INTRODUCTION

• Classification System

• Algae

• Bryophytes

• Pteridophytes

• Gymnosperms

• Angiosperms

• Plant life cycles and alternation of generations

 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION

Artificial Classification system Natural Classification system Phylogenetic Classification system

• Linnaeus • Based on natural affinities • Based on evolutionary relationship

among organism (Ext. + Int.)
• Based on superficial • Ultrastructure • same taxa have a common ancestor
morphological character (Ext.) • Anatomy
• Embryology • Highly evolved
• Habit, Colour, number &
• Phytochemistry
shape of leaves
• Based mainly on vegetative • Given by Bentham & Hooker
characters or on the androecium
structure
• gave equal weightage to vegetative and sexual
characters. not acceptable because vegetative
characters are more easily affected by
environment.
 TAXONOMY

fossil evidence)
(These become more important when there is no supporting
TAXONOMY

Numerical Taxonomy Cytotaxonomy Chemotaxonomy

• Using computer • Cytological information • Chemical constituent of plants

• Based on all observable character Like –

• DNA Sequencing
• Prepared computerized Data base of • Chromosome number
number & codes for similar & • Chromosome structure

dissimilar character • Chromosome behaviour

• Hundreds of Character studied

 ALGAE

• Chlorophyllous
• Simple, thalloid
• autotrophic
• largely aquatic (Both fresh water & marine)
• moist stones, soils and wood
• Symbiotic association with fungi (Lichen), animals – Sloth bear
• form and size of algae is highly variable
• Unicellular – Chlamydomonas, colonial -- Volvox, filamentous – Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Ectocarpous,
Massive plant bodies – Kelp
 ALGAE

• Algae can reproduce by vegetative (fragmentation), asexual and sexual means.

• Asexual reproduction – by formation of different types of spores (zoospores)
• Sexual reproduction :
1. ISOGAMOUS = Gametes are similar in size
(I) Flagellated gametes e.g. Ulothrix
(II) Non-flagellated gametes e.g. Spirogyra
2. ANISOGAMOUS = Gametes dissimilar in size e.g. Eudorina
3. OOGAMOUS = Fusion between one large non-motile female gamete and a smaller male gamete
e.g. Volvox, Fucus
 Economic Importance of Algae

• Half of the CO2 fixed by algae ( Increase the level of O2 )

• Paramount producer in aquatic habitat
• Porphyra, Laminaria, Sargassum & other 70 Species of marine algae used as food
• Hydrocolloids – algin (brown algae) , carrageen (Red algae), Agar – Agar – Gelidium & Gracilaria (used
to grow microbes and in preparations of ice-creams and jellies)
• Chlorella (unicellular alga) – food supplements (Protein) for space travelers
 Divisions of Algae & their Main Characteristics
Classes Common Name Major Pigments Stored Food Cell Wall Flagellar Number
& Position of Habitat
Insertions

Green algae Chlorophyll a, b Starch Cellulose 2-8, equal, Fresh water,

Chlorophyceae
apical brackish water,
Salt water
Phaeophyceae Brown algae Chlorophyll Fresh water
Mannitol, Cellulose & 2, unequal, (rare) brackish
a, c, lateral
laminarin align water,
fucoxanthin
salt water
Rhodophyceae Red algae Chlorophyll a, d, Cellulose, Fresh water
Floridean starch pectin & poly Absent
phycoerythrin (some),
sulphate esters brackish
water, salt
water (most)
 THREE MAIN CLASSES OF ALGAE

CHLOROPHYCEAE PHAEOPHYCEAE RHODOPHYCEAE

• Pigments are localised in definite
chloroplasts. • Found primarily in marine • Red algae have predominance
habitats. of red pigment r-phycoerythrin
• Most members have one or more
storage bodies in the chloroplasts called • carotenoids and xanthophylls. in their body.
pyrenoids, which contain protein & • Olive green to various shades of • Majority are marine with
starch
brown depending on amount of greater concentrations found in
• Have rigid cell-wall made of xanthophyll pigment fucoxanthin. warmer areas.
inner cellulose and outer layer of pectose
• Food storage as laminarin and • Occur both in well-lighted
• Vegetative reproduction by mannitol regions close to water surface
fragmentation
• Cellulosic cell wall covered by or at great depth in ocean
• Asexual reproduction is by flagellated algin. where little light penetrates.
zoospores produced in zoosporangia
 THREE MAIN CLASSES OF ALGAE

