2
thousandths of an inch (3 to 10 microns). Leakage rates across a single gas seal is very low, typically 2% of an equivalent
plain labyrinth seal. The common arrangements for self acting gas seals are as follows:

XI-E 12 of 48

1. Single Gas Seals - See Figure 24 - The single seal consists of one seat and face combination. Filtered gas, typically
taken from the compressor discharge line, is injected into a cavity between the seal and seal chamber labyrinth. The
majority of the filtered gas flows into the machine across the seal chamber labyrinth, with the remainder leaking across
the gas seal to atmosphere.
2. Double Gas Seal - See Figure 25 - The double seal consists of two seat and face combinations arranged back to back.
An external supply of filtered gas is injected between the two seals at a pressure higher than compressor sealing
pressure. In most applications, the external gas supply (buffer) is an inert gas such as nitrogen. The filtered gas leaks
inboard across the primary seal and outboard across the secondary seal. There is no process gas leakage to
atmosphere as only buffer gas leaks across the secondary seal. The secondary seal will also seal against compressor
internal gas pressure in the event of a major primary seal failure. A control system is provided to maintain a constant
buffer gas to internal process gas differential pressure.
Double gas seals are less expensive than tandem gas seals and have simpler auxiliary systems. The primary
application concerns are the availability of a reliable buffer gas source and the impact of buffer gas leakage into the
process stream. The buffer gas source must be reliable since the compressor is inoperable without buffer gas for the
seals.
3. Plain Tandem Gas Seal - See Figure 26 - This seal has two seat and face combinations arranged in series. The
primary seal is designed to seal against compressor sealing pressure. The secondary seal normally operates with a
small differential pressure across it but is also designed for compressor sealing pressure thus providing a backup in
case of a primary seal failure. Filtered gas, typically taken from the compressor discharge line, is injected into a cavity
between the primary seal and the seal chamber labyrinth. A small amount of the filtered process gas leaks across the
primary seal into a cavity between the primary and secondary seals. This cavity is normally connected to a flare or
hydrocarbon vent system which is maintained at a pressure that is typically just above atmospheric pressure. A typical
secondary seal leakage rate to atmosphere is approximately 0.5 SCFM (14 Sl/min.). The secondary seal leakage is
normally piped to the atmosphere at a safe location. This seal arrangement will not contaminate a process stream with
an external gas supply; however, there is some leakage of the process gas to the atmosphere.
4. Tandem Gas Seal With Intermediate Labyrinth - See Figure 27 - This arrangement is a variation of the plain tandem
design, having an intermediate labyrinth installed in the cavity between the primary and secondary seals. Filtered gas,
typically taken from the compressor discharge line, is injected into a cavity between the primary seal and the seal
chamber labyrinth. A small amount of the filtered gas leaks across the primary seal into a cavity between the primary
seal and an intermediate labyrinth. This cavity is vented to the plant flare or hydrocarbon vent system which typically
operates at pressures close to atmospheric. An external supply of filtered buffer gas is injected into the cavity between
the intermediate labyrinth and the secondary seal at a pressure that is higher than the flare or vent system pressure.
Buffer gas leaks across the intermediate labyrinth and exits to the vent or flare system together with the process gas
that has leaked across the primary seal. The leakage across the secondary seal to atmosphere is just buffer gas,
which, if nitrogen is used, makes this type of gas seal a zero emissions device. The primary seal is designed to
operate with compressor sealing pressure. The secondary seal normally operates with a small differential across it but
is also designed for compressor sealing pressure to provide a backup in case of primary seal failure.
5. Triple Seal Arrangements - For very high sealing pressures, three self acting dry gas seals can be arranged in series
with the first two seals sharing the pressure reduction duty. While some experience does exists with these
arrangements the use of a triple seal should not be specified without consultation with a machinery specialist.
Shaft Seal Type Selection - API-617 requires that the Purchaser specify the type of shaft sealing device that should be used.
The following recommendations assume that specialists in the areas of industrial hygiene, air quality, and safety will review the
service and provide inputs necessary to determine the adequacy of the proposed arrangements. See Design Practice XVIII
Section B, Guidelines and Considerations For Industrial Hygiene. Additional factors affecting seal selection and design are,
the maximum static and dynamic sealing pressures, the settling out pressure, sealing temperatures and other process
considerations. See Table 1 for a summary of the following guidelines.
• Labyrinth and Restrictive Ring Seals - Labyrinths are recommended for all air services. Labyrinth and restrictive ring
seals may be used only for nitrogen or other inert gas services. For high sealing pressures and valuable gases, it may be
possible to justify a single self acting dry gas seal. These recommendations assume that the gas stream is Respiratory
Class R-4 and no fugitive emission limits apply. Typically the maximum temperatures and pressures to which these seal
designs should be exposed are 350°F (175°C) and 150 psig (10 barg). For other applications machinery specialists should
be consulted.

XI-E 13 of 48

• Liquid Film and Mechanical (Contact) Oil Seals - Both of these seal types use oil injection to minimize leakage of
process gas to the atmosphere and are suitable for sealing gas streams with Respiratory Classes R-1 through R-4. For
services with sealing pressures up to 650 psig (45 barg) and temperatures to 350°F (175°C), both seal types are applicable
and should be specified. The compressor vendor can then choose which to offer based on operating experience. For
higher sealing pressures a liquid film oil seal should be specified. Liquid film oil seals have been applied at pressure of
5000 psig (345 barg).
➧ • Self Acting Gas Seals - Gas seals may be used for maximum dynamic sealing pressures up to 3000 psig (210 barg),
maximum static sealing pressures to 3750 psig (260 barg) and temperatures up to 500°F (260°C). This is the current limit
of operating experience for dual seal arrangements. Gas Seals should only be specified above these pressures after
consultation with a machinery specialist for verification of experience at contract conditions. If available, gas seals should
be used on all new equipment for safety, reliability, contamination and maintenance reasons.
• For services with sealing pressures of 300 psig (20 barg) to 3000 psig (210 barg) and gases with Respiratory
Classes R-1 through R-4, specify double gas seals. Be careful to ensure that a reliable buffer gas source is
available before specifying the double gas seal.
• For services with sealing pressures of 360 psig (25 barg) to 3000 psig (210 barg) and gases with Respiratory
Classes R-2 through R-4, specify plain tandem seals.
• For services with sealing pressures 435 psig (30 barg) to 3000 psig (210 barg) and gases with Respiratory
Classes R-1 through R-4, specify tandem gas seals with an Intermediate labyrinth.
• For services outside the above pressure ranges, consult with a machinery specialist to determine if experience is
available at the contract coniditons.
➧ Gas Seal Standards - Currently the API and Global Practices do not cover all of the requirements for the specification of gas
seals and their auxiliaries. Howwever, GP 10-03-01 and API 617 has basic requirements for the gas seal. GP 10-14-01 and
API 614 discuss specifications for the seal support systems. GP 15-01-02 specifies auxiliary system schematic and
instrumentation requirements. When specifying a gas seal, the designer should consult with a machinery specialist to ensure
that the job specification includes all of the required information.
Gas Seal Design Sensitivities
• Gas Filtration - Self acting dry gas seals need to be supplied with a stream of dry, filtered gas at the necessary pressure
and temperature for desired seal performance. For tandem or single seal designs, this is typically achieved by taking a
tapping from the compressor discharge line, prior to any cooler, filtering the gas to 5 micron or better and then controlling
the gas pressure relative to compressor sealing pressure. A high level of filtration is necessary because of small operating
gaps between the seal faces. Although larger than the operating gap for some applications, a 5 micron level of filtration has
generally proven to be sufficient for continued trouble free operation. Any gas stream required to pass across any pair of
seal faces must be filtered to this level. This includes buffer gas supplied to either double or tandem seals with intermediate
labyrinths.
• Liquids in the Gas Stream - Seal performance can be degraded by liquids in the gas stream. They have a tendency to
leave deposits on the seal faces or cause the accumulation of dirt particles in groves provided on the rotating seat. Liquid
can enter the primary seal faces from the filtered process gas or the secondary seal faces from lube oil migration along the
shaft. Liquids in the filtered process gas stream are typically eliminated by using hot compressor discharge gas and by
taking tappings from the top of the discharge line rather than side or bottom. Every effort should be made to eliminate the
potential for liquid in the process gas supply by using discharge gas from the final compressor section or by using an
external gas supply. If concerns still remain regarding the quality of the available process gas and double seal
arrangements are not practical, then coalescers and/or gas heaters should be considered.
To avoid contamination of the secondary seal from lube oil migration, various options are available. They include the use of
mechanical devices to limit or restrict oil flow, eductor systems and the use of separation gas injected into a restriction seal
(See Figure 26). The latter arrangement eliminates oil flow by providing a positive flow of gas along the shaft in the
direction of the bearing housing. Nitrogen is the preferred medium for separation gas for this application, however, the
control method employed to regulate the supply of this utility should be sufficiently sophisticated to keep the consumption to
a minimum.

