Electric Charges and Fields

1) Mention the fundamental/basic properties electric charges.

• Charges are additive
• Charges are conserved
• Charges are quantised
2) Mention the methods of charging.
• Charging by contact
• Charging by induction
3) State and explain Coulomb’s law.
The electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the
two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them; and the force acts along the
line joining the two charges.
That is,
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹∝ 𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
 𝐹=𝑘 𝑟2
where, ‘𝑘′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, which is given
1
by, 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑜
𝜀𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦.
4) Define one coulomb (1C).
1C is the charge that when placed at a distance of 1m from another identical charge in vacuum experiences an
electrical force of repulsion of magnitude 9 × 109 𝑁.
5) Mention any three properties of electric field lines.
• A tangent drawn to an electric field line at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that point.
• Field lines always start from a positive charge and end on a negative charge.
• In a region containing a single charge,
➢ If the charge is positive, then field lines starts from the positive charge and ends at infinity.
➢ If the charge is negative, then field lines starts from infinity, and ends on the negative charge.
• In a charge-free region, electric field lines are continuous curves without breaks.
• Field lines never intersect each other.
• Field lines do not form closed loops.
• Field lines are always normal to the surface of a conductor.
6) Derive the expression for electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on the dipole axis.
Consider an electric dipole, whose dipole moment is given by,
𝑝⃗ = 𝑞(2𝑎)𝑝̂
𝐸⃗⃗+ - electric field at point P due to the charge +q
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗+ = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟−𝑎)2 𝑝̂
𝑜

𝐸⃗⃗− - electric field at point P due to the charge –q

1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗− =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟+𝑎) 2 (-𝑝̂ )

The net electric field at point P on the axis of the dipole is given by,
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗+ + 𝐸⃗⃗−
 1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑝̂ − 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟−𝑎)2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟+𝑎)2
𝑞 1 1
𝐸⃗⃗ = ( − (𝑟+𝑎)2 ) 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟−𝑎)2

𝑞 (𝑟+𝑎)2 −(𝑟−𝑎)2
𝐸⃗⃗ = (
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟+𝑎)2 (𝑟−𝑎)2
) 𝑝̂
𝑞 (2𝑟)(2𝑎)
𝐸⃗⃗ = ( ) 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 −𝑎 2 )2

1 (2𝑟𝑝)
𝐸⃗⃗ = ( 2 ) 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2

where, 𝑝 = 𝑞(2𝑎), is the magnitude of the electric dipole moment.

Therefore,
2𝑟𝑝𝑝̂
𝐸⃗⃗ =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
⃗⃗
𝟐𝒓𝒑
 ⃗𝑬⃗ = 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 (𝒓𝟐 −𝒂𝟐 )
Note:
If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎, or for a short dipole, ‘𝑎’ can be neglected. Therefore, we get,
2𝑟𝑝⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4
⃗⃗
𝟐𝒑
 ⃗𝑬⃗ = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓𝟑
𝒐
7) Derive the expression for electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on the equatorial plane.

Consider an electric dipole, whose dipole moment is given by,

𝑝⃗ = 𝑞(2𝑎)𝑝̂
The net electric field at point P on the equatorial plane of the dipole
is given by,
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗+ + 𝐸⃗⃗−
where, 𝐸⃗⃗+ is the electric field at point P due to the charge +q
and, 𝐸⃗⃗− is the electric field at point P due to the charge –q
We see that the magnitudes of 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− are the same, but their
directions are different as shown in the diagram.
1 𝑞
𝐸+ = = 𝐸−
4𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑟 + 𝑎2
2

The vertical components of 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− are equal and opposite. Hence they cancel each other.
The horizontal components of 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− add up, that is, the net electric field is given by,
𝐸 = 𝐸+ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝐸− 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 4𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑂
1 𝑞
 𝐸 = 2(4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑂
𝑎 𝑎
But 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = = 1
√𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 ) ⁄2
1 𝑞 𝑎
 𝐸 = 2 (4𝜋𝜀 2 +𝑎2 1 )
𝑂 𝑟 (𝑟 +𝑎2 ) ⁄2
2
 𝑝
 𝐸= 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 ) ⁄2
Since the net electric field opposes the electric dipole moment, we get,
−𝑝𝑝̂
𝐸⃗⃗ = 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2
⃗⃗
−𝒑
⃗⃗ =
 𝑬 𝟑
⁄
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 (𝒓𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 ) 𝟐
Note:
If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎, or for a short dipole, ‘𝑎’ can be neglected. Therefore, we get,
−𝑝
⃗⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 3⁄
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟2 ) 2

⃗⃗ = −𝒑⃗⃗ 𝟑
 𝑬 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓 𝒐
8) What are polar and non polar molecules? Give an example for each.
Non polar molecules: In these molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges coincide. In the presence of
external electric field, the centres of positive and negative charges may be separated. Hence, a dipole moment can
be induced in non polar molecules. Ex: 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝐶𝐻4 , 𝑁2 , 𝐻2 , 𝑂2
Polar molecules: In these molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges are separated, even in the
absence of an external electric field. Ex: 𝐻2 𝑂, 𝐶𝑂, 𝑁𝐻3 , 𝐻𝐶𝑙
9) Derive the expression for torque acting on an electric dipole in a uniform electric field.
Consider a permanent electric dipole moment 𝑝⃗ placed in a uniform external electric field as shown.

