Chapter 5 Development and Plasticity of the Brain

● Differentiation refers to the forming of the axon and

Development of the Brain dendrite that gives the neuron its distinctive shape.
● Plasticity of the brain refers the idea that the brain is ● The axon grows first either during migration or once it
constantly changing throughout the lifetime. has reached its target and is followed by the
● Development of the brain is due to both experience and development of the dendrites.
physical maturation. ● Neurons differ in their shape and chemical component
● Rapid development especially occurs early in life. depending on their location in the brain.
Fig. 5-3, p. 123
○ Prefrontal cortex develops rapidly between 7 ● Myelination refers to process by which glia produce the
and 12 months (allowing for object fatty sheath that covers the axons of some neurons.
● The fluid-filled cavity becomes the central canal of the
permanence). ● Myelin speeds up the transmission of neural impulses.
spinal cord and the four ventricles of the brain. ● Myelination first occurs in the spinal cord and then in
○ The fluid is the cerebrospinal fluid. the hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain.
● At birth, the human brain weighs approximately 350 ● Myelination occurs gradually for decades.
grams. ● Synaptogenesis is the final stage of neural
● By the first year. the brain weighs approximately 1000 development and refers to the formation of the
grams. synapses between neurons.
● The adult brain weighs grams. ● Occurs throughout the life as neurons are constantly
● The development of neurons in the brain involves the forming new connections and discarding old ones.
following four processes: ● Synaptogenesis slows significantly later in the lifetime.
1. Proliferation ● Although it was originally believed that no new neurons
2. Differentiation were formed after early development, recent research
3. Myelination suggests otherwise:
4. Synaptogenesis ● Two Examples:
1. Stem cells are undifferentiated cells found in
Fig. 5-1, p. 122 ● Proliferation refers to the production of new cells/ the interior of the brain that generate
neurons in the brain primarily occurring early in life. “daughter cells” which can transform into glia
● Early in development, the cells lining the ventricles or neurons.
divide. 2. New olfactory receptors also continually
● Some cells become stem cells that continue to divide. replace dying ones.
● Others remain where they are or become neurons or ● Animal research has also shown the development of
glia that migrate to other locations. new neurons occurring in other brain regions.
● Migration refers to the movement of the newly formed ○ Example: songbirds have a steady
neurons and glia to their eventual locations. Migration replacement of new neurons in the singing
occurs in a variety of directions throughout the brain. area of the brain.
Migration occurs via cells following chemical paths in ● Axons must travel great distances across the brain to
Fig. 5-2, p. 123 the brain of immunoglobins and chemokines. form the correct connections.
● Sperry’s (1954) research with newts indicated that
● The human central nervous system begins to form axons follow a chemical trial to reach their appropriate
when the embryo is approximately 2 weeks old. target.
○ The dorsal surface thickens forming a neural ● Growing axons reach their target area by following a
tube surrounding a fluid filled cavity. gradient of chemicals in which they are attracted by
○ The forward end enlarges and differentiates some chemicals and repelled by others.
into the hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain.
○ The rest of the neural tube becomes the
spinal cord.
Fig. 5-6, p. 127
 ● The brain’s system of overproducing neurons and then ● Children of mothers who smoked during pregnancy are
applying apoptosis enables the exact matching of the at increased risk for low birth weight, sudden infant
number of incoming axons to the number of receiving death syndrome, ADHD, long term intellectual deficits
cells. and impairments of the immune system.
● The elimination and period of massive cell death is part ● The brain has the limited ability to reorganize itself in
of normal development and maturation. response to experience.
● After maturity, the apoptotic mechanisms become ○ Axons and dendrites continue to modify their
