UNIT IV

Optical properties of Materials

Introduction:
The materials which are sensitive to the light are called optical materials.
Types of optical materials:
1. Transparent materials:
Materials which allow light with little absorption and refelection are called transparent materials.
Eg:Glass
2.Opaque materials:
Materials which does not allow light through them are called opaque materials.
Eg:Wood
3. Translucent materials:
Materials which allow only small amount of light are called translucent materials.
Eg:Plastic cover
Carrier Generation And Recombination
Definition: The process of creating electron
electron-hole
hole pair is called carrier generation
Types:
• Photo generation
• Phonon generation
• Impact ionization
Photo Generation
In this Light photon
oton is absorbed by an electron
electron, then the electron moves from valence bandto
conduction band to produce electron hole pair. Figure shows the absorption of light of energy
hγ.Here
.Here the energy of photon is greater than the energy gap of the semiconductor
Conduction band Ec

Light energy hhγ

Ev

Photo Generation

Phonon Regeneration
When the temperature of the semiconductor is increased ,lattice vibration is increased. Then the
covalent bond breaks and electron hole pair is created.

Phonon Regeneration
Impact Ionization
When an electric field is applied to a semiconductor an electron gain energy. Then it hits other Si
atom to break the covalent bond. Thus electron hole pair is created. For a very high electric field,
an avalanche breakdown occurs.

ImpactaIonization

Carrier Recombination
When a free electron in the conduction band falls to valence band and recombine with a hole to
produce light it is called Recombination.
Types:
• Radiative Recombination
• Shockley read hall Recombination
• Auger Recombination
Radiative Recombination
Electrons in higher energy states of conduction band will move to lowest level of
conduction band by emitting heat. From this lowest level they fall to valence to emit light. This is
called direct recombination.It is produced in direct band gap semiconductor.(GaAs)

Radiative Recombination

Schockley-Read-Hall Recombination
Electrons from conduction band move to intermediate level between E c and Ev by emitting
photon or phonon. From this level they move to valence band to emit photon. It is produced
in impure semiconductor which has defect.

Schockley-Read-Hall Recombination
 Auger Recombination
In this ,first an elecron and hole recombine with each other to produce light. This light is
given to an electron in Ec and it moves to highest level of conduction band. From this it moves
to Ec by emitting heat. Then it returns to Ev to produce light.

AugeraRecombination

Absorption In Semiconductors , Insulators And Metals

Absorption in Semi conductor:
In intrinsic semi conductors light energy is absorbed to produce electron hole pair. Electrons
can go to conduction band if the photon energy is greater than the band gap energy. That is hυ >E g

Absorption

For extrinsic semiconductor , electron transition is between donor and conduction

band in n type semiconductor and for p type it is between acceptor and valence band

Absorption & emission in semiconductors

So visible light is not absorbed by materials having energy greater than 3.1ev
Emission:
When the electron moves from conduction band to valence band they emit light.
Absorption and emission of light in metals
Absorption
Incident light will be absorbed when the thickness of metal film is less than 0.1µm.

Absorption and emission in metals

Metals are opaque to radio waves,infra red visible and middle of uv radiation. It is transparent to x-
rays and gamma rays.Thus elctron absorbs and move to higher energy state.
Emission:
Most of the absorbed radiation is emitted from the surface in the form of visible
light.Reflectivity of metals is between 0.9 to 0 .95.

Absorption and emission in Insulators

Absorption:
In Insulator, an electron can move from valence band to conduction band if the energy of
absorbed light is greater than the band gap energy

Absorption and emission in insulators

Emission:
When the electron moves from conduction band to valence band they emit light.

Photo Current In PN Diode

It is reversed biased P-N junction diode which responds to light radiation Light ( hυ)
Principle:
When light is incident on the reversed biased P-N junction the concentration of minority
carriers increases. Thus it increases the reverse current.
 P Jn N

+ + + - + - - --
- + + - + + - --
- + + - + - + --

- +
PN junction diode (reversed biased)
Construction:
It consists of P-N junction diode which is placed in a transparent capsule. Light is allowed to
fall on the surface of the junction as shown in fig.a. The symbol is shown in the below fig.b

(a) Photo diode diode (b) Symbol

Working:
Initially the diode is placed in a dark room and reversed biased. It produces a reverse
saturation current due to thermally generated minority carriers.It is called dark current(Id). Now the
light is allowed to fall on the junction to produce electron hole pair. This produces an additional
current.
Under reverse bias condition
Total current I=Is+Id
Is -Short circuit current and is proportional to intensity of light.
Voltage current characteristics(V-I)
The volt ampere characteristics of the photo diode is shown in the fig
(i) The current increases with the illumination of light.
(ii) Only for dark current at zero voltage the current Is zero.