The net force on the dipole is the vector sum of forces acting on the charges, +q and –q, that is,
𝐹⃗ = 𝐹⃗+ + 𝐹⃗−
 𝐹⃗ = (+𝑞𝐸) + (−𝑞𝐸)
 𝐹⃗ = 0
But the net torque acting on the dipole is not zero.
Here, the torque is measured about the centre of the dipole
Draw AC Ʇ 𝐸⃗⃗
Torque= force × perpendicular distance between the forces
𝜏 = F × AC ---(1)
𝐴𝐶
sinθ = 𝐴𝐵
AC = AB sinθ = 2a sinθ
Equ 1 becomes, 𝜏 = (qE) × 2a sinθ
 𝜏 = pE sinθ
where 𝑞(2𝑎) = 𝑝
⃗⃗ = ⃗𝒑⃗ × ⃗𝑬
𝝉 ⃗⃗

10) State and explain Gauss’ law.

1
Statement: The total electric flux over a closed, hypothetical surface in vacuum is equal to times the total charge
𝜀𝑜
enclosed by the surface.
If 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, then according to Gauss’s law,
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
фE=
𝜀𝑜
11) Using Gauss’ law, derive the expression for electric field due to an infinitely long, straight uniformly charged wire .

Consider an infinitely long, straight uniformly charged wire, whose linear

charge density is 𝜆.
Let Δ𝑞 be the charge contained in a finite length ′𝐿′ of the wire. Therefore,
Δq
𝜆=
L
 ∆𝑞 = 𝜆𝐿
To find the electric field at a point ′𝑃′ at a distance ′𝑟′ due the charged wire,
we consider a Gaussian cylinder of length ′𝐿′ passing through the point ‘P’.
According to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the electric field due
to the charged wire is radially outwards, and always perpendicular to the
Gaussian cylinder.
The electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,
Δ𝜑𝐸 = Δ𝜑1 + Δ𝜑2 + Δ𝜑3
 Δ𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(Δ𝑆1 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 90𝑜 + 𝐸(Δ𝑆2 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 90𝑜 + 𝐸(Δ𝑆3 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 0𝑜
 Δ𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(Δ𝑆3 )
Therefore, the total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is,
𝜑𝐸 = ∑ Δ𝜑𝐸
 𝜑𝐸 = ∑ 𝐸(Δ𝑆3 )
The magnitude of the electric field at all points on the curved surface of the Gaussian cylinder is the same.
Therefore,
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 ∑(Δ𝑆3 )
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝐿)
Using Gauss’s law,
∆𝑞
𝜑𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜
𝜆𝐿
 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝐿) = 𝜀𝑜
𝜆
 𝐸 = 2𝜋𝜀
𝑜𝑟
Note:
If 𝑟̂ is the unit vector directed radially outwards, then,
𝝀
⃗⃗ =
𝑬 𝒓̂
𝟐𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓
 12) Using Gauss’s law, derive the expression for electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.

Consider a uniformly charged, infinite plane sheet whose

surface charge density is ′𝜎′.
If ∆𝑞 is the charge on a small area element ∆𝑆 on the sheet,
then,
∆𝑞
𝜎=
∆𝑆
 ∆𝑞 = 𝜎(∆𝑆)
To find the electric field at a point very close to the sheet,
imagine a Gaussian pillbox (a small cylinder) at that point,
piercing through the sheet.
According to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the
electric field due to the uniformly charged sheet will be perpendicular and outwards to the sheet.
The electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,
𝜑𝐸 = 𝜑1 + 𝜑2 + 𝜑3
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(∆𝑆1 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 0𝑜 + 𝐸(∆𝑆2 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 0𝑜 + 𝐸(Δ𝑆3 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 90𝑜
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(∆𝑆1 ) + 𝐸(∆𝑆2 )
Since ∆𝑆1 = ∆𝑆2 = ∆𝑆 (say), we get,
𝜑𝐸 = 2𝐸(∆𝑆)
Using Gauss’s law,
∆𝑞
𝜑𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜
𝜎(∆𝑆)
 2𝐸(∆𝑆) =
𝜀𝑜
𝜎
 𝐸 = 2𝜀
𝑜
Note:
If 𝑛̂ is the unit vector directed perpendicular and outwards the plane of sheet, then,
𝝈
⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑬 ̂
𝒏
𝟐𝜺𝒐

