ATP TEAM

)1( ‫تلخيص مادة مختبرعلوم حياة عامة‬

110 104 103
110 104 103
2022

Collected by :
Saifeddin Alnatsheh
Madeleine Jaara

ATP TeamHu Modified by :

Bushra Abu Sneineh
LAB TOPIC 2 : MICROSCOPES AND CELLS 1

Introduction
The cell is the fundamental biological unit .It’s the smallest and the simplest biological
structure possessing all of the characteristic of the living condition, and to understand how the
bodies of creatures work we have to know how the cells works.

We can’t see the cell components by our naked eye so the microscope was designed to help us
to explore the cell .

 Types of microscopes :

1. compound microscope : use visible light as a source of illumination (light microscope)

2. stereoscopic microscope : use visible light as a source of illumination (light microscope)
3. scanning electron microscope :use electrons as the source of illumination (electron
microscope)
4. transmission electron microscope: use electrons as the source of illumination (electron
microscope)

 Compound means that the scope have a minimum of 2 magnifying lenses, ocular and
objective lenses.

 In this subject we will study only about the light microscopes mainly .
 SO the only things you need to know about the electron microscope that :
1. It can magnify up to million times (106).
2. It use electromagnetic lens .

 There are many variations of light microscopes including :

- phase-contrast - darkfield
- polarizing - UV

 The microscopes in biology lab are usually compound binocular or Monocular light
microscopes.

 Binocular = two eyepieces, and monocular = one eyepiece.

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LAB TOPIC 2 : MICROSCOPES AND CELLS 2

 Parts and functions of compound light microscope:

1. The head : supports both of Ocular lens and objective lens .

- Ocular lens magnification ( 10)

2. Revolving nosepiece : carries the 4 objective lenses :

- Scanning lens : magnification ( 4) .
- Intermediate lens : magnification ( 10) .
- High-power lens : magnification ( 40)
- Oil immersion lens : magnification ( 100)
4
3. The arm : supports the stage and condenser0lens

4. The condenser lens : focus the light from the lamp through the specimen

 The hight of the stage can be adjust by adjustment knops

 There is 2 types of adjustment knops:

- Corse adjustment knop
- Fine adjustment knop : just to increase the sharpness of the image

5. Iris diaphragm: controls the width of the circle of light and, therefore, the amount of
light passing through the specimen

6. The stage : supports the specimen to be viewed .

- The stage can be moved right and left and back and forth by two stage
adjustment knops.
- The slid is secured under the stage clip.

7. The base : acts as a stand for the microscope and houses the lamp.

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LAB TOPIC 2 : MICROSCOPES AND CELLS 3

8. light intensity lever :

- control the intensity of the light that passes through the specimen.
- more light is needed when using high magnification than when using low
magnification

 The distanse between the eye-pices in the Binocular microscope called the Interpupillary
distance and it can be adjusted to suit your eyes .

 The distance between the specimen and the objective lens is called the working distance

 The main part of the microscope is the lenses

 A pointer has been placed in the eyepiece and is used to point to an object in the field of
view, the circle of light that one sees in the microscope.

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LAB TOPIC 2 : MICROSCOPES AND CELLS 4

 Tips :
 Do not turn the fine adjustment knob more than two revolutionsin either direction.

 After the (×40) objective is in place, focus using the fine adjustment knob.

 Never focus with the coarse adjustment knob when you are using the high-power
objective.

 Slides should be placed on and removed from the stage only when the (×4)
objective is in place.

 To carry the microscope correctly, hold the arm with one hand and support the base with
your other hand.

 Total magnification in any microscope = Power magnification of ocular lenses × Power

magnification of objective lenses

‫ فبنعتبرالعالقة‬. ‫ المايكروسكوب يعد من االختراعات المهمة جدا والي كانت سبب رئيسي في تطورالعلم‬
. ‫بين طالب العلم والميكروسكوب زي العالقة بين المحارب والسيف‬

‫ لقدام ممكن يكون شغلك صحيح لكن‬....‫ االستخدام الصحيح للمايكروسكوب هو مفتاح نجاح التجربة‬
..... ‫استخدامك الخاطئ للمايكروسكوب او استخدام عدسة غير مناسبة ممكن ما يوضحلك النتائج‬

‫ حتى نتفادى الخطأ هذه احرص من االن انك تتعلم طريقة استخدام المايكروسكوب وتعرف اجزاءه‬
.‫بالتفصيل وكل جزء ايش وظيفته حتى يسهل عليك مرحلة قراءة النتائج‬

.) ‫ وما تخجل او تتردد ابدا اذا ما عرفت اشي بانك تسأل مشرف المختبر او الدكتور ( جدا متعاونين هم‬

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LAB TOPIC 2 : MICROSCOPES AND CELLS 5

 The stereoscopic microscope has a magnification of (×7) to (×30 ) .

 The stereoscopic microscope is similar to the compound microscope except in the

following ways :

- The depth of field is much greater than with the compound microscope ,so objects
are seen in three dimensions (3D)

- the light source can be directed down onto as well as up through an object, which
permits the viewing of objects too thick to transmit light

 Light directed down on the object is called reflected or incident light.

 Light passing through the object is called transmitted light.

 In stereoscopic microscope objects are seen in 3D .but in the compound microscope

objects are seen in 2D .

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LAB TOPIC 2 : MICROSCOPES AND CELLS 6

 The cell is the unit of structure and function

Cells tissue organ system organism

 Cells can be :
- Prokaryotic cells: lack true nuclei and membrane bound organelles
- Eukaryotic cells: have true nucleus with nuclear envelop and
membrane
 Eukaryotic cells are classified according to the mode of nutrition into :
- Autotrophic: can produce its own food
- Heterotrophic: eats other plants or animals for energy and nutrients

 Eukaryotic cells are classified according to number of cells into:

- Unicellular Ex. Amoeba
- Colony Ex. Scenedesmus
- Multicelluar Ex. Volvox

 Unicellular cells :

Page 6 of 10
LAB TOPIC 2 : MICROSCOPES AND CELLS 7

 Parts and function of Amoeba :

1. cell membrane: is the boundary that separates the organism from its surroundings

2. Ectoplasm: is the thin, transparent layer of cytoplasm directly beneath the cell
membrane

3. Endoplasm: is the granular cytoplasm containing the cell organelles

4. Nucleus: directs the cellular activities .

5. Contractile vacuoles: gradually enlarge as they fill with excess water

6. Food vacuoles: are small, dark, irregularly shaped vesicles within the endoplasm and
they contain undigested food particles.

7. Pseudopodia (“false feet”): They are used for locomotion as well as for trapping and
engulfing food in a process called phagocytosis

 The Amoeba is Heterotrophic cell.

 Colony cells :

 Scenedesmus is an aquatic algye that usually occurs in simple colonies of four cells.

