Chapter 5: Brain Development and Plasticity

3. Differentiation
- Once the cells have migrated, they
Brain Development
start to differentiate or to become the
● The central nervous system begins to
neurons or glial cells that they are
form when the embryo is
supposed to be.
approximately 2 weeks old. The dorsal
surface of the developing embryo
forms as a tube surrounding a fluid-
filled cavity (cerebrospinal fluid).
● The forward end enlarges and
differentiates into the hindbrain,
midbrain, and forebrain
● The rest of the neural tube becomes

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the spinal cord

Maturation of the Vertebrate Brain

● Our brain develops very rapidly at

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birth. At birth, the human brain weighs
approximately 350 grams
● By the first year, the brain weighs
approximately 1000 grams
● The adult brain weighs 1200-1400
grams

The development of neurons in the brain

involves the following processes:
1. Proliferation
2. Migration
3. Differentiation
4. Myelination
5. Synaptogenesis

1. Proliferation
- Once the lips of the neural groove
have fused to create the neural
tube, the cells of the tube begin to
proliferate ot to increase greatly in
number
- Proliferation is the creation of new
cells and new neurons in the brain.
- This primarily occurs very early in
life.
- The cells lining the ventricles start
to divide, some of them become
stem cells that continue to divide,
others become neurons or glia that
move to other locations.

2. Migration
- The movement of the glia and
neurons to their eventual locations
is called migration.
- During this period of migration, the
cells are still in an immature form–
they do not yet have the axons or
dendrites that characterize the
mature form of cells.
- Some don’t reach their destinations
until adulthood
- Occurs in a variety of directions
throughout the brain
- The chemicals– immunoglobulins
and chemokines– guide the
migration.
 - The axon grows first, either
during migration or once it has
reached its target, and is
followed by the development of
the dendrites.

4. Myelination
- refers to the process by which
glia produce the fatty sheath
that covers the axons of some
neurons
- Myelin speeds up the
transmission of neural impulses
- First occurs in the spinal cord
and then in the hindbrain,
midbrain, and forebrain
- Occurs gradually for decades

5. Synaptogenesis
- The final stage of neural
development ; refers to the
formation of the synapses
between neurons
- Occurs throughout life; Slows
significantly later in the lifetime

Can the adult brain generate new neurons?

- It was originally believed that
after your early development, no
new neurons were formed. But
that's not true.
- Later research suggests otherwise:
Stem cells are undifferentiated
cells found in the interior of the
brain that generate “daughter
cells” that can transform into glia
or neurons
(Part of the reason why we're able
to continue to learn as adults is
because the stem cells in our
hippocampus, which are
responsible for the formation of
new memories, will differentiate
and help form new connections to
help consolidate newly learned
material.)

New olfactory receptors also

continually replace dying ones
Different cells have different lifespans. ● The most successful axon connections
● Our skin cells are the newest, they last and combinations survive, while the
for about a year. others fail to sustain active synapses
● Heart cells tend to be as old as you.
Meaning your body replaces no more than
one percent of heart cells per year connections than we need
● Mammalian cerebral cortices form few
or no new neurons after birth
● Two areas where we make new
neurons throughout life are the
hippocampus and the basal ganglia

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Pathfinding by Axons
● When the brain and nervous system
develop, the neurons must connect to

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the right places. They do this by
growing axons.
● Sperry’s (1954) research with newts
indicated that axons follow a chemical
trail to reach their appropriate target
● Growing axons reach their target area
by following a gradient of chemicals:
these chemical signals either attract
the axon (pulling it in) or repel it
(pushing it away), guiding it to the
correct destination.
● This way, axons don’t just grow
randomly but follow a structured path
to form the correct neural
connections.

