OP-AMP Basics

1 Key Terms

1. Closed-loop voltage gain (Acl ) The overall voltage gain of an

op-amp with negative feedback.
2. Common mode A condition characterized by the presence of
identical signals on both op-amp inputs.
3. Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) A measure of a diff-
amp’s or an op-amp’s ability to reject signals that appear the
same on both inputs; the ratio of differential voltage gain or open-
loop gain (for an op-amp) to common-mode gain.
4. Differential amplifier An amplifier that produces an output pro-
portional to the difference of two inputs.
5. Differential mode A mode of op-amp operation in which two
opposite-polarity signal voltages are applied to the two inputs.
6. Inverting amplifier An op-amp closed-loop configuration in which
the input signal is applied to the inverting input.
7. Negative feedback The return of a portion of the output signal
to the input such that it is out of phase with the input signal.
8. Non-inverting amplifier An op-amp closed-loop configuration
in which the input signal is applied to the noninverting input.
9. Open-loop gain (Aol ) The internal voltage gain of an op-amp
without feedback.
10. Operational amplifier (op-amp) A special type of amplifier ex-

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 hibiting very high open-loop gain, very high input resistance, very
low output resistance, and good rejection of common-mode sig-
nals.
11. Single-ended mode A mode of op-amp operation in which a
signal voltage is applied to only one input.
12. Voltage-follower A closed-loop, noninverting op-amp with a volt-
age gain of 1.
13. Active filter A frequency-selective circuit consisting of one or
more op-amps combined with reactive elements (usually an RC
network).
14. Averaging amplifier An amplifier with several inputs that pro-
duces an output voltage that is the negative value of the mathe-
matical average of the input voltages.
15. Comparator A circuit that compares two input voltages and
produces an output in either of two states indicating the greater
or less than relationship of the inputs.
16. Differentiator A circuit that produces an inverted output that
approaches the mathematical derivative of the input, which is the
rate of change.
17. Integrator A circuit that produces an output that approaches
the mathematical integral of the input.
18. Relaxation oscillator A type of oscillator, generally nonsinu-
soidal, whose operation is based on the charging and discharging
of a capacitor.
19. Scaling adder A special type of summing amplifier with weighted

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 inputs.
20. Series regulator A type of voltage regulator in which the control
element is in series with the load.
21. Shunt regulator A type of voltage regulator with the control
element between the output and ground.
22. Summing amplifier An amplifier with several inputs that pro-
duces a negative output voltage proportional to the algebraic sum
of the input voltages.
23. Triangular-wave oscillator An electronic oscillator that uses a
comparator with two trip points and an integrator to produce
triangular waves.
24. Wien-bridge oscillator An electronic oscillator that can produce
low distortion sine waves over a wide range of frequencies by using
a lead-lag feedback network and stabilized gain.
25. Clamper A circuit that adds a dc level to an ac signal; a dc
restorer.
26. Instrumentation amplifier An amplifier specially designed for
amplifying small differential signals and rejecting large common-
mode voltages.
27. Isolation amplifier An amplifier with electrically isolated inter-
nal stages.
28. Limiter A circuit that removes part of a waveform above or below
a specified level; a clipper.
29. Operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) A voltage-to-
current amplifier in which the gain is set by a bias current.
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30. Transconductance In an electronic device, the ratio of the out-
put current to the input voltage.

2 Important Points

1. A diff-amp is normally used for the input stage of an op-amp.

2. A differential input voltage appears between the inverting and
noninverting inputs of a diff-amp.
3. A single-ended input voltage appears between one input and
ground (with the other inputs grounded).
4. A differential output voltage appears between two output termi-
nals of a diff-amp.
5. A single-ended output voltage appears between the output and
ground of a diff-amp.
6. Common mode occurs when equal, in-phase voltages are applied
to both input terminals.
7. Input offset voltage produces an output error voltage (with no
input voltage).
8. Input bias current also produces an output error voltage (with no
input voltage).
9. Input offset current is the difference between the two bias cur-
rents.
10. Open-loop voltage gain is the gain of the op-amp with no external
feedback connections.

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11. Slew rate is the rate (in volts per microsecond) that the output
voltage of an op-amp can change in response to a step input.
12. Negative feedback occurs when a portion of the output voltage is
connected back to the inverting input such that it subtracts from
the input voltage, thus reducing the voltage gain but increasing
the stability and bandwidth.
13. There are two basic op-amp configurations: inverting and nonin-
verting. The voltage-follower is a special case of a noninverting
amplifier.
14. All op-amp configurations employ negative feedback.
15. A noninverting amplifier configuration has a higher input resis-
tance and a lower output resistance than the op-amp itself (with-
out feedback).
16. An inverting amplifier configuration has an input resistance ap-
proximately equal to the input resistor Ri and an output resis-
tance approximately equal to the internal output resistance of the
op-amp itself.
17. The voltage-follower has high input resistance and low output
resistance.
18. In an op-amp comparator, when the input voltage exceeds a spec-
ified reference voltage, the output changes state.
19. The output voltage of a summing amplifier is proportional to the
sum of the input voltages.
20. An averaging amplifier is a summing amplifier with a closed-loop
gain equal to the reciprocal of the number of inputs.

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21. In a scaling adder, a different weight can be assigned to each
input, thus making the input contribute more or contribute less
to the output.
22. The integral of a step is a ramp.
23. The derivative of a ramp is a step.
24. In a Wien-bridge oscillator, the closed-loop gain must be equal to
3 in order to have unity gain around the positive feedback loop.
25. In filter terminology, a single RC circuit is called a pole.
26. Each pole in a filter causes the output to roll off (decrease) at a
rate of-20 dB/decade
27. Two-pole filters roll off at a maximum rate of -40 dB/decade.
28. Line regulation establishes a constant output voltage over a range
of input voltages.
29. Load regulation establishes a constant output voltage over a range
of load values.
30. In a series voltage regulator, the control element is a transistor in
series with the load.
31. In a shunt voltage regulator, the control element is a transistor
in parallel with a load.
32. The terminals on a three-terminal voltage regulator are input
voltage, output voltage, and ground.
33. A basic instrumentation amplifier is formed by three op-amps and
seven resistors, including the gain-setting resistor

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34. An instrumentation amplifier has high input impedance, high
CMRR, low output offset, and low output impedance.
35. The voltage gain of a basic instrumentation amplifier is set by a
single external resistor.
36. An instrumentation amplifier is useful in applications where small
signals are embedded in large common-mode noise.
37. A basic isolation amplifier has three electrically isolated parts:
input, output, and power.
38. Most isolation amplifiers use transformer coupling for isolation.
39. Isolation amplifiers are used to interface sensitive equipment with
high-voltage environments and to provide protection from elec-
trical shock in certain medical applications.
40. The operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) is a voltage-
to-current amplifier.
41. The output current of an OTA is the input voltage times the
transconductance.
42. In an OTA, transconductance varies with bias current; therefore,
the gain of an OTA can be varied with a bias voltage or a variable
resistor.
43. Diode clampers add a dc level to an ac signal.
44. Diode limiters cut off voltage above and below specified levels.
Limiters are also called clippers.