13) Using Gauss’s law, derive the expression for electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell.
Case (i): Electric field outside the spherical shell:
Consider a uniformly charged, thin spherical shell of radius ‘R’. Let the total charge on the shell be ′𝑄′.
To find the electric field at a point ‘P’ outside the sphere at a distance ′𝑟′ from the centre of the shell:Imagine a
Gaussian sphere of radius ′𝑟′ passing through the point ‘P’.
According to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the electric field is directed radially outwards, perpendicular to all the
points on the sphere.
The total electric flux through the Gaussian sphere is given by,
𝜑𝐸 = ∑ ∆𝜑𝐸
 𝜑𝐸 = ∑ 𝐸(∆𝑆)𝐶𝑜𝑠 0𝑜
where, ∆𝑆 is a small patch of area on the Gaussian sphere. The magnitude of the electric field is a constant at all points on
the Gaussian sphere. Therefore,
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 ∑(∆𝑆)
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 )
where, ∑(∆𝑆) = 4𝜋𝑟 2 is the surface area of the Gaussian sphere.
Using Gauss’s law,
𝑄
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝜀
𝑜
2) 𝑄
 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 =𝜀
𝑜
𝑄
 𝐸=
𝜀𝑜 (4𝜋𝑟 2 )
𝟏 𝑸
 𝑬 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 (𝒓𝟐 )
𝒐
If 𝑟̂ is the unit vector directed radially outwards, then,
𝟏 𝑸
⃗𝑬⃗ = ( 𝟐 ) 𝒓̂
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓
Thus, for points outside the uniformly charged, thin spherical shell, the electric field is as if the entire charge was
concentrated at the centre of the shell.

Case (ii): Electric field inside the spherical shell:

Consider a uniformly charged, thin spherical shell of radius ‘R’. Let the total charge on the shell be ′𝑄′.
To find the electric field at a point P’ inside the sphere at a distance 𝑟′ from the centre of the shell:
Imagine a Gaussian sphere of radius 𝑟′ passing through the point P’.
Using Gauss’s law,
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
 𝜑𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜
Here, since the Gaussian sphere does not enclose any charge, that is, 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 0.
Therefore, 𝜑𝐸 = 0
Since, 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 ∑(∆𝑆), we get,
𝑬=𝟎
Therefore, electric field inside a uniformly, charged thin spherical shell is zero.
Case (iii): Electric field just outside the spherical shell
If ′𝜎′ is the surface charge density of the uniformly charged spherical shell, then,
𝑄
𝜎=
4𝜋𝑅 2
2
where, (4𝜋𝑅 ) is the area of the spherical shell.
Using case (i) we get the electric field just outside the spherical shell, that is,
1 𝑄
 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑅2 )
𝑜
𝝈
 𝑬=𝜺
𝒐
If 𝑟̂ is the unit vector directed radially outwards, then,
 ⃗⃗ = 𝝈 𝒓̂
 𝑬 𝜺 𝒐

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1) The colour code of a carbon resistor is brown -red-brown-gold. What is its resistance?
R=(12 × 101 ± 5%) Ω

2) State and explain ohm’s law.

The current in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its
ends, provided the temperature and other physical conditions are kept constant.
𝐼∝𝑉
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
Where, I is the current in the conductor, V is the potential difference and R
is the resistance of the conductor.

3) Define 1 ohm.
The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm, if 1A of current flows through it when a potential
difference of 1V is applied across its ends.

4) Write limitations of ohm’s law.

➢ Ohm’s law is not applicable to superconductors.
➢ It is not applicable to semiconductors.
➢ It is not applicable for metallic conductors at very low and high temperatures.

5) What is ohmic and non-ohmic devices? Give examples.

The device which obeys Ohm’s law is called Ohmic device. That is, the graph of current versus voltage for
the device should be linear.
Example: Metallic conductors.
The device which do not obey Ohm’s law is called a non-ohmic device. That is, the graph of current versus
voltage for the device should be non - linear.
Example: Semiconductors.

