INTRODUCTION

Dimethyl ether (DME) is a clean-burning, harmless chemically synthesised syngas with

properties that are similar to those of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), therefore it can be used
to replace LPG in the transportation and home sectors with minimal changes of present
technology(Im-orb and Piroonlerkgul 2023). The DME is an intriguing potential fuel for
engine types with IC due to its ability to burn feature near-zero emission of particles which is
affected by the chemical structure CH3OCH3 and an oxygen weight percentage of around 35
wt.%(Lim 2022). DME has a high cetane number with cleaner burning properties(Gor, Mali
and Joshi 2020; Peinado et al. 2020), making it efficiently atomized. This benefit is essential
for combustion processes like homogeneous compression charge ignition(Lim 2022).

The excessive use of oil-based fuels for transportation is one of the main contributors of rapid
petroleum shortages, which causes serious issues with the environment(Azizi et al. 2014).
These challenges have led to the development of clean, non-petroleum-based alternative
transportation fuels(Tokay, Dogu and Dogu 2012; Azizi et al. 2014). In the past few years,
the application of dimethyl ether (DME) as a viable diesel alternative utilised in compression
ignition engines has received substantial attention(Azizi et al. 2014).

The DME can be achieved through several technologies that can be classified into direct and
indirect methods(Gor, Mali and Joshi 2020). The direct approach includes the production of
DME from syngas(Gor, Mali and Joshi 2020). Syngas can be manufactured from various
kinds of feedstocks, such as natural gas, coal, and biomass, which is hydrogenated to
produce methanol and methanol dehydrates to produce DME using bi-functional
catalyst(Gor, Mali and Joshi 2020). Crude and pure methanol over acid catalyst undergoes
dehydration reaction to produce DME in the indirect method(Gor, Mali and Joshi 2020).

Another promising technique is reactive distillation, which combines the reaction and
separation processes into one unit, resulting in a more effective and inexpensive approach to
manufacturing DME(Gor, Mali and Joshi 2020). However, for the purposes of this feasibility
investigation the indirect synthesis technique with methanol as the major feedstock will be
employed in DME production. This choice is based on the ability and established
characteristic of methanol synthesis processes, as well as the high conversion efficiency of
methanol dehydration to DME. Furthermore, the use of methanol supplies greater feedstock
flexibility as it can be derived from a range of sources such as natural gas, coal, and
biomass(Shamsul et al. 2017).

Project Scope
The purpose of this study is to undertake a detailed technical and economic feasibility study
for the design and operation of a dimethyl ether (DME) production plant with a capacity of
15,000 metric tonnes per year and a product purity of 99.0 mol% from methanol feedstock.
The study will evaluate the process design, equipment sizing, operational parameters, raw
material supply chain, regulatory compliance, environmental impacts, risk mitigation
strategies, and profitability to ensure that the plant can efficiently produce high-quality DME
while adhering to safety standards and running 330 days per year, allowing maintenance and
potential shutdowns. The plant will be situated in Bethel in Mpumalanga Province, South
Africa.

Objectives
This feasibility study primary goals are:

 To examine the technical feasibility of using a methanol feedstock to produce 15,000

metric tonnes of 99.0 mol% pure dimethyl ether (DME) annually, considering
equipment sizing, process optimisation, and unit operating design.
 To investigate raw material supply chain and regulatory environment to guarantee
feedstock security and compliance.
 To identify the project's possible risks and come up with suitable mitigation techniques
while taking the project's potential effects on the environment, safety risks, and market
uncertainties into considerations.
 To thoroughly evaluate DME production's environmental impact and assess its
sustainability with that of conventional fuels.
 To evaluate the planned DME production plant's economic viability in terms of capital
investment, operational expenses, predicted revenue, and financial indicators.

