How Do Voice
How Do Voice
How Do Voice
Abstract
This study investigates how voice characteristics (i.e., speech rate, loudness, pitch) affect interpretation purchases in digital
interpretation platforms through the lenses of signaling theory and nonverbal communication. Based on auditory and transac-
tional data from a leading digital interpretation platform in China, this study uses voice mining techniques to extract voice
characteristics and examine their effects on interpretation purchases. Findings demonstrate the significant positive effects of
speech rate and the significant inverted U-effects of loudness and pitch on interpretation purchases. This study thus extends
tourism interpretation research focused on traditional forms to digital interpretation platforms and provides empirical evi-
dence that nonverbal signals (voice characteristics) matter in tourism interpretation purchases. Findings also offer practical
implications for tourism interpretation innovation and platform operation.
Keywords
tourism digitalization, digital interpretation platforms, voice characteristics, voice mining, inverted U-effect
tourists’ knowledge, satisfaction, and revisit intentions (e.g., Bui et al., 2022; Filieri et al., 2021; S. Zhang et al.,
(Beattie & Schneider, 2018; Frı́as-Jamilena et al., 2022; 2022). However, limited tourism studies have focused on
Z. Huang et al., 2022; Kuo et al., 2018). Other studies auditory data and its quantitative analytics (Li et al.,
have identified essential antecedents of those responses, 2018). In this study, we use voice mining to extract voice
such as interpretation content, interpretation media, inter- characteristics from auditory data and explore how voice
preter characteristics, and tourist characteristics (Beattie & characteristics affect interpretation purchases.
Schneider, 2018; Z. Huang et al., 2022; Io, 2013; Poria
et al., 2009; Wolf et al., 2013). Those studies provide valu- Literature Review
able insights into traditional tourism interpretation forms
but limited references for interpretation purchases and digi-
Tourism Interpretation
tal interpretation platforms. For one, interpretation pur- Tilden (1977) regarded tourism interpretation as an edu-
chases in traditional tourism interpretation forms (e.g., cational activity aiming to reveal meaning and relation-
paid guided interpretation, rental fees of audio interpreta- ships. Following Tilden’s pioneering work, abundant
tion devices) have received little attention. Moreover, inter- studies have discussed the role of tourism interpretation.
pretation purchases in digital interpretation platforms are Some researchers regarded tour interpretation as an edu-
relevant to destination managers, platform operators, and cational activity (Tilden, 1977; Weng et al., 2020), enhan-
interpreters, which differs significantly from traditional cing tourist knowledge (Poria et al., 2009) and
interpretation purchases. For another, despite the impor- understanding (Tilden, 1977) of the site. Others suggested
tance of nonverbal communication in verbal interpretation tourism interpretation as a valuable communication tool
(Io, 2013), the roles of nonverbal signals (e.g., voice charac- between tourists and sites (Beattie & Schneider, 2018;
teristics) in tourism interpretation remain unexplored. Kuo et al., 2018), providing deep and meaningful infor-
Therefore, this study aims to explore the effects of voice mation about the places (Ballantyne et al., 2014; Y. S.
characteristics (i.e., speech rate, loudness, pitch) on inter- Cheng et al., 2019; Kuo et al., 2016).
pretation purchases in digital interpretation platforms. Tourism interpretation can be classified as non-
This study uses signaling theory as a theoretical lens. personal or interpersonal (Weng et al., 2020). Non-per-
Signaling theory is used to understand how individuals sonal interpretation refers to communication between
use signals to reduce information asymmetry (Spence, tourists and materials or devices, such as brochures and
1973). In buyer-seller relationships, information asymme- audio guides, whereas interpersonal interpretation
try is when buyers know less related information than involves face-to-face communication between tourists and
sellers (Fan et al., 2021). Information asymmetry is partic- on-site interpreters (Ballantyne et al., 2014; Weng et al.,
ularly evident in online and service contexts, preventing 2020). Tourism interpretation can also be classified as
customers from making appropriate choices (H. K. written or verbal forms (Zeppel & Muloin, 2008). Written
Cheng et al., 2020; Filieri et al., 2021). Thus, sellers con- forms include brochures, interpretation boards, on-site
sider using observable signals to provide product infor- interpretative signs, and other printed materials (Io &
mation for buyers to make decisions (Fang et al., 2021; Hallo, 2011). Verbal forms are based on verbal communi-
Ye et al., 2021). Digital interpretation platforms allow lis- cations, including human-guided interpretations and
tening to preview samples of audio interpretations. Thus, audio recordings (Sutcliffe & Kim, 2014). Verbal forms
users can use characteristics of preview samples (e.g., are considered more direct and important than written
voice characteristics) as signals to infer interpretation forms in influencing tourist experiences (Io & Hallo,
qualities and accordingly make decisions. Moreover, 2011; Liao & Bartie, 2022; Zeppel & Muloin, 2008). In
voice characteristics are important nonverbal signals the digital era, researchers have increasingly discussed
reflecting speakers’ traits (Hildebrand et al., 2020). Thus, digital forms of tourism interpretation, including audio
we propose that voice characteristics can be used as sig- (Beattie & Schneider, 2018; Z. Huang et al., 2022; Liao &
nals and affect interpretation purchases in digital inter- Bartie, 2022; Wolf et al., 2013), video (Z. Huang et al.,
pretation platforms. 2022), interactive (Pan et al., 2020), and multimedia inter-
Two promising developments under digitalization pretations (Wolf et al., 2013).