6) How does the resistance of a conductor vary with its length and its area of cross section?
The resistance of a conductor is
➢ Directly proportional to length of the conductor.
➢ Inversely proportional to area of cross- section of the conductor.
7) Represents graphically the variations of resistivity with absolute temperature for
a) copper b) nichrome metals and c) silicon(semiconductor)

8) Derive the relation J= σE

In the figure, l is the length of the cylindrical metallic wire,
A is the area of cross -section of the wire, V is the potential difference applied across the wire, E is the
electric field set up in the wire , 𝑣𝑑 is the drift velocity of the electrons, I is the current in the wire,

Ohm’s law can be written as V = I R

𝑙
V= I ------(1)
𝐴
Where,  is the constant of proportionality is called the resistivity (or specific resistance).
If E is the magnitude of the uniform electric field in the conductor whose length is l and V is the potential
difference across its ends, then
𝑉
E=
𝑙
V = E 𝑙 -----(2)
From 1 & 2,
𝑙
E𝑙= I
𝐴
I
E= 
A
I
E=j (j = )
A
1
j= E

j=E
Since the directions of E and j are same, above equation can be written in vector form as
⃗𝐣 =  ⃗𝑬
⃗⃗
9) Derive an expression for conductivity of a material in terms of relaxation time.
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
Or σ= 𝒎

In the figure,
L is the length of the cylindrical metallic wire, A is the area of cross-section of the wire, V is the potential
difference applied across the wire, E is the electric field set up in the wire, 𝑣𝑑 is the drift velocity of the
electrons, I is the current in the wire.
The current through the wire is given by I = n A e vd
𝑒𝐸
Drift velocity, vd = 𝜏
𝑚
𝑒𝐸
I = n Ae ( 𝜏)
𝑚

Current density j is the current through unit area normal to direction of current

I n𝑒 2 τ
=( )E
A 𝑚

n𝑒 2 τ
j=( ) E --------(1)
𝑚

j =  E -----(2)

𝐧𝒆𝟐 𝛕
comparing equ1 and equ2,  =
𝒎

where  is the conductivity of the material.

(J is the current density, n is the number of electrons per unit volume, τ is the relaxation time, e is the
charge on the electron, m is the mass of an electron).

10) Derive an expression for drift velocity of free electrons in a conductor.

Let m be the mass of an electron, -e be the charge of the electron ,u be the average initial velocity of all
the free electrons, E be the field in the conductor, v be the average final velocity of all the free electrons,
a be the acceleration of the electrons ,τ be the relaxation time of the electrons.
We have 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝜏 -------------(1)
In the absence of electric field, u=0
 In the presence of electric field, v=drift velocity= 𝑣𝑑
From equation (1) 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑎𝜏 ------(2)
But F= ma
𝐹
a=𝑚
−𝑒𝐸
a= ( F=-eE)
𝑚
−𝑒𝐸𝜏
From equation (2) 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚
Where negative sign indicates that the direction of 𝑣𝑑 and E are opposite as shown in figure.

11) Derive an expression of equivalent resistance when two resistors are in series

Consider three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 connected in series as shown in figure.

Let V be the potential difference across the combination and I be the current through the resistors.

If V1 , V2 and V3 are the potential difference across R1 , R2 and R3 respectively.

V = V1 + V2 + V3……………..(1)

From ohm’s law, V1 = I R1 , V2 = I R2 and V3 = I R3

 V = IR1 + IR2 + I R3

V = I (R1 + R2+ R3)………(2)

If the combination of resistors is replaced by an equivalent resistance RS that produces the same effect as that of
the combination,

then V = I Rs --------------(3)

From equations (2) & (3) we get

 IRs = I (R1 + R2 + R3 )

Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
12) Derive an expression of equivalent resistance when two resistors are in parallel

Consider three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 connected in parallel as shown in figure.

Let V be the potential difference across the combination and I be the main current. I1 , I2 and I3 are the
currents through R1 , R2 and R3 respectively.
Then I = I1 + I2 + I3 -----------(1)
𝐕 𝐕 𝐕
From Ohm’s law, I1 = , I2 = and I3 =
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

Substitute I1 , I2 and I3 in equ 1,

𝐕 𝐕 𝐕
I= + +
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
I=V 𝐑 + + ---------(2)
𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

If the combination of resistors is replaced by equivalent resistance Rp that produces the same effect as
𝐕
that of the combination, then I = -------(3)
𝐑𝐩
From equations (2) & (3) we get
V 1 1 1
=V + +
Rp R1 R2 R3

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + -------(4)
𝐑𝐩 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

In general, for n number of resistors,

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + --------+
Rp R1 R2 R3 Rn
13) Distinguish between series and parallel combination of resistors.
Series combination Parallel combination
1 It is the end to end connection It is the connection between two
common points
2 The current is same in all the resistors The potential difference is same across all
the resistors
3 It is a potential divider circuit It is a current divider circuit
 4 V=𝑉1+𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + − − +𝑉𝑛 I=𝐼1 +𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + − − +𝐼𝑛
5 𝑹𝒔 =𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑 + − − +𝑹𝒏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝑹 +𝑹 + − − − + 𝑹
𝑹𝑷 𝑹𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝒏

6 This combination increases the effective This combination decreases the effective
resistance resistance

14) Two cells of different emfs and internal resistances are connected in series. Derive the expression for
the equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the combination.

