Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

CHAPTER-3

SPECIAL PURPOSE MACHINES

AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Learning Outcomes

3.1 List the types of servo motors.

3.2 Applications of servo motors in industries.

3.3 Describe the working principle of permanent magnet stepper motors.

3.4 State the working principle of AC servo motors.

3.5 State the working principle of DC servo motors.

3.6 List the applications of the following special-purpose electrical machines:

(a) AC servo motors (b) DC servo motors

(c) Permanent Magnet Stepper Motors (d) Brushless servo motors.

3.7 Define transducer and state the need for transducers in measurement systems.

3.8 State the classifications of transducers.

3.9 List the applications of transducers.

3.10 Define sensor and list its types.

3.11 List the applications of sensors.

3.12 Discuss the need for automation and advantages of automation.

3.13 Define Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).

3.14 State the advantages and applications of PLCs.

Applied Electrical and Electronics 1

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

3.0 INTRODUCTION
Since electricity was discovered, electrical machines have played a vital role in our lives. They are
used at home in appliances like blenders, refrigerators, and washing machines, as well as in industries on
production lines. Over time, special-purpose machines have been developed. These machines are based on
old motor principles. But these special machines have been developed to serve specific needs.

In this chapter, the focus is on special-purpose electrical machines, particularly AC and DC servo
motors, stepper motors, and brushless servo motors. This chapter covers how each of these machines works,
their types, and where they are commonly used (applications).

3.1 SERVO MOTORS

Servo motor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator . It allows for precise control of angular or linear
position, velocity and acceleration. It consists of a suitable motor coupled to a sensor for position feedback.
It also requires a relatively sophisticated controller.

It is an electrical device which can push or rotate an object with great precision. If you want to rotate
an object at some specific angles or distance, then you have to use servo motor. It is just a simple motor
which run through servo mechanism.

3.1.1 TYPES OF SERVO MOTORS

Generally, there are two main types of Servo motors based on the supply used for its function. They are

1. AC Servo Motors
(i) Positional Rotation Servo Motor
(ii) Continuous Rotation Servo Motor
(iii) Linear Servo Motor
2. DC Servo Motors.
(i) Series Motor
(ii) Split Series Motor
(iii) Shunt Control Motor
(iv) Permanent Magnet Shunt Motor
3.1.2 APPLICATIONS OF SERVO MOTORS IN INDUSTRIES
1. Packing and Food industry
2. Cutting Machines
3. Robotics
4. Textile Machinery
5. CNC Machines
6. Printing Machines
7. Electronic Manufacturing
8. Punching machines

Applied Electrical and Electronics 2

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

9. Conveyor belts and handling systems

10. Pharma industry.
11. Metal working
12. Wood working
13. Solar Array and Antenna positioning
14. Rocket ships
15. Remote control toys
16. Automatic Doors
17. Auto focus cameras etc.

3.3 STEPPER MOTOR

A stepper motor, also known as a
step motor, is a type of brushless
synchronous motor that rotates in small
steps rather than smoothly turning. That is
it breaks a full rotation into a number of
steps.

Unlike a normal DC motor that

spins continuously with a given voltage, a
stepper motor moves in specific step Fig 3.1 An Image of Commonly Used Brushless DC Stepper
angles. These motors are made with Motor
different numbers of steps per revolution, such as 12, 24, 72, 144, 180, and 200, resulting in step angles of
30, 15, 5, 2.5, 2, and 1.8 degrees per step. Stepper motors can be controlled with or without feedback.

3.3.1 Working of Stepper Motor

Fig 3.2 General Overview of Internal Structure and Working of Typical Stepper Motor

Applied Electrical and Electronics 3

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

Stepper motors work on the principle of electromagnetism. They consist of a magnetic rotor shaft
surrounded by electromagnetic stators. Both the rotor and stator have poles, which might have teeth or not,
depending on the stepper type. When the stators are energized the rotor moves to align itself along with the
stator (in case of a permanent magnet type stepper) or moves to have a minimum gap with the stator (in case
of a variable reluctance stepper). By energizing the stators in a specific sequence, the stepper motor rotates.