Methodology
This study is based on an elaborate approach to show the basis for the feasibility study on a
dimethyl ether (DME) production plant. The technical feasibility evaluation involves finding
the most suitable feedstock as well as developing a process flow diagram with material and
energy balances. Furthermore, a completely controlled Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
(P&ID) will be developed to ensure safe and efficient operation. Several processing methods
will be evaluated and compared based on key performance indicators including technology,
environmental, and economic considerations. This initiative study provides the basis for an
in-depth examination of the plant's viability by outlining the scope, process design, and
effectiveness comparison of several alternatives.
Literature review
Production of DME Process
Dimethyl Ether is manufactured in a wide range of techniques, namely an indirect and
direct process. However, there are aspects influencing production that will be discussed in
detail. These qualities include water removal, system temperature, space velocity, and
operation pressure. Major techniques or procedures have been developed to improve DME
synthesis methods and the catalysts used. The manufacturing of dimethyl ether using an acid
zeolite catalyst is studied from many sources to see how the system performs(Azizi et al.
2014).

Choice of Feedstock
Selection of a suitable feedstock is a crucial step in the design of a successful dimethyl ether
(DME) manufacturing process(Fortin et al. 2020). Dimethyl ether can be manufactured
directly by dehydrating methanol over a solid acid catalyst(Khom-in et al. 2008a). There are
other feedstocks that can be utilized to produce DME such as natural gas; coal and biomass-
derived syngas(Mendez 2016; Peinado et al. 2020). For feedstock choice, things that will be
considered are technology, economic and environmental indicators.

Coal as Feedstock

Coal is a low-cost fossil fuel currently mined worldwide for purposes such as electricity
generation, steel production, and the cement industry(Masudi, Jusoh and Muraza 2020). Coal
vulnerability prices in the future due to economic fluctuations could be addressed by
establishing a more complex design(Wang et al. 2017; Masudi, Jusoh and Muraza 2020).
Transporting coal is easier in industries as it doesn’t need pipeline like natural gas and oil that
requires pipeline(Masudi, Jusoh and Muraza 2020). The problem of utilizing in coal is related
to its dangerous emissions which consist of greenhouse gases(Masudi, Jusoh and Muraza
2020).

Production of DME from coal involves coal gasification to syngas, syngas purification and
DME synthesis and DME purification, the process steps are shown in Figure 1. There are
two routes of DME synthesis which include indirect and direct approach to DME.
Gasification is the process of converting carbon-based materials into syngas, through a series
of complex chemical reactions(Matamba, Iglauer and Keshavarz 2022). Matamba et al.
(2022) investigated coal gasification and found that the efficient operation of gasification and
the composition of the resulting syngas are determined by factors such as feed the substance,
gasifying agent, and operational parameters, which ultimately affect the syngas's heating
value as well as potential functions(Matamba, Iglauer and Keshavarz 2022).
Figure 1: Illustration diagram to produce Dimethyl Ether using coal.

DME derived from coal can be utilised as a clean-burning fuel, propellant, or feedstock for
the manufacturing of chemicals and materials. In contrast, the coal-to-DME operation can be
requiring energy and may have negative environmental effects such as emissions of
greenhouse gases, depending on the process's efficiency and emission reduction
mechanisms(Dai et al. 2023).

Syngas as a feedstock

Dimethyl ether can be produced using an indirect technique or directly from syngas in the
direct synthesis of DME using Cu based catalyst and acid catalyst(Peinado et al. 2020). The
reactions illustrated below are involved in the synthesis of DME from syngas(Peinado et al.
2020):

CO+ 2 H 2 ↔C H 3 OH Reaction 1

CO 2+ 3 H 2 ↔CH 3 OH + H 2 O Reaction 2

CO+ H 2 O ↔ H 2 +CO 2 Reaction 3

2 CH 3 OH ↔ CH 3 OC H 3 + H 2 O Reaction 4

The reactions illustrated above involve synthesis of methanol from syngas methanol in the
presence of Cu/ZnO/ A l 2 O3 catalysts(Rafiee 2020) and methanol dehydration to produce
DME using γ − A l 2 O3catalysts(Peinado et al. 2020; Rafiee 2020). Methanol synthesis and
dehydration takes place in different reactors under different reaction conditions in indirect
approach, while in the direct approach both reactions takes place in one reactor.(Peinado et
al. 2020). The direct technique is easier, and it has been said that the range of sources and
procedures via which syngas can be created gives this direct synthesis economic benefit(Sun
et al. 2014; Peinado et al. 2020).

