Module 2: Applications of Biomolecules

1.1.1 Cellulose-Based Water Filters

Cellulose-based water filters are filters made from cellulose, a carbohydrate polymer found
in plant cell walls. They are used to remove impurities and contaminants from water and are an
alternative to traditional synthetic polymer filters. The high mechanical strength and hydrophilic
properties of cellulose make it an ideal material for water filtration. Cellulose filters can effectively
remove particles, pathogens, and other contaminants from water, making it safer and more potable.
Cellulose-based water filters are widely used in both developed and developing countries for
household, industrial, and agricultural applications. They are also an environmentally friendly
alternative to traditional filters, as they are biodegradable and can be produced from renewable
resources.

Properties of cellulose based water filter

Cellulose-based water filters have several properties that make them an attractive choice
for water filtration:
● High Porosity: Cellulose-based water filters have a high porosity structure, which allows them
to efficiently remove impurities and contaminants from water.
● Biodegradability: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a biodegradable material,
cellulose, which reduces their impact on the environment compared to synthetic polymer
filters.Cost-effective: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than traditional
synthetic polymer filters, making them accessible to a wider range of consumers and
communities.
● Renewable resource: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable resource,
cellulose, reducing the dependency on non-renewable resources.
● Good mechanical strength: Cellulose-based water filters have good mechanical strength,
allowing them to maintain their structure and perform effectively over time.
● Chemical resistance: Cellulose-based water filters are resistant to most chemicals, including
acids and bases, and can be used in a wide range of water treatment applications.
● Large surface area: Cellulose-based water filters have a large surface area, which enhances
their filtration capabilities and reduces the frequency of filter replacement.

Importance of cellulose based water filters

Cellulose-based water filters are important for several reasons:
● Safe and clean water: Cellulose-based water filters effectively remove impurities and
contaminants from water, making it safer and more potable for various applications, including
household, industrial, and agricultural use.
● Sustainability: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable resource, cellulose,
and are biodegradable, reducing their impact on the environment and promoting sustainability
in water treatment processes.
● Affordability: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than traditional synthetic
polymer filters, making them accessible to a wider range of consumers and communities,
especially in developing countries.
● Versatility: Cellulose-based water filters can be used in various types of filtration systems and
can be produced in different sizes and shapes to fit specific needs.
● Alternative to synthetic filters: Cellulose-based water filters provide an environmentally
friendly alternative to traditional synthetic polymer filters, reducing the dependency on non-
renewable resources and reducing waste.

Advantages of cellulose based water filters

Cellulose-based water filters have several advantages that make them an attractive option
for water filtration:
● Environmentally friendly: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable resource,
cellulose, and are biodegradable, reducing their impact on the environment compared to
synthetic polymer filters.
● Cost-effective: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than traditional
synthetic polymer filters, making them accessible to a wider range of consumers and
communities.
● High porosity: Cellulose-based water filters have a high porosity structure, which allows them
to efficiently remove impurities and contaminants from water.
● Versatile: Cellulose-based water filters can be used in various types of filtration systems and
can be produced in different sizes and shapes to fit specific needs.
● Good mechanical strength: Cellulose-based water filters have good mechanical strength,
allowing them to maintain their structure and perform effectively over time.
● Chemical resistance: Cellulose-based water filters are resistant to most chemicals, including
acids and bases, and can be used in a wide range of water treatment applications.
● Large surface area: Cellulose-based water filters have a large surface area, which enhances
their filtration capabilities and reduces the frequency of filter replacement.

Limitations of cellulose based water filters

Cellulose-based water filters have some limitations that need to be considered when
choosing a water filtration solution:
● Low resistance to high temperature: Cellulose-based water filters have low resistance to high
temperature and can lose their structural integrity when exposed to high temperatures.
● Low filtration efficiency for certain contaminants: Cellulose-based water filters may not be
efficient in removing certain contaminants, such as heavy metals, from water.
● Limited lifespan: Cellulose-based water filters have a limited lifespan and may need to be
replaced more frequently compared to synthetic polymer filters.
● Difficult to sterilize: Cellulose-based water filters may be difficult to sterilize effectively,
increasing the risk of contamination.
● May clog easily: Cellulose-based water filters may clog easily when exposed to high levels of
contaminants, reducing their filtration efficiency and requiring frequent replacement.
● May affect water taste: Cellulose-based water filters may affect the taste of water by
absorbing or releasing certain chemicals or minerals, reducing the quality of the purified
water.
Construction of cellulose-based water filters
Construction of cellulose-based water filters involves the following steps:
1. Cellulose Material Selection: The type of cellulose material used in the water filter will
depend on the desired properties such as strength, porosity, and chemical resistance. Common
cellulose materials include paper, cotton, and wood fibers.
2. Cellulose Preparation: The cellulose material is prepared by cutting it into small pieces,
washing it to remove impurities, and drying it for use.
3. Cellulose Layer Formation: The cellulose material is formed into a layer by either stacking it
or compacting it using heat and pressure.
4. Filter Medium Attachment: The cellulose layer is attached to a filter medium such as a mesh
or a support structure to provide stability and increase the filter surface area.
5. Chemical Treatment: The cellulose layer may be chemically treated to modify its properties,
such as increasing its hydrophilicity or adding antimicrobial agents.
6. Housing Assembly: The filter medium is assembled into a housing that provides a means to
attach it to a water source and to collect the filtered water.
7. Filter Testing: The completed filter is tested to ensure that it meets the desired specifications,
such as filtration efficiency and flow rate.
Note: This is a general outline, the exact process may vary depending on the specific requirements
of the water filter and the type of cellulose material used.

