materials

Article
Compaction Characteristics and Permeability of Expansive
Shale Stabilized with Locally Produced Waste Materials
Muhammad Rehan Hakro 1, * , Aneel Kumar 1 , Zaheer Almani 1 , Mujahid Ali 2, * , Roman Fediuk 3,4, * ,
Sergey Klyuev 5,6, * , Alexander Klyuev 5 , Linar Sabitov 6,7 and Dina Fathi 8

1 Department of Civil Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology,

Jamshoro 76062, Sindh, Pakistan; aneel.kumar@faculty.muet.edu.pk (A.K.);
zaheer.almani@faculty.muet.edu.pk (Z.A.)
2 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS,
Bandar Seri Iskandar 31750, Perak, Malaysia
3 Polytechnic Institute, Far Eastern Federal University, 690922 Vladivostok, Russia
4 Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 195251 St. Petersburg, Russia
5 Department of Theoretical Mechanics and Strength of Materials, Belgorod State Technological University
Named after V.G. Shukhov, 308012 Belgorod, Russia; klyuyevav@yandex.ru
6 Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; sabitov-kgasu@mail.ru
7 Kazan State Power Engineering University, 420066 Kazan, Russia
8 Structural Engineering and Construction Management Department, Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
Future University in Egypt, New Cairo 11845, Egypt; dinamohamed@fue.edu.eg
* Correspondence: rehan.hakro@faculty.muet.edu.pk (M.R.H.); mujahid_19001704@utp.edu.my (M.A.);
fedyuk.rs@dvfu.ru (R.F.); klyuyev@yandex.ru (S.K.)

Abstract: Waste is available in an abundant form and goes to landfill without any use, creating threats



to the environment. Recent and past studies have used different types of waste to stabilize soil and


reduce environmental impacts. However, there is a lack of studies on the combined use of marble
Citation: Hakro, M.R.; Kumar, A.;
dust, rice-husk ash, and saw dust in expansive shale soil. The current study tries to overcome such a
Almani, Z.; Ali, M.; Fediuk, R.;
gap in the literature, studying the effect of marble dust, rice-husk ash, and saw dust on expansive
Klyuev, S.; Klyuev, A.; Sabitov, L.;
Fathi, D. Compaction Characteristics
shale’s compaction characteristics and permeability properties. According to unified soil classification
and Permeability of Expansive Shale and the AAHTO classification system, the geotechnical properties of natural soil are classified as clay
Stabilized with Locally Produced of high plasticity (CH) and A-7-5. Several tests are performed in the laboratory to investigate the
Waste Materials. Materials 2022, 15, compaction characteristics and permeability properties of expansive shale. Moreover, permeability
2138. https://doi.org/10.3390/ apparatus is used to investigate the permeability properties of soil. In addition, due to the accuracy
ma15062138 of the apparatus, the conventional apparatus has been partly modified. The experimental results
Academic Editor: René de Borst
show that the addition of waste to the soil has significantly improved soil stabilization, increasing
permeability and decreasing plasticity indexes. In addition, there is a gradual decrease in the dry
Received: 30 January 2022 density of soil and an increase in the permeability of stabilized soil. Based on the outcomes of the
Accepted: 9 March 2022
current study, it claims and concludes that these waste materials can be used as soil stabilizers or
Published: 14 March 2022
modifiers, instead of being dumped in landfill, which will provide a green, friendly, and sustainable
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral environment. The current study recommends that future researchers use various wastes in the
with regard to jurisdictional claims in concrete and soil to improve their compaction and mechanical properties.
published maps and institutional affil-
iations. Keywords: soil compaction; soil stabilization; environmental pollution; waste materials; expansive
clay; permeability

Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
1. Introduction
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and Soil is a complex, varied, and unpredictable material that is left to nature’s whims.
conditions of the Creative Commons Because of environmental, loading, and drainage differences, soil quality varies between
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// sites and within areas. Clay shale comprises 50 to 70 percent sedimentation rock [1,2].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ It exhibits brittleness and low durability [3,4]. Clay shale is prone to weathering, which
4.0/). results in fast degradation of its geotechnical characteristics, strength, and durability [5–8].