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LAB TOPIC 2 : MICROSCOPES AND CELLS 8

 Parts and function of Scenedesmus :

1. Nucleus: is the spherical organelle in the approximate middle of each cell

2. Vacuoles: are the transparent spheres that tend to occur at either end of the cells.

3. Spines: are the transparent projections that occur on the two end cells

4. Cell walls: surround each cell.

 Scenedesmus is Autotrophic

 We use methylene blue to stain the specimen

 Multicelluar cells:

 Multicellular organisms consist of 2 types of cells , somatic and reproductive cells

 Volvox is an aquatic green algye

 Volvox is an Autotrophic

 Daughter colonies (sex cells) : specialized for reproduction.

 Vegetative cell are connected by

Cytoplasmic strands

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LAB TOPIC 2 : MICROSCOPES AND CELLS 9

 Plant cells:
 Plants are multicelluar autotrophic organisms

 Parts and functions :

1. cell wall: is the rigid outer framework surrounding the cell and it gives the cell a
definite shape and support .

2. Protoplasm: is the organized contents of the cell, exclusive of the cell wall.

3. Cytoplasm: is the protoplasm of the cell, exclusive of the nucleus

4. central vacuole: is a membrane-bound sac within the cytoplasm that is filled with
water and dissolved substances. This structure serves to store metabolic wastes and
gives the cell support by means of turgor pressure. Animal cells also have vacuoles,
but they are not as large and conspicuous as those found in plants.

5. Chloroplasts: carry the pigment chlorophyll that is involved in photosynthesis

6. Nucleus: controls cell metabolism and division

- In plants, the nucleus is peripheral nucleus

 NOTE: The method that we use to see animal and plant cell under microscopes is called
wet mount preparation

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LAB TOPIC 2 : MICROSCOPES AND CELLS 10

 Animal cells:
 Animals are multicellular heterotrophic organisms.

 parts and functions:

1. cell membrane is the boundary that separates the

cell from its surroundings.

2. Nucleus: is the large, circular organelle near the

middle of the cell.

3. Cytoplasm is the granular contents of the cell

, exclusive of the nucleus.

 In animal cells, nucleus is central nucleus

 We use methylene blue to dye the specimen

Scan me if you want to see the experiment

Page 10 of 10
LAB TOPIC 3 : DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS 11

 Organelle membranes and the plasma membrane are selectively permeable

 Diffusion: molecules move from an area where they are in high concentration to one
where their concentration is lower.

 Osmosis: diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane from a region

where it is highly concentrated to a region where its concentration is lower.

 There is three types of solutions :

1. Hypertonic: solution that has a greater concentration of solutes on the outside of
a cell when compared with the inside of a cell.

2. Hypotonic: solution has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution.

3. Isotonic: solution is one that has the same osmolarity, or solute concentration, as
another solution.

 Diffusion through membrane:

 The separation of glucose and starch depend on size

of molecules not the concentration.

 Glucose is smaller than starch so it will move out

of dialysis tubing bag.

 You will use two tests in your experiment:

1. (I2KI) test for presence of starch (lugol’s)

- When I2KI is added to the unknown solution, the solution turns purple or black if
starch is present.
- If no starch is present, the solution remains a pale yellow-amber color.

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LAB TOPIC 3 : DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS 12

2. Benedict’s test for reducing sugar

- When Benedict’s reagent is added to the unknown solution and the solution is heated,
the solution turns green, orange, or orange-red if a reducing sugar is present (the
color indicates the sugar concentration).
- If no reducing sugar is present, the solution remains the color of Benedict’s reagent
(blue).

 Osmotic Activity in Cells:

1. Animal cells:
 The cells which put in hypotonic solution will gain
water by osmosis and become lysed .

 the cells which put in hypertonic solution will lose

water by osmosis and become shriveled.

 The cells which put in isotonic solution won’t gain

or lose water so in will be normal cell.

2. Plant cells:
 The cells which put in Hypertonic solution will lose
water by osmosis and become plasmolyzed.

 The cells which put in Isotonic solution won’t gain or

Lose water by osmosis and become flaccid.

 The cells witch put in Hypotonic solution will gain water by osmosis and become
Turgid.

‫ الي بعطيها دعم‬cell wall ‫ ما بتنفجر ألنها بتحتوي على ال‬hypotonic ‫ الخاليا النباتية لما تنحط بوسط‬
.‫ على عكس الخاليا الحيوانية‬،‫وبحميها‬

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LAB TOPIC 3 : DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS 13

 Estimating osmolarity by change in weight.

 The plant that we will use in this experiment is Potato.

 we will use a Cork Borer to make a tube in potato, Forceps to carry the potato
tube, Blade to cut the potato, and a Balance to weigh the potato samples.

 In this experiment, we will determine the weight of several potato tuber cylinder
and incubate them in a series of sucrose solution. After the cylinder have incubated,
you will weigh them and determine if they have gained or lost weight. This
information will enable you to estimate the osmolarity of the potato tuber tissue.

 If the potato tube gain weight, that means the solution is a hypotonic solution, so
the cells absorbed water and became turgid.

 If the potato tube lose weight, that means the solution is a hypertonic solution, so
the cells shrinked and became plasmolyzed.

Scan me if you want to see the experiment

Page 3 of 3
LAB TOPIC 4: ENZYMES 14
• Enzyme:
• Enzyme: biological catalyst that accelerates /speed up the reaction without
being consumed .
• Most enzyme are protein ,they speed up reaction by lowering reaction
energy ,the most important feature of the enzyme that they are highly
specific .
‫ أي كل تفاعل له انزيم خاص به وكل انزيم له مادة تفاعل محددة‬..‫• أهم ميزة باألنزيم أنه انتقائي‬
• every enzyme has substrate and they are has an active site
.. ‫كل قفل له مفتاح خاص به وال يالئم غيره‬.. ‫• تشبه وبشكل كبير نظرية القفل والمفتاح‬

• Factors affecting enzyme activity:

• Enzyme activity can be affected by a

variety of factors, such as temperature,
pH, concentration and chemicals.
• Enzymes work best within
specific temperature and pH ranges,
and sub-optimal conditions can cause an
enzyme to lose its ability to bind to
a substrate, and change its three dimensional shape
• The optimal temperature to the most enzyme in our body is 37° C

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LAB TOPIC 4: ENZYMES 15

• Chemicals:
• There are 2 types of chemicals: activator, and inhibitor.
• Activators: nonprotein substance that usually bind to the active site on the
enzyme and are essential for the enzyme to work.
• Organic cofactors are called coenzyme.