dormant. structure and connections throughout the
Fig. 5-7, p. 127 ● Neurons no longer need neurotrophins for survivals, lifetime.
● When axons initially reach their targets, they form but neurotrophins increase the branching on axons and ○ Dendrites continually grow new spines.
synapses with several cells. dendrites throughout life. ● The gain and loss of spines indicates new connections
● Postsynaptic cells strengthen connection with some ● Early stages of brain development are critical for and potentially new information processing.
cells and eliminate connections with others. normal development later in life.
● The formation or elimination of these connections ● Chemical distortions in the brain during early
depends upon input from incoming of axons. development can cause significant impairment and
developmental problems.
● Fetal alcohol syndrome is a condition that children are
born with if the mother drinks heavily during pregnancy.
● The condition is marked by the following:
○ Hyperactivity and impulsiveness
○ difficulty maintaining attention
○ varying degrees of mental retardation
○ motor problems and heart defects Fig. 5-10, p. 131
○ facial abnormalities.
● Rats raised in an enriched environment develop a
thicker cortex and increased dendritic branching.
Fig. 5-8, p. 129 ● Measurable expansion of neurons has also been
● Some theorists refer to the idea of the selection shown in humans as a function of physical activity.
process of neural connections as neural Darwinism. ● The thickness of the cerebral cortex declines in old age
● In this competition amongst synaptic connections, we but much less in those that are physically active.
initially form more connections than we need.
● The most successful axon connections and
combinations survive while the others fail to sustain
active synapses.
● A neurotropin is a chemical that promotes the survival
Fig. 5-9, p. 130
and activity of neurons.
● Axons that are not exposed to neurotropins after
● The dendrites of children born with fetal alcohol
making connections undergo apoptosis, a
syndrome are short with few branches.
preprogrammed mechanism of cell death.
● Exposure to alcohol in the fetus brain suppresses
● Therefore, the healthy adult nervous system contains
glutamate and enhances the release of GABA.
no neurons that failed to make appropriate
● Many neurons consequently receive less excitation and Fig. 5-11, p. 132
connections.
exposure to neurotrophins than usual and undergo ● Neurons also become more finely tuned and
● Nerve growth factor (NGF) is a type of neurotrophin
apoptosis. responsive to experiences that have been important in
released by muscles that promotes the survival and
● Children of mothers who use cocaine during pregnancy the past.
growth of axons.
show a decrease in language skills, a slight decrease
in IQ scores and impaired hearing.
 ● This may account for the fact that blind people often ● Survivors of brain damage show subtle to significant and increasing the probability of further
have enhanced tactile senses and increased verbal behavioral recovery. strokes.
skills. ● Some of the mechanisms of recovery include those ○ Disruption of the sodium-potassium pump
○ The occipital lobe normally dedicated to similar to the mechanisms of brain development such leading to the accumulation of potassium
processing visual information adapts to also as the new branching of axons and dendrites. ions inside neurons.
process tactile and verbal information. ● Possible causes of brain damage include: ● Edema and excess potassium triggers the release of
● Extensive practice of a skill changes the brain in a way ○ Tumors the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate.
that improves the ability for that skill. ○ infections ● The overstimulation of neurons leads to sodium and
● For example, MRI studies reveal following: ○ exposure to toxic substances other ions entering the neuron in excessive amounts.
○ the temporal lobe of professional musicians ○ degenerative diseases ● Excess positve ions in the neuron block metabolism in
in the right hemisphere is 30% larger than ○ closed head injuries the mitochondria and kill the neuron.
non-musicians.
○ thicker gray matter in the part of the brain
responsible for hand control and vision of
professional keyboard players

