UNIT-4

AIRPORT PLANNING AND DESIGN OF THE TERMINAL AREA

AIRPORT CAPACITY
Airport capacity refers to the maximum number of aircraft movements
(takeoffs and landings) and passengers that an airport can handle in a given
time period while maintaining a safe and efficient operation. It is a critical
aspect of airport planning and management as it directly impacts the airport's
ability to meet the demands of air traffic and passengers.
Airport capacity can be affected by various factors, including:
1. Runway configuration: The number and layout of runways can significantly
impact an airport's capacity. Airports with multiple runways can handle more
aircraft movements simultaneously compared to those with only one or two
runways.
2. Air traffic control capabilities: The efficiency and effectiveness of air traffic
control systems and procedures play a vital role in optimizing airspace usage
and managing traffic flow.
3. Terminal capacity: The size and layout of the terminal buildings and their
facilities, such as check-in counters, security checkpoints, and gates, affect the
number of passengers an airport can handle.
4. Ground handling services: The speed and efficiency of ground handling
services, such as baggage handling, aircraft servicing, and refueling, can
influence the turnaround time of flights, thereby affecting overall airport
capacity.
5. Weather conditions: Adverse weather conditions, such as strong winds, low
visibility, or severe storms, can reduce an airport's capacity by requiring
greater spacing between aircraft or even causing flight cancellations and
diversions.

6. Airspace constraints: The design and management of airspace around an

airport can impact the number of aircraft that can safely operate in the vicinity.
Airport capacity is an ongoing concern fo r many major airports worldwide,
especially as air travel demand continues to grow. To accommodate increasing
traffic, airports may undertake various measures, such as infrastructure
expansions, optimizing airspace utilization, and implementing advanced air
traffic management technologies.
It's essential to note that airport capacity is not fixed and can vary throughout
the day, week, or year, depending on various factors and operational
considerations. Airport authorities continuously monitor and analyze capacity
to ensure efficient and safe airport operations

DETERMINATION OF RUNWAY CAPACITY RELATED TO

DELAY
Runway capacity is defined as “the hourly rate of aircraft operations
(departures, arrivals or both) which can reasonably be expected to be
accommodated by a runway or combinations of runways under specified
weather conditions” (IFR OR VFR)
The factors influencing the capacity of a runway system can be grouped into 4
classes as follows:
1. Air Traffic Control
2. Characteristics of demand
3. Environmental factors (visibility, runway surface conditions, winds and noise
abatement requirements)
4. Layout and design of the runway system.

Runway capacity is an essential factor in determining the overall efficiency of

an airport. It refers to the maximum number of aircraft movements (take-offs
and landings) that can be safely accommodated on a runway in a given period,
typically measured in aircraft movements per hour (AMPH). The capacity of a
runway is affected by several factors, including the physical characteristics of
the runway, air traffic control procedures, weather conditions, and the mix of
aircraft types using the runway.
Delay at airports occurs when the demand for runway usage exceeds the
runway capacity. When this happens, aircraft have to wait before taking off or
landing, resulting in increased taxi times, holding patterns, or even diversions
to other airports. Delays can be costly and inconvenient for airlines,
passengers, and airport operators.
To determine runway capacity related to delay, several key factors need to be
considered:
1. Runway configuration: The layout and number of runways at an airport
influence its capacity. Airports with multiple parallel runways can often handle
higher aircraft movements compared to those with single runways.

2. Wake turbulence separation: The spacing between successive aircraft on

approach or departure must take into account wake turbulence generated by
larger aircraft. Smaller aircraft must maintain a safe distance to avoid
turbulence-related accidents.

3. Runway length and width: Longer runways allow for a greater number of
aircraft movements as they provide more distance for takeoffs and landings.
Wider runways also enable simultaneous operations, such as takeoffs and
landings, which can increase capacity.

4. Air traffic control procedures: Efficient air traffic control management,

including streamlined clearance and communication procedures, can help
optimize runway usage and reduce delays.