• Inhibitors, which is shut off the enzyme activity, and their action can be
classified as competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors.
• Competitive inhibitor take place when its structurally similar to the substrate
and its attach to the active site of the enzyme instead of the substrate.
.‫بترتبط باالنزيم محل المادة المتفاعلة وبتمنعها ( المادة المتفاعلة ) انها ترتبط فيه‬
• Noncompetitive inhibitor: the inhibitor binds to the part of the enzyme that
is not active site, in so doing, it change the nature of the enzyme.
‫بترتبط بمكان تاني باالنزيم فبتغير شكله وبالتالي بتغير شكل الموقع النشط وببطل قادر يرتبط بالمادة المتفاعلة‬

‫ ممكن نستخدمه بالجسم لما يكون عنا زيادة بمادة معينة‬،‫ سلبي‬inhibitor ‫• مش دائما بكون تأثير ال‬
‫بالجسم فنستخدم هاي الطرق عشان نرجع توازنها بالجسم طبيعي وما تضلها عم تتصنع بدون حاجة‬
.‫الها‬

Denaturation of enzyme :
• Enzyme structures unfold (denature) when heated or exposed to chemical
denaturants and this disruption to the structure typically causes a loss of
activity.
• Protein folding is key to whether a globular protein or a membrane protein
can do its job correctly. It must be folded into the right shape to function
• In low of Temperature: ‫يكون األنزيم فعّال ولم يحصل له أي تشوه يعني يمكن إعادة‬
.‫استخدامه‬

Page 2 of 3
LAB TOPIC 4: ENZYMES 16

• The effect of temperature on amylase activity.

• In this experiment we will use :

- 2 ml of starch,
- 4 ml of water Scan me
- 1 ml of buffer
- 1 ml of amylase ( enzyme found in saliva specialized in starch digestion).

• In this experiment You will know how the temperature effect the enzyme by
making a lugols test ( I2KI ) after mixing amylase with starch in 3 test tube
each one of them in a different temperature ( 0, 37, 100 )

• If the lugols solution give a positive result ( black or dark blue ) that means
the amylase doesn’t breakdown the starch and no reaction happened so the
the starch still starch without any change.
• If the lugols solution give a negative result (yellow ) that means there is no
starch in the solution and the reaction take place so the amylase breakdown
the starch to the maltose.

: ‫• بهاي التجربة بنقدر نبحث عن حصول التفاعل بطريقتين‬

‫( واذا اعطاني لون كحلي‬lugol's solution) ‫• يا اما بنبحث عن وجود النشا بالمحلول من خالل ال‬
‫ وبين‬enzymes ‫معناته النشا لسى موجود بالمحلول وما تم تكسيره (يعني ما صار في تفاعل بين ال‬
).substrate ‫ال‬
‫ وفي حال اعطاني نتيجة ايجابية معناته صار في‬benedict reagent ‫• او بقدر برضو من خالل ال‬
.‫عندي تفاعل والنشا تكسر‬
‫ الي بتستخدموه بالالب‬test ‫• االثنين صح واالثنين بيزبطو لكن انتو مطالبين بس بال‬

Page 3 of 3
LAB TOPIC 6: PHOTOSYNTHESIS 18
Photosynthesis:

 transforming light energy into chemical energy to synthesize organic compounds

(glucose) from CO2, and in the process water is used and O2 is released .

 We determine photosynthetic activity by testing for the production

of starch, using iodine potassium iodide (I 2KI)

 The color of the iodine is yellow-amber .

 (I2KI) stains starch into purple-black color .

 A change from the yellow-amber color of the iodine solution to a purple-black solution is
a positive test for the presence of starch .

 The plant which used in the experiment called geranium, we kept one in light, and
another one in dark, and we remove the pigment from the leaves by boiling them in an
ethanol.

 Photosynthesis in plants:

 cellular respiration in animals:

Page 1 of 3
LAB TOPIC 6: PHOTOSYNTHESIS 19

 Pigments in Photosynthesis:

 A pigment is a substance that absorbs light. If a pigment absorbs all

wavelengths of visible light, it appears black.

Scan Me
 Green colors in plants are produced by the presence of chlorophylls a and b located in
the chloroplasts.

 Yellow, orange, and bright red colors are produced by carotenoids and it also located in
chloroplast .

 Blues, violets, purples, pinks, and dark reds are usually produced by a group of water
soluble pigments.

 The anthocyanins, that are located in cell vacuoles and do not contribute to
photosynthesis.

 Separation of Plant Pigments by Paper Chromatography:

 Thin layer Chromatography (TLC)

 The plant used in this experiment is spinach.

 A blender was used to rupture the cells, and the pigments were then extracted with
acetone.
 the pigments will move at different rates, depending on their different solubilities in the
solvents used and the degree of attraction to the paper .

 Chromatography paper is a polar (charged) substance.

 The solvent, made of hexane, ether and acetone, is relatively nonpolar.

 The most nonpolar substance will dissolve in the nonpolar solvent first

 The most polar substance will be attracted to the polar chromatography paper; therefore,
it will move last.

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LAB TOPIC 6: PHOTOSYNTHESIS 20

 Types of pigments shown in the experiment :

1. Xanthophyll: Appear in dark yellow color.

2. Chlorophyll a: Appear in light yellow color.
3. Chlorophyll b: Appear blue green color.
4. Beta carotene: Appear in yellowish green color.
Scan me

(Non-polar)

Polarity

decrease

D (polar)

 Least polar: Beta carotene

 Most polar: Xanthophyll

! ‫ معلومة ال تنساها‬
‫ الصبغة االكبر قطبية يعني اقل وحدة ذايبة بالمحلول واكتر وحدة لها قابلة تلزق عصفيحة السيلكا فبالتالي رح تكون‬
.‫اول وحدة بتنفصل‬
! ‫ واالقل قطبية يعني اكتر وحدة ذايبة بالمحلول فبتضلها ماشية معاه لألخير وما بتلزق عالصفيحة اال آخر اشي‬

Page 3 of 3
 MIDTERM QUIZES

 1: stereoscopic light microscope gives an image that is:

A- 3D, not inverted
B- 2D, not inverted
C- 3D, inverted
D- 2D, inverted

 2: The part on compound light microscope that carry and support the eyepiece lenses is
called :
A-Head
B- stage
C- Arm
D- Revolving nosepiece

 3: Iris diaphragm used to focus light passes through the slide or specimen:
A-True
B- False

 4: letter (e) slide preparation in our experiment was:

A-Two if mentioned answers are correct
B- permanent slide
C- Temporary slide
D- wet amount slide

 5:Which if the following is correct about dissecting microscope:

A_ The illumination source placed below the sample
B- For image focusing we can coarse or fine adjustment khob
C- The base is also as stage
D- The Revolving nosepiece revolve to change the objective lenses

 6: polarizing microscope is an electron microscope:

A_ True
B_ False

 7: The monocular compound light microscope has only one lens:

A_ False
B_ True
 MIDTERM QUIZES
 8: Interpupillary distance is the distance between the two objective lenses:
A_ True
B_ False

 9: The magnification of scanning lens is ×40:

A_ False
B_ True

 10: The distance between the slide and the objective lense is called:
A_ Parfocal
B_ Working distance
C_ Interpupillary distance
D_ Depth of field