Ham et al. (2015) studied the production of DME direct synthesis of syngas and reported
lower DME productivity than two step procedure(Ham et al. 2015; Peinado et al. 2020). It
was also reported that the reaction conditions are critical for the DME production from
syngas(Peinado et al. 2020). The syngas to DME process is very exothermic, hence the
temperature is required to be properly regulated(Azizi et al. 2014). The presence of CO2 in
syngas leads to an over reduction of Cu particles, which in turn negatively affects the activity
of catalyst(Peinado et al. 2020).

According to Qin You et al. (2009) the economic viability of DME synthesis from syngas
serves as a challenge due to the water-gas shifting reaction, which requires an adequate
amount of CO in order to generate CO2 and hydrogen(You et al. 2009). The syngas process
for DME synthesis is highly energy-intensive and releases greenhouse gases(You et al.
2009). Additionally, the separation method for high purity DME is more complicated as a
result of the inclusion of unreacted syngas and CO2 developed during a single-step synthesis
operation(Peinado et al. 2020). Production of DME from biomass-derived syngas is
expensive as it requires the pretreatment of syngas before being used for DME(Wild et al.
2021).

Methanol Dehydration

Methanol (CH3OH) is an essential alcohol that plays an exclusive function in the chemical
world due to its strong C-H and O-H bonds(Bakhtyari et al. 2021). This alcohol is a
transparent, colorless liquid(Meunier et al. 2020; Bakhtyari et al. 2021). The technique for
producing MeOH from coal and natural gas is improving. Bio-MeOH, or MeOH produced
from wood and biomass sources, is a renewable resource for the synthesis of chemicals and
fuels(Bakhtyari et al. 2021).

One source for producing DME, a clean energy carrier, is bio-MeOH(Shamsul et al. 2017;
Bakhtyari et al. 2021). Methanol has high hydrogen-carbon ratio which plays crucial role to
higher DME production yield. The conversion of methanol to DME via dehydration of
methanol in the presence of γ − A l 2 O3 catalyst is viable process in terms of thermodynamics
and economic perspectives(Yaripour et al. 2005; Khom-in et al. 2008a). The following
stoichiometry describes the exothermic process of MeOH dehydration and its conversion to
DME, which is typically carried out in the 250–400 °C temperature range and at pressures up
to 70 bar(Tokay, Dogu and Dogu 2012; Bakhtyari et al. 2021).

2 C H 3 OH ↔CH 3 OC H 3 + H 2 O Reaction 5

Selected Feedstock: Methanol

The feedstock that will be used for production of DME is methanol having 1% water.
Methanol is proposed for this process due to several factors it offers in terms of availability,
conversion and environmental impacts(Giuliano et al. 2019).

Methanol can be manufactured by a wide range of fuels, such as natural gas, coal, biomass,
and renewable resources like carbon dioxide and hydrogen(Giuliano et al. 2019; Putrasari
and Lim 2021). The broad availability provides a consistent supply of methanol as a
feedstock for DME synthesis. In addition, methanol tends to be more affordable than other
alternative feedstocks, making it a profitable choice(Bakhtyari et al. 2021).

Methanol dehydration to DME is an effective technology with high conversion

rate(Bakhtyari et al. 2021). The direct synthesis of DME from methanol is a one-step
procedure that is simpler to perform and cheaper than indirect synthesis approaches(Khom-in
et al. 2008b). Utilizing methanol obtained from sustainable sources, such as bio-methanol,
can greatly reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions related with DME production(Kim
et al. 2017; Bakhtyari et al. 2021). Methanol has high hydrogen-carbon ratio which plays
crucial role to higher DME production yield(Khom-in et al. 2008b). The process of
converting methanol into DME is a well-developed technology, with industrial reactor
designs and tested catalysts available(Peinado et al. 2020).

Applications of DME
The important role of DME occurs when evaluating its use as a fuel substitute for diesel
automobiles and trucks due to its less severe environmental consequences(Azizi et al. 2014).
Many countries are developing trucks powered by DME. DME has three important industrial
applications. Primarily, it is used as an enhance for propane in cooking gas, secondly, as a
propellant for aerosol spray can solvent, and thirdly, for power generation(Dai et al. 2023).

Environmental Impacts of DME Fuel

Figure 2: DME Fuel gas emissions(Putrasari and Lim 2021).