5. Weather conditions: Adverse weather, such as fog, strong crosswinds, or

thunderstorms, can reduce runway capacity due to the need for increased
separation between aircraft and potential restrictions on operations.

6. Aircraft mix and performance: The types of aircraft using the runway and
their performance characteristics influence capacity. For example, larger aircraft
might require more time between takeoffs and landings, reducing overall
capacity.

7. Airport layout and taxiway design: Efficient taxiway design allows aircraft to
enter and exit runways quickly, minimizing ground delays.

It's important to note that runway capacity and delay are dynamic and can vary
throughout the day, based on changing factors like weather, air traffic volume,
and operational procedures. Continual monitoring and analysis are crucial to
ensure efficient airport operations and minimize delays.
GATE CAPACITY
The term ‘GATE’ is defined by an aircraft parking space, adjacent to a terminal
building and used by a single aircraft for the loading and unloading of
passengers, baggage and mail.
In the context of airport strategic planning, "gate capacity" refers to the
maximum number of gates available at an airport to accommodate aircraft for
boarding and disembarkation. Each gate is a specific location at the airport
where aircraft can park, and passengers can enter or exit the aircraft. Gate
capacity is a critical factor in airport operations as it directly impacts the
airport's ability to handle air traffic, passenger flow, and overall efficiency.
Gate capacity planning is an essential aspect of airport strategic planning to
ensure that the airport can handle the projected growth in air traffic and meet the
demand for flights. Insufficient gate capacity can lead to delays, overcrowding,
and inconvenience for passengers, airlines, and airport staff.
Gate occupancy time depends on the following factors:
• • The type of aircraft
• • Whether the flight is an originating, turn around or through flight.
• • The number of deplaning and enplaning passengers
• • The amount of baggage and mail.
• • The efficiency of apron personnel.
• • Whether each gate is available to all users or is allocated for exclusive
use of one airline or class of aircraft.

To address gate capacity in airport strategic planning, airport authorities may

consider several factors:
1. Infrastructure Expansion: Investing in the construction of new gates or
expanding existing gate areas to increase capacity.

2. Efficiency Improvements: Optimizing gate utilization by reducing turnaround

times for aircraft, streamlining boarding processes, and improving ground
handling operations.

3. Demand Forecasting: Using data and analysis to predict future air traffic
demand and plan for sufficient gate capacity.

4. Flexibility and Adaptability: Designing gate areas that can be adapted to

accommodate different aircraft types and serve various airline needs.

5. Technology Integration: Utilizing technology and automation to improve gate

operations and enhance capacity management.

6. Collaborative Approach: Working closely with airlines, regulatory bodies,

and other stakeholders to ensure a coordinated and efficient approach to gate
allocation and usage.

7. Environmental Considerations: Factoring in sustainability and environmental

impacts when expanding or constructing new gates.

Here are some alternative approaches that airport authorities might consider:
1. Remote Stands: Implementing remote stands or aprons where aircraft park
farther away from the terminal building. Passengers are then shuttled to and
from the aircraft by bus. This approach can increase gate capacity without
requiring additional terminal space.

2. Shared Use Gates: Establishing shared-use gates, where multiple airlines can
use the same gate at different times. This can help optimize gate usage and
reduce the need for additional gate infrastructure.
3. Off-Peak Scheduling: Encouraging airlines to schedule flights during off-
peak hours to better utilize existing gate capacity. Incentives can be provided
for airlines that agree to operate during less busy times.

4. Flexible Boarding Bridges: Installing flexible boarding bridges that can

adjust to accommodate different aircraft sizes, reducing the need for dedicated
gates for specific aircraft types.

5. Mobile Check-in and Boarding: Implementing mobile check-in and boarding

processes, which can reduce congestion at traditional gates and allow for more
flexible gate usage.

6. Terminal Expansion: When possible, expanding the terminal building to add

more gates. This option requires significant investment but may be necessary in
cases of substantial growth in air traffic.