Cellulose material used in house hold water filters

The cellulose material commonly used in household water filters is cellulose acetate.
Cellulose acetate is a synthetic form of cellulose that has properties such as good chemical
resistance, high porosity, and high flow rate, making it suitable for use in household water filters.
Additionally, cellulose acetate is also a low-cost material, making it accessible for use in
household applications.

Figure: Cellulose acetate material

Other cellulose materials such as paper, cotton, and wood fibers may also be used, but
cellulose acetate is the most commonly used due to its favorable properties for water filtration
applications.

1.1.2 PHA as Bioplastic

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are a class of biodegradable and biocompatible polyesters
produced by microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. They are a type of bioplastic. They are
made from renewable resources, such as sugar and cornstarch, and are considered to be an
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics.

Figure: General representation and examples of PHAs

Properties of PHA
PHAs have several properties that make them ideal for use as bioplastics, including:
● Biodegradability: PHAs are biodegradable and can break down into water and carbon dioxide,
reducing their impact on the environment.
● Biocompatibility: PHAs are biocompatible and can be used in medical devices, such as
sutures and implants, without causing adverse reactions in the body.
● Mechanical properties: PHAs have similar mechanical properties to traditional petroleum-
based plastics, making them suitable for various applications.
● Processing: PHAs can be processed using conventional plastic processing techniques, such as
injection molding, blow molding, and extrusion.

Engineering applications of PHA bioplastic

● Packaging: PHA is used in various forms of packaging such as food containers, beverage
cups, and clamshell containers.
● Medical Devices: PHA is biocompatible and can be used in the manufacture of medical
devices such as sutures, implants, and drug delivery systems.
● Textiles: PHA is used in the production of biodegradable textiles, as well as for the production
of biodegradable composites for use in construction and furniture.
● Agricultural Mulch Films: PHA is used in the production of biodegradable mulch films for
agriculture to reduce soil erosion and conserve moisture.
● Consumer Goods: PHA is used in the production of various consumer goods, such as toys,
phone cases, and water bottles.
● Automotive Parts: PHA is used for the production of biodegradable automotive parts such as
air ducts and headlamp covers.
● Electronic Devices: PHA is used for the production of biodegradable components in
electronic devices such as smartphones and laptops.
● Aerospace: PHA is used for the production of biodegradable parts in aerospace applications,
such as insulation and cable management.
● Sporting Goods: PHA is used for the production of biodegradable sporting goods such as golf
tees and fishing lures.
● Construction: PHA is used for the production of biodegradable insulation and soundproofing
materials.

1.1.3 PLA as Bioplastic

Polylactic Acid (PLA) is a biodegradable and bio-based plastic made from corn starch,
sugarcane, or other natural resources.

Figure: Molecular formula of PLA

It is commonly used as a sustainable alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics in
various applications such as packaging, disposable tableware, and 3D printing. However, it's
important to note that while PLA is biodegradable in industrial composting facilities, it may not
break down in the environment as quickly as advertised and may still have negative impacts on
wildlife and ecosystems if not properly disposed of.

Properties of PLA as bioplastic

● Biodegradable: PLA can be broken down by microorganisms in industrial composting
facilities, reducing waste in landfills.
● Renewable: PLA is derived from renewable resources such as corn starch or sugarcane,
reducing dependence on finite petroleum resources.
● Clear/Transparent: PLA has a clear and transparent appearance, making it suitable for
packaging applications.
● Heat-resistant: PLA has a relatively low melting temperature and is not recommended for
high heat applications, but it can maintain its shape and stability up to 60°C.
● Biocompatible: PLA is non-toxic and biocompatible, making it suitable for food packaging
and medical devices.
● Stiffness and Strength: PLA has good stiffness and strength, but not as strong as traditional
 petroleum-based plastics.
● Printability: PLA is commonly used in 3D printing due to its good printability and ease of use.
Engineering applications of PLA bioplastic
● Automotive parts: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable automotive parts such as
air ducts and headlamp covers.
● Electronic Devices: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable components in electronic
devices such as smartphones and laptops.
● Aerospace: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable parts in aerospace applications,
such as insulation and cable management.
● Sporting Goods: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable sporting goods such as golf
tees and fishing lures.
● Construction: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable insulation and soundproofing
materials.
● Agricultural Equipment: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable parts in agricultural
equipment such as seed trays and greenhouse film.
● Medical Equipment: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable components in medical
equipment such as diagnostic equipment and hospital beds.
1.2 Nucleic Acids:
Nucleic acids are biopolymers that play a crucial role in the storage and transfer of genetic
information in all living organisms. There are two types of nucleic acids:
● Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): DNA is the genetic material that carries the instructions for
the development, functioning, and reproduction of all living organisms. DNA is a double-
stranded helix structure composed of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar (deoxyribose), a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine).
● Ribonucleic acid (RNA): RNA is involved in the expression of the genetic information stored
in DNA by carrying the message from the DNA to the ribosome, where it is used to build
proteins. RNA is a single-stranded molecule composed of nucleotides, which consist of a
sugar (ribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or