 11: What would be the name of an organism; if the organism's cells have cell wall ,
cytoplasmic strand and flagella:
A_Amoiba
B_ Volvox
C_ Scenedesmus

 12: The stain you used in the lab to dye the onion epidermal cell is called:
A_ Mythylene blue
B_ Lugol's
C_ Benedict

 13: Volvox reproduce by daughter colonies:

A_ false
B_ true

 14: name the vacuoles that are clear , spherical , vary in sizes and gradually enlarge as
they fill with excess water. These vacuoles an excretory function for the amoiba :
A_ Food vacuoles
B_ Contractile vacuole
C_ phagocytosis vacuole

 15: The number of cell in aggregate organisms is predictable:

A_ False
B_ True
 MIDTERM QUIZES
 16: The central vacuole force the plant cell nucleus to be peripheral:
A_ True
B_ False

 17: Cheek epithelial cells are eukaryotic cell:

A_ True
B_ False

 18: All of the following cells have cell wall except:

A_volvox cell
B_ cheek epithelial cell
C_onion epidermal cells

 19: Onion cells are heterotrophic cells

A_ True
B_ False

 20: Scenedesmus is:

A_ complex colonial algae

B_ Multicellular algae
C_ Simple colonial algae

 21: In diffusion experiment, the reagent added to detect the presence of glucose is called:
A_Ethanol
B_ Mythylene blue
C_Bendict
D_ Lugol's (12kI)

 22: Movement of solute from region of low concentration to region 2:calledof high
concentration is called
A_ Osmosis
B_ Plasmolysis
C_ None of the mentioned answers is correct Diffusion
D_ diffusion

 23: Benedict reagent need boiling :

A_ True
B_ False
 MIDTERM QUIZES

 24_ What will happen to red blood cell (RBC) if placed in distilled water:
A_ Crenation
B_ Hemolysis
C_ Normal
D_ Turgid

 25 - Lugol's reagent (12KI) gives blue color an negative results:

A_ True
B_ False

 26: The instrument used to weight the potato tuber is called :

A_ Electrical balance
B_ Hot place
C_ Water path
D_ ice path

 27: Starch diffuse outside the dialysis bag:

A_ True
B_ False

 28: Hypotonic solution has solut concentration higher than the cell
A_ True
B_ False

 29: plant cell will undergoes Plasmolysis in hypotonic solution:

A_ True
B_ False

 30: For a potato tuber weighted (1.5 g). After placed in hypertonic solution the final
weight will be:
A_ (1.5g)
B_ (1.30g)
C_(0.0g)
D_(1.80g)
 MIDTERM QUIZES

1 A 16 A
2 A 17 A
3 B 18 B
4 A 19 B
5 C 20 B
6 B 21 C
7 B 22 C
8 B 23 A
9 A 24 B
10 B 25 B
11 B 26 A
12 A 27 B
13 B 28 B
14 B 29 B
15 A 30 B
LAB TOPIC 7 : MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 21

● The nuclei of eukaryotic cells contain chromosome with cluster of gene

which coiled and folded to make a DNA.
● Chromosome and gene are duplicated and passed on to daughter cells. And
Each chromosome is a long DNA molecule with a hundred genes.
● The human has 46 chromosomes = (2n) “diploid “
(1n) 23 chromosomes from male
(1n) 23 chromosomes from female

● Single celled organism divide for asexual reproduction, growth, or

replacement. However, multicellular organisms have 2 types of cells:
1. Somatic cells: are divide for growth and replacement.
2. reproductive cells (eggs and sperms) divide for reproduction (sexual
reproduction) .

● So the Cell division may be mitoses ( in somatic cells and single cellular
organisms ) Or meiosis ( in reproductive cells in a sexual reproduction )

Mitosis Meiosis
Number of chromosomes in Same number of Half number of
daughter cell chromosomes chromosomes

Number of cells Two cells (2n) Four cells (1n)

Genetic variation Genetically Non identical
identical cell

Type of cell Somatic cells Sex cell

Page 1 of 9
LAB TOPIC 7 : MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 22

● Cell cycle: all the events that take place in the cell from the beginning of one
cell division until to the next division.
● Cell cycle:
1. Interphase
2. M.phase

Interphase:
● the majority phase of the cell cycle, which contain 3 stages:
G1 phase: the cytoplasm mass increased, organelles are duplicated, and the
nucleolus are visible in the nucleus.
Centriole duplication begins in late g1 or early in S phase.
S phase: make another strand of DNA which is identical to the first one.
G2 phase: continuing cell activity, preparation for mitosis, and synthesizing
enzyme that are necessary for cell division.
M phase
● M phase consist: karyokineses (nuclear division), and cytokinesis (cytoplasm
division).

Page 2 of 9
LAB TOPIC 7 : MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 23

Karyokineses consist of 4 phases:

1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
At the end of telophase, cytokinesis started.

● After the duplication of the DNA , each

chromosome become consists of two
sister chromatid which are genetically
identical, and they are attached to each
other in a centromere.

Page 3 of 9
 LAB TOPIC 7 : MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 24

● Mitosis 2n🡪 2n, 2n

1. Before mitosis actually starts,
interphase begins. Interphase is
when the cells start to copy its
DNA. After interphase, mitosis
begins. The steps of mitosis are
prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase, and then cytokinesis.

2. The 1st phase is Prophase.

During prophase, the chromatin
condenses into chromosomes, the
contrioles seperate, spindles form, and
the nuclear envelope disappears.

3. The next step is metaphase.

During metaphase, the
chromosomes are lining up in the
middle while the spindles attach
to the centromeres.

Page 4 of 9
21 LAB TOPIC 7 : MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 25

4. After metaphase, the next step is

anaphase. During anaphase, the
chromosomes are pulling apart at
the centromere to create 2 sister
chromatids. After that, the
chromatids separate

5. The next step is telophase. The

chromatids are now chromosomes
again. The nuclear envelope reforms
and the spindles will disappear.

6. after telophase, its cytokinesis or

"cell movement". The division of
the cytoplasm of the cell begins.
Actin and myosin contribute to the
formation of the cleavage farrow,
When cytokinesis is done, the
whole process begins again.

Page 5 of 9
LAB TOPIC 7 : MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 26

● Meiosis : 2n🡪 1n , 1n , 1n , 1n

● This starts with interphase. During

interphase, the cell groups and the
cell copies DNA.

● Then, meiosis starts. Prophase 1 is the

start of the process. Each chromosome
finds its homologue and pairs in a tight
association. The process of pairing is
called synapsis. Each paired duplicated
chromosome complex is made of 4
strand, this complex is called tetrad.
● Crossing over also happened in
prophase1, its take place between
nonsister chromatids in the tetrad. In
this process a segment from one chromated will break and exchange with
the exact same segment on a nonsister chromatid in the tetrad. The
crossover site forms a chiasma.

● Metaphase 1 is the second step.

During this, the chromosomes line up
in tetrads ( which are pairs of
homologous chromosomes ) one from
each parent.