allow us to avoid the data and method limitations in pre- Among previous tourism interpretation studies, two
vious tourism interpretation studies. Regarding data, digi- main streams were tourist responses to tourism interpre-
tal platforms synthesize various big data sources (Pesce tation and the antecedents of tourist responses. The first
et al., 2019). Regarding methods, advances in big data stream has investigated tourists’ cognitive, affective, and
analytic methods permit analyzing massive amounts of behavioral responses to tourism interpretation. Cognitive
structured and unstructured data (Bharadwaj & Shipley, responses include tourists’ knowledge and understanding
2020; Li et al., 2018). Supported by these developments, (Frı́as-Jamilena et al., 2022; Z. Huang et al., 2022).
researchers have applied various unstructured data, Effective heritage interpretations can enhance tourists’
including text, images, and videos, to tourism research knowledge and understanding of heritages (Io, 2013).
Wang et al. 483
Museum interpretations can also help understand the paid attention to digital interpretations (Z. Huang et al.,
meaning of the displayed objects (Sutcliffe & Kim, 2014). 2022; Liao & Bartie, 2022; Pan et al., 2020). However,
Affective responses include tourists’ perceived destination some practical emerging but academically ignored phe-
image (Y. S. Cheng et al., 2019), perceived value nomena (e.g., digital interpretation platforms) may reflect
(Ballantyne et al., 2014; Y. S. Cheng et al., 2019; Weng new opportunities for tourism interpretation innovation
et al., 2020), and tourist satisfaction (Beattie & Schneider, in digitalization. Furthermore, despite the importance of
2018; Kuo et al., 2016). Positive cognitive and affective nonverbal communication in verbal interpretation (Io,
responses can induce positive behavioral responses, 2013; Io & Hallo, 2012), researchers have overlooked
including revisit intentions and word-of-mouth intentions nonverbal signals, and no empirical studies have explored
(Y. S. Cheng et al., 2019; Kuo et al., 2018). Many the effects of voice characteristics on tourist responses.
researchers also found effective environmental interpreta- Such research gaps may be due to the data and method
tions can enhance tourists’ pro-environmental knowledge, limitations. Many studies used traditional methods (e.g.,
attitudes, and behavioral intentions (Frı́as-Jamilena et al., statistical methods) and data (e.g., surveys) in the new-
2022; Z. Huang et al., 2022). born digital interpretation area (Z. Huang et al., 2022;
Another stream has identified four groups of antece- Pan et al., 2020). The proliferation of big data and
dents of tourist responses: interpretation content, inter- advanced methods in the digital era can enrich and pro-
pretation media, interpreter characteristics, and tourist mote tourism research (Li et al., 2018). For example,
characteristics. Interpretation content can significantly voice mining provides an automatic technique to extract
affect tourist responses (Z. Huang et al., 2022). For exam- insights from unstructured auditory data that contains
ple, tourists have different preferences for cultural or nat- more valuable information, which was not previously
ural content (Gao et al., 2018), responsibility, knowledge, possible. Therefore, we aim to fill the gaps by investigat-
or emotional content (Jacobs & Harms, 2014), and history ing the effects of voice characteristics on interpretation
content or everyday life stories (Ballantyne et al., 2014). purchases in digital interpretation platforms.