7. Modular Terminal Solutions: Consider using modular or prefabricated

terminal structures that can be added onto existing facilities or moved to
different locations as needed.

8. Virtual Gates: Exploring the possibility of virtual gates, where passengers use
mobile boarding passes and proceed directly to the aircraft without passing
through a physical gate.

9. Multi-Level Boarding: Implementing multi-level boarding systems, similar to

what some larger aircraft use, to speed up the boarding and deboarding process.

10. Collaboration with Nearby Airports: Partnering with nearby airports to

distribute air traffic and share gate capacity when necessary.

Ultimately, the choice of alternatives will depend on factors such as budget

constraints, available land, environmental considerations, airline preferences,
and the overall vision and goals of the airport's strategic plan.
TAXIWAY CAPACITY
Taxiway capacity refers to the maximum number of aircraft movements
(arrivals, departures, and aircraft taxiing between runways and terminals) that
an airport's taxiways can handle within a given time frame. Taxiways are the
designated paths on the ground that connect runways, aprons (parking areas for
aircraft), and terminal gates. They allow aircraft to move safely and efficiently
between these locations.
The capacity of taxiways is a crucial factor in airport operations as it impacts
the overall efficiency and flow of aircraft movement on the ground. Insufficient
taxiway capacity can lead to delays, congestion, and potential safety hazards.
Several factors influence taxiway capacity:
1. Layout and Design: The layout and design of taxiways, including the number
of taxiways, their width, length, and configuration, can affect how efficiently
aircraft can navigate between runways and terminals.

2. Aircraft Size and Mix: The size and mix of aircraft using the airport will
influence taxiway capacity. Larger aircraft may require more space on the
taxiway, impacting the flow of smaller aircraft.

3. Traffic Demand: The volume of aircraft movements during peak hours and
busy times can put pressure on taxiway capacity. High traffic demand may lead
to taxiing delays.

4. Air Traffic Control: Efficient air traffic control procedures can help optimize
taxiway usage and reduce congestion. Air traffic controllers manage taxiway
movements and ensure safe and efficient aircraft flow.

5. Runway Configurations: The number and layout of runways can impact how
efficiently aircraft can access the taxiways, affecting overall taxiway capacity.

6. Weather Conditions: Adverse weather conditions, such as low visibility or

strong crosswinds, may affect aircraft movement rates and thus impact taxiway
capacity.