The cells are said to be connected in series between two points, negative terminal of one cell connected to the positive
terminal of the other.

Consider two cells are connected in series as shown in figure(a) .

Let 1 and 2 be the emfs of the two cells and r1 and r2 be their internal resistances respectively. When
cells are in series, current remains the same whereas the potential difference are different. Let V 1 and V2
be the potentials across the cells.

Potential difference across the first cell is VAB = 1 – I r1

Potential difference across the second cell is VBC = 2 – Ir2

Potential difference between A and C of the series combination of the two cells is

VAC = VA - VC

= (VA – VB) + ( VB - VC)

= 1 – I r1 + 2 – Ir2

VAC = (1 + 2) – I(r1 + r2) -------(1)

The series combination of two cells can be replaced by a single cell of emf eq and internal resistance req as
shown in figure (b) There VAC = eq - I eq ……………(2)

Comparing eq. (1) and (2),

we get eq = 1 + 2 ………….(3)

And req = r1 + r2 ……………(4)

In general, for n cells connected in series, eq =1 + 2 +-----+n

req = r1 + r2 +……………+ rn
 15) Two cells of different emfs and internal resistances are connected in parallel. Derive the expression for
the equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the combination.
Consider two cells connected in parallel as shown in figure (a).

Let 1 and 2 be the emfs of the two cells and r1 and r2 be their internal resistances respectively. When cells are connected in
parallel, potential difference remains the same whereas the current is different.

Let VAC be the potential difference across the cells.

Let I1 and I2 be the currents drawn from the individual cells. If I is the current drawn from the grouping, then
I = I1 + I2 ------(1)
Since the potential difference of across each cell is same,
𝟏−𝑽
VAC = V = 1 – I1 r1  I1 =
𝒓𝟏

𝟐−𝐕
VAC = V = 2 – I2 r2  I2 =
𝐫𝟐

Substituting for I1 & I2 in equation (1) we get

I = I1 + I2
𝟏 −𝑽 𝟐 −𝑽
I= +
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
I= + −V +
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐

𝑟1 +𝑟2 1 𝑟2 +2 𝑟1
V = –I
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2

1 𝑟2 +2 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2
V= -I --------(2)
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
If the parallel combination of cells is replaced by a single cell of emf Eeq and internal resistance req ,

then VAC = V = eq - I req ----(3)

Comparing eq (2) and (3)

𝟏 𝒓𝟐 +𝟐𝒓𝟏
eq = ----(4)
𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐
 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 1 1 1
req = or = + ----(5)
𝒓 𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 req r1 r2

Note:
➢ For ‘n’ cells in series,
s = 1+2+3+-----+n
𝒓𝒔 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟑 +…….+𝒓𝒏
➢ For ‘n’ cells in parallel,
𝑝 1 2 𝑛
= + + -------+ and
𝑟𝑝 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑛
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝐫 +------ +𝐫
𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝟏 𝟐 𝐧

16) State and explain Kirchhoff’s junction rule of electrical network

The sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction.

In the figure, I1 and I2 are the currents enetering the junction O and I3 and I4 are the currents leaving the
junction O from kirchhoff’s junction rule, I1 + I2 = I3 + I4

17) State and explain kirchhoff’s loop rule of electrical network.

“The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and cells in the
loop is zero.”

Applying loop rule, BEDCB,

-I2R2 – I3R3 + 2 = 0
I2R2 + I3R3 = 2
Applying loop rule ABEFA,
-I2R2 – I1R1 + 1 = 0
I1R1 + I2R2 = 1

18) what is the significance of Kirchhoff’s junction rule?

Law of conservation of charge

19) what is the significance of Kirchhoff’s loop rule?

Law of conservation of energy.
20) Deduce the condition for balance of a wheatstone bridge using kirchhoff’s rules

Wheatstone’s network is used to find the ratio of two resistance values or to determine the value of an
unknown resistance. It consists of four resistors P, Q, S and R connected in cyclic order in the form of a
quadrilateral as shown in figure
Using Kirchoff’s first law

at node B, I1 = I3 + Ig

I3 = I1 - Ig

And at node D, I4 = I2 + Ig

Applying Kirchoff’s second law to the mesh ABDA,

-I1P - Ig G + I2 R = 0 ---(1)

Applying Kirchoff’s second law to the mesh BCDB,

-I3 Q + I4 S + Ig G = 0

Or - ( I1 - Ig) Q + ( I2 + Ig ) S + Ig G = 0 -----(2)