Page 6 of 9
‫‪LAB TOPIC 7 : MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬

‫‪● Anaphase 1 is next. The homologous‬‬

‫‪pairs separate to opposite poles of the‬‬
‫‪cell.‬‬

‫‪● When Telophase 1 starts, two‬‬

‫‪nuclei form‬‬

‫‪▪ Cytokinesis form 2 daughter cells‬‬

‫● مهم تعرف انو نحنا بنستخدم السينترومير عشان نحدد عدد الكروموسومات‪.‬‬
‫يعني‪ ،‬لو عندي اربع كروموسومات صارلهم تضاعف رح يكون شكلهم‬
‫كالتالي ‪x x x x‬‬
‫‪ ‬ورح يكون عدد الكروموسومات هون هو ‪ ( ٤‬عدد السنترومير = عدد‬
‫الكروموسومات ) يعني لو سألني كم عدد الكروموسومات بالصورة‬
‫بروح بعد كم سنترومير موجود وبالتالي رح يكون هاد عدد‬
‫الكروموسومات‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬بينما عدد الكروماتيدات هون رح يكون ‪ ( ،٨‬عدد الكروماتيدات = عدد‬
‫جزيئات ال ‪ ,)DNA‬النو كل جزيء ‪ DNA‬عبارة عن كروماتيد‪ ،‬وبعد‬
‫التضاعف كل جزيء رح يصير في منو نسخة تانية يعني نسختين لكل‬
‫‪Scan me‬‬ ‫جزيء‪.‬‬

‫‪Page 7 of 9‬‬
LAB TOPIC 7 : MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 28

● The interphase between the meiosis 1

and meiosis 2 is to short, so there is no
DNA duplication before meiosis 2.
●
● Prophase 2 is the step that prepares to
divide

● Anaphase 2 is where the chromosomes

separate into sister chromatids

● Telophase 2 is where the chromatids

split into 2.

● The very last step is cytokinesis. During

this, it ends with 4 daughter cells being
created.

Page 8 of 9
LAB TOPIC 7 : MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 29

● Mitosis in plant:
Mitosis in Allium Root tip
● The plant used in the lab is : onion
● plant cell have no centrioles
● Cytokinesis In plant cell occur when
a membrane bound vesicle from
Golgi apparatus fuse to form a cell
plate

● at the tip of the root is a root cap that protect the tender root tip as it
growth through the soil. Behind the root cap is the zone of cell division

Page 9 of 9
LAB TOPIC 15 : PLANT DIVERSITY 1 30

 The plant body is often covered with a waxy cuticle that:

1. prevents desiccation
2. prevents gas exchange

 THE problem ( prevent gas exchange ) solved by the presence of openings called
stomata (sing., stoma).

 Flowering plants are the most diverse and successful group in an amazing variety of
habitats .

Page 1 of 8
LAB TOPIC 15 : PLANT DIVERSITY 1 31

 Plant life cycle :

 All land plants have a common sexual reproductive life cycle called alternation of
generation:

 plants alternate between a haploid gametophyte generation (1n) and a diploid

sporophyte generation (2n).

 In living land plants, these two generations differ in their morphology, but they are still
the same species.

 In all land plants except the bryophytes (mosses and liverworts), the diploid sporophyte
generation is the dominant generation.

 The essential features in the alternation-of-generations life cycle, beginning with the
sporophyte, are:

1. The diploid sporophyte undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores in a protective,

non-reproductive jacket of cells called the sporangium.

2. Dividing by mitosis, the spores germinate to produce the haploid gametophyte.

Page 2 of 8
LAB TOPIC 15 : PLANT DIVERSITY 1 32

 Note that both gametes and spores are haploid in this life cycle. Unlike the animal life
cycle, the plant life cycle produces gametes by mitosis; spores are produced by meiosis

 The gametophyte produces gametes inside a jacket of non-reproductive cells, forming

gametangia (sing., gametangium).

 Eggs are produced by mitosis in archegonia (sing., archegonium).

 sperm are produced in antheridia (sing., antheridium).

 The gametes fuse (fertilization), usually by entrance of the sperm into the archegonium,
forming a diploid zygote, the first stage of the next diploid sporophyte generation.

Haploid (1n) Diploid (2n)

- Gametophyte
- Sperms - Sporophyte
- Eggs - Zygote
- spores - embryo

 Nonvascular Plants (Bryophytes)

:

 Bryophytes are an ancient group of

nonvascular plants.

 Bryophytes are small plants that generally

lacking vascular tissue.

 Bryophytes have water-conducting tubes

appears to be present in some mosses. And
these tubes are unrelated to the vascular
tissue in vascular plant .

Page 3 of 8
LAB TOPIC 15 : PLANT DIVERSITY 1 33

 Bryophytes have a different life cycle because the gametophyte is the

dominant conspicuous .

 Moses : The mosses are the most common group of bryophytes occurring primarily in
moist environments but also found in dry habitats that are periodically wet.

 Mosses are also ecologically important as pioneer species that colonize bare rock
during primary succession

 Because bryophytes are Non-vascular, they are restricted to moist habitats for their
reproductive cycle. And have never attained the size and importance of other groups of
plants.

 The gametophyte plants remain close to the ground, enabling the motile sperm to swim
from the antheridium to the archegonium and fertilize the egg .

Page 4 of 8
LAB TOPIC 15 : PLANT DIVERSITY 1 34

 They have a cuticle but lack stomata on the surface of the gametophyte thallus (plant
body that lacks vascular tissue), which is not organized into roots, stems, and leaves.

 Stomata are present on the sporophyte in some mosses and hornworts.

 Bryophytes are not important economically, with the exception of sphagnum moss, which
in its harvested and dried form is known as peat moss.

 Thallus (plant body that lacks vascular tissue) have no root, stem or leaves.

 Seedless Vascular Plants :

 The amphibians dependence on water for external fertilization and development of the
unprotected, free-living embryo.

 Features of seedless plants :

- All seedless vascular plants have vascular tissue, which is specialized for conducting
water, nutrients, and photosynthetic products

- Their life cycle is a variation of alternation of generations, in which the sporophyte is the
dominant plant

- the gametophyte is usually independent of the sporophyte.

- These plants generally have leaves, and roots, as well as stomata and structural support
tissue.

- They require water for fertilization (feature of motile sperm).

- The gametophyte is small and restricted to moist habitats.

Page 5 of 8
LAB TOPIC 15 : PLANT DIVERSITY 1 35

 We will study 2 phyla in this category:

1. Phylum pterophyta : Includes:
- Fern
- Equisetum
- horse tail

2. Phylum lycophyta: Includes :

- Lycopodium

 The only important members of this groups in Economic are the ferns, a significant
horticultural resource.

 Phylum pterophyta – ferns:

 Features of Ferns :

1. They are the most successful group of seedless vascular plants.

2. Lack woody tissue.
3. Small size.
4. Occupying habitats from the desert to tropical rain forests.

 Haploid spores of ferns fall to the ground and grow into heart-shaped gametophyte
plant.