Airport authorities and air traffic management teams continually monitor

taxiway capacity and make adjustments to improve efficiency. This might
involve redesigning taxiway layouts, optimizing traffic flow patterns, investing
in technology and automation, or expanding taxiway infrastructure.
Additionally, collaboration between air traffic control, airlines, and ground
handling services is crucial to ensure smooth aircraft movements on the ground
and enhance overall taxiway capacity.
OPERATONAL CONCEPTS
Planning and designing a terminal area involves creating a comprehensive and
efficient layout that supports the operational concepts of an airport or
transportation hub. The terminal area is a critical component of the overall
airport infrastructure, as it directly impacts passenger flow, baggage handling,
aircraft movements, and overall passenger experience.
By carefully considering the steps and aligning the terminal area's design with
operational concepts, its possible to create a functional, efficient, and
passenger-friendly terminal that meets the needs of both travelers and the
aviation industry.
Following the steps involved in planning and designing a terminal area based
on operational concepts:
1. Define Operational Concepts: Start by clearly defining the operational
concepts and objectives for the terminal area. This includes understanding the
expected number of passengers, types of aircraft, peak hours, connecting
flights, security measures, baggage handling processes, and other relevant
factors.
2. Capacity Analysis: Conduct a capacity analysis to determine the maximum
throughput the terminal area needs to handle, considering both passenger and
aircraft movements. This analysis will help identify potential bottlenecks and
guide the design process.
3. Passenger Flow Analysis: Analyze the passenger flow from arrival to
departure, including check-in, security screening, immigration, boarding, and
baggage claim. Identify potential congestion points and design solutions to
streamline passenger movement.
4. Zoning and Functional Areas: Divide the terminal area into functional zones,
such as check-in, security, departure gates, arrival gates, baggage claim,
customs, immigration, retail, and dining areas. Each zone should be
strategically placed to optimize passenger flow and operational efficiency.
5. Terminal Layout Design: Design the layout of the terminal building to
accommodate the functional zones identified in the previous step. Consider
factors such as the distance between gates, ease of wayfinding, and
accessibility for passengers with reduced mobility.
6. Gates and Aircraft Stands: Determine the number and configuration of gates
and aircraft stands based on the types of aircraft that will be using the
terminal. Ensure there is adequate space for aircraft parking, taxiways, and
aircraft movement to and from the runway.
7. Baggage Handling System: Design an efficient baggage handling system that
seamlessly transports luggage from check-in to the aircraft and vice versa.
Minimize the risk of mishandled baggage and optimize the sorting and loading
processes.
8. Security and Immigration: Integrate security screening checkpoints and
immigration areas at appropriate locations within the terminal. Ensure a
smooth and secure process while minimizing passenger wait times.
9. Technology Integration: Incorporate advanced technologies such as self-
check-in kiosks, biometric identification, and real-time flight information
displays to enhance the passenger experience and operational efficiency.
10. Wayfinding and Signage: Develop a comprehensive wayfinding and signage
system to guide passengers through the terminal efficiently. Clear and intuitive
signage reduces confusion and enhances the overall passenger experience.
11. Sustainability and Energy Efficiency: Consider incorporating sustainable
design principles and energy-efficient technologies in the terminal area to
reduce environmental impact and operational costs.
12. Emergency Preparedness: Plan for emergency scenarios by designing
evacuation routes, emergency exits, and areas for passenger assembly. Ensure
that the terminal design supports effective emergency response procedures.
13. Collaboration and Feedback: Throughout the planning and design process,
collaborate with airport stakeholders, airlines, regulatory agencies, and other
relevant parties to gather feedback and ensure that the design aligns with
operational requirements and industry standards.
14. Flexibility for Future Growth: Design the terminal area with scalability in
mind, allowing for future expansion to accommodate increased passenger
demand and changes in operational requirements.
15. Regulatory Compliance: Ensure that the terminal area design complies with
local and international regulations, safety standards, and building codes.
SPACE RELATIONSHIP AND AREA REQUIREMENTS
Airport strategic planning involves striking a balance between efficient space
relationships and meeting area requirements. It also requires anticipating
future growth, technological advancements, and changes in airline industry
practices. To accomplish this, airport authorities work closely with architects,
engineers, aviation experts, and other stakeholders to create a comprehensive
and forward-looking plan.
Airport strategic planning involves finding the best ways to arrange airport
components in relation to each other (space relationship) while ensuring that
each component has the necessary space to function effectively (area
requirements). This planning process is essential for creating a smoothly
operating airport that can accommodate current demands and future growth
in the aviation industry.
"Space relationship" and "area requirements" likely refer to the spatial and
infrastructural considerations involved in designing, expanding, or managing an
airport.
Space Relationship: Space relationship in airport strategic planning involves the
arrangement and allocation of various facilities, structures, and services within
the airport's physical space. This includes the layout of runways, taxiways,
terminals, gates, hangars, parking areas, cargo facilities, and other essential
infrastructure. Optimizing space relationships is crucial to ensure smooth
operations, minimize congestion, and enhance passenger and cargo flows.
Key considerations for space relationships include:
• Efficient aircraft movement: Designing runways and taxiways to allow for
safe and timely takeoffs, landings, and taxiing.
• Terminal layout: Arranging terminals to facilitate convenient passenger flow,
baggage handling, security checks, and boarding processes.
• Gate placement: Placing gates strategically to accommodate various aircraft
sizes and types while minimizing congestion.
• Cargo facilities: Designing cargo areas to enable efficient loading and
unloading of cargo planes and easy access for ground transportation.
2. Area Requirements: Area requirements pertain to the amount of space
needed for different airport facilities and operations. Accurate assessment of
area requirements is essential for effective airport planning, expansion, and
development. It ensures that the airport can accommodate current and future
demands while adhering to safety and operational standards.
Considerations for determining area requirements include:
• Passenger terminals: Calculating the space needed for ticketing, check-in
counters, security checkpoints, baggage claim, lounges, retail areas, and other
passenger services.
• Runways and taxiways: Evaluating the length, width, and orientation of
runways and taxiways to accommodate various aircraft sizes and operational
needs.
• Apron and gate areas: Determining the space required for aircraft parking,
maintenance, fueling, and passenger boarding.
• Cargo facilities: Estimating the area needed for cargo warehouses, sorting
facilities, and customs areas.
• Parking and ground transportation: Allocating space for parking structures,
rental car facilities, public transportation, and passenger drop-off/pick-up
areas.