Materials 2022, 15, 2138. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15062138 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2022, 15, 2138 2 of 14

Some of the difficulties resulting from expansive shale’s behavior are: destabilizing fill
material, a reduction in the bearing capacity of shallow, deep foundations, slope stability,
plumbing, and subsidence [9–14].
Soil’s characteristics are determined by both its type and the environment in which
it grows. Due to the vast volume of soil involved, and the fact that it is not open for
inspection at greater depth for the foundations of various projects, transporting soils is not
economically feasible in comparison to other construction materials, such as concrete or
steel. Civil engineers are occasionally tasked with constructing a facility on a site selected
for reasons other than soil conditions. As a result, it is becoming increasingly important for
the engineer to understand the extent to which the soil’s technical features can be improved
or alternative structures can be used for building at the given location [15–17].
Expansive clay soils spread over large areas all over the world. The properties of these
problematic soils at shallow depth show volume change from variations in soil moisture,
due to seepage of water into the soils during rains [18,19]. These soils contain the clay min-
eral montmorillonite, which causes swelling and shrinking in the ground due to increasing
and decreasing water content [20,21]. Damages to civil structures (e.g., railways, road
networks, buried pipelines, and other lifeline facilities) due to soil swelling and shrinking
soil problems can be considered to be the costliest natural hazard in some countries. In
addition to the challenges associated with expansive soils, another issue, because of indus-
trialization, is that waste generated by companies poses serious environmental problems
and requires a large amount of land for disposal in all emerging and developed countries.
Clay soils are often stiff when dry but lose stiffness when saturated with water. Soft
clays have a limited bearing capacity and are highly compressible. Waste stone sludge
from slab stone processing and stone washing plants was recycled in Roohbakhshan and
Kalantari’s [22] study of lime stabilization in clayey soil. In the laboratory, the efficiency of
waste stone powder and lime in stabilizing fine-grained clayey soil was tested.
Gypsum (CaSO4 ·2H2 O) is employed as one of the soil stabilizing agents in a study by
Reethu et al. [23] to stabilize clayey soil and attain better strength in a short period of time.
Experiments were designed to evaluate the properties of clayey soil after adding different
percentages of gypsum to the existing soil; namely, 2 percent, 4 percent, 6 percent, and
8 percent. The Atterberg limits, specific gravity test, and the standard Proctor test were all
performed on clayey soil mixed with gypsum.
The research of Alzaidy [24] assessed an experimental investigation for stabilizing a
clayey soil with eggshell powder as a replacement for commercial lime and plastic waste
strips, in order to lessen the brittleness of the soil stabilized by eggshell powder, as well as
the effect on the soil’s engineering properties. To determine the best percentage of each
addition, nine groups of stabilized soil samples were made using three different proportions
of eggshell powder (2 percent, 5 percent, and 8 percent by weight of dry soil) and plastic
waste strips (0.25 percent, 0.5 percent, and 1 percent by weight of dry soil). Compaction,
unconfined compression, swelling potential, direct shear, and California bearing ratio tests
were used in the investigation.
When expansive soils are used as a subgrade layer, mitigation of the swelling and
shrinking potential of expansive soils is a significant design feature of pavement structures.
Seasonal moisture variations cause extensive heaving and shrinking of expansive subgrade
soils, resulting in the breakdown of the upper pavement structure. In an experimental study
of Dayioglu et al. [25], expansive clay was combined with fly ash and lime. On samples
cured for various times (0, 7, and 28 days), swelling pressure (SWP) and unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) tests were performed.
The waste production from any industry is a part of the industry’s functioning. The
fundamental component of any manufacturing or production enterprise is the waste man-
agement [26–30]. If the waste generated from the manufacturing process is not disposed of
properly, it will be a major reason for serious health and environmental hazards [31–35].
There has been growing interest in adding together traditional and non-traditional addi-
tives for soil stabilization purposes in recent years. The additives include Portland cement,
Materials 2022, 15, 2138 3 of 14