NOx Emissions
The engine requirements, the fuel distribution system, and the engine's using factors,
including the combustion strategy, all have a significant impact on how much emissions are
created by a DME-powered fuel system. When DME fuels are used instead of regular fuel in
ship diesel, emission levels of NOx tend to be lower for several of reasons. DME has a larger
latent heat capacity, reduced heating value, and higher-octane number than diesel
fuel(Peinado et al. 2020), which reduces NOx emissions(Azizi et al. 2014; Im-orb and
Piroonlerkgul 2023).

According to Kim et al. (2018) DME combustion can create fewer NOx emissions than diesel
fuel ignition under the same diffusion time circumstances, even if DME produces less NOx
particles with the same heat flow rate (Kim et al. 2008). However, there are articles that show
that emissions of nitrogen oxides tend to rise when using DME fuel than diesel fuel due to the
short igniting delay time under the same power consumption conditions(Rafiee 2020;
Matamba, Iglauer and Keshavarz 2022).
PM Emissions
PM is known for producing soot in fuel-rich places under high intensity and high
temperatures (1500-2500K)(Mostaghimi and Behnamian 2023). DME does not easily
synthesize compounds such as acetylene when burned because it lacks C-C bonds and only
has 34.8% of the weight of oxygen. It has been proved that the incorporation of oxygen in the
molecule reduces soot formation during the process of combustion of DME(Wang et al.
2017).

Under high pressure diesel conditions, DME produces far fewer solids (0.026%) than other
fuels such as diesel (0.51%), biodiesel (0.52%), and compressed natural gas (0.30%). Due to
the consumption of additives to improve lubrication, there were occasional small PM
emissions during DME combustion. However, when DME is burned, minimal soot is
generated. This suggests that the after-treatment system for DME-fueled engines will not
require a particle filter(Putrasari and Lim 2021).

HC emissions
DME combustion produces HC emissions that are typically lower than or comparable to
those produced by diesel fuel burning. It is caused by incomplete fuel-air mixing or partial or
unburned fuel in fuel-rich environments(Kim et al. 2008; Putrasari and Lim 2021). DME has
a higher octane number than diesel and better evaporation, atomization, and mixing
properties, which reduces the ignition delayed of DME compared to diesel, resulting in lower
HC emissions from DME fuel combustion versus diesel fuel combustion(Kim et al. 2008;
Im-orb and Piroonlerkgul 2023). And due to the abundance of oxygen, the DME molecule
has significantly smaller fuel areas, lowering HC emissions. Additionally, DME has shorter
spray tip penetration and faster evaporation(Kim et al. 2008; Putrasari and Lim 2021).

Combustion Noise

The increase in pressure for DME during the pre-mixing process is slower than for diesel
because DME has a shorter ignition delay than diesel, reducing combustion noise.
Dimethyl ether appears to be an excellent, green, and efficient alternative fuel for diesel
engines(Masudi, Jusoh and Muraza 2020). DME can be produced anywhere using materials
that are renewable such as municipal trash, biomass (forest products and animal waste), pulp
and paper waste, coal, and so on, as opposed to traditional diesel, which is made from non-
renewable crude oil(Putrasari and Lim 2021). DME emits fewer nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons, particles, and carbon monoxide than conventional diesel, which is beneficial.
In addition, using DME as a fuel result in a significant reduction in combustion noise. Both
biodiesel and conventional petroleum fuels can benefit from DME(Dai et al. 2023).
Waste management.
Waste management focuses on mitigation and reduction, re-use, recycling, recovery,
treatment and disposal, and legal compliance. It is critical to build a production system that
produces minimal waste as workable(Mostaghimi and Behnamian 2023). It is essential to
separate raw materials and products, and if possible, reutilize the raw materials for other
operations(Czekała, Drozdowski and Łabiak 2023). Product purification to minimize waste
impact on the environment is a significant aspect of designing a production plant(Putrasari
and Lim 2021).

When handling pressure-sensitive products, it is essential to employ pipelines and pressure-

resistant equipment. No work may be done on pressurized equipment. Implementation of
non-return valves for pipeline use is advised. Gases can promptly cause asphyxiation due to a
lack of oxygen. In case of a leak, the tank valve must be turned off and the system vented
following all worldwide, federal/national, state/local, and municipality legislation(Seaberg
2018). The container must be positioned so that it does not contact an electrical part. To
reduce methanol waste, a recycle stream is used, as well as a distillation column for
MeOH purification.