When the network is balanced the current through the galvanometer is zero i.e., Ig = 0

Equ 1 reduces to, -I1P + I2 R = 0

I1P = I2 R ------(3)

Equ 2 reduces to , - I1 Q + I2 S = 0

I1 Q = I2 S -----(4)

Divide equ 3 by 4,

𝐏 𝐑
=
𝐐 𝐒

This is the condition for balanced Wheatstone’s network. Thus, if two resistances are known, the ratio
of the other two can be found.
 21) What is the principle of metre bridge?
It works on the principle of balanced wheat stone bridge.
22) what is the principle and application of potentiometer ?
Principle: Potential difference across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion
provided cross sectional area of wire and current flowing through the wire is constant.
Vα l
Application:
➢ It is used to find the internal resistance of a cell
➢ It is used to compare the emfs of two cells.

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

1. With a neat labelled diagram, explain the construction and working of a cyclotron.

Cyclotron is a device used to accelerate charged particles

like protons, deuterons,  - particles, etc. It works on the
basis of the principle that a charged particle can be
accelerated to very high energies by making it pass through
a moderate electric field a number of times and applying a
strong magnetic field at the same time.

2. State Biot-Savarts law.

The magnetic field dB at a point due to a current element I dl is
1) Directly proportional to the strength of the electric current I.
2) Directly proportional to the length dl of the current element.
3) Directly proportional to the sine of the angle θ between the current element and the line joining the point of
observation with the current element.
4) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the point from the current element.

dB I
dB dl
dB  sin
1
dB 
r2
Combining all the above conditions, we
i dl sin
get dB 
r2
0 i dl sin
dB =
4π r2

where, 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇𝑚𝐴−1 𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑚−1

3. Derive the expression for magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular current loop.

Consider a circular loop carrying a steady current I. The loop is placed in the y-z plane with its centre at the origin O and has a
radius R. The x-axis is the axis of the loop. Let x be the distance of P from the centre O of the loop. Consider a conducting
element dl of the loop. The magnitude dB of the magnetic field due to dl is given by the Biot-Savart law

0 I dl sin
dB = ……………(1)
4π r2

Now r2 = x2 + R2. Further, any element of the loop will be perpendicular to the displacement vector from the element to the
axial point therefore sin = sin 90 = 1
Eq(1) becomes

0 I dl
dB = ……………(2)
4π x2 + R2

dB has an x-component dBx and a component perpendicular to x-axis, dB⊥. When the components perpendicular to the x-axis
are summed over, they cancel out and we obtain a null result.
The net contribution along x-direction can be obtained by integrating dBx = dB sinα over the loop.
R
sinα = 1
(x2 + R2 ) ⁄2

0 I dl R
Therefore, dBx = dB sinα = . 1
4π x2 + R2 (x2 + R2 ) ⁄2

0 I dl R
dBx = . 3
4π (x2 + R2 ) ⁄2

The Magnetic field due to entire element is given by

0 I ∑ dl R
∑dBx = . 3
4π (x2 + R2 ) ⁄2

The summation of elements dl over the loop yields 2πR, the circumference of the loop. Thus
0 I (2πR) R
B= . 3
4π (x2 + R2 ) ⁄2
By solving we get
𝜇𝑜 2𝜋𝐼𝑅2
𝐵=
4𝜋 (x 2 + R2 )3⁄2
 Note :
• Magnetic field at the centre of the circular loop is given by substituting x = 0, and we obtain,
0 i
B0 =
2R
• If there are ‘N’ turns of the circular loops, then the magnetic flux is given by,
𝜇𝑜 2𝜋𝑁𝐼𝑅2
𝐵=
4𝜋 (x 2 + R2 )3⁄2

4. State Ampere’s circuital law

⃗⃗⃗⃗ for a closed curve enclosing an area is equal to  times the net current I through the area
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙
The line integral ∮ 𝐵 0
bounded by the curve.
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
i.e., ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 0 I
5. What is a solenoid? Derive the expression for the magnetic field due to a solenoid?
A solenoid consists of a long-insulated wire wound in the form of a helix where neighbouring turns are closely
spaced.

Consider an ideal solenoid where the magnetic field outside the solenoid approaches zero. The magnetic field inside, at the centre
of the solenoid becomes almost parallel to the axis.