Z. Huang et al. (2022) classified environmental interpreta-
tion content based on cultural style and sustainability
aspects and explored the interactive roles of interpretation Tourism Digitalization and Digital Interpretation
content through media formats on tourist responses. Platforms
Interpretation media is fundamental for effective interpre-
tations. Thus, evaluating the effects of different interpre- Digitalization is visible in many industries, particularly
tation media is imperative (Wolf et al., 2013). With tourism (Alrawadieh et al., 2021; Vu & Hartley, 2022).
digitalization, more researchers have compared the effects From the business perspective, traditional tourism opera-
of traditional to digital interpretation formats, including tions have been transformed by increasing online distribu-
audio (Beattie & Schneider, 2018; Z. Huang et al., 2022; tion, digital platforms, and the diffusion of mobile
Wolf et al., 2013), video (Z. Huang et al., 2022), and mul- phones and applications (Alrawadieh et al., 2021). From
timedia interpretations (Wolf et al., 2013). Interpreter- the customer perspective, the widespread dissemination of
related factors denote elements of interpreters’ experiences smartphones has enabled many tourists to use mobile
(Y. S. Cheng et al., 2019), enthusiasm (Kuo et al., 2016), applications while visiting tourist destinations (Gajdošı́k,
emotional displays (Io, 2013), and nonverbal expressions 2020). Additionally, the unprecedented usage of social
(Io, 2013; Io & Hallo, 2012). Io et al. used surveys to media and user-generated content has changed how tour-
investigate tourists’ perceptions of interpreters’ nonverbal ists share their tourism experiences (Gajdošı́k, 2020).
communication skills, such as eye contact, vocal expres- Digital platforms are one of the most dominant digita-
sions, and facial expressions (Io, 2013; Io & Hallo, 2012). lization forms and have seen impressive growth figures
They also noted such communication skills could be a (Gössling, 2021; Verhoef et al., 2021). Such digital plat-
good interpreter’s most basic and important feature (Io, forms have disrupted traditional business models (Buhalis
2013; Io & Hallo, 2012). Several studies have also consid- et al., 2019). Digital platforms connect producers and
ered tourist-related factors, including tourists’ motives consumers in the digital world (Pesce et al., 2019).
(Poria et al., 2009), cultural backgrounds (Ballantyne Essentially, digital platforms are two-sided markets, with
et al., 2014), and ages (Gao et al., 2018). the growth of users on one side attracting users from the
However, previous studies have left at least three gaps other (Albuquerque et al., 2012; Verhoef et al., 2021).
that need to be addressed: new perspectives from emer- Digital platforms also lower the threshold for being pro-
ging digital interpretation forms, empirical investigation ducers or suppliers. Organizations and professionals are
of the roles of nonverbal signals, and applications of new no longer the main providers; everyone can provide prod-
data and methods. Digitalization has inevitably changed ucts and services on platforms (Cai et al., 2020; Salet,
the tourism interpretation industry and induced new 2021; Verhoef et al., 2021). Platform revenue comes from
interpretation forms, and researchers have increasingly product and service sales and commissions, clicks,
484 Journal of Travel Research 63(2)
advertisements, and network effects (Albuquerque et al., auditory data and its quantitative analytics (Li et al.,
2012; Pesce et al., 2019; Salet, 2021). In addition, all sta- 2018). Considering the research gaps and chances, we aim
keholders often share in platform revenue. For example, to use voice mining and statistical analysis to explore
in online Q&A platforms, the revenue from paid viewer- whether and how voice characteristics affect interpreta-
ship was shared by platform operators, askers, and tion purchases in digital interpretation platforms.
answerers (Ye et al., 2021).
Tourism is specifically relevant for digital platforms, as Effects of Voice Characteristics on Tourism
digital platforms have become prominent drivers of tour- Interpretation Purchases
ism development (Gössling, 2021). In tourism, digital
platforms mainly include online booking platforms (e.g., Voice characteristic is an important group of nonverbal
Booking.com, Airbnb) and online travel agencies (Bilbil, communication (Sundaram & Webster, 2000). Nonverbal
2019). Although different platforms operate in different communication is regarded as everything other than lin-
markets, they are changing tourism economics (Fleischer guistic content (Hall et al., 2019; Jung & Yoon, 2011; Liu
et al., 2022). Tourism studies have studied different digital et al., 2022). Sundaram and Webster (2000) developed a
platforms, such as peer-to-peer platforms (Fleischer et al., conceptual model of nonverbal communication in service
2022), online booking platforms (Bilbil, 2019), online encounters, dividing nonverbal communication into four
review platforms (Mehraliyev et al., 2021), travel writing groups: physical appearance (e.g., facial attractiveness,
platforms (Salet, 2021), and cultural heritage online disse- attire types, hairstyles), kinesics (e.g., eye contact, smiling,
mination platforms (Pesce et al., 2019). nodding), proxemics (e.g., touch, appropriate distance),
Digital platforms, such as digital interpretation plat- and paralanguage (i.e., voice characteristics including vocal
forms, are also visible in tourism interpretation. The digi- pitch, loudness, speed of talking). Many researchers agree
tal interpretation platform is an emerging and unique nonverbal communication is more influential than verbal
digital interpretation form with distinct features compared communication (Islam & Kirillova, 2020; Jung & Yoon,
to traditional interpretations. Digital interpretation plat- 2011). Digital communication through screens is less rich
forms connect destination managers, interpreters, and than face-to-face communication (Bharadwaj & Shipley,
tourists: destination managers list their attractions on the 2020). In digital audio interpretations, only the words and
platform and provide official interpretation content; inter- voice characteristics play pivotal roles in affecting receivers.