Proposed Process
The method of producing DME with a high-temperature reaction utilizing the catalyst ᵧ-
Al2O3 is proposed. The ᵧ- Al2O3 catalyst has been selected for its demonstrated
effectiveness in industrial processes, as seen by its high acceptance rate. Additionally, the
heat of reaction speeds up the process while minimizing catalyst degradation risk. Upon
selecting a catalyst, the approach for using it was revised(Seaberg 2018).

The synthesis process involves an adiabatic packed bed that produces a mixed output of
water; DME and unreacted methanol, which is then transferred to a series distillation column
for purification(Rafiee 2020). In the first distillation column, DME is separated from
methanol and water as a distillate and sent to a blending machine for lubrication before it is
transported to the truck filling. The bottom product of the first column is then fed to a second
distillation, which separates water from methanol(Putrasari and Lim 2021). The distilled
methanol stream is recycled back to the top of the process and fed to the reactor again,
decreasing waste and enhancing profit(Seaberg 2018).

Process Description
Process flow Diagram.

Figure 3: Represents the Process Flow Diagram for the production of DME from MeOH .
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Sample of calculations

Energy balance

Q=∆ H

∆ H =H out −H ¿

Around the reactor

To calculate enthalpy for inlet and outlet components

Temperature assumptions were done using thesis that was conducted by Galal et al. (2016)
(Galal Nasser 2016)

Tref = 25 ℃ at 1 atm T ¿=250 ℃ at 15.5 ¯¿

T bi T
H i=∫ C pi dT +∆ H vi +∫ C pi dT + V
^∆P
T ref T bi

2 3
C pi =a+bT +c T +d T

Heat capacity calculations:

For methanol

Methanol:
−3 −5
a=75.86 ×10 ; b=16.83 ×10 (liquid phase) Ref: elementary table B1
−3 −5 −8 −12
a=42.93 × 10 ; b=8.301× 10 ; c=−1.87 ×10 ; d=−8.03 ×10 (gas phase) Table B1

ρ=786.6 kg /m at 25 ℃
3

M Wmeth =32.04 kg /kmol

∆ H vmeth=35.27 kJ /mol Table B1

64.7 250
H vmeth = ∫ ( a+ bT ) dT +∆ H vmeth+ ∫ ( a+ bT + c T + d T ) dT + V^ ∆ P
2 3

25 64.7

[ ] [ ]
64.7 250
bT 2 bT 2 c T 3 d T 4 1
H meth= a+ + ∆ H vmeth + a+ + + + (P−P0 )
2 25 2 3 4 64.7 ρ

786.6 kg kmol 1000 mol 3

ρ= × × =245550.562 mol/m
m
3
32.04 kg 1 kmol

H meth=¿ ¿

H meth=47.85 kJ /mol

Enthalpy for water and DME were carried out using the same equations used for H meth and
full calculations are performed on excel spreadsheets.

Energy Balance Around DME Distillation Column

Assumptions:

 Reflux ratio = 3
  All input and output streams are liquids.
 Total condenser and partial reboiler.

Energy balance:

Ė k + Ė p + U̇=Q+W

˙ ˙
Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ḣ out −∑ ṅ ¿ Ḣ ¿

∑ ṅ¿ Ḣ ¿ =ni 1 H i 1 +ni 2 H i2 +n i3 H i 3

T
H i=∫ C pi dT + V
^∆P
T ref

Error: Reference source not found below shows calculated values for the DME distillation
column using the material balance; the below molar flowrates will be employed for the
energy balance around the first distillation column.
Table 1: Material Balance results for DME distillation column
Ԩ
Component Feed Bottom Distillate
Methanol 49,33 48,09 1,25
Water 123,33 123,33 0,00
DME 123,33 0,00 123,33
SUM 295,99 171,42 124,58

Material Balance around reboiler:

L
R= =3 eq1
D

From equation 1: L = 3D

V =L+ D eq2

Substituting L into 2

V =¿3(D)+D

V=
T
H i=∫ C pi dT + V
^∆P
T ref

H imeth =¿ ¿

38374.05 kJ
H imeth =
kmol
Enthalpy for water and DME were carried out using the same equations used for H meth and
full calculations are performed on excel spreadsheets.