uracil).
Figure: Schematic representation of DNA and RNA
Both DNA and RNA play essential roles in the functioning of cells and organisms, and
their structures and interactions with other molecules are the basis for many biological processes
such as replication, transcription, and translation.
1.2.1 DNA Vaccine
A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of viral or bacterial DNA to stimulate
an immune response against the pathogen. The vaccine works by introducing the pathogen's DNA
into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral or bacterial proteins. These
proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an immune response and the
production of antibodies against the pathogen.
DNA vaccines are being actively researched and developed for a range of diseases,
including cancer, rabies, influenza, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). While the
technology is still in its early stages, it has the potential to revolutionize the field of vaccine
development and provide new treatment options for a range of diseases.

1.2.2 DNA Vaccine for Rabies

A DNA vaccine for rabies is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of rabies virus DNA to
stimulate an immune response against the virus. The vaccine works by introducing the rabies virus
DNA into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral proteins. These viral
proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an immune response and the
production of antibodies against the rabies virus.

1.2.3 Proteins as Food

Proteins are essential nutrients that provide the body with amino acids, which are the
building blocks of the body's tissues. Proteins are found in many different foods, including meat,
poultry, fish, dairy products, beans, lentils, tofu, and eggs.
Proteins are a vital component of a healthy diet, as they help to build and repair tissues,
support immune function, and regulate various metabolic processes. The body also uses proteins
as a source of energy when carbohydrates and fats are not available.
The quality of proteins in food is determined by the types of amino acids they contain, as
well as the amount of each type of amino acid. To ensure adequate protein intake, it is important to
consume a variety of protein-rich foods and to include both complete and incomplete protein
sources in the diet. It is also important to consume sufficient amounts of other nutrients, such as
carbohydrates, fats, and vitamins and minerals, to support overall health and well-being.

Whey protein as food

Whey protein is a type of protein derived from the liquid that separates from milk during
the cheese-making process.
 It is a complete protein, meaning it contains all of the essential amino acids the body needs
to build and repair tissues.
Whey protein is widely used as a dietary supplement, particularly by athletes,
bodybuilders, and people looking to increase their protein intake.
It is commonly added to smoothies, shakes, and other beverages, and is also available in
powder form that can be mixed into other foods or beverages.
Compared to other types of protein, whey protein is rapidly absorbed by the body and is
high in branched-chain amino acids, which are essential for muscle growth and repair.
It is also a good source of essential nutrients, including calcium, potassium, and vitamins
B2 and B12.
However, it is important to note that not all whey protein products are equal in terms of
quality, purity, and nutrient content. Some whey protein supplements may contain added sugars,
artificial sweeteners, or other ingredients that can be harmful to health. It is therefore important to
choose a reputable brand and to carefully read the ingredient list before purchasing.

Use of whey protein as food

Whey protein is a type of protein derived from cow's milk and is commonly used as a food
supplement. There are several uses of whey protein as food, including:
● Sports nutrition: Whey protein is often used by athletes and fitness enthusiasts to help build
and repair muscle tissue, support recovery after intense exercise, and increase overall muscle
mass.
● Weight management: Whey protein can be used to help manage weight by increasing satiety
and reducing appetite. It can also help with weight loss by preserving muscle mass while
reducing body fat.
● Health promotion: Whey protein is rich in essential amino acids and has been shown to have
various health benefits, including improved immune function, lower blood pressure, and
reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.
● Meal replacement: Whey protein can be used as a meal replacement, either as a drink or in a
variety of food products. It provides a quick and convenient source of protein, making it a
popular option for people with busy schedules or limited access to fresh foods.
Whey protein is available in a variety of forms, including powders, bars, and drinks. It is
often added to smoothies, baked goods, and other food products to increase the protein content.
When using whey protein as food, it is important to choose a high-quality product that is free of
artificial sweeteners, flavors, and other additives.
It is also important to talk to a healthcare professional before starting to use whey protein,
especially when one have any medical conditions or allergies.
Meat analogs of protein
Meat analogs, also known as meat substitutes or meat alternatives, are plant-based foods
designed to mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of meat. They are made from a variety of
ingredients, including soy protein, wheat protein, pea protein, and other plant-based ingredients,
and are often fortified with vitamins and minerals to provide a similar nutritional profile to meat.
Meat analogs are a popular alternative to meat for many people, including vegetarians,
vegans, and those who are looking to reduce their meat consumption for health or ethical reasons.
They can be a good source of protein and can help to meet the body's protein needs. There are
many different types of meat analogs available, including burgers, sausages, meatballs, deli slices,
and more. Some are designed to mimic specific types of meat, such as chicken, beef, or pork,
while others are marketed as a more generic "meat-like" product. When choosing meat analogs, it
is important to look for products that are high in protein and low in added sugars, fats, and other
ingredients that can be harmful to health. It is also important to consider the texture and taste, as
some meat analogs can be more appealing than others.