preters invited by destinations and platforms record and Thus, we focused on the role of voice characteristics.
upload their interpretations; and tourists search, choose, We proposed that voice characteristics may affect
and purchase interpretations through the platform. interpretation purchases because they can serve as signals
Contributors, including platform operators, destination to reduce information asymmetry in digital interpretation
managers, and interpreters, share the revenue from inter- platforms. Customers find it more difficult to make pur-
pretation purchases on digital interpretation platforms chase decisions because they face more choices (Fan
(H. Zhang et al., 2021). Such a revenue model thus incenti- et al., 2021). Furthermore, information asymmetry pre-
vizes these contributors to maximize interpretation purchases. vents customers from making appropriate choices (H. K.
As discussed above, the digital interpretation platform Cheng et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2021). In online purchase
is a practical emerging but academically ignored phenom- contexts, the information asymmetry between sellers and
enon, which leaves gaps in our understanding of what buyers is a critical problem (Cai et al., 2020). Buyers
influences interpretation purchases on such platforms. know less related information than sellers, which may
Moreover, previous studies have left two gaps regarding make buyers suffer due to lacking information (Fan et al.,
the role of nonverbal communication (especially voice 2021; Yang et al., 2021).
characteristics) in verbal interpretation and the applica- Spence (1973) proposed signaling theory to understand
tion of voice mining in tourism studies. Two promising how individuals use signals to reduce information asym-
digitalization developments facilitate this study to address metry when selecting among choices. In the labor market,
the above gaps. Digitalization makes collecting, record- candidates (the signaler) use signals of quality (the signal)
ing, and storing related information easier, forming big to inform employers (the receiver); meanwhile, employers
data (Li et al., 2018). Digital platforms synthesize various depend on signals to make evaluations and decisions
big data sources (Pesce et al., 2019). Advances in big data (Spence, 1973). The signaling theory has been widely
and artificial intelligence analytic methods permit analyz- applied in e-commerce and paid-content platforms
ing massive amounts of structured and unstructured data, research (Cai et al., 2020; Fang et al., 2021; Ye et al.,
which was not previously possible (Bharadwaj & Shipley, 2021; M. Zhang et al., 2020). In digital interpretation
2020; Li et al., 2018). Tourism studies have used various platforms, customers cannot evaluate the whole quality of
big data, including text, images, and videos (e.g., Bui the interpretation before purchasing. According to signal-
et al., 2022; Filieri et al., 2021; S. Zhang et al., 2022). ing theory, customers need to rely on observable signals
However, limited tourism studies have focused on to evaluate product qualities in information asymmetry
Wang et al. 485
situations (Fang et al., 2021; Ye et al., 2021). Therefore, a louder voice as more pressuring and less supportive.
customers can use voice characteristics of preview samples Therefore, the loudness should be adequately loud
as signals to reduce information asymmetry and make (Ketrow, 1990). In digital interpretations, listeners can
evaluations and decisions. Studies on nonverbal commu- easily perceive the loudness through preview samples.
nication have argued that voice characteristics mainly Furthermore, louder interpretations indicate speakers are
include speech rate, loudness, and pitch (Hall et al., 2019; confident, and listeners would assume speakers have
Lee & Lim, 2010). We thus proposed that these voice invested much time in exercising. Therefore, louder voices
characteristics (i.e., speech rate, pitch, loudness) can serve can elicit listeners’ attention and increase their perceived
as signals and affect interpretation purchases in digital confidence in interpreters. However, listeners may feel
interpretation platforms. pressure and induce negative emotions when the loudness
Speech rate refers to how fast the voice is (Rodero, is beyond a tipping point, reducing their purchase inten-
2020), relating to the amount of information provided (Liu tions. We thus proposed the following:
et al., 2020). It was often measured by the number of words
within a given time (Liu et al., 2020). Many researchers H2: Loudness has an inverted U-effect on tourism interpre-
observed the positive effects of a fast voice. A faster voice tation purchases, such that a louder voice increases the pur-
can attract attention and cause listeners to devote more chases, but past a tipping point, the relationship between
resources to processing information (Chattopadhyay et al., loudness and purchases will turn from positive to negative.