3.3.2 Types of Stepper Motor

Stepper motors are categorized into three main types based on their construction:

1. Permanent Magnet Stepper

2. Variable Reluctance Stepper
3. Hybrid Step Motor

3.3.3 Working Principle of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

The working principle of a stepper motor is similar to that of a conventional motor, operating on the
Lorentz Force law. According to this law, when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a force due to the interaction of fluxes. In the case of a stepper motor, the interacting fluxes are
the stator magnetic flux and the rotor magnetic flux. The stator magnetic flux is generated by external
excitations, while the rotor magnetic flux is produced by permanent magnets. The direction of the motor is
determined by Fleming’s left-hand rule.

The operation of a permanent magnet stepper motor can be explained in various modes.

Mode 1– In this mode, the A phase of the stator poles is excited together with series winding to create two
pairs of magnetic poles. It may be noted that, in this mode, the B phase is not excited at all. When the A
phase is excited, it forms the North and South pole. At this moment, the rotor magnetic poles are attracted to
the stator magnetic poles.

Fig 3.3 (a) Working of Stepper Motor in Mode -1 (b) ) Working of Stepper Motor in Mode -2

Applied Electrical and Electronics 4

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

Mode 2 – In this mode, the B phase of the stator poles is excited together with series winding to create two
pairs of magnetic poles. It may be noted that, in this mode, the A phase is not excited at all. When the B
phase is excited, it forms the North and South pole. At this moment, the rotor magnetic poles are attracted to
the stator magnetic poles. Which makes the rotor rotate in the clockwise direction from Mode 1.

Mode 3 –In this mode also, the A phase of the stator poles is excited together with series winding to create
two pairs of magnetic poles. It may be noted that, in this mode, the B phase is not excited at all. When the A
phase is excited, it forms the North and South pole. At this moment, the rotor magnetic poles are attracted to
the stator magnetic poles. It makes the rotor rotate in the clockwise direction from Mode 2.

Mode 4– In this mode also, the B phase of the stator poles is excited together with series winding to create
two pairs of magnetic poles. It may be noted that, in this mode, the A phase is not excited at all. When the B
phase is excited, it forms the North and South pole. At this moment, the rotor magnetic poles are attracted to
the stator magnetic poles. This makes the rotor rotate in the clockwise direction from Mode 3.
In this manner, the rotor makes one complete revolution from Mode 1 to Mode 4.

Fig 3.3 (c) Working of Stepper Motor in Mode -3 (d) ) Working of Stepper Motor in
Mode -4

3.4 AC SERVO MOTOR

AC servo motors are electric motors that operate on alternating current (AC) supply. They have a
stator that generates a rotating magnetic field and a rotor that follows the field.AC servomotors are basically
two-phase induction motors with certain modifications in its design.

The output power from AC servomotor ranges between some watt to a few hundred watts. While the
operating frequency range is between 50 to 400 Hz. It provides closed-loop control feedback system.
Because it uses a type of encoder that provides feedback regarding speed and position.

Applied Electrical and Electronics 5

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

3.4.1 Working Principle of A.C Servo Motor

The Fig 3.4 represents the AC two-phase induction motor that uses the principle of servomechanism

Fig 3.4 Schematic Diagram of AC Servo System

Initially, a constant AC voltage energizes the main winding of the stator in the AC servomotor. The
other terminal of the stator connects to a control transformer via the control. Due to the provided reference
voltage, the shaft of the synchro generator rotates with a particular speed and attains a certain angular
position.

Simultaneously, the shaft of the control transformer assumes a specific angular position, which is
then compared to angular position of the shaft of the synchro generator. This comparison provides an error
signal, generated by comparing the voltage levels corresponding to their respective shaft positions.

This error signal corresponds to the voltage level present at the control transformer. This signal is
then provided to the servo amplifier which generates variable control voltage.

This error signal corresponds the voltage to the level at the control transformer. With this applied
voltage, the rotor again attains a specific speed and starts rotation and sustains until the value of the error
signal reaches 0, thereby attaining the desired position of the motor in the AC servomotors.
Applied Electrical and Electronics 6
Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

3.4.1.1Torque-Speed Characteristics

The figure below represents the torque-speed characteristics of the two-phase induction motor.

Fig 3.5 Torque-Speed Characteristics of the 2-Phase Induction Motor

We have already discussed the necessity for the motor to be designed in such a manner as to give
linear torque-speed characteristics, wherein the torque varies proportionately with the speed. However, as we
have seen in the above figure that the torque-speed characteristics here are not actually linear.