Sperry’s Experiment

● When axons initially reach their

targets, they form synapses with
several cells
● Postsynaptic cells strengthen
connections with some cells and
eliminate connections with others
● This decision is based on which axons
are the most active and send the
strongest signals.
● Some theorists refer to the idea of the
selection process of neural
connections as neural Darwinism
● In this competition amongst synaptic
connections, we initially form more
Determinants of Neuronal Survival - Motor problems and heart defects
- Facial abnormalities
● Neuron death is a normal and
important part of
neurodevelopment.
● Levi-Montalcini discovered that
muscles do not determine how
many axons form; they determine
how many survive.
● Passive cell death is called
necrosis; active cell death is called
apoptosis
● Apoptosis is a programmed
mechanism of cell death

What triggers the genetic programs that cause

apoptosis in developing neurons?
1. Some developing neurons appear to be
genetically programmed for an early
death
- once they have fulfilled their
functions, and groups of
neurons die together in the
absence of any obvious external
stimulus

2. Some developing neurons seem to die

because they fail to obtain
the life-preserving chemicals that are
supplied by their target cells
- A neurotrophin is a chemical that
promotes the survival and
activity of neurons (i.e., NGF)
- Nerve growth factor (NGF) is
a type of protein released by
muscles that promotes the
survival and growth of axons
- Axons that are not exposed to
neurotrophins after making
connections undergo apoptosis

● Therefore, the healthy adult

nervous system contains no
neurons that failed to make
appropriate connections
● The early stages of brain
development are critical for normal
development later in life
● A mutation in one gene can lead to
many defects
● Chemical distortions in the brain
during early development can
cause significant impairment and
developmental problems

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

● a condition that children are born
with if the mother drinks heavily
during pregnancy, and is marked
by the following:
- Hyperactivity and impulsiveness
- Difficulty maintaining attention
- Varying degrees of mental
retardation
 ● The dendrites of children born with Fine-Tuning by Experience
fetal alcohol syndrome are short with ● The brain has some limited ability to
few branches reorganize itself in response to
● Exposure to alcohol in the fetal brain experience.
suppresses glutamate and enhances ● Axons and dendrites continue to
the release of GABA modify their structure and
● Many neurons consequently receive connections throughout the lifetime.
less excitation and exposure to ● Dendrites continually grow new spines.
neurotrophins than usual and undergo ● The gain and loss of spines indicate
apoptosis new connections, which relate to
learning:
- For instance, rats raised in an
enriched environment develop a

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thicker cortex and increased
dendritic branching
- Measurable expansion of neurons
has also been shown in humans as

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a function of physical activity
- The thickness of the cerebral
cortex declines in old age, but
much less in those who are
physically active
Differentiation of the Cortex - Thus, physical activity can
● Neurons in different parts of the brain promote neural plasticity and
differ from one another in their shape learning
and chemical components
● Immature neurons transplanted to a ● It was once believed that teaching a
developing part of the cortex develop child a difficult concept (e.g., Greek,
the properties of the new location advanced math, etc.) would enhance
● Neurons transplanted at a later stage intelligence in other areas; this
of development develop some new concept is known as “far transfer.”
properties, but retain some of their old Evidence shows that skills associated
properties with the practiced task transfer, but
● Example: Ferret Experiment not other skills
- In one study, researchers surgically - For Example: Puzzle exercises
rewired the brains of newborn may improve puzzle-solving
ferrets so that signals from their skills but not other cognitive
eyes, which normally go to the skills.
visual cortex, were instead sent to ● Near transfer improves abilities in tasks
the auditory cortex (the part of the similar to the one practice.
brain that usually processes ● Far transfer leads to improvements in
sound). unrelated tasks
- After doing that, they discovered ● Extensive practice of a skill changes
surprising results: the brain in a way that improves the
The auditory cortex actually ability for that skill
adapted and started processing
visual information. Even though
this part of the brain was originally Do people born with visual impairments have a
meant for hearing, it reorganized stronger sense of touch and hearing?
itself to "see." The ferrets could
respond to visual stimuli using their ● Practicing a skill changes the brain’s
rewired auditory cortex structure to improve performance in
that specific area.
● The earlier training begins, the greater
the potential for brain adaptation
Example: musicians who began before
age
7 showed advantages over those who
started later in life

● For people who are blind since birth,

occipital cortex responds to touch,
language, and auditory information
What happens when Brain reorganization Goes
too Far??
● One example of this is the focal
hand dystonia or also called
musician's cramp, which occurs due
to excessive practice.
 ● The fingers of musicians who practice blow to the head that does not puncture
extensively become clumsy, fatigue the brain
easily, and make involuntary - One of the main causes of brain
movements injury in young adults.
Meaning, over-representation can lead - After a severe injury, recovery
to involuntary contractions can be slow and incomplete.