 All seedless plants depend on an external source of water for sperm to swim to an egg
to effect fertilization and for growth of the resulting sporophyte plant.

 The gametangia which bear male and female gametes are bonne on the underside of
the gametophyte archegonia

Page 6 of 8
LAB TOPIC 15 : PLANT DIVERSITY 1 36

 Fern life cycle:

 In ferns note the deeply dissected leaves (the fronds), which arise from an underground
stem called a rhizome, which functions like a root to anchor the plant. Roots arise from
the rhizome. Observe the dark spots, or sori (sing., sorus), which are clusters of
sporangia.

 Sori are on the underside of some leaves, called sporophylls (Figure 14.12). Ferns
sporophyte consist of the rhizome, the fronds and the sporangia (sori).

Page 7 of 8
LAB TOPIC 15 : PLANT DIVERSITY 1 37

 Phylum pterophyta - Equisetum (horse tail):

Strobilus

- Strobilus do meiosis and Give us Spores

- The right side of the plant represent the sporophyte .

- Note the ribs and ridges in the stem. Also examine the
nodes or joints along the stem where branches and leaves
may occur in some species. Locate the strobili.

 Phylum lycophyta - Lycopodium

- Strobilus do meiosis and Give us

Spores.

Page 8 of 8
LAB TOPIC 16: PLANT DIVERSITY II 38

 SEED VASCULAR PLANTS:

 These plants have vascular system and bear seeds.

 Seed is dormant embryo with nutritive material covered with protective layer.

 Sporophyte is dominant.

 They have very reduced gametophyte .

 These plants are heterosporous produce 2 type of spores:

1. megaspore that develops into the female gametophyte.

2. microspore that develops into the male gametophyte.

 Seed vascular plants consist of gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Page 1 of 6
LAB TOPIC 16: PLANT DIVERSITY II 39

 Gymnosperms:
 Gymnosperm means that is no fruit cover the seeds "naked seed".

 Life cycle in gymnosperms (time from seed to seed) is long.

 The largest and best-known phylum is Coniferophya, which includes pines (Pinus) and
other cone-bearing trees and shrubs.

 Conifers have thick cuticles, needle-like leaves, and resin ducts that reduce water loss
and contribute to their success in dry environments (both cold and hot).

 Conifers are culturally and economically important as building materials, resins, fuel,
and in making paper. Taxol, one of the leading chemotherapy drugs for breast cancer,
was first isolated from a type of gymnosperm trees.

 Need wind for fertilization (pollination) .

 Male gametophyte which is the pollen grain are produced in the male cones (pollen
cones).

 Female gametophyte are produced in the female cones (ovulate cones) .

 Female cones are larger than male cones.

 Example for gymnosperms: phylum coniferophyta , plant is pine (Pinus).

Page 2 of 6
LAB TOPIC 16: PLANT DIVERSITY II 40

 Pine life cycle:

 Angiosperms:
 Angiosperms now occupy well over 90% of the vegetated surface of Earth and
contribute virtually 100% of our agricultural food plants.

 The plant have a flower (flowering plants) .(phylum anthophyta)

 The Seeds are covered with fruit .so this structure provides protection and enhances
dispersal of the young sporophyte.

Page 3 of 6
LAB TOPIC 16: PLANT DIVERSITY II 41

 the process of flower pollination is mediated by:

- insects - wind - birds and bats - water - specific agents

 Male gametophyte is the pollen grain.

 Female gametophyte is part of the flower ovule.

 The life cycle (from seed to seed) can be short (a year) of long.

 The showy flowers (attracting attention by color or shape or smell) are

mostly pollinated by animals.

 The pollen grain contains the male gametophyte, and the multinucleated
embryo sac is all that remains of the female gametophyte.

 The pollen germinates into a pollen tube and grows through the female
carpel to deliver the sperm to the egg. Forming embryos then seeds.

 The female gametophyte provides nutrients for the developing sporophyte

embryo through a unique triploid (3n) endosperm tissue (endosperm will
develop into a rich nutritive material for the support and development of the
embryo and it’s also unique to angiosperms).

 The seed is composed of the sporophyte embryo (2n), the nutritive

endosperm (3n), and the seed coat (2n).

 The flower ovary will mature into the fruit, while the flower ovule after
fertilization will mature (develop) into seed.

 Flowering plants can be woody (trees or shrubs), but many are herbaceous

Page 4 of 6
LAB TOPIC 16: PLANT DIVERSITY II 42

 Parts of flower:

 Pedicle: The stalk of a flower.

 Receptacle: The part of a flower stalk where the parts of the flower are attached .

 Sepal: The outer parts of the flower (often green and leaf-like) that enclose a developing
bud. Collectively called calyx.

 Petal: The parts of a flower that are often conspicuously colored. Collectively called
corolla.

 Stamen: The pollen producing part of a flower (male reproduction part), usually with a
slender filament supporting the anther.

 Anther: The part of the stamen where pollen is produced.

Page 5 of 6
LAB TOPIC 16: PLANT DIVERSITY II 43

 Carpel: The ovule producing part of a flower (female reproduction part). Consist of
stigma, style, ovary and ovule. The mature ovary is a fruit, and the mature ovule is a
seed.
 Stigma: The part of the carpel that receive the pollen grain .
 Ovary: The enlarged basal portion of the carpel where ovules are produced.
 Perianth: the corolla (petals) and calyx (sepals) all together

 Flower life cycle:

Page 6 of 6
LAB TOPIC 20: PLANT ANATOMY 44

 There are 4 types of Plant Tissue:

1. Dermal tissue 2. Ground tissue

3. Vascular tissue 4. Meristematic tissue

 Dermal Tissue ( The Epidermis) :

 The epidermis forms the outermost layer of cells, its usually one cell thick, And it
covers the entire plant body.

 The epidermal cells are often flattened and rectangular in shape.

- ) ‫(الخاليا مسطحة و مستطيلة الشكل‬

 Most aboveground epidermal cells covered with cuticle (waxy material prevent water
loss) .
- ) ‫(الخاليا الموجودة على االسطح الخارجية تكون مغطاة مبادة شمعية لمنع فقدان الماء‬

 Leaf surface showing epidermis with stomata and guard cells.

 The epidermis provides protection and regulates gas exchange and transpiration (water
evaporation) )‫ (توفر البشرة الحماية وتننظم تبادل الغازات‬.

 Specialized epidermal cells include:

- Trichom which is hair-like structure.

- Guard cells of stomata.
- Root hair.

Page 1 of 10
LAB TOPIC 20: PLANT ANATOMY 45

 Ground Tissue :
 Ground tissue Includes :

Characteristics and functions

- Most common cell in plant. ) ‫(االكثر شيوعا في النبات‬

- Living cells with thin cell wall and large vacuoles.