The shape of the characteristic is so because it depends on the ratio of reactance to resistance. A low
ratio of reactance to resistance indicates that the motor has high resistance and low reactance. In such case,
the characteristics is more linear that high value of the ratio for reactance to resistance.

3.5 DC SERVO MOTOR

A type of servomotor that uses DC supply input to generate mechanical output like velocity,
acceleration or position is known as DC servomotor. It is somewhat similar to a normal DC motor. However,
there are some differences between a normal DC motor and DC servomotor.

Basically, DC servomotors of all types are required to be excited individually. This ensures to
provide linear characteristics between torque and speed.

The DC servomotor is further classified on the basis of control mechanism they employ. Basically,
controlling to the DC servomotor is either provided from the field side or from the armature side.

3.5.1 Working of Field Controlled DC Servo Motor

In this type of DC servomotor, the controlling is provided to the field winding. Specifically, we can
say, the controlled signal received from the amplifier is fed to the field winding. Thus, it is named so.
Meanwhile the armature current is maintained at a constant value using a constant current source.

Applied Electrical and Electronics 7

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

The fig 3.6 represents the field-controlled DC servomotor.

Fig 3.6 Field Controlled DC Servo Motor

It is to be noted here that the field in this type of dc servomotor can be either electromagnetic type
where a salient pole is present with a field winding wound around it and excitation to it is provided with dc
current or a permanent magnet type.
Basically, according to the general torque equation of DC motor, the torque is directly proportional
to the product of field flux and the armature current. However, in this specific type, the armature current is
kept constant. Thus,
TαΦ
The amplified error signal from the servo amplifier excites the field. In this way, the excitation
provided controls the torque i.e., the rotation of the motor.
In case the value of the current source applied at the armature is quite large, then for a small change
in field current, there will be a proportional change in the torque of the motor.
It is to be noted here that the direction in which the shaft rotates can be changed as per polarity of
the field or by using split field DC motor.
In this case, the error signal is provided at the junction of the winding as the two windings give
magnetic fields in the opposite direction. When the error signal is provided then one side of the magnetic
field will dominate the other. So, the motor rotates in the direction of the winding of the dominating side
according to the error signal.
Here, the ratio of reactance to resistance is quite large thereby exhibiting the high value of the time
constant. This implies that for quick changes in the control signals the response will be slower. Thus, they
are mainly used in small rated motors. However, here the power requirement is less as the motor is
controlled by the field.
3.5.2 Working of Armature Controlled DC Servo Motor
In armature-controlled DC servomotor, the controlling is provided in the armature circuit. This
means, here the signal from the servo amplifier is provided to the armature. Here the constant field is
provided using the permanent magnets.

Applied Electrical and Electronics 8

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

The voltage from the servo amplifier, Va(t) with resistance Ra and inductance La is provided at the
armature. Hence, this input voltage at the armature controls the shaft.

The Fig 3.7 represents the arrangement of armature coupled DC servomotor

Fig 3.7 Armature Controlled DC Servo Motor

It is to be noted here that in armature-controlled DC servomotor, the sensitivity towards the field
current should be low. As the armature-controlled motor must not respond to the field current.
It offers a small value of the time constant (low reactance to resistance ratio) so there is a rapid
change in the armature current with the change in the voltage applied at the armature. Thus, it provides a
faster dynamic response where the direction of rotation changes with the change in polarity of the error
signal.
3.5.2.1Characteristics of DC Servomotor
The Fig 3.8 shows the torque-speed characteristics of armature-controlled dc servomotor

Fig 3.8 Torque-Speed Characteristics of Armature Controlled DC Servomotor

Applied Electrical and Electronics 9

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

3.6. APPLICATIONS
3.6.1 APPLICATIONS OF AC SERVOMOTOR
AC servo motors are commonly used in a wide range of applications, including
1. Robotics
2. Machine tools
3. Aerospace and defence
4. Industrial automation
5. Electric vehicle
6. Textile machinery
7. Printing press
8. Semiconductor manufacturing
9. Elevators and escalators
10. Food and beverage processing etc

3.6.2 APPLICATIONS OF DC SERVOMOTOR

DC servo motors are commonly used in a wide range of applications, including
1. Machine Tool
2. Antenna Positioning
3. Packaging
4. Woodworking
5. Textiles
6. Printing
7. Rope/Twine manufacturing
8. Co-ordinate measuring machines (CMM)
9. Floor polishing
10. Material Handling