NOISE CONTROL
The terminal area is a central hub of activity within an airport, serving
passengers, airlines, and various service providers. When planning and
designing the terminal area, it's crucial to consider noise control measures to
minimize the impact of aircraft noise on passengers, airport staff, and nearby
residents.
Noise generated by aircraft during take-off, landing, and taxiing can have
significant impacts on nearby communities and the overall environment. Noise
control in airports aims to mitigate these impacts through various measures,
including flight path adjustments, noise abatement procedures, aircraft
technology improvements, and land use planning. Noise control is not only a
regulatory requirement in many cases but also a responsible approach to
maintaining positive relationships with surrounding communities.
Striking a balance between noise control and efficient terminal design is
essential. While addressing noise concerns, it's important to maintain
operational efficiency, accessibility, and passenger satisfaction. Airport
strategic planners work closely with architects, noise experts, airlines, and
regulatory bodies to develop comprehensive plans that consider both the
operational needs of the airport and the well-being of its surroundings.
Noise generated by aircraft is a significant concern for both aviation authorities
and the communities surrounding airports. To address this, noise control
measures are implemented to adhere to regulatory requirements, honour
community expectations, and promote environmental responsibility. These
measures encompass aircraft operations, such as flight path optimization and
curfews, as well as technological advancements to reduce engine noise.
Following are some measures which can be taken into consideration for noise
control:
• Terminal Location and Orientation: When selecting the location and
orientation of the terminal building, planners aim to minimize the exposure of
passenger areas to aircraft noise. This might involve placing the terminal in a
way that reduces the line of sight to active runways or arranging waiting areas
on the quieter side of the terminal.
• Building Design and Construction: Architects and engineers incorporate
noise-reducing elements into terminal design. This could include using sound-
insulating materials, installing double-glazed windows, and designing the
building's structure to minimize the transmission of noise.
• Internal Layout: Planners consider the layout of terminal spaces to ensure
that noisy operational areas (such as baggage handling or maintenance) are
physically separated from passenger areas, creating acoustic barriers.
• Public Address and Communication Systems: Effective public address systems
are crucial for communicating information to passengers. Noise control
considerations ensure that these systems are designed to deliver clear
announcements without the need for excessive volume, which could
contribute to overall noise levels.
• Landscaping and Greenery: Landscaping elements like trees and shrubs can
serve as natural noise buffers, reducing the impact of aircraft noise on terminal
areas and outdoor spaces.
• Public Spaces and Lounges: Designing public spaces and lounges with noise-
absorbing materials and strategic layout can create comfortable environments
for passengers while minimizing the intrusion of external noise.