Examples of meat analogs of protein as food

● Tofu: Made from soybeans, tofu is a versatile meat analog that can be used in a variety of
dishes, including stir-fries, salads, and smoothies.
● Tempeh: Another soy-based product, tempeh is made from fermented soybeans and has a
nutty flavor and firm texture. It can be sliced and used in sandwiches or salads, or crumbled
and used as a meat substitute in tacos or spaghetti sauces.
● Seitan: Also known as wheat meat or wheat protein, seitan is made from wheat gluten and has
a chewy, meat-like texture. It can be used as a substitute for beef or pork in a variety of dishes.
● Veggie burgers: Made from a variety of plant-based ingredients, including soy protein, grains,
and vegetables, veggie burgers are a popular meat analog that can be grilled or baked and
served on a bun.
● Meatless meatballs: Made from plant-based ingredients such as soy protein, grains, and
vegetables, meatless meatballs are a tasty and protein-rich alternative to traditional meatballs.
● Plant-based sausages: Made from soy protein, pea protein, or other plant-based ingredients,
plant-based sausages are a convenient and protein-rich alternative to traditional sausages.

a) b) c)
 d) e) f)
Figure: Images of a) Tofu, b) Tempeh, c) Seitan, d) Veggie burgers, e) Meatless meatballs, f)
Plant-based sausages
These are just a few examples of meat analogs of protein as food. There are many other
products available that can provide a similar taste, texture, and nutritional profile to meat, making
it easier for people to reduce or eliminate their meat consumption for health or ethical reasons.

1.2.4 Plant Based Proteins

Plant-based proteins are proteins derived from plant sources, such as legumes, grains, nuts,
and seeds. They are becoming increasingly popular as a alternative to animal-based proteins,
especially for those following a vegetarian or vegan diet. Here are some benefits of plant-based
proteins:
● Sustainable: Plant-based protein sources are more environmentally sustainable than animal-
based sources, as they require fewer resources to produce and generate fewer greenhouse gas
emissions.
● Nutrient-rich: Many plant-based protein sources are also rich in other essential nutrients, such
as fiber, vitamins, and minerals.
● Versatile: Plant-based proteins can be used in a variety of ways, including as a protein
supplement, in smoothies, or as an ingredient in various recipes.
● Hypoallergenic: Plant-based proteins are often better tolerated than animal-based proteins,
making them a good option for people with food allergies or sensitivities.
● Cost-effective: Plant-based protein sources are often more affordable than animal-based
sources, making them a more accessible option for many people.
Examples of plant-based proteins include soy protein, pea protein, lentil protein, chickpea
protein, and hemp protein.
It is important to choose a high-quality product that is free of artificial additives and
preservatives, and to consult a healthcare professional before starting to use any new protein
supplement.

Uses of plant based proteins

Plant-based proteins are commonly used in a variety of ways, including:
 ● Dietary supplements: Plant-based proteins are often sold as powders, bars, and other
supplements, making them a convenient way to add protein to a diet.
● Food products: Plant-based proteins are used as ingredients in a variety of food products,
including plant-based meat analogs, protein bars, and smoothies.
● Health and wellness: Plant-based proteins are often marketed as a healthier alternative to
animal-based proteins, due to their lower saturated fat and cholesterol content.
● Vegetarian and vegan diets: Plant-based proteins are a popular source of protein for people
following a vegetarian or vegan diet, as they do not contain animal products.
● Fitness and sports nutrition: Plant-based proteins are also used by athletes and fitness
enthusiasts to support muscle recovery and growth.
It is important to choose a high-quality plant-based protein product, and to consult a
healthcare professional before starting to use any new protein supplement. It is also important to
remember that plant-based proteins may not contain all of the essential amino acids found in
animal-based proteins, so it may be necessary to consume a variety of plant-based protein sources
to ensure adequate protein intake.