Parenchyma
- Function in: photosynthesis, support, storage of material and lateral
transport.
)‫( تقوم بالبناء الضوئي و الدعامة و التخزين و النقل الجانبي للمواد‬

- Found beneath epidermis. ) ‫(توجد تحت البشرة‬

- Living cells with uneven thickening of cell wall.

Collenchyma
- Function in: providing flexible-support to young (primary growth) plants.
)‫(توفير الدعم المرن للنباتات الصغيرة‬

- Dead cell at maturity with thick cell wall that may contain lignin.

- Most common type of sclerenchyma are thin long fiber.

Sclerenchyma
- Function in: providing strength and support.
) ‫(الدعامة والصالبة‬

 Vascular Tissue :

 Function : transporting materials throughout the plant body

)‫(نقل المواد عبر جسم النبات‬
Page 2 of 10
LAB TOPIC 20: PLANT ANATOMY 46

 Vascular tissue Includes two type of complex tissue:

1. Xylem ) ‫ ( الخشب‬:

 Function : Transport of water and minerals throughout the plant and provide support.
) ‫(الدعامة و نقل الماء المعادن الى اجزاء النبات‬

 Types of Cells in xylem:

 Vessel: large in diameter with open end, joined end to end to form continuous
tubes throughout the plant.

 Tracheids: thin and long cells with perforated tapered end, joined end to end to
form continuous tubes throughout the plant

 Parenchyma: for storage and lateral transport.

 Fiber: for additional support.

 Tracheids and vessel elements are the primary water-conducting cells.

2. Phloem )‫ ( أللحاء‬:
 Function : transport of the photosynthetic products. )‫(نقل نواتج البناء الضوئي‬

Page 3 of 10
LAB TOPIC 20: PLANT ANATOMY 47

 Types of Cells in phloem:

 Sieve – tube cell: the main conducting cell. It is a living cell that lack nucleus and
have sieve-plate, joined end to end to form continuous tubes throughout the plant.

 Companion cell: associated with sieve-tube cell. Regulate the function of sieve-tube
cell.
 Phloem parenchyma: for storage and lateral transport

 Phloem fiber: for additional support.

 Meristematic Tissue :

 Meristematic tissue is a tissue in plants that consists of undifferentiated cells

(meristematic cells) capable of cell division (mitosis).

))‫(نسيج في النباتات يتكون من خاليا غير متمايزة (خاليا مرستيمية) قادرة على االنقسام الخلوي(انقسام متساوي‬

 Meristems give rise to various tissues and organs of a plant and are responsible for
growth. ) ‫(يكون أنسجة وأعضاء مختلفة للنبات وتكون مسؤولة عن النمو‬

 We have 4 different types of meristematic tissue:

1. Primary meristems: located in shoot buds and root tips, responsible for primary growth of plants
- )‫ وهي المسؤولة عن النمو األولي للنباتات‬، ‫(تقع في براعم النبتة وراس الجذر‬
2. Pericycle: located in the root, divide to produce lateral root.

- )‫ تنقسم إلنتاج جذر جانبي‬، ‫(تقع في الجذر‬

3. Vascular cambium: locate between xylem and phloem, responsible for secondary
(woody) growth of plants. ) ‫ وهو المسؤول عن النمو الثانوي (الخشبي) للنباتات‬، ‫( يقع بين نسيج الخشب واللحاء‬

4. Cork cambium: locate inside the cork, responsible for secondary (woody) growth of plants.
- )‫(المسؤول عن النمو الثانوي (الخشبي) للنباتات‬
Page 4 of 10
LAB TOPIC 20: PLANT ANATOMY 48

 Plant organs :

 Primary stem :

 The stem is the main plant axis

 Stem functions:

1. Support of shoot parts such as

leaves, flowers and fruits.

2. Transport of fluids in the xylem

and phloem.

3. Primary stems are

photosynthetic.

4. Storage

 The stem is normally divided into nodes and

internodes

 In most plants stems are located above the soil

surface but some plants have underground
stems.
‫ معظم النباتات توجد سيقانها فوق سطح التربة ولكن البعض‬-
. ‫لها سيقان تحت األرض‬

Page 5 of 10
LAB TOPIC 20: PLANT ANATOMY 49

• Primary stem cross section:

a) Epidermis: the outer-most layer, covered with a waxy layer to prevent water lose called
cuticle.
b) Cortex: is the outer layer lying between the epidermis and the vascular bundles.
- The cortex is composed of collenchyma and parenchyma cells.
c) Vascular bundles: composed of phloem, xylem and sclerenchyma (bundle) cap.
- Vascular bundles form a distinct ring visible when the stem is viewed in cross
section.
d) Pith: the layer in the center, composed of parenchyma cells.

 study the following pictures:

 Primary root :
 Root functions :

 Anchorage to the soil and support.

 Absorption and conduction of water and minerals.
 Storage

Page 6 of 10
LAB TOPIC 20: PLANT ANATOMY 50
 Primary root cross section:
1. Epidermis: the outer-most layer.

2. Cortex: is the layer between the epidermis and the vascular cylinder. The cortex is
composed of collenchyma and parenchyma cells.

3. Vascular cylinder is the bundles of vascular tissue that run within the core (center) of
root. d) No Pith in the root.

4. Endodermis: is the inner-most

layer of cortex. The cells are
surrounded with Casparian strip
witch made of suberin, a waxy
material that extends completely
around each cell .
- These cells regulate the water
movement from root cortex to the
xylem.

5. Pericycle: a meristematic tissue

divides to produce the lateral root .

6. Xylem : have cross (X) shape in the

middle of the vascular cylinder.

7. Phloem : surround the xylem as shown in the figures.

Page 7 of 10
LAB TOPIC 20: PLANT ANATOMY 51

 Leaf :
 The main functions are
photosynthesis and gas
exchange.

 A leaf is often thin and flat, so it

absorbs the light better.

 Most leaves have stomata, which

regulate gas exchange with the
atmosphere.

 Guard cells regulates opening

and closure of stomata.

 Sub-stomatal chamber: is the air-

space beneath the stomata to
facilitate gas exchange.

 The epidermis is covered with

cuticle.

 Leaf cross section :

A. Upper epidermis.

B. Mesophyll: the layer between the upper

and lower epidermis, it is parenchyma cells
function in photosynthesis.

C. Lower epidermis.

D. Vascular bundle. The main vein is Called mid-rib

Page 8 of 10
LAB TOPIC 20: PLANT ANATOMY 52

 Secondary (Woody) stem :

 The increase in stem thickness results from secondary growth is due to the activity of
the vascular cambium and cork cambium.

• The vascular cambium is located between xylem and phloem.

• The cells of the vascular cambium divide and form secondary xylem to the inside and
secondary phloem to the outside.

• The cork cambium divides to produce cork.

• The cork cambium and cork cells are collectively termed the periderm.

• The periderm substitutes for the epidermis and cortex present in primary stem.

• Bark is the periderm and secondary phloem collectively.