CHLOROPHYCEAE PHAEOPHYCEAE RHODOPHYCEAE

• Sexual reproduction may be • Plant body usually has holdfast, • Mostly multicellular with some having
isogamous, anisogamous or stipe and frond. complex body organisation.
oogamous.
• pear shaped biflagelled • Food stored as floridean starch, very
• Eg Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, zoospores have two unequal similar to amylopectin and glycogen in
Spirogyra, Chara. etc.
laterally attached flagella. structure.
• Sexual reproduction may be • Asexual spores and gametes are non-
isogomous, anisogamous or motile
oogamous. • Sexual reproduction is oogamous
• Gametes pyriform with two (complex post fertilisation
laterally attached flagella. developments)
• Eg. Ectocarpus, Dictyota, • Eg. Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilaria
Laminaria, Sargassum, Fucus etc. Gelidium etc.
ALGAE
ALGAE
ALGAE
 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS

Features Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnosperms Angiosperms

Dominant phase Gametophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte
Ploidy of main Haploid Diploid Diploid Diploid
plant body
Differentiation Thallus or foliose
Root, stem & leaves Root, Stem & Leaves Root, stem & leaves
of body structures & rhizoids

Vascular bundles Absent Present Present Present

Nature of spores Homospores Homospores & Heterospores Heterospores

Heterospores

Seed & Its coverings Seed absent Seed absent Seed naked Seed with covering
(without covering)
Flower & Fruit Absent Absent Absent Present
 ALTERNATION OF GENERATION
PLANTS BODY

Sporophytes Gametophytes
(Spore producing body - 2n) (gamete producing body – n)
 BRYOPHYTA

• mosses and liverworts

• Grow in moist & Shady places (in hills)
• Amphibians of plant kingdom (water is essential for sexual reproduction)
• important role in plant succession on bare rocks/soil.
• Plant body thallus – but more differentiated than algae.
• Thallus – Prostrate or erect, attached to the substratum by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids
• True root, stem & leaves are absent.
• Main plant body – gametophyte (n)
 LIFE CYCLE OF BRYOPHYTES

Buds GAMETOPHYTE
(n) (n)

Protonema Liver worts

(n) & Capsule ♂ Antheridia Archegonia ♀
Horn worts (n) (n)
Sporophyte Seta
Germination Antherozoids Egg
Gametophytic generation (n) (n)
Mosses Foot
Spores
(n)
Zygote (2n)
Sporophytic generation
Mitosis

Spore mother cells Sporophyte Embryo (2n)

(2n) (2n)
 BRYOPHYTES (IMPORTANCE)

• little economic importance, great ecological importance

• Some mosses provide food for herbaceous mammals, bird & other animals.

• Species of Sphagnum provide peat used as fuel and as packing material for trans-shipment of living

material as they hold water.

• Mosses (along with Lichens) are of great ecological importance, they decompose rocks making substrate

suitable for growth of higher plants. They play an important role in plant succession on bare rocks/soil.

• Mosses form dense mats on soil, reduce the impact of falling rain and prevent soil erosion.
 BRYOPHYTA

Bryophyta

Hepatiocopsida Anthocerotopsida Bryopsida

(Liverwort) (Hornwort) (Moss)
e.g. Riccia, Marchantia e.g. :- Anthoceros e.g. :- Funaria, Polytrichum, Sphagnum
 BRYOPHYTES

LIVERWORTS MOSSES
• Plant body thalloid.
• Gametophytes consist of two stages
• Thallus dorsi-ventral, appressed to the substrate. 1. Protonema; 2. Leafy-stage
• Protonema stage:
• Leafy members have tiny leaf-like appendages in
• develops directly from a spore. Protonema is creeping,
two rows on stem-like structures. green, branched and frequently filamentous stage.
• Leafy stage:
• Asexual reproduction is by fragmentation and
• develops from secondary protonema as a lateral bud. They
gemmae. consist of upright, slender axes bearning spirally arranged
leaves, attached to the soil through multi-cellular
• Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds
branched rhizoids. It also bears sex-organs.
formed in gemma cups located on thalli. • Vegetative reproduction: by fragmentation and budding in
secondary protonema.
• Sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and
• Sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate than in liverworts.
capsule. After meiosis spores are produced in the They have more elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal.
• Eg: Funaria, Polytrichum and Sphagnum
capsule, which germinate to produce free-living
gametophytes. Eg. Marchantia
BRYOPHYTES
BRYOPHYTES
BRYOPHYTES
 PTERIDOPHYTA (Horsetails and Ferns)