lime, fly ash, bitumen tar, polymer-based products, calcium chloride, and sodium chlo-
ride [36–41]. The addition of admixture, such as lime and cement, can improve the physical
properties of natural clayey soils. In the construction industry, the demand for lime and
cement has increased, increasing their cost. Therefore, long-time efforts have been carried
out to use waste from the manufacturing process as admixture [42–47].
Numerous researchers have conducted studies to determine efficient techniques to
reduce the pollution caused by these materials, including by recycling and reusing them
in civil engineering applications as a way to protect the environment from waste material
pollution [48–53]. A practical application of these materials is as a soil stabilizer in road
construction. Traditional soil stabilizers, such as cement and lime, are frequently employed
to strengthen weak soils’ geotechnical characteristics [54–58]. Numerous research has
verified these materials’ efficiency in altering the characteristics of soils [59–61]. However,
due to their widespread use, these materials are not cost-effective [62–66]. As a result,
numerous researchers look for more cost-effective soil stabilizers, such as plastic, tire chips,
and rice husks.
Recent and past studies have subjected soils to various treatments; however, a limited
number of studies are available for controlling the flow of water within the soil to minimize
the effect of structural failures due to soil permeability. Therefore, this study aims to
determine compaction characteristics and soil permeability of stabilization with rice husk
ash, saw dust, marble dust, and rice husk. In this research, laboratory tests, modified
Proctor tests, and permeability tests were conducted to determine the effect of local waste
materials on enhancing the geotechnical properties of expansive soil.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Laboratory Tests
The experimental research comprised of adding varying percentages of marble dust,
rice husk (RH), rice husk ash (RHA), cow dung ash (CDA), saw dust, and wheat straw to a
mixture of oven-dried soil with various percentages (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10%). The process
was repeated until the soil and stabilizers were homogeneous in color and texture. The
compaction tests were performed on treated and untreated soil samples, in accordance
with ASTM 1557 [67].
Permeability coefficient (also known as hydraulic conductivity) k is defined as the
water discharge rate under laminar flow over a unit cross-sectional area of soil under
20 ◦ C temperature conditions and a unit hydraulic gradient. Flexible wall permeameter
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
equipment was used to perform constant head permeability measurements according 4 of to
15
the ASTM D5084 method A (Figure 1) [68].

Figure1.1.(a)
Figure (a)Permeability
Permeabilityapparatus
apparatusand
and(b)
(b)modified
modifiedpermeability
permeabilityapparatus.
apparatus.

2.2. Expansive Clay

A test pit (Figure 2) excavates the soil to test and collect soil samples from, typically
excavated during a site investigation. It is not convenient to take just one sample from the
bulk as that sample may not represent the whole bulk. Therefore, a proper procedure is
adopted to obtain a representative sample, representing the whole bulk of soil. In our re-
search, we have chosen the quartering method to obtain the required sample, as shown in
Materials 2022, 15, 2138 4 of 14

Figure
Figure1.1.(a)
(a)Permeability
Permeabilityapparatus
apparatusand
and(b)
(b)modified
modifiedpermeability
permeabilityapparatus.
apparatus.