• Annual ring (secondary xylem ring): Concentric circles visible in cross-sections of woody
stems. Each year the vascular cambium layer produces a layer of secondary xylem. An
examination of the number of annual rings can reveal the age of the tree.

• Cross section of secondary stem:

Layers from outside to inside are:

a) Cork
b) Cork cambium
c) Secondary phloem
d) Phloem ray (are parenchyma cells located between the secondary phloem)
e) Vascular cambium
f) Secondary xylem (annual ring)
g) Lateral ray (parenchyma cells pass through the secondary xylem)
h) Pith (in the center, composed of parenchyma cells)

 REMEMBR: Periderm is cork and cork cambium

Page 9 of 10
‫‪LAB TOPIC 20: PLANT ANATOMY‬‬ ‫‪53‬‬

‫‪ ‬مالحظة مهمة لطالب العلوم الحياتية بشكل خاص ‪:‬‬

‫‪ ‬التفاصيل الي بتخص النبات الموجودة بالمختبرات (‪ )20 , 16 , 15‬رح ترجع‬
‫تتكرر معكم باكثر من مادة مثل بيو نبات و تشريح نبات وغيرها ‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬فضروري نركز فيهم وندرسهم منيح النو رح يساعدونا كثير لقدام ‪.‬‬

‫‪Page 10 of 10‬‬
 FINAL QUIZES

• 1- Gametes are haploid cells.

A- False
B- True

• 2- Cytokinesis occurs in onion root tip by cleavage furrow

A- True
B- False

• 3- Cell has 32 chromosome in the (prophase 1) stage. What is the number of

chromosomes of this cell in the (metaphase ll)
A- 16
B- 32
C- 8

• 4- The pairing of homologous chromosomes is called

A- Synapsis
B- crossing over
C- chiasma

• 5- All of the following are occurs in interphase except

A- cell growth
B- DNA replication
C- condensation of chromatin

• 6- The mitotic phase of the cell cycle includes karyokinesis & Cytokinesis
A- True
B- False

• 7- The centrosomes star to move toward cell poles in

A- Prophase
B- Prometaphase
C- Metaphase

Page 1 of 8
• 8- Which cell division function in asexual reproduction
A- meiosis ll
B- meiosis l
C- mitosis

• 9- In which phase the centromere doesn't splits

A- metaphase ll
B- metaphase
C- metaphase l

• 10- Chromosomes uncoiling to form chromatid occur in

A- Metaphase
B- Telophase
C- Prophase

• 11- The plants that are small in size , restricted to moist habitat with no
root ,stem or leaf are called
A- Equisetum
B- Apple
C- Lycopodium
D- Mosses

• 12- All of the following are vascular plant except

A- Apple
B- Fern
C- Mosses
D- Pine

• 13- The leaves-like structure in Mosses is called

A- Sporophyte
B- Antheridium
C- Gametophyte
D- Sporangium

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• 14- The part of the plant organism that produce sperms is called
A- Antheridium
B- archegonium
C- strobilus
D- sorus

• 15- Strobilus produces spores

A- True
B- False

• 16- Horse tail belongs to phylum

A- Pterophyte
B- Lycophyte
C- Anthophyta
D- Bryophyta

• 17- Lycopodium gametophyte needs water for fertilization

A- False
B- True

• 18- Fern seedless vascular plant

A- True
B- False

• 19- Fern gametophyte has both archegonia and antheridia at the same
Organism
A- False
B- True

• 20- Sporophyte is dominant in Bryophyta

A- False
B- True

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• 21- Flower ovary will mature to give a seed
A- True
B- False

• 22- Gymnosperms are heterosporous

A- True
B- False

• 23- The part that produce the male gametophyte in pinus tree is called
A- ovulated cones
B- female cones
C- pollen cones

• 24- which of the following is incorrect about gymnosperms

A- have fruit
B- wind pollinated
C- produce resins
D- vascular plants

• 25- All gymnosperms are either trees or shrubs

A- True
B- False

• 26- Anthophyta is the most important and diverse group of plants

A- True
B- False

• 27- Roses are vascular plants

A- False
B- True

• 28- sepals collectively are called

A- Corolla
B- Carpel
C- Calyx
D- Perianth

Page 4 of 8
• 29- pine belongs to phylum Anthophyta
A- true
B- false

• 30- The flower part that produce male gametophyte is called

A- Anther
B- Filaments
C- Stigma
D- Style

• 31- Bark is cork and cambium only

A- true
B- False

• 32- Sclerenchyma are dead cell that provide flexible support to young plant organs
A- True
B- False

• 33- Stem cortex is composed of collenchyma and parenchyma

A- True
B- False

• 34- The layer in plant root surrounded with casparian strip is

A- Epidermis
B- Endodermis
C- Pericycle

• 35- All are phloem except

A- companion cell
B- tracheid cell
C- sieve plate tube

Page 5 of 8
• 36- which plant has silica in its cell walls?
A- Mosses
B- lycopodium
C- equisetum
D- fern

• 37- sori found in

A- Mosses
B- Allium
C- Horsetail
D- Fern

• 38- strobilus is a cluster of

A- Sporangia
B- Anthiridia
C- Archegonia
D- Gametangia

• 39- all of the following are vascular plants, except

A- Fern
B- Lycopodium
C- Mosses
D- Horsetail

• 40- gametophyte is diploid

A- True
B- False

• 41- flower depends on animals for pollinated

A- True
B- False

• 42- In the cell cycle, there is a DNA duplication in interphase II

A- True
B- False

Page 6 of 8
 According to this figure, answer the
question below:
• 43- these ara an animal cells
A- True
B- False

• 44- DNA duplication accurs at stage D

A- True
B- False

• 45- stage C is called

A- Interphase
B- Prophase
C- Telophase
D- Cytokineses

• 46- stage F is called

A- Metaphase
B- Anaphase
C- Telophase
D- Prophase

• 47- if one cell of these have 10 chromosome and it will undergo mitosis, then each of
the daughter cell will has
A- 5 chromosome
B- 10 chromosome
C- 20 chromosome

• 48- in this figure below , the daughter cells divide from this mother cell will be
genetically identical
A- True
B- False

Page 7 of 8
• 49- in this figure, the fruit will be developed from the part
A- ( C )
B- ( D )
C- ( F)
D- ( E )

• 50- part A is called

A- Stigma
B- Filament
C- Anther
D- Carpel

1 B 26 A
2 B 27 B
3 A 28 C
4 A 29 B
5 C 30 A
6 A 31 B
7 A 32 A
8 C 33 A
9 C 34 B
10 B 35 B
11 D 36 C
12 C 37 D
13 C 38 A
14 A 39 C
15 A 40 B
16 A 41 A
17 B 42 B
18 A 43 B
19 B 44 B
20 A 45 D
21 B 46 B
22 A 47 B
23 C 48 B
24 A 49 C
25 A 50 C

Page 8 of 8