VEHICULAR TRAFFIC AND PARKING AT AIRPORTS

Vehicular traffic at airports includes the movement of vehicles such as cars,
taxis, shuttles, and buses that transport passengers, visitors, and staff to and
from the airport. Parking facilities are necessary to accommodate these
vehicles while passengers are using the airport facilities.
Vehicular traffic and parking management at airports are crucial aspects of
ensuring a smooth and efficient travel experience for passengers, as well as
maintaining the overall operational flow of the airport.
Efficient traffic flow and convenient parking options contribute to a positive
passenger experience. Passengers arriving at the airport need clear signage,
well-designed drop-off areas, and easy access to parking facilities.
Well-planned traffic flow reduces congestion and ensures that vehicles can
move smoothly through pickup and drop-off zones. Additionally, having
designated areas for ride-sharing services and taxis helps streamline ground
transportation.
Airports also need to accommodate vehicles used by airport employees,
maintenance staff, emergency services, and other operational needs.
Balancing the relationship between vehicular traffic and parking facilities is
essential to prevent congestion, ensure efficient movement, and provide a
positive experience for passengers and visitors. As part of airport strategic
planning, these factors contribute to the overall success and functionality of
the airport terminal area.
The terminal area of an airport encompasses various facilities such as
passenger terminals, gates, baggage claim areas, security checkpoints, and
lounges. Effective planning and design of this area need to consider the
interaction between vehicular traffic and parking facilities:
• Traffic Flow Integration: The terminal area design should allow for the
smooth flow of vehicular traffic entering and exiting the area. Properly
designed roads, ramps, and intersections ensure that vehicles can navigate
without causing congestion.
• Drop-off and Pickup Zones: Designated areas for dropping off passengers and
picking them up need to be strategically placed near the terminal entrances.
These zones should be designed for quick stops to prevent bottlenecks.
• Parking Facilities: The location, capacity, and layout of parking facilities need
to be carefully considered. Short-term parking for those picking up passengers,
long-term parking for travelers, and possibly valet parking options should be
part of the plan.
• Pedestrian Integration: Pedestrian pathways, crosswalks, and pedestrian-
friendly areas should be integrated into the terminal area design, allowing
passengers to safely move between parking facilities and the terminal.
• Future Growth: Airport strategic planning should also account for future
growth in passenger numbers and traffic. Design flexibility in parking facilities
and traffic management is essential to accommodate increasing demand.
Efficient vehicular traffic and parking management at airports are essential for
creating a positive experience for travelers and maintaining the overall
functionality of the airport environment. Modern airports leverage technology,
smart design, and a customer-centric approach to address the challenges
effectively.

RUNWAY:
According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a runway is a
"defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and
takeoff of aircraft". Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt,
concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, sand
or salt). Runways, as well as taxiways and ramps, are sometimes referred to as
"tarmac", though very few runways are built using tarmac. Takeoff and landing
areas defined on the surface of water for seaplanes are generally referred to as
waterways.
Naming:
Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the
magnetic azimuth of the runway's heading in decadegrees. This heading differs
from true north by the local magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09
points east (90°), runway 18 is south (180°), runway 27 points west (270°) and
runway 36 points to the north (360° rather than 0°). When taking off from or
landing on runway 09, a plane is heading around 90° (east).

Letter suffix
If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways), each runway is
identified by appending left (L), center (C) and right (R) to the end of the runway number to identify
its position (when facing its direction)—for example, runways one-five-left (15L), one-fivecenter
(15C), and one-five-right (15R). Runway zero-three-left (03L) becomes runway two-oneright (21R)
when used in the opposite direction (derived from adding 18 to the original number for the 180°
difference when approaching from the opposite direction).