11. Door Opening

12. X-Y table

13. Wafer spinning

14. Medical equipment

Applied Electrical and Electronics 10

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

3.6.3 APPLICATIONS OF PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR

Permanent magnet stepper motors are commonly used in a wide range of applications, including
1. 3D printing equipment
2. Textile machines
3. Printing presses
4. Gaming machines
5. Medical imaging machinery
6. Small robotics
7. CNC milling machines
8. Welding equipment
3.6.4 APPLICATIONS OF BRUSHLESS SERVO MOTOR
Brushless servo motors are commonly used in a wide range of applications, including,
1. Robots,
2. Pick-and-place equipment,
3. Semiconductor fabrication,
4. Test and packaging equipment,
5. Machine tool axes
6. BBQ Grill Making machine
7. On the fly welder
8. Rotary Indexer
9. Labelling machine
10. Capsule filling machine
11. Rotary tube cutting

3.7 TRANSDUCER

A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form (physical form) to another
(Electrical). The process of converting energy from one form to another is known as transduction.

Fig: 3.9 Transducer

Applied Electrical and Electronics 11

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

3.8 CLASSIFICATIONS OF TRANSDUCERS

Transducers are classified into several types. They are,
1. Classification on the basis of transduction principle used.
2. Active and passive transducers
3. Analog and digital transducers
4. Primary and secondary transducers
5. Transducers and inverse transducers.
1. Classification on the Basis of Transduction Principle Used

This classification is done depending on the transduction principle i.e., how the input variable is being
converted into capacitance, resistance and inductance values. They are named as capacitive transducer,
resistive transducer and inductive transducer respectively.

2. Active and Passive Transducers:

Active Transducer: The transducer which does not requires any external excitation to provide their
outputs are referred as active transducer.

Passive Transducer: The transducer which requires an external excitation to provide their output is
referred as passive transducer.

3. Analog and Digital Transducers:

Analog Transducer: The transducer which produces their outputs in analog form or a form which is a
continuous function of time is referred as analog transducer.

Digital Transducer: The transducer which produces their outputs in digital form or a form of pulses is
referred as digital transducers.

4. Primary and Secondary Transducers:

Primary Transducer: The transducer which sends the measurement and converts them into another
variables (like displacement, strain etc.) and whose output forms the input of another transducer is called
as primary transducer.

Secondary Transducer The transducer which converts the output of first transducer into an electrical
output called secondary transducer.

5. Transducers and Inverse Transducers:

Transducers : A measuring device which measures and converts nonelectrical variable into electrical
variable is known as transducer

Inverse Transducer: A measuring device which measures and converts an electrical variable into
nonelectrical variable is known as inverse transducer.

Applied Electrical and Electronics 12

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

3.9 APPLICATIONS OF TRANSDUCERS

1. Classification on the basis of transduction principle used:

Example: Piezoelectric Transducer

Application: Piezoelectric transducers are widely used in various applications such as:
1. Ultrasound imaging in medical diagnostics
2. Gas ignition systems in household appliances
3. Vibration sensors for structural health monitoring
4. Acoustic transmitters in underwater communication systems

2. Active and passive transducers:

Example of Active Transducer: Thermocouple

Application:. They are commonly used for Temperature measurement in
1. Industrial processes,
2. HVAC systems, and
3. Electronic devices.
Example of Passive Transducer: Strain Gauge
Application: They are used for measuring strain in structures such as
1. Bridges,
2. Buildings, and
3. Aircraft components to monitor structural integrity and performance.
3. Analog and digital transducers:
Example of Analog Transducer: Thermistor
Application: They are used in temperature sensing applications such as
1. Automotive engine management systems,
2. Climate control systems, and
3. Medical devices.
Example of Digital Transducer: Optical Encoder
Application: They are used in

1. Robotics,

2. CNC machines, and

3. Motion control systems for precise position feedback.

Applied Electrical and Electronics 13

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

4. Primary and secondary transducers:

Example of Primary Transducer: Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
Application: Bourdon tube pressure gauges are primary transducers used for measuring fluid pressure in
various industrial processes, such as
1. Manufacturing,
2. Chemical processing, and
3. Oil and gas production.
Example of Secondary Transducer: LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
Application: LVDTs are secondary transducers commonly used for position sensing in applications such as
1. Automotive suspension systems,
2. Hydraulic cylinders, and
3. Aircraft flight control systems.
5. Transducers and inverse transducers:
Example of Transducer: Microphone
Application: They are used in
1. Audio recording,
2. Telecommunications, and
3. Public address systems.
Example of Inverse Transducer: Loudspeaker
Application: They are used in
1. Audio playback systems,
2. Public address systems, and
3. Entertainment venues.