XI-E 14 of 48

• Reverse Rotation - Grooves are etched into the rotating seat of a gas seal. They create a gas pressure between the seal
faces in operation; however, they are typically uni-directional and do not provide any pressure profile to separate the seal
faces if spun in the reverse direction. This means that if the compressor spins in the reverse direction the seal faces will rub
and very quickly fail. It is therefore important to ensure that compressor system design eliminates or minimizes the
potential for reverse rotation. Bi-directional seal designs have been developed, but have little operating experience. These
designs results in a reduced and less stable operating gap. Bi-directional seals should not be specified without consultation
with machinery specialists.
• Reverse Pressurization - Gas seals are designed for a pressure differential in one direction. If they are subjected to
reverse pressure, the seat and face will touch and cause sudden seal failure. Compressors that have low internal gas
pressures to seal are susceptible to reverse pressurization when vent pressure, under upset conditions, exceeds sealing
pressure, or if the inlet pressure to the compressor goes sub-atmospheric. The Design Specification must state both
normal and maximum operating pressures for the hydrocarbon vent or flare system to which primary seal leakage is routed.
If it is possible for sealing pressure to fall below the pressure of the plant vent or flare system, then a note must be added to
the Design Specification. This note should require that the sealing chambers be balanced to a pressure higher than
compressor suction pressure, e.g., second stage inlet pressure.
Buffer Gas Requirements - The foregoing discussions covered buffer gas requirements for various types of gas seals. Liquid
film and mechanical (contact) oil seals may also require buffer gas in special situations. For oil seals, buffer gas is injected into
the seal chamber labyrinths located at either end of the machine. See Figure 15. The buffer gas supply is controlled to have a
higher pressure than the sealing pressure thus resulting in a flow of buffer gas across the labyrinth into the machine. The buffer
gas also flows into the inner seal chamber between the main shaft seal and the seal chamber labyrinth. The seal oil leakage
into the inner seal chamber mixes with the buffer gas rather than the process gas thus reducing the possibility of oil
contamination by the process gas. Oil seal applications where buffer gas should be provided are as follows:
1. Use in low temperature services to maintain the temperature of the oil in the inner seal chamber above its pour point. This
is normally accomplished by taking a warm stream of compressed gas off the operating compressor and an external source
of buffer gas is not required.
2. In high temperature service, use a buffer gas to cool the inner seal to prevent seal overheating and oil degradation.
3. Use buffer gas to maintain a positive internal gas pressure at the seals under all operating conditions including negative
suction pressure. This buffer gas is normally compressed gas from the operating compressor and no external source of
supply is required. However, for compressor operation on air an external nitrogen buffer gas supply is required to avoid the
mixing of air and oil in the inner seal chambers.
4. Use buffer gas to prevent compressed gases containing corrosive agents from contacting the oil in the seal and
contaminating both the lube and seal oil of compressor trains with combined lube and seal oil systems. This could result in
corrosion of oil system components and damage to bearings and seals. See Combined Lube and Seal Oil Systems
discussion this Section.
Centrifugal compressors with oil shaft seals should never be operated in a closed loop using air or oxygen, unless special safety
features such as those described below have been provided. If this is not done, seal oil will leak into the recirculating gas
stream and could generate an explosive concentration within the closed loop. See also Design Practice XV Section B,
Minimizing the Risk of Fire, Explosion or Accident. Applications of this type must be reviewed with the machinery specialist.
An example is the use of a centrifugal POWERFORMING recycle gas compressor equipped with oil type shaft seals to circulate
air for drying out the piping system or for catalyst regeneration. To guard against entry of the oil into the circulating air stream,
the compressor should be specified to have nitrogen injected at the inner seal chamber labyrinth. The nitrogen acts as an inert
gas barrier between the hot air at the compressor discharge and the seal oil at the inner oil drain chambers, and it provides an
inert atmosphere at the inner seal. The buffer also serves as a barrier to keep oil from entering the process piping. The buffer
gas system must be instrumented for alarm at low differential pressure, to signal failure of the protection system.
Buffer gas consumption rates will vary with machine size, seal design and service conditions. For an estimate of leakage rates
see Design Practice XI Section P, Compressor Unit Auxiliary and Installation Facilities.
API-617 requires that seals be provided with the facility for buffer gas injection but does not stipulate that buffer gas must be
used. Buffer gas may be an inert gas such as nitrogen or a sweet hydrocarbon gas taken from a suitable location within the
process unit. The Design Specification must give details of buffer gas composition, pressure, and temperature. GP 10-03-01
requires the compressor manufacturer to supply the buffer gas manifold together with the necessary valves, pressure indicators,
flow meters, check valves, throttle valves, differential pressure indicators and alarms, controllers and control valves.