Sections:
There are standards for runway markings
 The runway thresholds are markings across the runway that denote the beginning and end of
the designated space for landing and takeoff under non-emergency conditions.
 The runway safety area is the cleared, smoothed and graded area around the paved runway. It
is kept free from any obstacles that might impede flight or ground roll of aircraft.
 The runway is the surface from threshold to threshold (including displaced thresholds), which
typically features threshold markings, numbers, and centerlines, but excludes blast pads and
stopways at both ends.
 Blast pads are often constructed just before the start of a runway where jet blast produced by
large planes during the takeoff roll could otherwise erode the ground and eventually damage
the runway.
 Stopways, also known as overrun areas, are also constructed at the end of runways as
emergency space to stop planes that overrun the runway on landing or a rejected takeoff.
 Blast pads and stopways look similar, and are both marked with yellow chevrons; stopways
may optionally be surrounded by red runway lights. The differences are that stopways can
support the full weight of an aircraft and are designated for use in an aborted takeoff, while
blast pads are often not as strong as the main paved surface of the runway and are not to be
used for taxiing, landing, or aborted takeoffs.

Displaced thresholds may be used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing rollout, but not for touchdown. A
displaced threshold often exists because of obstacles just before the runway, runway strength, or noise
restrictions making the beginning section of runway unsuitable for landings. It is marked with white
paint arrows that lead up to the beginning of the landing portion of the runway. As with blast pads,
landings on displaced thresholds are not permitted aside from emergency use or exigent circumstance.
Markings:
There are runway markings and signs on most large runways. Larger runways have a distance
remaining sign (black box with white numbers). This sign uses a single number to indicate the
remaining distance of the runway in thousands of feet. For example, a 7 will indicate 7,000 ft
(2,134 m) remaining. The runway threshold is marked by a line of green lights.

There are three types of runways:

Visual runways are used at small airstrips and are usually just a strip of grass, gravel, ice,
asphalt, or concrete. Although there are usually no markings on a visual runway, they may have
threshold markings, designators, and centerlines. Additionally, they do not provide an
instrumentbased
landing procedure; pilots must be able to see the runway to use it. Also, radio
communication may not be available and pilots must be self-reliant.
Instrument Runway: An instrument runway is one to which instrument departure and approach
procedures are applied.

Non-precision instrument runways are often used at small- to medium-size airports. These
runways, depending on the surface, may be marked with threshold markings, designators,
centerlines, and sometimes a 1,000 ft (305 m) mark (known as an aiming point, sometimes
installed at 1,500 ft (457 m)). While centerlines provide horizontal position guidance, aiming
point markers provide vertical position guidance to planes on visual approach.
Precision instrument runways, which are found at medium- and large-size airports, consist of a
blast pad/stopway (optional, for airports handling jets), threshold, designator, centerline, aiming
point, and 500 ft (152 m), 1,000 ft (305 m)/1,500 ft (457 m), 2,000 ft (610 m), 2,500 ft (762 m),
and 3,000 ft (914 m) touchdown zone marks. Precision runways provide both horizontal and
vertical guidance for instrument approaches.
Instrument runway-Features
Marking and lighting systems for runways
approach lighting system
visual approach slope indicator system
aerodrome beacon
marking and lighting systems for taxiways; and
any other marking and lighting systems

TAXIWAY MARKINGS

 General. All taxiways should have centerline markings and runway holding position
markings whenever they intersect a runway. Taxiway edge markings are present whenever
there is a need to separate the taxiway from a pavement that is not intended for aircraft use or
to delineate the edge of the taxiway. Taxiways may also have shoulder markings and holding
position markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS) critical areas and taxiway/taxiway
intersection markings.
A. Taxiway Centerline
B. Taxiway Edge Markings
C. Taxi Shoulder Markings.

