 Robert Hooke

-discovery was made in 1665 by the English physicist

-first scientist who observed cells / discovered cells
-used a primitive microscope to examine thin slices of cork found in stoppered wine bottles

 Marcello Malpighi, Nehemiah Grew, Anton van Leeuwenhoek

-reported for 50 years on the organization of cells in a variety of plant tissues
-In the 1670s, they also reported on the form and structure of single-celled organisms, which they referred to as
“animalcules.”

 Jean Baptiste de Lamarck

-had seen a wide enough variety of cells and tissues to conclude that “no body can have life if its constituent parts
are not cellular tissue or are not formed by cellular tissue.”

 Prokaryotic
-(pro = before; karyon =nucleus)
Cells without nuclei

 Eukaryotic
(eu =well or good; karyon = nucleus)

Endosymbiotic theory
some cell components (chloroplasts and mitochondria) evolved when a large eukaryotic cell engulfed independent
prokaryotes

Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms can have cell walls

but only eukaryotic cells contain organelles
(membrane-bound structures with specialized functions).

protoplasm,
which consists of all the living components of
a cell.

plasma membrane
living components are bounded by a membrane

cytoplasm
All cellular components between
the plasma membrane and a relatively large body called the
nucleus

Within the cytoplasm is a

souplike fluid called cytosol, in which various bodies called
organelles are dispersed

Organelles are persistent structures of

various shapes and sizes with specialized functions in the cell;
most, but not all, are bounded by membranes
Cell Size
Cells of higher plants generally vary in
length between 10 and 100 micrometers

The Cell Wall

the cell wall is the most obvious because it defines the shape of the cell.
The main structural component of cell walls is cellulose,

Cellulose
-composed of 100 to 15,000 glucose monomers in
long chains and is the most abundant polymer on earth
-cell walls typically contain a matrix of hemicellulose (a gluelike substance that holds cellulose fibrils together),
pectin (the organic material that gives stiffness to fruit jellies), and glycoproteins (proteins that have sugars
associated with their molecules).

Middle lamella
which consists of a layer of pectin
is first produced when new cell walls are formed
normally shared by two adjacent cells and is so thin that it may not be visible with an ordinary light microscope
unless it is specially stained. A flexible primary wall, consisting of a fine network of cellulose, hemicellulose,
pectin, and glycoproteins, is laid down on either side of the middle lamella

Secondary walls
which are produced inside the primary walls, are derived from primary walls by thickening and inclusion of lignin, a
complex polymer.

plasmodesmata (singular:plasmodesma)
which are tiny strands of cytoplasm that extend between the cells through minute openings The translocation of
sugars, amino acids, ions, and other substances occurs through the plasmodesmata. The middle lamellae and most
cell walls are, however, permeable and permit slower movement of water and dissolved substances between cells.

Plasma membrane
may inhibit movement of some substances, it can otherwise allow free movement and can even control movement of
other substances into and out of the cell

The nucleus is the control center of the cell. In some ways, it functions like a combination of a computer program
and a dispatcher that sends coded messages or “blueprints” originating from DNA in the nucleus with information
that will ultimately be used in other parts of the cell.

Each nucleus is bounded by two membranes, which together constitute the nuclear envelope.

The nucleus contains a granular-appearing fluid called nucleoplasm, which is packed with short fibers that are about
10 nanometers in diameter; several different larger bodies are suspended within it.

nucleoli (singular: nucleolus),

which are composed primarily of RNA and associated proteins.

chromosomes.
When a nucleus divides, the chromatin strands coil, becoming shorter and thicker, and in their condensed condition,
Each cell of a given plant or animal species has its own fixed number and composition of chromosomes

chromatin.
Composed of protein and DNA
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum facilitates cellular communication and channeling of materials.
-The outer membrane of the nucleus is connected to and continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.

Ribosomes
are tiny bodies that are visible with the aid of an electron microscope. They are typically roughly ellipsoidal in shape
with apparently varied and complex surfaces,

dictyosomes
-Stacks of flattened discs or vesicles
-Dictyosomes are often bounded by branching tubules that originate from the endoplasmic reticulum but
are not directly connected to it.

Golgi apparatus,
Occur in protein-secreting animal cells and a few plant cells with similar function. In animal cells, the term Golgi
body is used to describe dictyosomes, which are named after Camillo Golgi, who discovered the Golgi apparatus in
1898.

Plastids
being the most conspicuous. They occur in a variety of shapes and sizes, such as the
beautiful corkscrew like ribbons found in cells of the green alga Spirogyra

chloroplasts
and the bracelet-shaped chloroplasts of other green algae, such as Ulothrix The chloroplasts of higher plants,
however, tend to be shaped somewhat like two Frisbees glued together along their edges, and when they are sliced in
median section, they resemble the outline of a rugby football.

grana (singular:granum)
which are formed from membranes and have the appearance of stacks of coins with double membranes.

thylakoids.
In reality, thylakoids are part of an overlapping and continuous membrane system suspended in the liquid portion of
the chloroplast

Chlorophyll
- The thylakoid membranes contain
- These “coin stacks” of grana are vital to life as we know it, for it is within the thylakoids that the first steps of the
important process of photosynthesis

stroma,
- The liquid portion of the chloroplast is a colorless fluid matrix
- which contains enzymes involved in photosynthesis.

Chromoplasts
- are another type of plastid found in some cells of more complex plants
- Chromoplasts are yellow, orange, or red in color due to the presence of carotenoid pigments, which they synthesize
and accumulate.

Leucoplasts
are yet another type of plastid common to cells of higher plants. They are essentially colorless and include
amyloplasts, which synthesize starches, and elaioplasts, which synthesize oils.
proplastids,
-Plastids of all types develop
- which are small, pale green or colorless organelles having roughly
the size and form of mitochondria

Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion)

are often referred to as the powerhouses of the cell,
- for it is within them that energy is released from organic molecules by the process of cellular respiration

Microbodies
Various small bodies distributed throughout the cytoplasm tend to give it a granular appearance.
- which contain specialized enzymes and are bounded by a single membrane

Peroxisomes,
for instance, contain enzymes needed by some plants to survive during hot conditions in a process called
photorespiration.

Glyoxisomes
contain enzymes that aid in the conversion of fats to carbohydrates.

vacuoles
In a mature living plant cell, 90% or more of the volume may be taken up by one or two large central vacuoles that
are bounded by vacuolar membranes.
- Latin root as the word vacuum (from vacuus—meaning “empty”).
- Vacuoles, however, have a variety of functions, including maintenance of cell pressure and pH, as well as
storage of numerous cell metabolites and waste products. Inside the vacuole is a watery fluid called cell sap,

vacuolar membranes (tonoplasts)

constitute the inner boundaries of the living part of the cell, are similar in structure and function to plasma
membranes.

cell sap,,
which helps maintain pressures within the cell

Microfilament
which play a major role in the contraction and movement of cells in multicellular animals, are present in nearly all
cells.

The Cytoskeleton
involved in movement within a cell and in a cell’s architecture. It is an intricate network constructed
mainly of two kinds of fibers—microtubules and microfilaments.