2003; Rodero, 2020). Additionally, fast speakers are often
perceived as more credible than slow speakers (Chebat Pitch refers to the vibrating frequency of a sound wave
et al., 2007; Schirmer et al., 2019). A fast voice is also associ- (Hildebrand et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2022). It describes
ated with higher satisfaction (Liu et al., 2020). However, how high a voice is and is often measured by the sound
speaking too fast may interfere with information processing frequency in hertz (Hz). Some studies observed the posi-
and comprehension (Chattopadhyay et al., 2003; De Waele tive effects of high-pitched voices on making listeners
et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2020; Rodero, 2020). Thus, many excited and happy (Craton et al., 2017; Mas et al., 2021),
researchers have proposed that a moderately fast speech improving listeners’ satisfaction (Liu et al., 2022), and
rate could achieve the best results (Liu et al., 2020; Rodero, increasing customers’ healthy choices (X. Huang &
2020). In digital interpretations, listeners can easily observe Labroo, 2020). However, an extremely high-pitched voice
the speech rate through preview samples. Furthermore, to often signals more nervousness and panic, thus becoming
maintain a moderately fast speech rate, interpreters must less attractive (Dubey et al., 2018). Therefore, voices with
devote much effort to practice. Therefore, based on signal- a too-high pitch are not favorable, and an appropriately
ing theory, a moderately fast speech rate can signal inter- low-pitched voice may be likable (Dubey et al., 2018). In
preters are fluent during interpretations and thus attract digital interpretations, listeners can quickly identify the
listeners. However, when the speech rate is beyond a tipping pitch of interpretations. When pitches are reasonably
point, listeners may find it difficult to catch and process the high, consumers can infer that speakers have spent much
information provided by the interpretation, reducing their effort preparing such digital interpretations. Therefore,
willingness to buy the interpretation. Thus, we hypothesized following signaling theory, digital interpretations with
the following: reasonable high pitches can signal that such interpreta-
tions have been carefully developed thus increase listen-
H1: Speech rate has an inverted U-effect on tourism interpre- ers’ purchase intentions. However, listeners may perceive
tation purchases, such that a faster speech rate increases the the interpreter as more nervous and less attractive when
purchases, but past a tipping point, the relationship between the pitch is beyond a tipping point, reducing their pur-
speech rate and purchases will turn from positive to negative. chase intentions. We thus proposed the following:
Loudness refers to how loud the voice is, reflecting H3: Pitch has an inverted U-effect on tourism interpretation
voice intensity (Hildebrand et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2022). purchases, such that a higher voice increases the purchases,
It was commonly measured by voice amplitude in decibels but past a tipping point, the relationship between pitch and
(dB). Loudness relates to how clearly the information is purchases will turn from positive to negative.
delivered (Gélinas-Chebat et al., 1996). Louder voices sig-
nal speakers’ confidence, whereas lower loudness may
cause doubts (Mitchell & Ross, 2013; Van Zant & Berger, Method
2020). Louder voices also attract more attention
(Zougkou et al., 2017). However, too loud of a voice can
Data
negatively affect listeners’ judgments and may be associ- We collected data from an emerging digital interpretation
ated with extreme emotions (Ketrow, 1990; Wang et al., platform in China named ‘‘Gold Medal Tourism
2021). Weinstein et al. (2018) found listeners may perceive Interpretation’’ (Chinese name: ÕÓÏÈÒÇ; Jin Pai Jie
486 Journal of Travel Research 63(2)
Shuo, http://jweb.geeker.com.cn/). This platform con- percentage of free trial users converted into purchasers
nects destination managers, interpreters, and users: desti- (Hu et al., 2010). This platform allows users to listen to a
nation managers list their interpretations and provide 40-s audio preview sample before purchasing. Therefore,
interpretation content, interpreters upload their recorded this study used the percentage of users who purchased
audio interpretations, and users choose and purchase the audio interpretation after listening to its preview sam-
interpretations on the platform. This platform launched ple as the dependent variable.
in 2018 in the Dujiangyan Irrigation System and soon Independent variables: Voice characteristics. In nonver-
covered over 2,400 tourist spots in China. By 2022, the bal communication, voice characteristics mainly include
offline QR codes had been scanned over 230,000 times, speech rate, loudness, and pitch (Hall et al., 2019; Lee &
and interpretations had been listened to over 1.2 million Lim, 2010). Thus, this study used Speech Rate, Loudness,
times (Jin Pai Jie Shuo, 2022), indicating that such digital and Pitch as independent variables. We discuss the opera-
interpretation platforms were promising. This platform tionalization of voice characteristics in the next section.