Fig. 5-14, p. 139

Fig. 5-13, p. 138 ● A drug called tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) breaks
up blood clots and reduces the effects of an ischemic
● A closed head injury refers to trauma that occurs when strokes.
a sharp blow to the head drives the brain tissue against ● Research has begun to attempt to save cells in the
Fig. 5-12, p. 133 the inside wall of the skull. penumbra or region that surrounds the immediate
○ One of the main causes of brain injury in damage by:
● Part of the mechanism on increased ability due to young adults ○ blocking glutamate synapses
experience is that attention to anything releases ● A stroke or cerebrovascular accident is temporary loss ○ opening potassium channels
dopamine. of blood flow to the brain. ● One of the most effective laboratory methods used to
● Dopamine acts on the cortex to expand the response to ○ A common cause of brain damage in the minimize damage caused by strokes is to cool the
stimuli active during the dopamine release. elderly brain.
● Focal hand dystonia or “musicians cramp” refers to a ● Types of strokes include: ● A cooled brain (91-97° F) has less activity, lower
condition where the reorganization of the brain goes ○ Ischemia - the most common type of stroke, energy needs and less risk of overstimulation.
too far. resulting from a blood clot or obstruction of ● Cannabanoids have also been shown to potentially
● The fingers of musicians who practice extensively an artery. Neurons lose their oxygen and minimize cell loss after brain damage be decreasing
become clumsy, fatigue easily and make involuntary glucose supply. the release of glutamate.
movements. ○ Hemorrhage - a less frequent type of stroke ● Excess glutamate may result in the over- excitation of
● This condition is a result of the area of the brain resulting from a ruptured artery. Neurons are neurons.
responsible for a specific finger movement growing and flooded with excess excess calcium oxygen ● Diaschisis refers to the decreased activity of surviving
overlapping with others. and other products. neurons after damage to other neurons.
● Ischemia and hemorrhage also cause: ● Because activity in one area stimulates other areas,
Plasticity After Brain Damage ○ Edema - the accumulation of fluid in the brain damage to the brain disrupts patterns of normal
resulting in increased pressure on the brain stimulation.
 ● The use of drugs to stimulate activity in healthy regions Fig. 5-17, p. 142 ● Deafferenated limbs are limbs that have lost their
of the bran after a stroke may be a mechanism of later ● Gangliosides, a class of glycolipids formed by the afferent sensory input.
recovery. combination of carbohydrate and fat molecules, also ● Deafferented limbs can still be used but are often not
● Damaged axons do grow back under certain promote the restoration of damaged brains. because use of other mechanisms to carry out the
circumstances. ● The mechanism of action of gangliosides is unknown behavior are easier.
● If an axon in the peripheral nervous system is crushed, but it is believed they adhere to neuron membranes ● The study of the ability to use deafferented limbs has
it follows its myelin sheath back to the target and grows and aid recognition of one neuron by another. led to the development of therapy techniques to
back toward the periphery at a rate of about 1 mm per ● In laboratory mammals, female animals with high levels improve functioning of brain damaged people.
day. of the hormone progesterone have recovered better ○ focus on what they are capable of doing.
● Damaged axons only regenerate 1 to 2 millimeters in from frontal cortex damage.
mature mammals. ● Progesterone increases the release of neurotrophin
● Paralysis caused by spinal cord damage is relatively BDNF which promotes axon sprouting and the
permanent. formation of new synapses.
● Scar tissue makes a mechanical barrier to axon ● Ways the brain compensates for decreased input and
growth. to restores normal functioning include:
● Myelin in the central nervous system also releases ○ Denervation supersensitivity- the heightened
proteins that inhibit axon growth. sensitivity to a neurotransmitter after the
● Collateral sprouts are new branches formed by other destruction of an incoming axon and usually
non-damaged axons that attach to vacant receptors. a result of increased receptors.
● Cells that have lost their source of innervation release ○ Disuse supersensitivity- the hypersensitivity
neurotrophins that induce axons to form collateral to a neurotransmitter after a result of
sprouts. inactivity.
● Over several months, the sprouts fill in most vacated ● Phantom limb refers to the continuation of sensation of
synapses and can be useful, worthless or harmful. an amputated body part and reflects this process. The
cortex reorganizes itself after the amputation of a body
part by becoming responsive to other parts of the body.
● Original axons degenerate leaving vacant synapses
into which others axons sprout.

Fig. 5-16, p. 141

Fig. 5-18, p. 143

● Phantom limb can lead to the feeling of sensations in
the amputated part of the body when other parts of the
body are stimulated.