• medicinal purpose, soil binders, ornamentals

• First terrestrial plant having vascular tissue – Xylem, Phloem.
• Grow in cool, damp, shady places, sandy-soil conditions
• Dominant-phase – Sporophyte- Well differentiated in true, root, stem & leaves
• Well differentiated vascular tissues.
• Microphylls – Selaginella, Macrophylls -- fern
• Sporophylls – Sporangia subtended (opposite) by leaf like appendages

• Sporophytes bear sporangia subtended by sporophyll, which may be compact called strobili
or cones, as in Selaginella, Equisetum.
Meiosis
Sporangia  Sporemother Cell Spores
(2n) (2n) (n)
 PTERIDOPHYTES (Horsetails and Ferns)

• Spores germinate to produce inconspicuous, small, multi-cellular, free-living, mostly photosynthetic

thalloid gametophytes called prothallus.
• Gametophytes need cool, damp, shady places to grow. This specific requirement and need of water for
fertilisation limit the spread of living pteridophytes and restricted to narrow geographical regions.
• Male and female sex organs are antheridia and archegonia.

• Majority are homosporous

• Selaginella and Salvinia are heterosporous.
• In heterosporous species the female gametophytes are retained on the parent sporophyte. Zygote
develops into young embryos within female gametophytes.
• This event is a precursor to seed habit, considered an important step in Evolution.
 LIFE CYCLE OF PTERIDOPHYTES
Sporophyte
(2n)
Sporophylls
Sporophytic
Embryo (2n)
generation
(2n)
Sporangia
(2n)
Zygote
(2n)
Spore mother cells
(2n)
Fertilization Gametophytic
Meiosis
(Zoidogamy) generation
Egg (n) Antherozoids (n)
Spore (n)
Antheridia (n)
Gametophyte or
Archegonia (n)
Prothallus (n)
 PTERIDOPHYTES

Pteridophytes are further classified into four classes:

1. Psilopsida - Psilotum
2. Lycopsida - Selaginella, Lycopodium
3. Sphenopsida - Equisetum
4. Pteropsida - Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum
 GYMNOSPERMS (Gymnos = naked, sperma = seed)
• Plants in which ovules are not enclosed by ovary wall and remain exposed both before and after fertilisation.

Seeds that develop post-fertilisation are naked.

• Gymnosperms include medium-sized or tall trees and shrubs.

• The giant redwood tree Sequoia is one of the tallest tree species.

• Roots: generally tap roots, having fungal association as mycorrhiza (Pinus) or coralloid root with N2 -fixing

cyanobacteria as in Cycas.

• Stem: Branched (Pinus; Cedrus), Unbranched (Cycas), Long and Dwarf shoot: in Pinus and Ginkgo.

• Leaf: Simple (Pinus); pinnate compound (Cycas).

• Leaves are well-adapted to withstand extreme temperature, humidity and wind. In the conifers, needle-like leaves

reduce surface area. Thick cutile and sunken stomata help to reduce water loss.

• Gymnosperms are heterosporous

 HETEROSPORUS

Heterosporous

Microspores Megaspores

Microsporangia Megasporangia

Microsporophylls Megasporangia

Compact arrange in Male strobili Mega sporophylls

Compactly arranged in Female strobili

Pollen grain
Archegonia

Multicellular female gametophyte

 GYMNOSPERMS

Microsporophylls  Male cone /strobili/lax

• Sporophylls Megasporophylls  Female cone/strobili

• Male and female sporangial borne on microsoprophylls and megasporophylls respectively.

Microsporangia (2n)  Pollen grain (n)

• Sporangia Megasporangia / Ovule (2n) Meiosis 4 Megaspores
Of MMC

One develops into Female gametophyte/Endosperm (n)

 LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERM
Sporophyte (2n) Sporophyte (2n)

Male cone (2n) Female cone (2n)

Diploid
Microsporophylls (2n) Megasporophylls (2n)

Microsporangium (2n) Megasporangium (Ovule) (2n)

Meiosis in megaspore mother cell
Meiosis in microspore mother cells
 LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERM

Microspores (n) Megaspores (n)

Germination Germination
Reduced Male gametophyte (Pollen grain) (n) Female gametophyte (n) (Endosperm)

Male gametes (n) Haploid Archegonia (n)

Fertilization
By Female gamete (egg) (n)
Zoido – sphonogamy
OR
Siphonogamy
LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERM

Zygote (2n)
Mitosis Diploid
Embryo (2n)

Seed

Sporophyte (2n)
 GYMNOSPERMS

• Pinus is monoecious

• Cycas is dioecious

• Male gametophyte, i.e., pollen grains are highly reduced and confined to limited number of cells.