Brain & Behavioral Development

● Adolescents tend to be more

impulsive than adults
● Impulsivity can be a problem when it

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leads to drinking, risky driving, sex,
etc.
● Adolescents tend to “discount the
future.” Adolescents are more likely

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than adults to choose
immediate rewards over
larger future rewards, partly
due to their
environmental situation and partly
due to brain development
● However, adolescents are not equally
impulsive in all situations. Peers, the
amount of time to make decisions,
etc., affect their decisions
● Adolescents’ prefrontal cortices are
relatively inactive in certain situations,
but this may or may not be the cause of
impulsivity
● Another explanation of adolescents’
impulsivity is sensitivity to rewards,
especially in social situations.
● Neurons alter synapses more slowly in
old age
● Brain structures begin to lose volume
● Research underestimates older
people:
- People vary in respect to
intellectual decline
- Older people have a greater base
of knowledge and experience, and
many find ways to compensate for
losses

Plasticity After Brain Damage

● Survivors of brain damage show subtle
to significant behavioral recovery
● Some of the mechanisms of recovery
include those similar to the
mechanisms of brain development,
such as the new branching of axons
and dendrites
● Possible causes of brain damage
include:
- Tumors
- Infections
- Exposure to toxic substances
- Degenerative diseases
- Closed head injuries

● A closed head injury refers to a sharp

 ● A stroke or cerebrovascular accident brain areas increase or reorganize
is a temporary loss of blood flow to their activity
the brain ● Diaschisis: decreased activity of
- A common cause of brain surviving neurons after damage to
damage in the elderly. other neurons
● Because activity in one area
Types of strokes include: stimulates other areas, damage to the
● Ischemia: the most common type of brain disrupts patterns of normal
stroke, resulting from a blood clot stimulation
or obstruction of an artery
- Neurons lose their oxygen
and glucose supply due to a
blocked artery

● Hemorrhage: a less frequent type of

stroke resulting from a ruptured
artery
- Neurons are flooded with
excess blood, calcium,
oxygen, and other chemicals

● Ischemia and hemorrhage also cause:

- Edema: the accumulation of
fluid in the brain, resulting in
increased pressure on the
brain and increasing the
probability of further strokes
● Disruption of the sodium-potassium
pump leads to the accumulation of
potassium ions inside neurons
● Stroke kills neurons by overstimulation
- Edema and excess
potassium trigger the
release of the excitatory
neurotransmitter glutamate
- The overstimulation of
neurons leads to sodium
and other ions entering the
neuron in excessive amounts
- Excess positive ions in the
neuron block metabolism in
the mitochondria and kill the
neuron

● A drug called tissue plasminogen

activator (tPA) breaks up blood clots
and can reduce the effects of an
ischemic stroke
● Research has begun to attempt to
save neurons from death by:
- Blocking glutamate synapses
- Blocking calcium entry
● Cannabinoids have also been
shown to potentially minimize cell
loss after a brain stroke
- Benefits are most likely due
to cannabinoids' anti-
inflammatory effects
- Research shows that they
are most effective in
laboratory animals when
taken before the stroke

● Following brain damage, surviving

● Use of drugs (stimulants) to stimulate
activity in healthy regions of the brain
after a stroke may be a mechanism of
later recovery
● Destroyed cell bodies cannot be
replaced, but damaged axons do grow
back under certain circumstances
- If an axon in the peripheral
nervous system is crushed, it
follows its myelin sheath back
to the target and grows back
toward the periphery at a rate
of about 1 mm per day

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- New axons hep with the recovery, if
they carry the same information as
the old ones
● Damaged axons only regenerate one
to two millimeters in mature mammals

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● Paralysis caused by spinal cord
damage is relatively permanent
● Scar tissue makes a mechanical
barrier to axon growth
● Glia cells reacting to damage in the
CNS release chemicals that inhibit
axon growth
● Research on building protein bridges
may help