XI-E 15 of 48
LUBE OIL, SEAL OIL AND GAS SEAL SYSTEMS

General - The function of these systems is primarily to provide an uninterrupted supply of clean and cooled fluid to the bearings
and seals of the compressor, gear and driver. Compressor train reliability depends on the continued operation of these
systems. To attain long continuous runs, the key components of these systems are spared so that maintenance can be
performed with the compressor train in operation. Oil system pumps are spared with automatic start up of the spare pump
provided. Coolers and filters are spared, and are provided with cross-over valving designed to prevent flow interruption during
the switching operation. In addition to the use of multiple key components, the systems are equipped with extensive
instrumentation which raise alarms and provide shutdown and permissive start functions.
Combined Versus Separate Lube and Seal Oil Systems - For compressors using oil seals, combining lube and seal oil
requirements and providing one common system to meet the needs of both bearings and seals offers significant cost savings.
These systems can be combined if the process gas stream cannot permanently degrade the oil or if a suitable clean buffer gas
supply can be found and injected into the machine sealing area thus preventing process gas and oil contact and hence
contamination. Gas streams with a H2S content less than 100 ppm by volume are suitable for combined oil systems, for higher
H2S content a suitable source of sweet buffer gas must be found or separate systems become necessary. The Design
Specification must state whether the lube and seal oil system is to be separate or combined.
Common Oil Systems for Multiple Machine Trains - Combining the oil requirements of several compressor trains into a single
oil system can also provide significant savings. The combined system must be designed with sufficient redundancy to avoid any
impact on individual machine train availability and should also permit maintenance on one machine train while others remain in
operation. The machine trains need to be physically located in close proximity so that oil drain lines returning to the reservoir will
have the necessary slope. Drain line runs in excess of 80 feet (25 m) should be avoided. The Design Specification should state
when an oil system is intended to serve more than one compressor train.
Oil System Pump Drivers - GP 10-14-01 requires that the driver for the main oil pump be electric motor driven and the standby
steam turbine driven. If another arrangement is required, the Design Specification must so specify. For applications where both
pump drivers are electric motors, power supplies should be provided from independent sources.
Gas Seal Systems - The systems provided for the self acting gas seals are smaller and less complex than a seal oil system.
Gas seal systems are normally mounted on or adjacent to the compressor base plate and consist primarily of filters and
controls. For the gas seal arrangements that use nitrogen as a separation gas between bearing housing and seal assembly and
for the tandem seal with intermediate labyrinth, the cost of nitrogen consumption can be high. This can be remedied by the use
of instrumentation which will precisely control nitrogen differential pressure to fractions of a psi. As previously noted, Global
Practices and API standards contain only the basic requirements for dry gas seal systems; therefore, the Design Specification
must be supplemented with the appropriate notes if a gas seal is specified. GP 15-01-02 specifies auxiliary system schematic
and instrumentation requirements. Additional requirements should be developed in conjunction with a machinery specialist.
CONTROLS AND INSTRUMENTATION

General - The Design Specification should provide a description of the compressor process control and surge protection
scheme. It should identify the controlled variable, the source of the control signal, and the control method, e.g., speed control,
inlet throttling etc. Fail safe modes for control elements should be shown.
The controls and instrumentation associated with a centrifugal compressor train can be grouped into one of three categories.
The first group includes all the controls and instrumentation associated with the machine auxiliary and mechanical condition
monitoring systems, e.g., vibration and temperature measurement. This type of instrumentation is discussed further in Design
Practice XI Section P, Compressor Unit Auxiliary and Installation Facilities, with scope and requirements defined by the
Global Practices. The second group is instrumentation for compressor performance control. The final group includes the
controls and instrumentation that prevent compressor surge.
Interaction of System Characteristics with Compressor Performance Curves - It is important that the interaction of the
compressor performance and system resistance characteristic be appreciated prior to deciding on a control method. This can
be done in the design phase by estimating the system discharge pressure requirements over a flow range of 0 to 130% of
Normal flow and obtaining typical compressor performance curves generated by either the PC Program for Compressor Network
Simulation - CompCalc, or by using the techniques previously discussed for determining curve slope and stability range.
Figure 28 shows a performance curve for a fixed speed compressor with three different system characteristic curves overplotted.
A machine operating against a fixed pressure would have a system characteristic defined by the line AB, e.g., an Alkylation plant
refrigerant compressor. A compressor discharging into a long run of pipe would have a characteristic that

XI-E 16 of 48

follows line AD. In this instance, all the pressure rise generated by the compressor is used to overcome pipe line friction. This
is typical of a natural gas pipeline application. Most systems fall somewhere in between and have both a fixed pressure and a
significant flow loss component. The curve AC illustrates this system characteristic.
Figure 30 illustrates the compression service sensitivities that can typically be evaluated by a study of compressor performance
and system resistance interaction.
Compressor Performance Control - Referring again to Figure 28, the compressor will operate at the intersection of the
compressor and system characteristic curves, i.e., Point A. To change the operating point and meet process demands, controls
are used to change either the compressor performance curve or the system characteristic. The most common methods of
control are speed variation and suction throttling of fixed speed compressors. API-617 requires the Purchaser to define the
control methods that will be used to regulate the machine and list five options that may be used. These options and two
additional methods are discussed below.
• Variable Speed - This control method provides the maximum flexibility in terms of available compressor operating range.
Matching machine performance to system requirements by use of variable speed drivers is accomplished efficiently since
only the head required by the process is produced by the compressor. Figure 29 gives an indication of the efficiency of
variable speed control versus some of the other available control methods.
Speed variation is commonly achieved by using steam turbines, gas turbines, and variable frequency synchronous or super
synchronous electric motors as drivers. These drivers typically provide a speed range capability of 70 to 105% of normal
speed. Another device available to vary compressor speed is the hydraulic coupling; however, it is inefficient. Hydraulic
and mechanical losses in the coupling result in significant coupling oil cooling duties.
• Inlet Throttling - The normal method of inlet throttling is to regulate a butterfly type control valve installed in the compressor
inlet piping. Partial closure of the throttle valve results in reduced pressure on the downstream (compressor) side of the
valve which means the compressor is required to generate more head to meet a constant discharge pressure. This moves
the operating point up the compressor characteristic curve resulting in a reduction in compressor inlet volume flow and an
even greater reduction in inlet mass flow. The mass flow reduction exceeds the volume flow reduction because of the
reduction in gas density after expansion across the throttling valve.
Figure 29 shows the effect of the inlet throttling control method on compressor power requirements and gives some
indication of the increase in operating range when volumetric flow down stream of the butterfly valve is considered. GP 10-
03-01 require the compressor manufacture to provide performance curves for machines that have inlet throttle valves
showing the volume flow at the inlet flange of the machine versus head or pressure and not flow up stream of the valve.
When reviewing machine performance curves for this control arrangement it is advisable to check the basis used to
generate the characteristics.
When the compressor inlet pressures are close to or just above atmospheric pressure, use of an inlet throttling valve can
produce sub atmospheric pressures in the line between the valve and the eye of the first compressor impeller. This can
result in the intake of air into the gas stream at sealing locations such as process piping flanges, shaft end seals and
compressor casing joints. Problems may arise such as contamination of the process gas stream, the generation of
explosive mixtures, and the freezing of moisture entrained in the air. Sub-atmospheric inlet pressures should therefore be
avoided by either increasing machine suction pressures or by adopting alternative control schemes.
• Variable Inlet Guide Vanes - Variable inlet guide vanes are located upstream of an impeller eye and are adjusted
simultaneously by a mechanical linked actuator. When moved from their neutral position, they impart an angular velocity or
swirl to the gas stream entering the impeller eye. The direction of the swirl is normally the same as the direction of rotation
of the impeller which results in a decrease in the head produced by the compressor stage. The reduction in head produced
gives guide vane control an efficiency advantage over inlet throttling. See Figure 29 for a comparison. As with inlet
throttling, variable inlet guide vanes increase the stable operating range of the machine. The effect of the inlet guide vanes
is restricted to the immediately succeeding impeller. As a result, they are more effective for compressor sections which
require only one or two impellers. The increased cost and added mechanical complexity of variable inlet guide vanes
means that they cannot normally be justified over inlet throttling for multi stage centrifugal compressors in process gas
service. Variable inlet guide vanes are typically used with high speed integrally geared air compressors or single stage
overhung machines.
• Discharge Throttling - Regulating a throttle valve in the discharge line of the compressor has the effect of changing the
system resistance curve thus requiring more or less head to be produced by the machine. The operating point moves up
and down the head capacity curve to match the system pressure demand and changes the machine operating capacity
accordingly. This method is used infrequently as it is the most inefficient of all the control methods discussed and does not
give the improvement in turndown provided by inlet throttling.