To find the magnetic field (B) at point ‘P’ inside the solenoid:
Consider a rectangular Amperian loop abcd. Along cd the field is zero. Along transverse sections bc and da, the field component is
zero. Thus, these two sections make no contribution. Let the field along ab be ‘B’.
Let ‘n’ be the number of turns per unit length, then the total number of turns in the length ab is nL.
The current enclosed is, Ienc = nLI, where I is the current in the solenoid.
From Ampere’s circuital law, we know that,
⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
∫𝐵
 ∫ 𝐵 (𝑑𝑙) cos 0𝑜 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑛𝐿𝐼)
 𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑛𝐿𝐼)
 𝐵𝐿 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑛𝐿𝐼)
 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼

6. What is a toroid? Derive the expression for the magnetic field due to a toroid?

The toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire are closely wound. It can be viewed as a solenoid
which has been bent into a circular shape to close on itself.
 Consider a toroid as shown in the figure. Three circular Amperian loops 1, 2 and 3 are shown by dashed lines. By symmetry, the
magnetic field should be tangential to each of them and are constant in magnitude for a given loop.

Magnetic field along Amperian loops 1 and 3 is zero because current enclosed by them is zero. That is,
⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 0
∫𝐵
 𝐵=0
Whereas the magnetic field within the turns of the toroid is not zero. Consider an Amperian loop 2 passing through a point ‘S’ inside
the toroid. Using the Ampere’s circuital law, we get,
⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
∫𝐵
 𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
 𝐵(2𝜋𝑟2 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
where, ‘N’ is the number of turns in the toroid, ‘I’ is the current in the toroid, and 𝑟2 is the radius of the loop 2. Hence we get,
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
(2𝜋𝑟2 )
𝑁
But, (2𝜋𝑟 ) = 𝑛, where ‘n’ is the number of turns per unit length of the toroid. Hence we get,
2
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼

7. Derive the expression for the force between two long straight parallel conductors carrying currents and hence define
ampere, the S.I. unit of current

Consider two long parallel conductors 1 and 2 separated by a distance d and carrying (parallel) currents I 1 and I2, respectively.

The magnetic force acting on conductor ‘2’ of length ‘L’ due to the current in conductor ‘1’ is given by,
𝐹21 = 𝐵1 𝐼2 𝐿 sin 𝜃
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝑜
 𝐹21 = ( ) 𝐼2 𝐿 sin 90
2𝜋𝑑
0 I1 I2 L
 F21 =
2πd
 where, 𝐵1 is the magnetic field produced by the current carrying conductor ‘1’ at the conductor ‘2’.
The force acting per unit length of the conductor is,
𝐹21 0 I1 I2
𝑓21 = = …………….(1)
𝐿 2πd
Similarly, the magnetic force acting on conductor ‘1’ of length ‘L’ due to the current in conductor ‘2’ is given by,
F12 = B2 I1 L sin

𝜇𝑜 𝐼2 𝑜
 𝐹12 = ( ) 𝐼1 𝐿 sin 90
2𝜋𝑑
0 I1 I2 L
 F12 =
2πd
where, 𝐵𝑏 is the magnetic field produced by the current carrying conductor ‘b’ at the conductor ‘a’.
The force acting per unit length of the conductor is,
𝐹12 𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝑓12 = = …………….(2)
𝐿 2𝜋𝑑
From equations (1) and (2), we see that the magnetic force exerted by one conductor on the other has the same magnitude, but are in
opposite direction to each other.
Note:
Parallel conductors attract and anti-parallel conductors repel
One Ampere is the value of that steady current which, when maintained in each of the two very long, straight, parallel conductors of
negligible cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce on each of these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10–7
newtons per metre of length.

7. With neat labeled diagram, explain the working of a moving coil galvanometer.{OR} Give the theory of moving coil galvanometer?

A galvanometer is a device to check the presence of current.

The galvanometer consists of a coil, with many turns, free to rotate about a fixed axis in a
⃗⃗ such that the angle between
uniform radial magnetic field. The coil will be aligned with B
⃗⃗ and the field is always 900
the area vector A

When a current flows through the coil, a torque act on it. This torque is  = N I A B

(Because,  = N I A B sin ,  = 90o   = N I A B)

This magnetic torque NIAB tends to rotate the coil.

A spring Sp provides an equal and opposite torque (counter torque) given by r = k 

where k is the torsional constant of the spring (the restoring torque per unit twist).

In equilibrium, NIAB = k 

NAB
=( )I
k

Note:

➢ Current sensitivity of the galvanometer is the deflection per unit current.

 NAB
➢ Current sensitivity is given by, =
I k

8. Mention the SI unit of magnetic moment.

Am2
9. Write the value of Bohr Magneton.
9.27  10-24 Am2
10. Write the expression for force acting on an electric charge moving in a uniform magnetic field.
⃗⃗  ⃗𝑩
⃗𝑭⃗ = q (𝒗 ⃗⃗)

11. Derive an expression for magnetic field due to an infinitely long straight conductor carrying current using ampere
circuit law.
Consider a straight conductor of infinite length in the plane of the paper. Let I be the current through
it.
⃗⃗⃗ at point P due to the current in the wire is
The magnetic field 𝑩
along the tangent to the circle. Hence the magnetic field ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗ is
parallel to the line element ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒍 at P.
Applying Ampere’s circuital law to the circular loop of radius r,
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 =  I
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
0
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0 I
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 = 0 I
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 0 I
B ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 0 I
B (2r) = 0 I
0 I
B = 2r

12. Explain how to convert a given galvanometer into an ammeter.

A galvanometer can be converted to an

ammeter by connecting a suitable low
resistance in parallel with its coil. The low
resistance in parallel is called the Shunt
resistance.