• Female gametophytes bear two or more archegonia or female sex organs. The multicellular female

gametophyte is retained within megasporangium.

• Male and female gametophytes do not have an independent free living existence.

• Pollen grains are carried by air currents and come in contact with opening of ovules.

• Fertilisation is by pollen-tube formation which carries male gametes.

• Zygote forms embryo and ovules form naked seeds.

GYMNOSPERMS
 ANGIOSPERMS

• Flowering plant
• specialised structures called flowers
• Seeds are enclosed in fruit
• Large group of plant wide range of habitats.
• Tiny – Wolfia to all trees – Eucalyptus (over 100m)
• Provide – Food , fodder, fuel, medicines & different commercial product.

Dicotyedonae – Two cotyledons

(reticulate venation in leaf and tetra or pentamerous flowers)
• Angiosperm
Monocotyledonae – One cotyledons
(parallel venation in leaves and trimerous flowers)
 FLOWER
Flower
(Reproductive Part)

Stamen Pistil or Carpel

Anther Filament Stigma Style Ovary

Pollen sac (4) 7 celled & 8 nucleated structure

Antipodal cell – 3
Pollengrains Polar nuclei – 1
Synergids – 2
Egg cells - 1
Contain two male gamete
 PLANT BODY FLOWER 2N
(SPOROPHYTE)
2N
CARPEL (2N) STAMEN (2N)

OVARY (2N) ANTHER (2N)

Endosperm (2N) Embryo (2N)
OVULE MICROSPORANGIUM (2N)
FOOD (MEGASPORANGIUM) (2N)
TOGETHER KNOWN AS
Zygote (2N) DOUBLE FERTILIZATION NUCELLUS (2N) MICROSPOROGENOUS TISSUE (2N)
Primary Endosperm
Nucleus (3N) MEGASPORE MOTHER CELL (2N) MICROSPORE MOTHER CELL (2N)

SPOROPHYTIC PAHSE (2N)

TRIPLE FUSION SYNGAMY MEIOSIS MEIOSIS
GAMETOPHYTIC PHASE (N)
POLAR MEGASPORE (N) MICROSPORE [POLLEN GRAIN (N)]
MALE MALE EGG
NUCLEI
GAMETE GAMETE (N)
(N + N) MITOSIS MITOSIS
(N) (N)

FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE/ MALE GAMETOPHYTE (N)

HAS
HAS EMBRYO SAC (N)
 ANGIOSPERMS

• Ovary develop into fruit & ovule develop into seed

LIFE CYCLE OF ANGIOSPERM
 DIFFERENT LIFE-CYCLE PATTERNS

1. HAPLONTIC 2. DIPLONTIC 3. HAPLO-DIPLONTIC

 LIFE CYCLE

• Haplontic Life cycle : Gametophyte (n) dominant phase.

• Sporophytic generation – Zygote.
• Zygotic meiosis  haploid spores.
• E.g. : VOLVOX, Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra (majority of Algae)
• Diplontic : - Dominant phase – Sporophytic (2n)
• Gametophytic phase – few or single cells.
• Gymnosperm & Angiosperm – Seed bearing plant, Fucus – diplontic
• Haplo – diplontic :- Both phases are multicellular, differ in the dominant phases.
• E.g. : Bryophytes & Pteridophytes.
• Ectocarpus, Polysiphornia – haplo – diplontic
 DIFFERENT LIFE-CYCLE PATTERNS

HAPLO-DIPLONTIC:
(a) Gametophyte dominant, independent, photosynthetic which alternates with totally or
partially dependent sporophyte
e.g., All bryophytes.
(b) Sporophyte dominant, independent, photosynthetic, vascular which alternates with
saprophytic/autotropic independent but short-lived gametophyte.
e.g., All pteridophytes
LIFE CYCLE PATTERNS