2.2.
2.2.Expansive
ExpansiveClay Clay
AA test
test pit
pit (Figure 2) excavates
(Figure 2) excavates the
the soil
soil toto test
test and
and collect
collect soil
soil samples
samples from,
from, typically
typically
excavated during
duringaaasite
excavatedduring siteinvestigation.
site investigation.ItItIt
investigation. isisis
not
notnot convenient
convenient
convenient to to
totake take
take just
justjust
oneone
one sample
sample
sample from
fromfrom
the
the
the
bulk
bulkbulk
as as that
as that
that sample
sample
sample may
may maynotnot
not represent
represent
represent thethe
the whole
whole
whole bulk.
bulk.
bulk. Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore, a proper
aa proper
proper procedure
procedure
procedure isis
is adopted
adopted to to obtain
obtain a a representative
representative sample,
sample, representing
representing the the whole
whole bulk
adopted to obtain a representative sample, representing the whole bulk of soil. In our re- bulk
of of soil.
soil. In In
our our
re-
research,
search,
search,wewe we have
have
have chosen
chosen
chosen thethe
the quartering
quartering
quartering method
method
method toto
to obtain
obtain
obtain the
thethe required
required
required sample,
sample,
sample, asas
as shown
shown
shown in
in
in Figure
Figure
Figure3. 3. 3.

Figure
Figure
Figure2. Pit
2.2.Pit Test.
PitTest.
Test.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure3.
Figure 3.3.(a)
(a)Quartering
(a) Quarteringof
Quartering ofrepresentative
of sample
representativesample
representative (b)
sample(b) Sieved
(b)Sieved samples.
Sievedsamples.
samples.

2.3. Marble Dust

Marble dust is produced during the cutting and polishing of marble stones [69–71].
Marble dust was gathered for this study from Hyderabad marble factories. In this study,
the waste materials were added to the expansive soil of Jamshoro to observe the effect on
the compaction characteristics of soil. The general chemical composition of marble dust is
mentioned in Table 1.
Materials 2022, 15, 2138 5 of 14

Table 1. Chemical composition of marble dust.

Oxide Compounds Marble Dust Percent by Weight

SiO2 26.53
MgO 18.31
CaO 38.45
Fe2 O3 13.70
Al2 O3 0.39

2.4. Rice Husk and Rice Husk Ash

Rice husk is a common agricultural waste item. Rice husks are burned to remove the
cellulose and lignin, leaving just silica ash. Rice production fell to 6900 thousand tons in
2014–2015, down from 7005 thousand tons the previous year. Now, 50,000 tons of solid
waste are produced. With 1.7 percent rice husk and 16 percent bagasse (residue from sugar
mills), daily crop residue is expected to be 225,000 tons, while animal dung is expected to be
1 million tons. Rice is mostly grown in Pakistan’s Sindh and Punjab regions in the interior.
The average annual production of rice husk over the last four years is 1828 tons. Rice husk
obtained as a by-product is regarded as a waste and is typically discarded as such, causing
waste disposal problems and methane emissions. Rice husk burning is expected to remove
organic matter, leaving silica in an amorphous state. Al2 O3 , CaO, Fe2 O3 , MgO, and K2 O
make up the remainder. Silica content in rice husk varies according to the rice variety,
soil and climate conditions, prevailing temperatures, and agricultural practices. Rice husk
ash, which has a high proportion of silica, combines optimally with binder ingredients
to produce a pozzolanic reaction. This occurs as a result of the formation of extra C–S–H
(CaOSiO2 H2 O), referred to as calcium silicate gel, in many spaces surrounding hydrated
cement particles, so that silica can alter the compressive and flexural strengths [72]. The
rice husks were collected from Hyderabad (25.36228, 68.38201).

2.5. Cow Dung Ash

Cow dung (CD) is the feces of bull, cow, heifer, and veal, and has generally been used
with soil as animal manure [73–75]. Cow dung cakes were collected from villages and
burned at higher temperatures.

2.6. Saw Dust

Saw dust is a by-product produced when wood is cut or pulverized with a saw or
other blade in sawmill or lumbering industries. Dry wood is composed primarily of
cellulose, lignin, and hemicelluloses, with minor amounts (5–10%) of other components.
These components exhibit cementitious characteristics. Trees are required in great num-
bers for a variety of reasons, and their removal results in a high proportion of saw dust
being produced. The fine saw dust was collected from sawmills in the vicinity of the
Hyderabad area.