1.2.5 Lipids as Biodiesel

Lipids can be converted into biodiesel, which is a renewable source of energy. Biodiesel is
typically produced by transesterifying vegetable oils or animal fats with an alcohol, such as
methanol, to form methyl esters. The resulting biodiesel can be used as a drop-in replacement for
traditional diesel fuel in internal combustion engines.

Advantages
● Renewability: Lipids are a renewable resource, and they can be produced from a variety of
sources, such as vegetable oils, animal fats, and microalgae.
● Reduced emissions: Biodiesel produces fewer emissions compared to traditional diesel fuel,
reducing the impact on the environment and public health.
● Improved performance: Biodiesel can improve engine performance, increasing fuel efficiency
and reducing engine wear and tear.
● Biodegradability: Biodiesel is biodegradable, which reduces the risk of environmental
contamination in the event of a spill.
 However, there are also some limitations to the use of lipids as biodiesel, such as higher
production costs compared to traditional diesel fuel and the need for more efficient and cost-
effective processing methods. Nevertheless, the use of lipids as biodiesel has the potential to play
an important role in the transition towards a more sustainable energy system.

The Process of Obtaining Biodiesel from Lipids

● Raw material preparation: The lipids, such as vegetable oils or animal fats, are collected and
purified to remove impurities.
● Transesterification: The purified lipids are mixed with an alcohol, such as methanol, and a
catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide, to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), which are the
main components of biodiesel. This process is known as transesterification.
● Separation: The reaction mixture is then separated into two layers: the upper layer contains
the FAME (biodiesel) and the lower layer contains the glycerol (byproduct).
● Washing and drying: The biodiesel is washed with water to remove any residual alcohol and
soap that was formed during the transesterification reaction. The biodiesel is then dried to
remove any remaining moisture.
● Purification: The biodiesel is further purified to remove any impurities and improve its
quality.
● Final product: The purified biodiesel is then stored and distributed for use as a fuel.
It is important to note that the exact process can vary depending on the specific type of
lipid and the desired quality of the final product. Further research is needed to improve the
efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the biodiesel production process.

1.2.6 Lipids as Cleaning Agents/Detergents

● Personal care products: Lipids, such as fatty acids and glycerides, are commonly used as
emulsifiers and surfactants in personal care products, such as shampoos, soaps, and lotions.
● Industrial cleaning: Lipids can be used as cleaning agents in various industrial applications,
such as metal cleaning, degreasing, and stain removal.
● Laundry detergents: Lipids, such as fatty acids and glycerides, are used as ingredients in
laundry detergents to improve their cleaning and sudsing performance.
● Cleaning agents for hard surfaces: Lipids can be used as cleaning agents for hard surfaces,
such as floors, countertops, and walls, to remove dirt and grime.
Lipids have several properties that make them suitable as cleaning agents, including their
ability to emulsify and dissolve grease and oils. Additionally, lipids can form micelles, which are
tiny spherical structures that can surround and trap dirt particles, making it easier to remove them.
However, it is important to note that not all lipids are equally effective as cleaning agents
and that the specific properties of each lipid can impact its performance. Further research is
needed to optimize the use of lipids as cleaning agents and to identify new and more effective lipids
for this purpose.

Examples of lipids used as cleaning agent

● Soap: Soap is a traditional cleaning agent made from the reaction of an alkali with a fat or oil.
Soaps are made from various types of lipids, including animal fats and vegetable oils.
● Fatty acids: Fatty acids, such as stearic acid, can be used as cleaning agents in personal care
products, such as bar soaps and shampoos.
● Glycerol: Glycerol is a byproduct of soap production and can be used as a cleaning agent in a
variety of applications, including household cleaners and industrial cleaning solutions.
● Fatty alcohols: Fatty alcohols, such as lauryl alcohol, can be used as cleaning agents in
personal care products and industrial cleaning solutions.
These are a few examples of lipids that are used as cleaning agents. There are many other
lipids with different properties that can be used for cleaning, depending on the specific
requirements of each application.

Advantages of lipids as cleaning agents/detergents

● Biodegradability: Lipids are derived from natural sources, such as plants and animals, and are
biodegradable, which makes them more environmentally friendly than many synthetic
cleaning agents.
● Renewable resources: Lipids can be obtained from renewable resources, such as crops, and
are not based on finite fossil fuels like some synthetic cleaning agents.
● Effectiveness: Lipids have excellent grease-cutting and emulsifying properties, making them
effective cleaning agents.
● Mildness: Lipids are typically mild and gentle, making them suitable for use in personal care
products, such as soaps and shampoos, and for cleaning delicate materials, such as silk and
wool.
● Cost-effective: Lipids can be less expensive than synthetic cleaning agents, especially when
obtained from low-cost feedstocks, such as vegetable oils.
● Customizability: Lipids can be modified and customized to improve their cleaning
performance and to meet specific application needs.
However, it is important to note that not all lipids are equally effective as cleaning agents
and that the specific properties of each lipid can impact its performance. Further research is needed
to optimize the use of lipids as cleaning agents and to identify new and more effective lipids for
this purpose.