XI-E 17 of 48

• Variable Vaned Diffuser - Installing vanes in the diffuser of a centrifugal compressor can result in improved stage
performance in terms of efficiency and pressure rise at flows close to the stage design flow but at the expense of a reduced
operating range. To improve the available operating range, variation of the vane angle can be used to give a series of
characteristic curves for each vane angle setting. This approach is available only on high speed centrifugal air compressor
designs and is best suited to applications with close to constant discharge pressures that require a variation in inlet
capacity.
• Recycle Control - This method of control takes part of the compressor discharge stream and returns it to the system
upstream of the cooler for the compressor section inlet stream. The arrangement is the same as that used for centrifugal
compressor surge protection recycle loops with the pressure drop from suction to discharge being taken across a control
valve in the recycle line. The control valve is regulated so that the desired discharge system process requirements are met.
This technique is less efficient than speed control and suction throttling and should only be used if these two alternative
techniques cannot give the desired range of control. If this method is used and the surge protection recycle valve is also
used as the recycle control valve, a careful review of the system performance should be undertaken to ensure that the valve
will perform both functions effectively. In some instances it will be necessary to provide two separate valves and recycle
loops.
• Discharge Blowoff Control - This is similar to the recycle control except that the flow through the control valve is not
returned to the compressor inlet but is discharged to the atmosphere. This control method is clearly unsuitable for any
gases that are toxic, flammable or valuable and is normally applied to air compressors only.
➧ Parallel Operation - Centrifugal compressors are not as well suited to parallel operation as axial and all types of positive
displacement compressors. This is because of their relatively flat curve shape. The flatter curve makes load sharing difficult.
(Where compressors with different head capacity curves are used, the compressor with the greater head capability forces the
other compressor to operate at a reduced flow.) To operate this kind of arrangement effectively and efficiently, a load sharing
control system arrangement should be provided. Machinery and control system specialist should be consulted for applications
of this type.
Protecting a Centrifugal Compressor From Surge - Because surge in centrifugal compressor can cause significant machine
damage, anti-surge control and surge detection/protection systems are provided to prevent operation in the unstable region of
the performance curve. The complexity of these control systems varies depending upon machine configuration and service
characteristics.
Anti-Surge Control Systems - These systems detect when a compressor section is approaching surge and take action to halt
or reverse the movement of the operating point towards the surge line. This is normally achieved by opening a control valve in a
recycle line which returns uncooled discharge gas to the inlet of the compressor via a suction cooler. The resulting increase in
compressor inlet volume flow moves the operating point away from surge.
In theory, the anti-surge control system should not open the recycle control valve until the operating point reaches the surge limit
line. The recycle valve should then increase the machine inlet volume flow to maintain operation slightly above the surge limit
line and minimize the amount of recycle. This, however, is not possible due to inaccuracies in measurements and response
times of transmitters and valves. It is therefore necessary to design anti-surge control systems using the techniques discussed
below.
Anti-surge control may be accomplished using a proportional plus integral control system and by establishing a surge control
line parallel to the surge limit line. The control line is offset to the right of the surge line by margin, typically equal to 10% of inlet
volume flow at surge. See Figure 31. The larger the amount of offset used to locate the control line the better the chances that
the proportional plus integral control system will be able to protect the machine. However, it is also desirable, for efficiency
reasons, to maximize the operating range of the machine without opening the recycle valve. The location of the surge control
line therefore becomes a compromise between providing adequate machine protection and a reasonable range of operation with
the recycle valve closed. Reducing the margin between the control and surge lines to reach optimum location will clearly require
that the system respond quickly to a movement towards surge.
The proportional plus integral control system is adequate for many changes in plant operating conditions but is limited in the
speed of its response and is unable to take the machine out of surge in the event that the operating point crosses the surge line.
To overcome this problem the control system is provided with a function that will generate a step change in the controller output.
This function is activated by a second control line located between the proportional plus integral control and surge lines. See
Figure 31. When this control line is crossed, there is a step increase in the output from the controller that causes the recycle
valve to open. The stepped increase in the controller output decays exponentially with time to a point where the proportional
plus integral control system resumes control. The combination of proportional plus integral and stepped output methods
together with fast acting control valves and transmitters usually produces an acceptable compromise between operating range
and machine protection requirements.

