Complex

Appendix B Complex Numbers P.
Danziger
Some Useful Sets
The Empty Set

Definition 1 The empty set is the set with no
elements, denoted by φ.
Number Sets
• N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} - The natural numbers.
• Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} - The inte-

gers.
• Q = {x
y | x ∈ Z ∧ y ∈ N + } - The rationals.
• R = (−∞, ∞) - The Real numbers.
• I = R − Q (all real numbers which are not ra-

tional) - The irrational numbers.
• C = {x + yi | x, y ∈ R} - The Complex numbers.
Note: There are many real numbers which are

√
not rational, e.g. π, 2 etc.
0
Appendix B Complex Numbers P. Danziger
Complex Numbers
Introduction
We can’t solve the equation x2 + 1 = 0 over the

real numbers, so we invent a new number i which
is the solution to this equation, i.e. i2 = −1.
Complex numbers are numbers of the form
z = x + iy, where x, y ∈ R.
The set of complex numbers is represented by C.
Generally we represent Complex numbers by z and
w, and real numbers by x, y, u, v, so
z = x + iy, w = u + iv, z, w ∈ C, x, y, u, v ∈ R.
Numbers of the form z = iy (no real part) are
called pure imaginary numbers.
1
Complex numbers may be thought of as vectors in

R2 with components (x, y). We can also represent
Complex numbers in polar coordinates (r, θ) (θ is
the angle to the real (x) axis), in this case we write
z = reiθ . Thus x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ,
and we have Demoivre’s Theorem.
Theorem 2 (Demoivre’s Theorem)

reiθ = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
Example 3
• Put 1 − i in polar form.
tan θ = −1, in fourth quadrant so θ = − π4 .

q
2 2
√
r = 1 + 1 = 2. So
√ − πi √ 7πi
1 − i = 2e 4 = 2e 4 .
π
• Put 2e 3 in rectangular form.
√
√
!
π 1 3i
2e 3 =2 + = 3 + i.
2 2
2
Operations with Complex num-

bers
Let z = x + iy = reiθ and w = u + iv = qeiφ then

we have the following operations:
• The imaginary part of z, Im(z) = y.
• The real part of z, Re(z) = x.
• The Complex Conjugate of z, z = x − iy =

re−iθ .
Note: Complex conjugation basically means

turn every occurence of an i to a −i.
√ q
• The modulus of z, |z| = zz = x2 + y 2 = r.
• The argument of z, arg(z) = tan−1 y/x = θ.
3
Note: zz = |z|2, so z = |z|2/z, so z/|z|2 = 1/z this

is used to do division.
Example 4
Let z = −2 + i and w = 1 − i then:
1. Re(z) = −2, Im(z) = 1, Re(w) = 1 and Im(w) =

−1.
q √
2. |z| = (−2)2 + 12 = 5, arg(z) = arctan − 1
2

√ i arctan − 12
so z = 5e .
q √
3. |w| = 12 + (−1)2 = 2, arg(w) = arctan −1
1 =
√ −iπ
− π4 so w = 2e 4 .
√ −5πi √ iπ
4. z = −2 − i = 5e 6 and w = 1 + i = 2e 4 .
4
• Addition z + w = (x + u) + i(y + v)
(Includes Subtraction).
• Multiplication zw = (x + iy)(u + vi) = (xu −

yv) + i(xv + yu) = qrei(θ+φ).
z zw
• Division = 2
.
w |w|
Example 5
Let z = −2 + i and w = 1 − i then:
1. z + w = (−2 + 1) + (1 − 1)i = −1.
2. zw = (−2 + i)(1 − i) = −2 + 2i + i − i2 =
−2 + 1 + 3i = −1 + 3i.
3. z/w = zw/|w|2 = 1 2 (−2 + i)(1 + i) = 1 (−2 −

2
2 1
2i + i + i ) = 2 (−3 − i).
5
Powers
Theorem 6 (Demoivre’s Theorem)
n
reiθ = rn(cos (nθ) + i sin (nθ))
Example 7
Find (i + i)12
√ πi
1+i= 2e 4 .
So
√ 12
πi
(1 + i)12 = 2e 4
√ 12 12πi
= 2 e 4
= 26e3πi
= 64eiπ
= −64.
Note eiπ = −1.
6
Roots of Complex Numbers
In order to find the nth root of a complex number

z = x + iy = reiθ we use the polar form, z = reiθ .
Since θ is an angle,
reiθ = rei(θ+2kπ)
for any intger k. Thus
1 1
z n = rei(θ+2kπ) n
1 iθ+2kπ
= r e n
n
1h i
θ+2kπ
= r n cos n + i sin θ+2kπ
n
Taking k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 gives the n roots.
1
Since r ≥ 0, r n always exists, even for even roots.
Example 8
Find All cube roots of 8.
1 2kπi
8 = 8e2kπi, so, 8 3 = 2e 3 .
2πi 4πi
Taking k = 0, 1, 2 gives 2, 2e 3 and 2e 3 as the
three cube roots of 8.
7
Fundamental Theorem of Alge-

bra
Note that in C all numbers have exactly n nth

roots.
This leads to the Fundamental Theorem of alge-

bra:
Every polynomial over the Complex numbers of

degree n has exactly n roots
i.e. if f (z) = a0 + a1z + . . . + anz n

then there exist z1, z2 . . . , zn ∈ C such that
f (x) = (z − z1)(z − z2) . . . (z − zn).

That is f can be decomposed into linear factors.

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Appendix B Complex Numbers P.

Some Useful Sets

The Empty Set

• Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} - The inte-

• R = (−∞, ∞) - The Real numbers.

• I = R − Q (all real numbers which are not ra-

• C = {x + yi | x, y ∈ R} - The Complex numbers.

Note: There are many real numbers which are

We can’t solve the equation x2 + 1 = 0 over the

Complex numbers are numbers of the form

Complex numbers may be thought of as vectors in

Theorem 2 (Demoivre’s Theorem)

• Put 1 − i in polar form.

tan θ = −1, in fourth quadrant so θ = − π4 .

Operations with Complex num-

Let z = x + iy = reiθ and w = u + iv = qeiφ then

• The imaginary part of z, Im(z) = y.

• The real part of z, Re(z) = x.

• The Complex Conjugate of z, z = x − iy =

Note: Complex conjugation basically means

• The argument of z, arg(z) = tan−1 y/x = θ.

Note: zz = |z|2, so z = |z|2/z, so z/|z|2 = 1/z this

1. Re(z) = −2, Im(z) = 1, Re(w) = 1 and Im(w) =

• Multiplication zw = (x + iy)(u + vi) = (xu −

1. z + w = (−2 + 1) + (1 − 1)i = −1.

3. z/w = zw/|w|2 = 1 2 (−2 + i)(1 + i) = 1 (−2 −

Roots of Complex Numbers

In order to find the nth root of a complex number

Fundamental Theorem of Alge-

Note that in C all numbers have exactly n nth

This leads to the Fundamental Theorem of alge-

Every polynomial over the Complex numbers of

i.e. if f (z) = a0 + a1z + . . . + anz n

f (x) = (z − z1)(z − z2) . . . (z − zn).

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