Limitations of lipids as cleaning agents/detergents

Limitations of using lipids as cleaning agents or detergents include:
● Stability: Some lipids can be susceptible to oxidation and degradation, which can reduce their
effectiveness as cleaning agents over time.
● Compatibility: Some lipids may not be compatible with certain surfaces or materials, and may
cause staining or damage.
● Cost: Although lipids can be less expensive than synthetic cleaning agents, the cost can vary
depending on the source of the lipids and the processing methods used.
● Availability: The availability of lipids for use as cleaning agents may be limited by the
availability of feedstocks, such as crops and animal fats, and the need for processing and
refining.
● Performance: The cleaning performance of lipids can vary depending on the specific
properties of each lipid and the type of soil or stain being removed. Some lipids may not
perform as well as synthetic cleaning agents in certain applications.
● Regulation: The use of lipids as cleaning agents is regulated by government agencies, and
specific requirements may vary from country to country.
Overall, further research and development are needed to overcome these limitations and to
optimize the use of lipids as cleaning agents and detergents.

Working principle of lipids as cleaning agent

The working principle of lipids as cleaning agents or detergents is based on their ability to
dissolve grease and oils. Lipids are composed of hydrophobic (water-fearing) and hydrophilic
(water-loving) regions, which allows them to surround grease and oils, effectively breaking them
down into smaller particles that can be more easily removed. This is why lipids are commonly
used in cleaning products such as soaps, shampoos, laundry detergents, and dishwashing liquids.
When a lipid-based cleaning agent is applied to a surface, the hydrophobic regions of the
lipid molecule surround and dissolve grease and oils, while the hydrophilic regions interact with
water, allowing the mixture to be rinsed away. The combination of the lipid and water also forms
an emulsion, which helps to suspend and remove dirt and debris.
In addition, some lipids have additional properties, such as foaming or lathering
capabilities, that can enhance their cleaning performance. For example, fatty alcohols can be used
as foaming agents in shampoos, while soap is known for its lathering properties. These additional
properties can help to loosen and remove dirt and debris, making the cleaning process more
effective.

1.2.7 Glucose-Oxidase in Biosensors

Biosensors
 Figure: Schematic representation of the working of different biosensors
Biosensors are analytical devices that combine a biological recognition element with a
transducer to detect and quantify target analytes. The biological recognition element can be an
enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid, or other biological molecule that specifically interacts with the
target analyte. The transducer converts the biological response into an electrical signal that can be
quantified and interpreted.
Biosensors have a wide range of applications in the fields of medicine, environmental
monitoring, and food safety. For example, biosensors can be used to monitor blood glucoselevels
in patients with diabetes, detect contaminants in water and food, and monitor environmental
pollutants. Biosensors have several advantages over traditional analytical methods, including rapid
response time, high sensitivity, specificity, and portability. Additionally, they can be designed to be
disposable and cost-effective, making them a useful tool in various industries and applications.

Enzymes Used in Biosensors

Enzymes are commonly used in biosensors as the biological recognition element. Here are
some examples of enzymes used in biosensors:
● Glucose oxidase (GOx): Used in blood glucose monitoring for people with diabetes. The
enzyme oxidizes glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, which is then detected by a
transducer to quantify glucose levels in the blood.
● Lactate oxidase (LOx): Used in the determination of lactate levels in biological fluids, such as
blood and urine. LOx oxidizes lactate to pyruvate, which is then detected by a transducer.
● Cholinesterase (ChE): Used in the detection of organophosphorus pesticides and nerve agents.
ChE hydrolyzes acetylcholine, and the decrease in acetylcholine levels is detected by a
transducer to quantify the presence of the toxic substances.
● Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): Used in the detection of inorganic phosphates, such as those
found in wastewater and fertilizers. ALP catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphates to produce a
signal that can be quantified.
● Urease: Used in the detection of urea levels in biological fluids, such as urine. Urease
catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to produce ammonium and carbon dioxide, which can be
quantified by a transducer.
These are just a few examples of the many enzymes that can be used in biosensors to
detect and quantify a wide range of target analytes.

Glucose-Oxidase in Biosensors
Glucose oxidase (GOx) is an enzyme commonly used in biosensors for the detection of
glucose levels in biological fluids, such as blood and urine. The enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of
glucose to gluconolactone and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which can be easily detected and
quantified by a transducer.
 Figure: Schematic representation of GOx
In glucose biosensors, GOx is typically immobilized on a substrate, such as a polymeric
film, to ensure stability and specificity. The transducer in the biosensor can be an electrode, a
fluorescence-based system, or other type of sensor, depending on the desired level of sensitivity
and specificity.