2.7. Wheat Straw

Wheat straws are usually accessible after separating the wheat from the straw using
thresher machines. After being dried in the sun, the wheat straw fibers were cut into ap-
proximate dimensions. Wheat straw is a lightweight material with a high water absorption
rate (250%), as seen by its specific gravity and water absorption ratio.
All these stabilizers were added to the soil from 0 to 10% (Figure 4) to observe the
changes in the liquid limit, modified Proctor, and soil permeability. These percentages were
arbitrarily chosen; similar portions of stabilizers were added to the soil in the study of
Eliaslankaran et al. [72].
 thresher machines. After being dried in the sun, the wheat straw fibers were cut into ap-
proximate dimensions. Wheat straw is a lightweight material with a high water absorp-
tion rate (250%), as seen by its specific gravity and water absorption ratio.
All these stabilizers were added to the soil from 0 to 10% (Figure 4) to observe the
Materials 2022, 15, 2138 changes in the liquid limit, modified Proctor, and soil permeability. These percentages 6 of 14
were arbitrarily chosen; similar portions of stabilizers were added to the soil in the study
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER of Eliaslankaran et al. [72].
REVIEW 6 of 15

Figure 4. Percentages of waste materials as stabilizer.

Figure 4. Percentages of waste materials as stabilizer.
Figure 4. Percentages of waste materials as stabilizer.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results Theand Discussion
expansive soil is classified as A-7-5, according to the AASHTO soil classification
3. Results and Discussion
system (AASHTOT
The expansive 27).isFigure
soil 5 shows
classified the particle
as A-7-5, size distribution
according curve of soil
to the AASHTO soilofclassification
two
The expansive
different soil
samples. 27). is classified
Sample as A-7-5,
1 is represented with according
the redsize towhereas
color the AASHTO
sample 2soil classification
onofblack
system (AASHTOT Figure 5 shows the particle distribution curve soil.
system
color(AASHTOT 27). Figure
as shown in Figure 5. 5 shows the particle size distribution curve of soil.

100 100

90 90

80 80

70 70
% Passing
% Passing

60 60
50 Sample 1
50
Sample 2
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
0 10
100 10 1 0.1 0.01
0 Particle Diameter (mm)
100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Figure 5. Sieve analysis ofParticle Diameter (mm)
soil sample.
Figure 5. Sieve analysis of soil sample.
Figure 5. Sieve analysis of soil sample.
3.1. Compaction Characteristics of Stabilized Soil
3.1. Compaction Characteristics
Figures 6–11 of Stabilized
shows the variation Soil dry density and moisture content with
of maximum
waste materials
Figures for stabilization.
6–11 shows The addition
the variation of maximumof rice dry
husk,density
marble and
dust,moisture
saw dust, content
rice with
waste materials for stabilization. The addition of rice husk, marble dust, sawalldust, rice
husk ash, and wheat straw to soil results in a decrease in maximum dry density, since
these materials have a low specific gravity. The grains of all the materials replaced denser
husk ash, and wheat straw to soil results in a decrease in maximum dry density, since all
these materials have a low specific gravity. The grains of all the materials replaced denser
soil particles (Gs = 2.54), resulting in an overall reduction in the treated soil’s dry density.
Moreover, these materials behave as non-plastics, which reduce soil cohesion, thereby
reducing soil density. This reduction occurs due to the rapid reactions between the stabilizer
and the soil particles (flocculation and agglomeration), resulting in additional voids and a
more open structure; hence, decreasing the maximum dry density [76]. Al-Khalili et al. [77]
 husk ash, and wheat straw to soil results in a decrease in maximum dry density, since all
these materials have a low specific gravity. The grains of all the materials replaced denser
soil particles (Gs = 2.54), resulting in an overall reduction in the treated soil’s dry density.
Moreover, these materials behave as non-plastics, which reduce soil cohesion, thereby re-
ducing soil density. This reduction occurs due to the rapid reactions between the stabilizer
Materials 2022, 15, 2138 and the soil particles (flocculation and agglomeration), resulting in additional voids 7and of 14
a more open structure; hence, decreasing the maximum dry density[76]. Al-Khalili et al.
[77] demonstrated that introducing silica fumes increased the optimum moisture content
(OMC) from 28.92
demonstrated that to 29.74 percent,
introducing silicaand decreased
fumes increasedthethe
maximum
optimumdry unit weight
moisture content(MDD)
(OMC)
from 14.05 to 13.55 kN/m 3. The rise in the OMC occurred because the addition of the silica
from 28.92 to 29.74 percent, and decreased the maximum dry unit weight (MDD) from
fume increased
14.05 to the soil’s
13.55 kN/m 3 . Thesurface area.
rise in the As the
OMC stabilized
occurred soil the
because hasaddition
lower density, it canfume
of the silica be
used as lightweight fill materials compared to traditional materials, such as gravels
increased the soil’s surface area. As the stabilized soil has lower density, it can be used as and
sand.
lightweight fill materials compared to traditional materials, such as gravels and sand.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Cow
Cowdung
dungash
ashProctor
Proctorresults.
results.