XI-E 18 of 48

The speed at which the stepped controller output opens the recycle valve, must be evaluated for its impact on process unit
operation. The size of the step output from the controller can be reduced to a point where it is still effective and there is minimal
process system upset. A timer is added to the system and arranged such that when timed out, the system checks the location
of the operating point. Should it remain to the left of the 2nd control line, a further step of equal size will be added to the
controller output. This action is repeated until the operating point moves to the right of the 2nd control line. See Figure 31.
Surge Detection and Protective Systems - The purpose of such a system is to detect that a machine is actually in surge and
then to take immediate corrective action to take the machine out of surge. These devices are considered to be protective and
should meet the requirements of GP 15-07-02 for protective systems, although it is not intended that separate recycle valves be
installed for this purpose. GP 10-03-01 requires that such a device be provided for each compressor section to protect the
machine in the event of anti-surge control system failure. These systems typically function by monitoring the rate of change of
flow through a compressor section and open the recycle valve when the set point for this parameter is reached.
Anti-Surge Control System Algorithms - The controller set points at which action is taken to protect against surge are defined
by the control lines which are established by the control equations or algorithms. The algorithm must account for changes in the
surge line shape and location that occur with changes in compressor speed and or compressed gas composition. Many
algorithms have been developed to account for the variety of machine configurations and process system variables typically
encountered. A review of each of these possibilities and their application would require extensive discussion and is not within
the scope of this section. Selection of the appropriate control equations should therefore be done in conjunction with machinery
and control systems specialists.
Anti-Surge Control System for Multiple Compressor Sections - Each compressor section has unique performance and
system resistance curves and the location of the operating point relative to surge differs among compressor sections. To
provide maximum protection and operating flexibility, it is recommended that, where practical, surge protection systems with
their own dedicated recycle loops be provided for each compressor section. The Design Specification flow plans should show
the individual recycle loops and controllers for each compressor section. Deviations from this requirement should be reviewed
with the machinery specialist.
Anti-Surge Control System Input Requirements - The process and machine variables that should be input to the surge
protection system is dependent upon the control equations selected for a given application. This is in turn influenced by the
machine configuration and the service variables. Recommendations for the minimum input requirements for a given system
arrangement can be found in Figure 32.
Figure 32 also defines input requirements for streams with significant variations in molecular weight. For the purposes of anti-
surge control systems only, molecular weight change of 50% or a variation of 10 or more shall constitute a significant change.
The Design Specification must state that the anti surge control system be capable of handling significant variation in process
gas molecular weight and the appropriate instrumentation should also be shown on the flow plan. In addition to this there are
particular services where a variable molecular weight system should be defined as required in the Design Specification even
when conditions do not indicate that such a system is required. Typically this would include services such as
POWERFORMING recycle gas, FLEXICRACKING and coker light ends machines. Conversely services that hardly ever need
this level of sophistication are air and refrigeration.
Response Time - The host for the anti-surge control system should have a scan time for input variables substantially less than
100 milliseconds. The recycle control valves should be able to move from fully closed to fully open in less than 2.0 seconds or
quicker, if this is possible without significant impact on valve cost or reliability. Exact valve speed requirements are, however,
dependent on the characteristics of each installation and should be reviewed prior to valve purchase. Field transmitters that
provide the input to these systems must have fast response times (i.e., pneumatic transmitters are not suitable) and associated
chart recorders need to be fast enough to capture process data for tuning purposes.
Having met the criteria for control system response time, it is still possible to find that the machine is not adequately protected
due to the time lag associated with the process piping network. The time lag is dependent upon the volume of gas in the system
from the compressor discharge flange to the recycle control valve. A well designed system should locate the recycle control
valve and the discharge check valve downstream of the recycle take off to minimize the gas volume. Poorly designed systems
that have an excessive time lag will render the fastest control system design ineffective.
Anti Surge Control System Hardware - The anti-surge control functions could take place in any number of locations including
the plant control system, compressor manufacturer PLC's and purpose built hardware supplied by specialist manufacturers.
GP 10-03-01 requires that purpose built hardware supplied by specialist manufacturers be used for this purpose.
Sizing of Anti-Surge Control System Recycle Valves - Selecting a control valve that is sized using the flow rate of the
machine at surge point will mean that the valve will be too small and therefore will not provide adequate protection. The reason
for this is again due to the dynamic response of the complete system and the rate at which a machine can move into surge (i.e.,
as fast as a tenth of a second). Moving to the other extreme excessively over sizing the valve can also cause serious problems

XI-E 19 of 48

with machine auxiliary systems and process plant operation. It is therefore recommended that the recycle valve be sized for the
Normal duty flow rate and then be checked at all other conditions such as max./min. speed, start up and shutdown etc., to
ensure that the valve will adequately protect the machine. This later activity should be conducted during detailed engineering. It
is possible that compressor manufacturers or control system specialists will make recommendations that differ from this,
however, even if these alternative approaches are adopted the performance of the valve must still be evaluated for all the
conditions previously mentioned.
Control Loop Interactions - Capacity control and anti-surge control loops try to achieve their objectives by manipulating the
location of the compressor operating point; however, each of the controller objectives can often be in conflict. The competition
that results between the control loops over the location of the operating point can cause system instability and compromise the
effectiveness of the system. For a detailed review of this subject refer to, Improved Surge Control for Centrifugal Compressors,
Staroselsky, N., and Ladin, L., Chemical Engineering, May 1979.
Central Control System Operator Interface Requirements - The requirements for data to be displayed on the unit process
control computer screens will vary from application to application and to some extent will depend on local preferences. It is
however recommended that the following parameters be displayed as a minimum.
• Level 1 - This is considered to be the main graphical screen that will be used for the compressor and associated
equipment. The following parameters should be shown and trended for each compressor section: inlet pressure, inlet
temperature, inlet volume flow, discharge pressure, discharge temperature, speed, recycle and control valve positions and
the location of the operating point in relationship with surge expressed as a percentage margin to surge.
• Level 2 - This is considered to be a graphical display of specific machine parameters that would be specifically called up by
the operator. The following parameters should be shown and trended: vibration and temperature levels from each
compression train bearing, driver parameters such as steam supply and outlet conditions and flow rates, fuel gas supply
rates, etc.
Control Panels for Centrifugal Compressors - API-617 does not require the compressor manufacturer to supply a
compressor control panel unless the Owner specifically requests this be included in the scope of supply. In the event that a
panel is required then it is the Purchasers responsibility to clearly define the scope of instrumentation to be provided and the
control functions that the panel is required to perform. GP 15-01-02 defines the minimum requirements for instrumentation
associated with centrifugal compression trains while GP's 15-07-02 & 15-11-01 cover protective system and control panel
requirements respectively. These standards do not, however, define the requirements for process control, anti-surge control or
surge detection and protection systems. It is therefore important that normal and emergency shutdown sequences, control
philosophies and objectives, and plant computer system interfaces be clearly defined within the Design Specification to ensure
compatibility of the control panel with the remainder of the process plant controls. Control philosophies should be included in
the Design Specification even if the control panel is to be supplied by the detailed engineering contractor so that the compressor
manufacturer is aware of and accepts the control methods that will be used.
Critical Service Requirements - GP 15-01-02 requires that compressors in critical service be provided with Triple Modular
Redundant (TMR) designs for certain protective system components. A TMR control loop uses a fault tolerant system
composed of triplicated input devices, central processing units, output devices and communication paths. The Design
Specification must identify compressor trains considered to be in critical service. A critical service is considered to be one where
the costs associated with the outage of an unspared compression train due to control system faults justifies the added costs of
triplicated instrumentation.
INLET SYSTEMS
For requirements relating to strainers, silencers and filtration systems located at the inlet of the compressor section refer to
Section XI-O, Compressor Unit Piping and Process Train Equipment.
COMPRESSOR TESTING
➧ General - GP 10-03-01 requires that each centrifugal compressor undergo a no load mechanical run test and an ASME PTC10
Type II performance test. The Type II performance test is conducted using an inert gas mixture which is selected together with
machine speed to simulate the aerodynamic performance of the compressor on process gas.
Optional Tests - API-617 lists optional compressor tests that if required must be specified by the Purchaser. They include
ASME PTC10 Type I performance testing at field operating conditions, mechanical testing of the assembled compressor train,
etc. The need for these tests may be determined during bid review as more is learned about the compressor to be purchased.
However, the need for optional tests may be determined at the time of Design Specification preparation.