was also listed as a typical case of tourism digitalization Control Variables: (a) Content characteristics.
by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (2020) of the Interpretation content can affect tourist intentions
People’s Republic of China. (Z. Huang et al., 2022; Jacobs & Harms, 2014). Thus, we
The dataset consisted of three sub-datasets: (a) the controlled interpretation content characteristics related to
original auditory data for each audio interpretation; (b) the information richness. Specifically, we used the number
basic information of each audio interpretation (e.g., inter- of nouns (Noun), adjectives (Adjective), and verbs (Verb)
pretation ID, interpretation descriptions, interpreter ID, in interpretation content as measures. We discuss the
interpreter gender); and (c) user-level transactional data, operationalization of content characteristics in the next
including preview listening history and purchase informa- section. (b) Gender of the interpreter. We used a dummy
tion. There were 655 audio interpretations for 36 tourist variable with 0 representing a female interpreter and 1
spots in the Dujiangyan Irrigation System from representing a male interpreter as a control variable. (c)
September 11, 2018, to June 11, 2020, with 225,116 audio Spot. We included a series of dummy variables indicating
preview listening times and 38,600 purchases. We then each tourist spot to control the heterogeneity. We also
structured the first dataset with 655 unstructured audios used the preview listening times of each interpretation as
by voice and text mining. We connected the three datasets a weight in the model to control for the popularity effects.
by the interpretation ID and collapsed them into the Interpretation prices are about 10 yuan, collinear with
interpretation level, generating a dataset with 655 inter- Spot, and thus excluded from the model. Display posi-
pretations. Outliers exceeding three standard deviations tions of interpretations may affect users’ choice, but the
above the mean may interfere with the results (J. Zhang position is in rotation in the platform, thus eliminating
et al., 2019). Based on this criterion, we deleted four out- the positioning effects (H. Zhang et al., 2021). Table 1
liers with extremely high purchase conversions. Finally, shows the descriptive statistics of all variables used.
we deemed 651 samples valid for analysis.
extract voice characteristics and explore their effects (Liu timestamps. We then segmented speech text into sentences
et al., 2020). However, audio data and analytics have not based on timestamps and calculated the word count for
been introduced to tourism studies (Li et al., 2018). The each sentence. We loaded each audio file to audio signals
human voice also involves textual content, which can be using a Python package, librosa. Then, we extracted the
quantified by text mining. Text mining is a method that duration of each sentence (in seconds). Based on formula
transforms unstructured text into normalized, structured 1, the Speech Rate of sentence i equals the word count
data (Li et al., 2018). Tourism researchers have used dif- divided by the duration time. Next, we conducted the
ferent text-mining techniques to extract valuable knowl- framing and windowing to preprocess audio signals. After
edge from textual data (Li et al., 2018). transforming the preprocessed audio signals with a short-
As shown in Figure 1, we proposed a methodological time Fourier transform, we extracted the Pitch (in hertz)
process based on voice and text mining techniques to and the amplitude of each audio. The amplitude was then
extract the voice (i.e., speech rate, loudness, pitch) and con- scaled to dB-scaled loudness (Loudness) according to for-
tent characteristics (i.e., the number of nouns, adjectives, mula 2 with the human hearing threshold (2 3 1025 Pa) as
and verbs). We only analyzed the first 40-s preview sample the reference. Finally, we calculated the mean values of all
for each audio interpretation following the steps below. sentences’Speech Rate, Pitch, and Loudness in each audio.
We first transcribed the auditory data to text via
Tencent Automatic Speech Recognition Application WordCounti
SpeechRatei = ð1Þ
Programming Interface using Python. The transcriptions Durationi
include transcribed speech text and corresponding
488 Journal of Travel Research 63(2)
Model 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
As for the control variables, the number of nouns (d = 20.0231, p \ .01). Similarly, in Model 13, the effect
(b = .0043, p \ .01) and the number of adjectives of Pitch was positive for low pitch values (c = 0.0021,
(b = .0890, p \ .01) positively affected Conversion, p \ .01) but negative for high values (d = 20.0034,
whereas the number of verbs (b = 2.0595, p \ .01) p \ .01). H2 and H3 were thus supported.
negatively affected Conversion (Table 2, Model 8).