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15

Figure 7. Rice husk Proctor results.

Figure 7. Rice husk Proctor results.

Figure 8. Rice husk ash Proctor results.

Figure 8. Rice husk ash Proctor results.
Materials 2022, 15, 2138 8 of 14
Figure
Figure8.8.Rice
Ricehusk
huskash
ashProctor
Proctorresults.
results.

Figure 9. Sawdust
Figure dust Proctorresults.
results.
Figure9.9.Saw
Saw dustProctor
Proctor results.

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

Figure 10. Marble dust Proctor results.
Figure
Figure10.
10.Marble
Marbledust
dustProctor
Proctorresults.
results.

2
1.8
1.6
Dry Density (g/cm3)

1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Moisture Content %
Natural Soil 2 % Wheat Straw 4 % Wheat Straw
6 % Wheat Straw 8 % Wheat Straw 10 % wheat Straw

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Wheat
Wheat straw
straw Proctor
Proctor results.
results.

The MDD decreased from 1.90 to 1.83 with the addition of CDA (cow dung ash), 1.90
to 1.73 with the addition of RHA (rice husk ash), 1.82 to 1.65 with rice husk (RH), 1.82 to
1.47, 1.73 to 1.43 with wheat straw, and increased from 1.73 to 2.04 g/cm3 with marble dust.
The MDD decreased in all cases except the increase with marble dust. The decrease in dry
Materials 2022, 15, 2138 9 of 14

The MDD decreased from 1.90 to 1.83 with the addition of CDA (cow dung ash), 1.90
to 1.73 with the addition of RHA (rice husk ash), 1.82 to 1.65 with rice husk (RH), 1.82 to
1.47, 1.73 to 1.43 with wheat straw, and increased from 1.73 to 2.04 g/cm3 with marble dust.
The MDD decreased in all cases except the increase with marble dust. The decrease in dry
density leads to an increase in soil permeability; therefore, the swelling of expansive soil
decreases [78]. According to [79], increasing the density value increases the number of
soil particles contained within a given soil volume, increasing the particle’s specific area.
Therefore, the sample’s ability to absorb water and its swelling percentage also increased.
As with the addition of all of the stabilizers, the dry density decreased; therefore, the
swelling expansive reduced.