XI-E 20 of 48
DESIGN FLOW PLAN CONTENT

In addition to the flow plan requirements of Design Practice XI Section A, the following flow plan information should be provided:
Inlet Filter - Inlet filters, or strainers should be indicated if required in services where solids or products of corrosion are present.
Silencers required in inlet or discharge pipework for air compressor services should also be identified. See Design Practice XI
Section O, Compressor Unit Piping and Process Train Equipment.
Local Instrumentation - Local instrumentation installed on process piping for compressor regulation, anti-surge control,
detection and protection should be shown on the flow plan.
Local Controllers - Any local controllers required to provide manual operation of any device (e.g., inlet throttle valve), should be
identified on the flow plan.
Buffer Gas Supply - The source of buffer gas supply for oil or gas seals should be identified.
DESIGN PROCEDURES
Preparation of Design Specification - See Design Practice XI Section A Table 2, Centrifugal Compressor Design
Specification Check List, for a summary of items required in the Design Specification.
Performance Calculations - See Design Practice XI Section D, Compressor Calculations.
NOMENCLATURE
See Design Practice XI Section A.

XI-E 21 of 48
Table 1
Selection Guide For Compressor Main Shaft Seals
➧
SEAL TYPES(2) (4)
OIL SEALS(9) DRY GAS SEALS
SEALING
PRESSURE SEGMENTED TANDEM(10)
PSIG MECH. CARBON PLAIN PLUS
GAS TYPE(3) (BARG)(1) LABYRINTH CONTACT OIL FILM RING(10) SINGLE DOUBLE(9) TANDEM LABYRINTH
Inert - Low Value <150 YES(5) OK OK OK(8) OK OK OK OK

Class R-4 (10)
Inert - High Value 150 to 3000 NO NO OK NO YES OK OK OK

Class R-4 (210)
Inert - High Value >3000 NO CHECK(6) NO NO NO CHECK(6) CHECK(6) CHECK(6)

Class R-4 (>210)
Hydrocarbon Gas <100 NO OK OK OK NO YES YES YES

Classes R-3 & R-2 (<6.5)
Hydrocarbon Gas 300 to 650 NO OK OK NO NO YES YES YES

Classes R-3 & R-2 (20 to 45)
Hydrocarbon Gas 650 to 3000 NO NO OK NO NO YES YES YES

Classes R-3 & R-2 (45 to 210)
Hydrocarbon Gas >3000 NO NO CHECK(6) NO NO CHECK(6) CHECK(6) CHECK(6)

Classes R-3 & R-2 (>210)
Hydrocarbon Gas <100 NO YES OK OK NO OK NO OK(7)

Class R-1 (<6.5)
Hydrocarbon Gas 300 to 650 NO OK OK NO NO YES NO OK(7)

Class R-1 (20 to 45)
Hydrocarbon Gas 650 to 3000 NO NO OK NO NO YES NO OK(7)

Class R-1 (45 to 210)
Hydrocarbon Gas >3000 NO NO CHECK(6) NO NO CHECK(6) NO CHECK(6)

Class R-1 (>210)
Notes:
(1) All seals applicable to 350°F (175°C), for higher sealing temperatures see machinery specialist.
(2) YES in the above table indicates the preferred selections and OK indicates a technically acceptable selection.
(3) For a definition of gas classes see Section XVIII, Guidelines and Considerations for Industrial Hygiene.
(4) For more detailed information on application of the various seal designs see Selection of Seal Types in this
section.
(5) Labyrinth Seal Recommended for Air Service.
(6) Contact a Machinery Specialist for application.
(7) Buffer must be supplied between primary and secondary seals.
(8) For applications up to 100 psig (6.5 barg)
(9) These seals may be used when fugitive emissions need to be controlled.
(10) This seal can be used for fugitive emissions control only when an inert buffer gas is supplied.

XI-E 22 of 48
FIGURE 1
End View Of A Centrifugal Compressor
Gas Inlet Path
Baffle
Casing
Shaft
Blade
Inlet Volute
Impeller
Inlet Nozzle
Inlet Pipe
DP11EF01
FIGURE 2
Side View Of A Centrifugal Compressor
Gas Inlet Path
Impeller
Shroud
Inlet Volute
Impeller
Blade
Inlet Guide Vane
Impeller
Disk
Shaft
DP11EF02

XI-E 23 of 48
FIGURE 3
Centrifugal Compressor Diffuser And Return Channel Passages
Return Bend
Intermediate
Inlet Diaphragm
Diaphragm
Vaneless
Diffuser
De-Swirl Vane
Return
Channel
DP11EF03
FIGURE 4
Final Impeller Of A Centrifugal
Compressor Section
Discharge
Volute
Last
Impeller
DP11EF04

XI-E 24 of 48
FIGURE 5
Centrifugal Compressor Discharge Volute
Discharge
Volute
Impeller
Baffle
Discharge
Nozzle
DP11EF05

XI-E 25 of 48
FIGURE 6
Examples Of Section Performance Curves
For An 8 Stage Centrifugal Compressor
120
110
Polytropic Head
Capability, Hpoly
100
90
80
, P1 = const.
Pressure, P2, or
Pressure Ratio
110
Discharge
100
P2
P1
90
Pressure, P1,
P2 = const.
110
Inlet
All Values in Percent of Normal
100
90
Polytropic Efficiency,
110
η poly
100
90
120
110 Normal Duty Point

(Typical)
100
Requirement
Power
90
s t.
= c on
80 P1
@
st.
= con
70 P 2
@
60
60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Inlet Volume Flow Rate, Q, in Percent of

Normal DP11EF06

XI-E 26 of 48
FIGURE 7
Centrifugal Compressor Performance
Curve Terminology
Surge Line
"Droop" Surge Control Line
N1
Rise Normal Duty Point
Head, Discharge Pressure
or Pressure Ratio
Knee Region
N2
Stability
Choke or
Turndown with
Stonewall
Variable Speed Control
Turndown with
Inlet Throttling
(Mass Flow Basis)
Qs Qsc
Inlet Volume Flow Rate, Q
QS = Volume Flow @ Surge

QSC = Volume Flow @ Surge Control Line
QSC = QS x 1.1 (Typical Only) DP11EF07

XI-E 27 of 48
FIGURE 8
Typical Variable Speed Performance Curves
For Centrifugal Compressor
130
120 105% RPM

SURGE
LINE
110
100%
100
95%
Percent Head
90
90%
80
85%
70
60
50
130
120
110
100%
100
90
95%
Percent Power
80
90%
SURGE
70
LINE
85%
60
50
40
30
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Percent Inlet Volume Flow

DP11EF8

XI-E 28 of 48
FIGURE 9
Axial Split Centrifugal Compressor
DP11EF09
FIGURE 10
Radial Split Centrifugal Compressor (Barrel)
DP11EF10