Advantages of Biosensors
● Sensitivity: Biosensors are highly sensitive and can detect target analytes at low
concentrations, making them useful in applications that require precise quantification.
● Specificity: Biosensors can be designed to specifically recognize a target analyte, which
minimizes interference from other substances in the sample.
● Rapid response time: Biosensors can provide results in real-time, making them useful in
situations where quick results are required.
● Portability: Biosensors can be designed to be small and portable, making them useful in field
applications and remote locations.
● Cost-effectiveness: Biosensors can be manufactured at a low cost, making them an attractive
alternative to more expensive analytical methods in some applications.

Limitations of Biosensors
● Stability: Biosensors can be affected by environmental conditions, such as temperature and
pH, which can lead to degradation of the biological recognition element and loss of
sensitivity.
● Interferences: Biosensors can be affected by other substances in the sample, which can
interfere with the performance of the biosensor.
● Calibration: Biosensors may require frequent calibration to ensure accuracy, which can
increase the time and cost associated with using the biosensor.
● Limited shelf-life: Biosensors have a limited shelf-life, and the biological recognition element
may degrade over time, leading to decreased sensitivity and specificity.
● Complexity: Biosensors can be complex to manufacture and use, requiring
specialized equipment and expertise to operate effectively.Despite these limitations, biosensors
have proven to be a valuable tool in various industries and applications, and research is ongoing to
improve their performance and reduce limitations.

1.2.8 Lignolytic Enzyme in Bio-Bleaching

Bio-Bleaching
Bio-bleaching is a process that uses biological agents, such as enzymes, to remove color
and brighten fibers, paper, and textiles. It is a sustainable alternative to traditional chemical
bleaching methods that use harsh chemicals, such as hydrogen peroxide and chlorine.

Advantages of Bio-Bleaching
● Sustainability: Bio-bleaching uses biological agents, such as enzymes, which are renewable
and biodegradable, reducing the environmental impact compared to traditional chemical
bleaching methods.
● Improved product quality: Bio-bleaching can result in higher brightness and a more uniform
color compared to traditional chemical bleaching, leading to improved product quality.
● Reduced energy consumption: Bio-bleaching typically requires lower energy input compared
to chemical bleaching methods, reducing energy consumption and associated costs.
● Elimination of hazardous chemicals: Bio-bleaching eliminates the use of harsh chemicals,
such as hydrogen peroxide and chlorine, which can be hazardous to workers and the
environment.
● Lower production of harmful by-products: Bio-bleaching reduces the formation of harmful
by-products, such as dioxins, that can be produced during traditional chemical bleaching
methods.

Limitations of Bio-bleaching
● High cost of enzyme production: The cost of producing enzymes used in bio-bleaching can be
high, making the process more expensive compared to traditional chemical bleaching
methods.
● Low efficiency compared to chemical bleaching: Bio-bleaching can be less efficient compared
to traditional chemical bleaching methods, requiring longer processing times and higher
enzyme doses.
● Need for further research: Bio-bleaching is still in the early stages of development, and further
research is needed to optimize the process and improve efficiency.
● Lack of widespread implementation: The widespread implementation of bio-bleaching is
limited by factors such as the high cost of enzyme production, low efficiency compared to
chemical bleaching, and the need for further research to optimize the process.
Lignolytic Enzyme in Bio-Bleaching
Lignolytic enzymes, such as laccases, peroxidases, and manganese peroxidases, are used in
bio-bleaching to remove color and brighten fibers, paper, and textiles. These enzymes catalyze the
oxidation of colored impurities in the fibers, resulting in a brighter and more uniform color.
● Laccases are copper-containing oxidases that catalyze the oxidation of lignin, a complex
polymer found in plant cell walls, as well as other compounds such as phenols and aryl
alcohols.
● Peroxidases are enzymes that use hydrogen peroxide to oxidize organic compounds.
● Manganese peroxidases are enzymes that use hydrogen peroxide to oxidize lignin and other
compounds.
The lignolytic enzymes used in bio-bleaching are typically produced by fungi or bacteria,
and are immobilized on a support, such as a ceramic bead or a cellulosic matrix, to ensure stability
and prolonged activity.
The immobilized enzymes are then added to the fibers, where they catalyze the oxidation
of colored impurities, resulting in a brighter and more uniform color.
Importance of DNA vaccine for rabies
DNA vaccines offer several advantages over traditional vaccines, including their ability to
stimulate a strong and long-lasting immune response with fewer doses required, as well as their
ease of manufacture and storage. These advantages make DNA vaccines particularly useful for
preventing the spread of infectious diseases like rabies. In the case of rabies, DNA vaccines have
several key advantages:
● Efficacy: DNA vaccines have been shown to be highly effective in preventing rabies
infection in both animal and human trials. In one study, a DNA vaccine was found to be as
effective as a traditional vaccine in protecting dogs against rabies.
● Long-lasting protection: DNA vaccines can stimulate a strong and long-lasting immune
response, which means that they can provide protection against rabies for extended periods
of time.
● Ease of administration: DNA vaccines are easy to administer, as they can be given via
injection or even delivered orally, which can be particularly useful in areas where access to
medical facilities is limited.
● Cost-effective: DNA vaccines are relatively inexpensive to produce compared to traditional
vaccines, which can make them more accessible in areas where resources are limited.
● Reduced risk of side effects: DNA vaccines do not contain live virus particles, which
means that they are generally safer and have a lower risk of side effects compared to
traditional vaccines.