3.2. Permeability of Stablised Soil

The capacity of soil to enable water to flow under a hydraulic head is referred to
as permeability. Permeability is a key characteristic in subsurface flow studies [80]. In
terms of soil permeability properties, it is still hard to measure and predict them. The
soil permeability is influenced by the porosity, the fabric, the density, and the sediment
composition [81]. The apparatus provided porous stone at the end pieces of the specimen,
which was contained by a flexible membrane that was sealed at the cap and base. There
was constant monitoring, measuring, and recording of the amount of inflow and outflow, as
well as of the variations in specimen height. To complete the permeation test, the test was
not conducted until the permeability coefficient was stable. The permeability coefficient is
calculated using Equation (1):
k = Ah∆t (1)
where k = the permeability coefficient (m/s), ∆Q = the quantity of flow for interval time ∆t,
the inflow and outflow average (m3 ), L = the specimen’s length (m), ∆t = the time interval
(=t1 − t2) over which the flow occurs ∆Q (s), t1 = the time at the start of the permeation trial
(s), t2 = the time at the end of the permeation trial (s), A = the specimen’s cross-sectional
area (m2 ), h = the head loss of water across the specimen (average value) (=(h1 + h2)/2) (m),
and h1 = the head loss at t1 (m), h2 = head loss at t2 (m).
Pulverized clay shale was sieved using a no. 4 test sieve. The specimens were
produced in different percentages of additives, which amounted to 2%, while the dry
weight of soil amounted to 10% by. All specimens were produced in untreated and treated
soil at respective MDD and OMC. The samples were prepared according to ASTM D421
and compacted around 0.95γdmax with an optimum water content. The permeability of
stabilized soil was determined after the saturation of the soil sample.
With rising swelling pressure, the hydraulic conductivity of the clay mineral material
diminishes; the research indicates a very high link (correlation coefficient) between the two
parameters. Because of this finding, it is assumed that the clay sample with a high swelling
pressure tends to fill voids; therefore, the hydraulic conductivity value is low. Additionally,
it has been proposed that the hydraulic conductivity may be determined only by the
swelling pressure without doing the permeability test. The hydraulic conductivity can be
determined solely by the swelling pressure without performing the swelling pressure test.
Table 2 shows the variation in permeability of the soils mentioned, with the addition
of stabilization materials from 0 to 10%. In all permeability tests of stabilized soil, the
improvement was observed. The stabilized soil is considered to be moderately permeable.
The stabilized soil has less permeability, so it can be used as a seepage barrier. The
experimental study of Patil et al. [82], with the addition of rice husk ash and fly ash in clayey
and silty soil, found that permeability improved, and mentioned that this increase is due to
the increase in the voids ratio and saturation. Moreover, they added the rice husk ash and
fly in higher percentages, compared to the present study. Khudyakova et al. [83] discovered
that combining 10% and 20% of incinerator fly ash with soft marine clay increases the
permeability by up to seven days. After a period, cementitious and pozzolanic gels form,
filling the spaces created by flocculated soil particles. Ghosh and Subbarao [84] observed a
similar trend in the stabilization of a low lime fly ash with lime and gypsum. Osinubi [85]
Materials 2022, 15, 2138 10 of 14

and Deb and Pal [86] observed a similar trend in fly ash for direct falling head permeability;
Porbaha et al. [87] also observed a similar trend in indirect calculation from consolidation.
Show et al. [88] observed an increasing trend in compacted fly and bottom ash mixture with
a higher percentage of fly ash. Kim et al. [89] observed a similar trend in a high volume fly
ash cement paste composite, composed of various combinations of fly ash, cement, lime,
silica fume, and chemical admixtures. Kalkan and Akbulut [90] observed a similar trend in
the application of silica fume for natural clay liners.

Table 2. Variation in permeability of treated soil.