3.10 SENSORS

A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical environment. The
input can be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure or any number of other environmental phenomena.

Types of Sensors

1. Position Sensors.

2. Pressure Sensors.
3. Temperature Sensors.
4. Force Sensors.
Fig 3.10 Various sensors

Applied Electrical and Electronics 14

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

5. Vibration Sensors.
6. Piezo Sensors.
7. Fluid Property Sensors.
8. Humidity Sensors.

3.11 APPLICATIONS OF SENSORS

1. The sensors are used in Aerospace for different purposes.
2. They are used in Automotive.
3. They are used in different types of measuring instruments.
4. Sensors are used in Theft alarms and fire alarms.
5. They are used in Electronics devices.
6. They are used in environmental monitoring.
7. They are used in health care.
8. They are used in manufacturing process.
9. They are used in Logistics.

3.12 NEED FOR AUTOMATION

Automation plays a crucial role in various aspects of modern life and business, providing numerous
benefits across different sectors. Some of the key reasons for the growing need for automation.
1. Cost Reduction.
2. Increased Productivity.
3. High Availability.
4. Increased Reliability.
5. Optimized Performance.
3.12.1 Advantages for Automation

1. Increased competitiveness, sales and profit.

2. No labour crisis.
3. Increase production capacity.
4. Compliance consistency.
5. Improved working environment.

3.13 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC )

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is an industrial computer that
has been ruggedized and adapted for the control of manufacturing processes, such as assembly lines.
Machines, robotic devices, or any activity that requires high reliability, ease of programming, and process
fault diagnosis.

Applied Electrical and Electronics 15

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

Fig:3.11 Block Diagram of PLC

3.13.1Advantages of PLC
Various advantages of PLC are
1. Flexibility
2. Reliability
3. Scalability
4. Real-Time Operation
5. Integration
6. Diagnostics
7. Programming
8. Cost Effective
9. Communication Abilities
10. Safety Features

Applied Electrical and Electronics 16

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

3.13.2 Applications of PLC

1. PLC uses for the Smart Grid power system.

2. Used in the Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution System.
3. In the Power Substation, PLC can use the Auto Assembly Line System.
4. Some Electrical Equipment (like Circuit Breaker Tripping, Capacitor Switching) can be
automatically operated with PLC.
5. To detect a Single-Phase or Three-Phase Sequence
6. Temperature Control or Humidity control.
7. Fault Detection and Protection of Industrial Machines like an Induction Motor.

QUESTION BANK

I. Short Answers Questions

1. List the types of Servo motors

2. List any six applications of servo motors in industries

3. List any six applications of AC Servo motor.

4. List any six applications of DC Servo motor.

5. List any six applications of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor.

6. List any six applications of Brushless servo motor.

7. List the applications of Transducers.

8. List the applications of sensors.

9. State the advantages of automation.

10 State the applications of PLC.

II. Essay type questions

1. Explain the working principle of permanent magnet stepper motor

2. Explain the working principle of AC Servo motor.

3. Explain the working principle of DC Servo motor.

4. Define Transducers and Classification of Transducers write its applications.

5. Define PLC Write Advantages and Disadvantages of PLC.

Applied Electrical and Electronics 17

Special Purpose Machines and Measuring Instruments

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. A Text Book Of Electrical Engineering And Electronics : BLTheraja

2. Principles Of Electrical Engineering And Electronics : VK Mehta
3. Basic Electrical And Electronics Engineering : DP Kothari &Ij Nagrath
4. A Text Book Of Electrical Engineering : JB Gupta
5. A Text Book Of Electrical Engineering : BLTheraja& AK Theraja
6. Electric Motors And Drives : Austin Hughes

DIGITAL INFORMATION
Topic QR Code

1. What is a Servo Motor and How it Works?

2. How does a Stepper Motor work?

3. What is transducer and classifications?

4. What is PLC ?Advantages and disadvantages of PLC

-----------

Applied Electrical and Electronics 18