Furthermore, audio interpretations provided by male
Robustness Checks
interpreters showed lower conversion than female inter-
preters (b = 2.0867, p \ .01, in Table 2, Model 8). We conducted several robustness checks. First, we used
user-level data instead of interpretation-level data. The
user-level dataset contained 225,116 data samples. We
Inverted U-Effects of Voice Characteristics generated a dummy variable indicating whether the audio
We first applied quadratic regressions to test the inverted preview listening leads to a purchase of the audio interpre-
U-effects of voice characteristics. Quadratic regressions tation as the dependent variable. Because the dependent
(Table 3, Models 9–11) showed Speech Rate has a mono- variable is binary, we used binomial logistic regressions.
tonic positive effect (a = 0.5343, p \ .01) on Conversion. As presented in Table 4, the Speech Rate showed a mono-
Loudness (a = 0.2712, p \ .01; b = 20.0024, p \ .01) tonic positive effect, whereas Loudness and Pitch showed
and Pitch (a = 0.0103, p \ .01; b = 20.0001, p \ .01) inverted U-shaped effects on Conversion, supporting our
showed significant inverted U-shaped effects, with a posi- results. Second, we checked the robustness of the depen-
tive coefficient of the linear term and a negative coefficient dent variable. Several audio interpretations had no pur-
of the quadratic term. chases, resulting in a conversion of zero. We deleted the
We further checked the turning points to support the samples with a zero conversion to eliminate the effects of
inverted U-shaped relationships. The turning point of those zero values, leaving 542 samples. The results shown
Speech Rate was 8.7666 words per second, larger than its in Table 4 confirmed the robustness. Finally, we used the
max value (4.9693 words per second). This check sup- median values instead of the mean values of all sentences
in each audio as alternative measures of independent vari-
ported the monotonic positive effect of Speech Rate in
ables. The results in Table 4 further supported the mono-
observed data. Therefore, H1 was not supported. The
tonic positive effect of Speech Rate and the inverted U-
turning point was 56.3894 dB for Loudness, and
shaped effects of Loudness and Pitch on Conversion.
364.7977 Hz for Pitch, both in the middle of the observed
values (around the mean values), supporting the inverted
U-shaped effects of Loudness and Pitch. Discussion
We finally used interrupted regressions to test the
robustness of the inverted U-shaped effects of Loudness Theoretical Contributions
and Pitch. As shown by Table 3, Model 12, the effect of This study provides theoretical contributions in three
Loudness on Conversion was positive for low loudness val- aspects: First, we extend tourism interpretation research
ues (c = 0.0257, p \ .01) but negative for high values focused on traditional forms to digital interpretation
490 Journal of Travel Research 63(2)
Robustness of data
Model 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 (Loudness) 21 (Pitch)
platforms. Digitalization and digital platforms are evident Second, this study is one of the first to provide empiri-
trends in tourism (Fleischer et al., 2022; Gössling, 2021; cal evidence that nonverbal signals matter in tourism
Mehraliyev et al., 2021; Vu & Hartley, 2022). Such trends interpretation. Studies on nonverbal communication are
induce digital interpretation platforms in the tourism limited in the hospitality and tourism discipline (Islam &
interpretation industry. In China, the development of Kirillova, 2020). Moreover, although nonverbal commu-
digital interpretation platforms is particularly remarkable. nication is vital in verbal interpretation (Io, 2013; Io &
Although the digital interpretation platform is a promis- Hallo, 2012), researchers have overlooked nonverbal sig-
ing industry, tourism interpretation studies have not nals in tourism interpretation. Limited empirical studies
noticed it yet. This study focuses on this emerging phe- have explored the effects of voice characteristics on tour-
nomenon and makes a pioneering effort to investigate it, ist responses. Based on nonverbal communication studies,
thus contributing substantially to existing tourism inter- we identify speech rate, loudness, and pitch as important
pretation studies. This study also responds to the calls for voice characteristics in tourism interpretation. Based on
extensive research on digitalization and innovation in the signaling theory, we find voice characteristics can serve as
tourism and hospitality industry (Buhalis et al., 2019). signals and significantly affect interpretation purchases.