NAME Permeability cm/s Compaction % Proctor Dry Density g/cc

Natural Soil 2.31 × 10− 5 94.56 1.84
2% Rice Husk 2.36 × 10−5 90.40 1.77
4% Rice Husk 2.78 × 10−5 89.02 1.73
6% Rice Husk 2.88 × 10−5 91.23 1.71
8% Rice Husk 3.11 × 10−5 92.26 1.68
10% Rice Husk 3.41 × 10−5 90.57 1.66
2% Wheat Straw 2.04 × 10−5 93.22 1.73
4% Wheat Straw 2.12 × 10−5 95.21 1.67
6% Wheat Straw 2.37 × 10−5 92.41 1.58
8% Wheat Straw 2.41 × 10−5 90.79 1.52
10% Wheat Straw 2.46 × 10−5 89.29 1.40
2% Saw Dust 1.84 × 10−5 93.94 1.65
4% Saw Dust 1.89 × 10−5 91.02 1.67
6% Saw Dust 1.90 × 10−5 93.13 1.60
8% Saw Dust 2.06 × 10−5 91.67 1.56
10% Saw Dust 2.52 × 10−5 93.88 1.47
2% Rice Husk Ash 4.62 × 10−5 92.56 1.81
4% Rice Husk Ash 5.76 × 10−5 91.44 1.75
6% Rice Husk Ash 7.115 × 10−5 90.33 1.65
8% Rice Husk Ash 3.15 × 10−4 93.21 1.63
10% Rice Husk Ash 5.33 × 10−4 92.67 1.49

Wong et al. [91] discovered that peat soil stabilized with a blend of ordinary Portland
cement, crushed granulated blast furnace slag, and siliceous sand was capable of decreasing
its initial permeability as the curing time increased. They discovered that the coefficient of
the permeability reduction in stabilized peat soil is dependent on several characteristics,
including fluid viscosity, pore size distribution, grain size distribution, void ratio, and
degree of saturation. The structure of clayey soils significantly affects the coefficient of
permeability. Additionally, the ionic concentration and thickness of water layers adhered
to the clay particles significantly affect the permeability of clays.

4. Conclusions
In the present study, the soil was treated with locally available waste materials, such
as cow dung ash, marble dust, rice husk, rice husk ash, and saw dust, for compaction
characteristics and soil permeability. The permeability of soil was determined by a mod-
ified permeameter apparatus. Based on the current experimental study, the following
conclusions are drawn:
• The soil is classified as -7-5 according to AASHTO, and CH is based on the USCS
classification system. The soil has a higher liquid and plasticity index, and, as the
liquid limit increases, so does the swelling potential.
• The maximum dry density decreased, and the optimum moisture increased irrespec-
tive of the type of additive, except for an increase in the case of marble dust. This is
due to low specific gravity and the non-plastic nature of additives.
Materials 2022, 15, 2138 11 of 14

• The permeability of soil increased with the addition of saw dust, wheat straw, and
rice husk, and decreased with marble dust. The addition of 8% of rice husk ash
significantly increased in permeability of the soil observed.
• The decrease in dry density and increase in permeability of the stabilized soil favors
the reduction in the swelling potential of expansive soil.
• All these locally available waste materials positively impact the engineering properties
of expansive clayey soil. For more favorable results, a higher percentage of these
materials should be used. It can be used to build roads, especially low-cost, temporary
highways, as well as earth fill.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.R.H. and A.K. (Aneel Kumar); methodology, Z.A. and
R.F.; software, M.A. and S.K.; validation, A.K. (Alexander Klyuev), L.S. and D.F.; formal analysis,
M.A. and R.F.; investigation, A.K. (Aneel Kumar) and R.F.; resources, Z.A. and S.K.; data curation,
L.S. and D.F.; writing—original draft preparation, M.R.H., M.A., A.K. (Aneel Kumar) and R.F.;
writing—review and editing, Z.A., A.K. (Alexander Klyuev) and L.S.; visualization, D.F. and S.K.;
supervision, A.K. (Aneel Kumar) and M.A.; project administration, Z.A.; funding acquisition, R.F.,
S.K., A.K. (Alexander Klyuev) and L.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This paper is supported by Kazan Federal University Strategic Academic Leadership
Program (PRIORITY-2030).
Data Availability Statement: The data for this study is available on the special request from all
corresponding authors.
Acknowledgments: This work was realized in the framework of the Program «Priority 2030» on the
base of the Belgorod State Technological University named after V.G. Shukhov.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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