XI-E 29 of 48
FIGURE 11
Single Stage, Overhung, Centrifugal Compressor
Radial Discharge
Connection
Axial
Inlet
Connection
DP11EF11
FIGURE 12
High Speed Vertical Single Stage Centrifugal Compressor
High Speed Shaft

Diffuser Cover
Compressor Seal
Seal Housing
Compressor Casing
Impeller
Diffuser
DP11EF12

XI-E 30 of 48
FIGURE 13
Integrally Geared Centrifugal Compressor
Stage 1
Discharge
Volute Open Impeller
Central
Gear Wheel
High Speed
Pinion
High Speed
Pinion
Low Speed Stage 3

Shaft
DP11EF13
Stage 2

XI-E 31 of 48
FIGURE 14
Impeller Types & Nomenclature
Cover
Cover Blades
Hub Hub or
Blade Disc
Shaft Eye
CLOSED IMPELLERS
Inducer
SEMI-OPEN IMPELLER
3D MIXED
2D IMPELLER 3D IMPELLER
FLOW IMPELLER
(Without Inducer) (With Inducer Section)
(With Inducer Section)
DP11EF14

XI-E 32 of 48
FIGURE 15
Sealing Locations
Buffer Gas (if required)
Seal
Seal Chamber Chamber
Labyrinth Labyrinth
Balance Piston Line

Inner
Inner Seal Seal
Chamber Chamber
Eye Seals
Radial Radial
Bearing Bearing
Hub Seal
Main Main
Shaft Shaft
Seal Seal
Balance
Piston First
Impeller
Last
DP11EF15
Impeller

XI-E 33 of 48
FIGURE 16
Typical Head Per Compressor Stage
12
11
10
9
Polytropic Head x 103 - Feet (meters)
Customary
7
Metric
3
1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Molecular Weight
DP11EF16

XI-E 34 of 48
FIGURE 17
Conventional Centrifugal Compressor Casing Arrangements
Single Casing, Two Process Stages of Compression,

Single Process Compression Stage in Series in Two Separate Casings
Three Process Compression Stages in Two

Three Process Compression Stages
Casings in Series with a Gear Unit for
in a Single Casing, Intercooled
Different Speed Levels
Multiple Suction (sidestream) and

Two Process Compression Stages in One
Discharge
Casing; Arranged Back to Back
Nozzles on One Casing
Double Flow Construction Two Casings in Parallel DP11EF17

XI-E 35 of 48
FIGURE 18
Effect Of Changing Gas Conditions On A Centrifugal
Compressor Operating At Constant Speed
UNITS T1 P1
CASE ºF ºC PSIA BARA MW K
1 100 38 14.5 1.0 29 1.4
2 40 4.5 14.5 1.0 29 1.4
3 100 38 12 0.8 29 1.4
4 100 38 14.5 1.0 40 1.4
5 100 38 14.5 1.0 29 1.1
130
4
120
Percent Design P2
2
110
5
1 A
100
B
90
3
80
70
140
130
120
4
110
Percent Design Power
100
90
2
80
1&5
70
A
60
3
50
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Percent Design Inlet Volume Flow
DP11EF18

XI-E 36 of 48
FIGURE 19
Centrifugal Compressor Curve Rise
(Customary Units)
12
11
850
00
10
1,0
0
20
(20
1,
Percent Rise in Pressure Ratio Per Process Stage of Compression
9
ft/sec
From Normal Flow to Surge Point, rr or "Ratio Rise"(1)
700
8 00
a1 =
5
1,
6 00
2, 0
3 3,000
4,500
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Compressor Stages
NOTES:
(1) A well-designed compressor can normally exceed the value read from this chart. Specify
this value as the minimum acceptable.
(2) a1 = sonic velocity of gas at compressor inlet conditions.
49,750 Z1k1T1
= gZ1k1RT1 = , ft/sec.
MW
DP11EF19A

XI-E 37 of 48
FIGURE 20
Centrifugal Compressor Curve Rise
(Metric Units)
12
s
11
/
00 m
2
a1 =
10
250
Percent Rise in Pressure Ratio Per Process Stage of Compression
0
30
9
From Normal Flow to Surge Point, rr or "Ratio Rise"(1)
0
35
8
0
40
7
0
50
6
0
60
5
4
800
3
1000
1400
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

NOTES:
(1) A well-designed compressor can normally exceed the value read from this chart. Specify
this value as the minimum acceptable.
(2) a1 = sonic velocity of gas at compressor inlet conditions.
8314 Z1k1T1
a1 = Z1k1RT1 = , m/s
DP11EF19B
MW

XI-E 38 of 48
FIGURE 21
Centrifugal Compressor Stability Range
100
90
Percent of Specified Normal Flow Rate (Note 1)
80
5
=5
MW
70
0
=3
MW
60 =5
MW
50
See Method
40
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Method:
• Estimate number of stages, based on total head requirement. (Figure 16)
• Interpolate between molecular weight lines for actual MW.
• Read maximum expected surge flow, as a percent of normal flow.
"Stability" equals 100% minus this value.
NOTES:
(1) A well-designed centrifugal compressor can be expected to have its surge point no higher than this percent of normal flow rate.
DP11EF20

XI-E 39 of 48
FIGURE 22
Labyrinth And Restrictive Ring Seal Arrangements
Ports May Be Added

For Scavenging And/Or
Inert-Gas Sealing
Internal Casing
Gas Pressure
Labyrinth Seal
Bearing
Atmosphere
Stepped
Sleeve
B) STEPPED LABYRINTH SEAL
Internal Atmosphere
Gas Pressure
Scavenging
Port May Be
Added For
Ports May Be
Vacuum
A) STRAIGHT-LABYRINTH SHAFT SEAL Added For
Application
Sealing
Internal
Gas Pressure Atmosphere
Internal Casing
Gas Pressure
Seal Housing
Soft Ring
Sleeve with Teeth
Bearing
Atmosphere
C) INTERFERENCE LABYRINTH SEAL D) RESTRICTIVE-RING SHAFT SEAL
DP11EF21

XI-E 40 of 48
FIGURE 23
Oil Seal Arrangements
Clean Oil In
Inner Bushing
Outer Bushing
Shaft Sleeve
Internal
Gas Atmosphere
Pressure
Oil Out (1) Oil Out
DP11EF22A
A) LIQUID-FILM SHAFT SEAL

WITH CYLINDRICAL BUSHING
Internal
Clean Oil In
Gas Pressure
Pressure
Breakdown
Sleeve
Stationary Seat Rotating Seal

Carbon Ring
Running Face
Oil Out
Atmosphere
Oil Out (1)

DP11EF22B
B) MECHANICAL (CONTACT) SHAFT SEAL

Note: (1) On some services this oil flow would be labled as contaminated.

XI-E 41 of 48
FIGURE 24
Single Gas Seal Arrangement
Filtered Gas (1)
Face
Seal Chamber
Labyrinth
Atmosphere (3)
Internal Gas
Pressure
Filtered Gas
Leakage (2)
Filtered Process
Gas Flow
Seat
DP11EF23
Note:
(1) Typically uncooled process gas taken from compressor discharge line.
(2) Normally routed to atmosphere at a safe location.
(3) Separation gas per Figure 25 may also be added to this arrangement.