V-I characteristics
Applications:
It is Used in 1.Light detection system
2.Reading of sound track in film
3.light operated switches.
4.High speed reading of computer
 Solar cell
It is a P-N junction diode which coverts solar energy (light energy) into electrical energy.
Construction
It consists of P-N junction diode made of Silicon The P-N diode is packed in a can with
glass window on top such that light may fall upon P and N type materials. The thickness of the P-
region is kept very small. Therefore, electrons generated in P region can diffuse to the junction
before recombination takes place. The thickness of N region is also kept small to allow holes
generated near the surface to diffuse to the junction before they recombine. The nickel ring is
provided around the P-layer which acts as the positive output terminal. A metal contact at the
bottom serves as the negative output terminal.

Solar cell

Working
When light radiation from sun falls on the P-N junction diode, produce electron hole pair.
Thus, electron hole pairs are generated in both P and N sides of the junction. The majority
carrier electrons in the P-side cross the barrier potential to reach N side and the holes in N-
side move to the P-side (Fig. b). Their flow constitutes the minority current. The electrons
and holes are accumulated on the two sides of the junction. This leads to an open circuit
voltage Voc which is a function of illumination.

Energy band
 V-I Characteristics
The V-I characteristics of the solar cell, corresponding to different levels of illumination is
shown in figure. The maximum power output is obtained when the solar cell is opened at the knee
of the curve.

V-I characteristics
Advantages of Solar Energy
● Renewable Energy Source. Among all the benefits of solar panels, the most important thing is
that solar energy is a truly renewable energy source.
● Reduces Electricity Bills.
● Diverse Applications.
● Low Maintenance Costs.
● Technology Development.
Disadvantages
● Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce than conventional sources of energy
● Solar power is a variable energy source, with energy production dependent on the sun.

Light emitting diode

It is a p-n junction diode which emits light when it is forward biased.
Principle
The injection of electrons into the p-region from n-region makes direct transition from the
conduction band to valance band. Then, the electrons recombine with holes and emits photons of
energy Eg,
The forbidden gap energy is given by Eg = hv
where h – Plank’s constant
v- Frequency of the emitted radiation.
But v = c/λ
where c – velocity of the light
λ - wave length of the light
∴ Eg = (hc) / λ
Hence, the wave length of the emitted photon is given by the relation
λ = (hc) / Eg
The wave length of the light emitted purely depends on the band gap energy.

Symbol
 Construction
Figure shows cross section view of a LED.

LED

A n-type
type layer is grown on a substrate and a pp-type
type layer is deposited on it by diffusion.
Since carrier recombination takes place in the pp-layer
layer , it is deposited on the top. For
maximum light emission, a metal film anode is deposited at the outer edges of the p- p type
layer. The bottom of the substrate is coated with a metal (gold) film. It reflects most of the
light to the surface of the device and also provides cath cathode
ode connection. Figure shows
circuit and symbol of LED.
Working
When the p-nn junction diode is forward biased, the barrier width is reduced, raising the
potential energy on the n-side
side and lowering that of the p-side. The free electrons and holes have
sufficient energy to move into the junction region. If a free electron meets a hole, it recombines
with each other resulting in the release of a light photon. Thus, light radiation from LED is caused
by the recombination of holes and electrons that are injected into the junction by a forward bias
voltage(Fig.).