Wang et al. 491
The speech rate has a linear and positive effect in the rea- Our findings that voice characteristics affect interpreta-
sonable range, whereas the loudness and pitch have tion purchases also provide insights for platform opera-
inverted U-shaped effects on interpretation purchases. tors, destination managers, and interpreters to improve
Initial increases in loudness and pitch should induce posi- interpretation quality and increase revenue or incomes.
tive outcomes, but the increase may have negative effects Because digital interpretations are editable and voice
after a certain level. This study thus responds to Grant characteristics are easy to manipulate (Wang et al., 2021),
and Schwartz’s (2011) call for more evidence of the non- platform operators can use appropriate voice characteris-
linear nature of generally good things. Additionally, this tics as signals to provide users with information about the
study explores the real purchase behaviors of tourists, high quality of interpretations and increase interpretation
which differ significantly from the previous tourism inter- purchases. By doing this, destination managers can also
pretation research that focused mainly on tourist percep- increase revenues because they share the benefits of digital
tions and behavioral intentions. interpretation platforms (H. Zhang et al., 2021). The find-
Finally, this study fills the research gap of voice mining ings also guide destination managers in training inter-
in tourism research. Data and method limitations restrict preters on nonverbal communication skills. For
previous tourism interpretation studies from investigating interpreters, demands for offline interpretation have expe-
the effects of voice characteristics. In contrast, this study rienced a precipitous slide due to the COVID-19 pan-
uses a rich dataset with auditory and transactional data demic, causing financial difficulties (H. Zhang et al.,
from a digital interpretation platform, which significantly 2021). Such online digital interpretation platforms pro-
supplements the findings of extant studies using survey vide them with income-generating opportunities.
and experimental methods. Furthermore, this study Therefore, they can actively participate in such platforms
extends the auditory data and voice mining techniques to and use tactics (e.g., control their voice characteristics) to
tourism studies. Various big data, including text, images, increase interpretation purchases and earn extra income.
and videos, have been applied to tourism research (e.g., Our study also offers methodological implications for
Bui et al., 2022; Filieri et al., 2021; S. Zhang et al., 2022). digital interpretation platform operations and digital
However, limited tourism studies have focused on audi- interpretation designs. With the rapid development of
tory data and voice mining (Li et al., 2018). This study voice mining techniques, digital interpretation platforms
uses voice mining techniques to extract voice characteris- can add voice monitoring systems to qualify digital inter-
tics and develops an analytic process for voice mining in pretations automatically. For example, only qualified
tourism studies. Therefore, we methodologically extend digital interpretations with appropriate voices can be pro-
the application of auditory data, voice characteristics, and vided to customers. Additionally, because digital interpre-
voice mining techniques to tourism literature, responding tations are editable, platform operators can use voice
to the calls for data and methodology development in manipulating systems to adjust and design the voice char-
tourism studies (Li et al., 2018). acteristics of digital interpretations. Although our data
came from a typical digital interpretation platform in
China, the findings may be generalizable to other similar
Practical Implications platforms (e.g., sanmaoyou.com, gowithtommy.com,
tupuy.com).
This study also offers practical implications. This study
offers insights into tourism interpretation digitalization
and innovation by introducing a new form of tourism Limitations
interpretation, the digital interpretation platform. Digital This study has some limitations. Regarding generalizabil-
platforms have become the prominent drivers of tourism ity, our data came from a typical digital interpretation
development (Gössling, 2021). Drawing on insights from platform. The specific research setting may limit the gen-
tourism digitalization and digital platform studies, this eralizability of this study. Additionally, our data were col-
study discusses that digital interpretation platforms, as lected in China. Although the effects of voice
integrators connecting various stakeholders, are trans- characteristics have been confirmed in Chinese (Liu et al.,
forming traditional tourism interpretation. Therefore, 2020, 2022), Dutch (De Waele et al., 2019), and English-
tourism practitioners can collaborate more with digital speaking countries (Rodero, 2020; Weinstein et al., 2018),
platforms to achieve digitalization and service innovation. the coding and encoding of nonverbal signals may be
For example, destination managers can actively partici- affected by cultural norms (Islam & Kirillova, 2020).
pate in digital interpretation platforms and provide more Regarding the methodology, this study used voice mining
interpretations. By doing this, destination managers can techniques to extract common voice characteristics (i.e.,
increase revenues, market their destinations, increase des- speech rate, loudness, pitch). Many other voice character-
tination digitalization levels, and innovate interpretation istics are not included in this study. In addition, voice
services. characteristics could interact with each other (Van Zant
492 Journal of Travel Research 63(2)
& Berger, 2020). This study did not consider the interac- Funding
tion effects of voice characteristics. Moreover, this study The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
used statistical modeling based on purchase behaviors port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this arti-
using actual transactional data, thus failing to explore cle: This work was supported by the National Natural Science
tourists’ post-purchase perceptions and experiences. Foundation of China [grant number: 72172100, 71502019];
Innovation Spark Fund of Sichuan University [grant number:
2018hhf–37]; Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of
Conclusion China [grant number: 21XJC790007].
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Author Biographies
media that attract park visitors and enhance their experi- Ying Wang is a PhD student at Business School,
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002 Yang Yang (Corresponding Author) is an associate pro-
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