XI-E 42 of 48
FIGURE 25
Double Gas Seal Arrangement
Buffer Gas (1)
Secondary Seal Primary Seal
Internal Gas
Atmosphere (2)
Pressure
Buffer Gas
Leakage Buffer Gas
Gas Flow
NOTES:
(1) Buffer gas supply is typically nitrogen from a reliable source.
(2) Separation gas per Figure 25 may be added to this arrangement. DP11EF24

XI-E 43 of 48
FIGURE 26
Plain Tandem Gas Seal Arrangement
Separation Gas and
Secondary Seal Primary Seal Filtered Gas
Leakage (3) Leakage (2) Supply (1)
Separation Gas
Supply (4)
Seal Chamber
Atmosphere Labyrinth
Internal Gas
Pressure
Filtered Process
Gas Flow
Rotating
Stationary Seat
Face Primary
Secondary
Seal
Seal
DP11EF25
Separation Gas
Restriction Seal (5)
Notes:
(2) Connected to plant flare or hydrocarbon vent system.
(3) Normally routed to atmosphere at a safe location.
(4) Typically nitrogen.
(5) Restriction seal may be Labyrinth or Carbon ring design and is typically applied to all seal arrangements.

XI-E 44 of 48
FIGURE 27
Tandem Gas Seal With Intermediate Labyrinth
Primary Seal Filtered Gas
Buffer Gas
And Buffer Gas Supply (1)
Supply (3)
Leakage (2)
Intermediate
Labyrinth
Seal Chamber
Labyrinth
Internal
Gas Pressure
Atmosphere (4)
Buffer Gas Filtered Process

Leakage Gas Flow
Secondary Primary
Seal Seal
DP11EF26
NOTES:
(2) Connected to plant flare or hydrocarbon vent system.
(3) Buffer gas supply is typically nitrogen from a reliable source.
(4) Separation gas per Figure 25 may be added to this arrangement.

XI-E 45 of 48
FIGURE 28
Typical System Characteristics
120
Constant Speed
Compressor Characteristic
110
B A
100
90
80
Percent Pressure
C
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
D
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Percent Capacity
DP11EF27
FIGURE 29
Impact Of Compressor Control Methods
On Power Requirements
110
100
90
No Inlet
Throttling
Percent Power
80
With Inlet With Speed
Throttling Control (1)
70
Surge
Limit
60
With Adjustable
Inlet Guide Vanes
50
40
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Percent Inlet Capacity DP11EF28
(1) Do not assume efficiency for applications using hydraulic couplings due to their inefficient design

XI-E 46 of 48
FIGURE 30
Interaction Of Compressor
And System Characteristics (1)
Speed A
System
Requirements
∆P
Speed B
QS QN QPart Load QN
Stable Flow Range Attainable Influence of System Pressure Requirement
Via Variable Speed Control Curve Shape on Pressure Drop Required
Across an Inlet Throttling Valve
Speed B
∆Q ∆Q
Speed B Speed A
Refrigeration
or Procees Speed A
Feed Gas
System Speed B
Requirement
System
Requirement Speed A
Recycle
System or
Pipe Line ∆Q ∆Q
Influence of System Pressure Influence of Compressor Curve Shape

Requirement Curve Shape on Flow on Flow Increase Potential Via Speed
Increase Attainable Speed Increase
Predicted
Actual Steep Curve
System
∆ Q Requirement ∆Q
Actual
Steep Curve Steep Curve
Flat Curve Predicted Predicted

System Flat Curve
Requirement
Actual
∆Q ∆Q Flat Curve
Influence of Compressor Curve Shape on Influence of Compressor Curve Shape on

Flow Loss Due to Error in Predicting Flow Loss Due to Failure of Compressor
System Pressure Requirement to Reach Predicted Head Level
Note: (1) Ordinate is discharge pressure, P2, and Abscissa is inlet volume flow rate, Q, for all graphics.
DP11EF29

XI-E 47 of 48
FIGURE 31
Surge Protection Definitions
Surge
Line 1st Surge Control Line
(Proportional Plus Integral)
Head or Pressure Ratio
N1
N2
2nd Surge Control
Line (Stepped Response)
N3
Inlet Volume Flow

DP11EF30

XI-E 48 of 48
FIGURE 32
Surge Protection System Input Requirements
Stage 1 Stage 2
N Driver
Q1 P1 T1 Q2 P2 T2 P3 T3 Q3 Q4 P4 T4
Liquid
INPUT
APPLICATION
N Q1 P1 T1 Q2 P2 T2 Q3 P3 T3 Q4 P4 T4
1 Constant Speed X X X X X X X X
& Gas Composition
2 Variable Speed X X X X X X X X X
& Constant Gas Composition
3 Constant Speed
& Variable Gas Composition X X X X X X X X X X
4 Variable Speed X X X X X X X X X X X
& Variable Gas Composition
5 Variable Speed
& Fixed or Variable Composition X X X X X X X X X X X
with Discharge Flow
6 Constant Speed
Variable or Constant Composition X X X X X X X X X X
with Discharge Flow
DP11EF31

Centrifugal Compressors

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ExxonMobil Proprietary

COMPRESSORS Section Page

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11/03 Throughout document: Process Compression Stage changed to Compressor Section

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SERVICEABILITY AND SPARING

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COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CURVES

HEAD CAPACITY CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

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CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR TYPES COMMONLY APPLIED

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CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR DESIGN FEATURES

BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

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BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

COMPRESSOR DUTY DEFINITION

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BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

MAIN PROCESS CONNECTION ORIENTATION

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BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

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BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

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BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

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BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

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BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

LUBE OIL, SEAL OIL AND GAS SEAL SYSTEMS

CONTROLS AND INSTRUMENTATION

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BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

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BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

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BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

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BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

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BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

DESIGN FLOW PLAN CONTENT

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OIL SEALS(9) DRY GAS SEALS

Inert - Low Value <150 YES(5) OK OK OK(8) OK OK OK OK

Inert - High Value 150 to 3000 NO NO OK NO YES OK OK OK

Inert - High Value >3000 NO CHECK(6) NO NO NO CHECK(6) CHECK(6) CHECK(6)

Hydrocarbon Gas <100 NO OK OK OK NO YES YES YES

Hydrocarbon Gas 300 to 650 NO OK OK NO NO YES YES YES

Hydrocarbon Gas 650 to 3000 NO NO OK NO NO YES YES YES

Hydrocarbon Gas >3000 NO NO CHECK(6) NO NO CHECK(6) CHECK(6) CHECK(6)

Hydrocarbon Gas <100 NO YES OK OK NO OK NO OK(7)

Hydrocarbon Gas 300 to 650 NO OK OK NO NO YES NO OK(7)

Hydrocarbon Gas 650 to 3000 NO NO OK NO NO YES NO OK(7)

Hydrocarbon Gas >3000 NO NO CHECK(6) NO NO CHECK(6) NO CHECK(6)

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