Energy band

Advantages of LED Lights

● Long life. The components of an LED and the way that they generate light
significantly extend the lifespan of these bulbs.
● Energy efficiency.
● High brightness and intensity.
● Exceptional color range.
● Low radiated heat.
● Reliability.
ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
Construction
Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) are solid state devices made up of thin films or
organic molecules that produce light with the application of electricity. The organic light emitting
diode (OLED) is also called light emitting polymer (LEP) or Organic Electro Luminescence (OEL)
and it consists of a film of organic compounds. Specially fabricated diode which is made up of organic
materials which emits light when it is forward biased. It consists of two layers. One is emissive layer
and another one is conductive layer. Both are made of organic molecules. It has Metal cathode above
emissive layer and anode below conductive layer.

OLED

Working
An organic film is contacted by a metal electrodes on both sides. When a voltage is applied,
positive charges (holes) are injected into the organic material (conducting layer) from one contact. The
negative charges (electrons) are injected from the other side into emissive layer. When two different
charge carriers meet, they recombine each other produce energy in the form of light photon
Types of OLEDs
(i) PLED
(ii) POLED
(iii) TOLED
(iv) SOLED
(v) IOLED

(i) PLED: Polymer Light Emitting Diodes (PLED) involve an electroluminescent conductive
polymer that emits light when it is subjected to an electric current. POLED
(ii) POLED: Patternable Organic Light Emitting Device (POLED) uses a light or heat activated
electro active layer.
iii) TOLED: Transparent Organic Light Emitting Device (TOLED) uses a transparent contact to
create displays.
iv) SOLED: Stacked OLED (SOLED) uses an ovel pixel architecture that is based on
stacking the red, green and blue subpixels on top of one another.
v) IOLED: Inverted OLED (IOLED) uses a bottom cathode that can be connected to the
drain end of n-channel TFT.
LASER Diodes(GaAs) Characteristics
Active medium - P-N junction diode
Active centre - Recombination of electrons and holes
Pumping method - Direct pumping
Optical Resonator - Junction of diodes – polished
Power output - 1 mW
Nature of output - Pulsed or Continuous waveform
Wavelength - 8400A0 – 8600A0
Band gap - 1.44 eV
Principle:
The electron in conduction band combines with a hole in the valence band and hence the
recombination of electron and hole produces energy in the form of light. This photon, in turn may
induce another electron in the conduction band (CB) to valence band(VB) and thereby stimulate the
emissionaofaanotheraphoton.

(a) semiconductor laser principle,(b)Emission of photon

Construction:

Laser Diode

The active medium is a p-n junction diode made from a single crystalline material i.e.
Gallium Arsenide in which p-region is doped with germanium and n-region with Tellurium. The
thickness of the p-n junction layer is very narrow so that the emitted laser radiation has large
divergence. The junctions of the ‘p’ and ‘n’ are well polished and are parallel to each other as
shown in figure. Since the refractive index of GaAs is high, it acts as optical resonator so that the
external mirrors are not needed. The upper and lower electrodes fixed in the ‘p’ and ‘n’ region
helps for the flow of current to the diode while biasing.
 Working

Energy band diagram

1. The population inversion in a p-n junction is achieved by heavily doping ‘p’ and ‘n’ materials, so
that the Fermi level lies within the conduction band of n type and within the valence band of ‘p’
type as shown in figure.
2. If, the junction is forward biased with an applied voltage nearly equal to the band gap voltage,
direct conduction takes place. Due to high current density, active region is generated near the
depletion region.
3. At this junction, if a radiation having frequency (v) is made to incident on the p-n junctionthen
the photon emission is produced as shown in figure.
4. Thus the frequency of the incident radiation should be in the range
5. Further, the emitted photons increase the rate of recombination of injection electrons from the n
region and holes in p region by inducing more recombination.
6. Hence the emitted photons have the same phase and frequency as that of original
inducingphotons and will be amplified to get intense beam of LASER.
7. The wavelength of emitted radiation depends on i) the band gap and ii) the concentration ofdonor
and acceptor atoms in GaAs.
Advantages
i) It is easy to manufacture the diode.
ii) The cost is low.

Disadvantages
i) It produces low power output.
ii) The output wave is pulsed and will be continuous only for some time.
iii) The beam has large divergence.
iv) They have high threshold current density.

Applications
1. It is widely used in fibre optic communications
2. It is used to heal the wounds by IR radiation.
3. I t is also used as a pain killer.
4. It is used in printers, CD writing and reading.