1.2.9 RNA Vaccines

RNA vaccines are a type of vaccine that use genetic material from a pathogen, in the form
of RNA, to stimulate an immune response against the disease. The vaccine works by introducing
the pathogen's RNA into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral or
bacterial proteins. These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an
immune response and the production of antibodies against the pathogen.
RNA vaccines have several advantages over traditional vaccines, including faster
production time and the ability to target multiple antigens. RNA vaccines can be manufactured
quickly, making them a good option for emergency situations where large numbers of people need
to be vaccinated quickly. RNA vaccines are also thought to be safer than traditional vaccines, as
they do not contain any live virus or bacteria that could cause disease. RNA vaccines are currently
being developed and tested for a range of diseases, including COVID 19, influenza, and cancer.

1.2.10 RNA Vaccines for Covid19

RNA vaccines for COVID 19 are a type of vaccine that use genetic material from the
SARS-CoV-2 virus, in the form of RNA, to stimulate an immune response against the virus. The
vaccine works by introducing the virus's RNA into the body, where it is taken up by cells and
used to produce viral proteins. These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which
triggers an immune response and the production of antibodies against the virus.
The first RNA vaccine for COVID 19, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, was authorized for
emergency use in December 2020 and has been administered to millions of people worldwide.
Another RNA vaccine, the Moderna vaccine, was also authorized for emergency use in December
2020.

Importance of RNA vaccine for Covid 19

RNA vaccines have emerged as a promising tool for preventing the spread of COVID-19,
offering several key advantages over traditional vaccine approaches. Here are some of the main
reasons why RNA vaccines are important in the fight against COVID-19:
● High efficacy: RNA vaccines have been shown to be highly effective at preventing
COVID-19 infections. The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna mRNA vaccines, for example,
have reported efficacy rates of around 95% in clinical trials.
● Rapid development: RNA vaccines can be rapidly developed and manufactured, making
them particularly useful in the context of a pandemic. The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, for
instance, was developed in under a year, and went from the initial discovery of the viral
genome to emergency use authorization in less than 11 months.
● Easy to modify: RNA vaccines can be easily modified to target new strains or variants of
the virus. This means that if a new variant emerges that is resistant to the existing vaccines,
it is possible to quickly modify the vaccine to provide protection against the new strain.
● Safe: RNA vaccines are generally considered safe, as they do not contain any live virus
particles. They work by instructing cells to produce a harmless piece of the virus (in this
case, the spike protein), which triggers an immune response that provides protection
against the virus.
● Potential for broader use: RNA vaccines have the potential to be used in the prevention of
other infectious diseases, such as influenza, HIV, and Zika, as well as in the treatment of
cancer.

1.2.11 Forensics – DNA Fingerprinting

DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a technique
used in forensic science to identify an individual based on their unique DNA profile. The process
involves analyzing specific regions of an individual's DNA, called markers, which can vary from
person to person.

Working of DNA fingerprinting for forensic applications

Here is how it works:
● Sample collection: DNA is extracted from a biological sample, such as blood, semen, or hair.
The sample is then purified and processed to isolate the DNA.
● DNA amplification: The extracted DNA is then amplified using a technique called
polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR produces many copies of a specific DNA region,
which allows for more accurate analysis.
● DNA analysis: The amplified DNA is then analyzed using a technique called gel
electrophoresis. The DNA fragments are separated based on size and charge, and a DNA
profile is generated.
● DNA comparison: The DNA profile obtained from the biological sample is then compared
to the DNA profiles of other individuals, such as suspects or victims, to determine if there
is a match.
DNA comparison is typically done manually by forensic analysts, as it involves
analyzing complex DNA profiles and comparing them to control samples to determine if there
is a match. However, artificial intelligence (AI) is beginning to play a more prominent role in
DNA analysis, particularly in the development of automated DNA profiling systems.
The DNA profile consists of a series of bands on a gel, which represent specific DNA
fragments. The bands are compared to those from a control sample, such as blood or saliva
from a suspect or victim, to see if there is a match. If there is a match, it is considered strong
evidence that the biological sample came from that individual.
Forensic DNA fingerprinting has become a critical tool in criminal investigations,
allowing investigators to link individuals to crime scenes and to exonerate innocent individuals
who may have been wrongly accused. It has also been used to identify victims of natural
disasters and mass casualties, and to resolve paternity disputes.