 Centerline Markings:
 Centerline markings provide a visual cue to permit taxiing along a designated path
 Taxiway Edge Markings:
 Taxiway edge markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway; used primarily when the
edge of the pavement and taxiway do not correspond
 Taxi Shoulder Markings:
 Although shoulders may have the appearance of full strength pavement they are not intended
for use by aircraft, and may be unable to support an aircraft.
 In these areas, taxiway shoulder markings are used to indicate the pavement is unusable
 Runway Holding Position Markings:
 Runway hold positions signs denote the designation of an intersecting runway
 For runways, these markings indicate where aircraft MUST STOP when approaching a
runway
LANDING AIDS:
 Navigational Aids are a form of marker, signal or device that aids an aircraft by guiding and
navigating it to its destination. It can be in the form of Instrument Landing Systems (ILS),
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME), or Doppler VHF Omnidirectional Range (DVOR).
 ILS-Why do pilot need ILS?
 To enable safe landing during reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or snow.
 If an Aircraft is considerably ‘heavy’ for a runway length, guidance to the exact ‘touch-
down’ zone is required.
 In order to enable ‘Auto-land’ in newer aircrafts, ILS signals are essential.
 An Instrument Landing System (ILS system) enables pilots to conduct an approach to
landing if they are unable to establish visual contact with the runway.
 These pieces of equipment are crucial for airports as they increase the reliability of every
landing, reduce the decision altitude (altitude at which the pilot either commits to the landing
 procedure or diverts) and ultimately ensure that the pilot can see the runway no matter the
conditions.
 Instrument Landing System (ILS) is defined as a precision runway approach aid based on
two radio beams which together provide pilots with both vertical and horizontal guidance
during an approach to land.
 HORIZONTAL APPROACH

VERTICAL APPROACH:
DME-Distance measuring equipment
 distance measuring equipment (DME) is a radio navigation technology that measures
the slant range (distance) between an aircraft and a ground station

DVORS

 A DVOR (Doppler VHF Omni Directional Range) is a short/medium-range radio

navigation system used to aid aircraft in determining their flight position and direction in
relation to their destination using VHF (Very High Frequency) signals between 108.00 to
117.95 MHz sent from a radio beacon.

AIRPORT LIGHTING:
 Airport lighting systems provide a standardized layout of positional lights and colors for
pilots to reference both in the air and on ground
 Airport lighting helps the pilot locate and define the runway and airport environment
 Airport lighting is not continuous at airports with minimal traffic in order to save money
when not in use.
  General Airport Lighting Includes Beacon Lights on top of tower, buildings.
 The Airport Beacon : large, powerful rotating light highly visible from miles away.
 Rotate green and white.
 Steady red beacon on top of airport building to aid in collision avoidance for low-flying
aircraft.

Taxiway Lighting

 Taxiway Lighting Taxiway Edge Lights: Blue, Lines taxiway

 Taxiway Center Light: Green Light
 Clearance Bar Lights: Steady yellow, visibility of hold line
 Stop Bar Lights: Steady red, ATC in low visibility situation, across taxiway at hold short line
 Runway Guard Lights: A pair of two steady yellow light at hold short line, may be flashing
Runway Lights:

 RUNWAY LIGHTS’ MEANING

 Airport runway is the most important part of an airfield where aircraft does takeoff and
landing. Runway has special markings identifying beginning and end of a runway, touchdown
point, location of a runway, etc. However, at night marking are not visible for pilots. That’s
why airport runway is additionally illuminated with runway lighting. The lights on a runway
are of different types and Every type of lights has its own meaning and plays its own role.

 Approach Lights
 Approach lights are the first lights that pilot will ‘reach’ during landing. They are of white
color, unidirectional, blinking or steady type of lights. Approach lights are located prior to the
runway. Their main function is to ‘show’ in what direction the runway is.
 Threshold Lights
 Threshold lights are green color airfield lights, unidirectional type, installed at the beginning
of the part of a runway where aircraft can do touchdown. Threshold is not a touchdown point
yet. But this is a beginning of ‘safe-to-land’ part of a runway.
 Runway Edge Light
  Runway edge lights are the most important lights on the airfield. They are located on the left
and right sides of a runway (edges) and illuminate the part of the runway safe for landings.
 Runway End Light
 Runway end light identifies the end of a runway. It means that behind these lights, there is no
place to continue aircraft movement. Runway end lights are unidirectional red color aviation
lights.
Very often, airports use as kind of ‘combined’ solution: runway threshold end lights. This is a
bidirectional green/red airfield light. From one direction it is green, from the other direction it is red.