Let Ig be the current required to produce full scale deflection in a galvanometer having coil resistance G.
A maximum current of I is desired to be measured by the instrument.
Let S be the shunt resistance which is connected in parallel with the galvanometer.
When current I is passed through this set-up, current Ig passes through the galvanometer and the remaining current
(I-Ig) passes through the shunt resistance.

The potential difference across the galvanometer = potential difference across S

(I- Ig) S = Ig G
Ig G
S=
(I−Ig )
This gives the value of shunt resistance to be connected across the galvanometer to make it to read a maximum
current I.
NOTE: The resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.

13. Explain how to convert a given galvanometer into a voltmeter.

A galvanometer is converted to a voltmeter by connecting a suitable high resistance in series with it.
Let Ig be the current required for full scale deflection in a galvanometer having coil resistance G.
A suitable high resistance R is to be connected in series with the galvanometer so that the maximum current which
passes through the galvanometer is Ig only.
Since R and G are in series,
V = Ig R + Ig G
V = Ig (R + G)
V
=R+G
Ig
V
R= −G
Ig
This gives the value of resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer to make it to read a maximum
potential difference of V.

Note: The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity.

Magnetsim And Matter

1. Mention the properties of magnetic field lines
Properties of magnetic field lines are:
➢ The magnetic field lines of a magnet or a solenoid form continuous closed loops.
➢ The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction of the net magnetic field ‘B’ at that point.
➢ The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger the magnetic field B. Hence, the magnetic field is
strongest at the poles.
➢ Magnetic field lines do not intersect. For if they did intersect, the direction of the field would not be uniquely specified at
the point of intersection
2. Define magnetic meridian.
Magnetic meridian at a place is a vertical plane passing through the magnetic North & South Poles of the earth. A bar magnet always
comes to rest along the magnetic meridian

3. Define geographic meridian.

Geographic meridian at any place is a vertical plane passing through the geographic North and south poles of the earth.
 4. Define magnetic declination.
The angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian at a place is called inclination at that place.

5. Define inclination or magnetic dip.

The angle between the earth’s total magnetic field and the horizontal at the place is called magnetic dip or inclination.

6. Define Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field at a given place

The horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field at a place is the component of earth’s total magnetic field at the place
along the horizontal drawn in the magnetic meridian.

7. Define the terms: (1) magnetization of a magnetic material, (2) magnetic intensity and (3) magnetic susceptibility.
mnet
➢ Magnetisation ‘M’ of a sample is its net magnetic moment per unit volume: M =
V
➢ The magnetic intensity (H) is defined,
𝐵
𝐻= −𝑀
𝜇𝑂
where, ‘B’ is the magnetic field, ‘M’ is the magnetization, and 𝜇𝑜 is absolute permeability.
➢ Magnetic susceptibility (𝜒) is defined as the ratio of magnetization M of the substance to the magnetic intensity H of the
magnetizing field in which it is placed.
M
χ=
H

8. Define magnetic permeability and relative magnetic permeability. Write a relation between them.
➢ MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY (𝛍)
It is the ability of the material to allow the passage of magnetic lines of force through it.
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction to the magnetic intensity.
B
𝛍=
H
➢ RELATIVE MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY (𝛍r)
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic permeability of the material to the magnetic permeability of free space.
μ
𝛍r =
μ0

9. Derive the relation between magnetic permeability and magnetic susceptibility.

The net magnetic field B in the interior of a solenoid is expressed as B = Bo + Bm
B = 0 H + 0 M
B = 0 (H + H)
B = 0 (1 + ) H
B = 0r H
B=H i.e.,  = 0r
Where r = 1 +  is a dimensionless quantity called the relative magnetic permeability of the substance. → magnetic
permeability of the substance
 = 0r = 0 (1 + )
 10. What is hysteresis, hysteresis loss, retentivity and coercivity?
• The magnetic field B in the sample lag behind the magnetic intensity H when a sample of ferromagnetic material is taken through
a cycle of magnetization. This phenomenon is called hysteresis.
• The loss of energy per unit volume per cycle of magnetization is called hysteresis loss
• The property of a ferromagnetic material to retain some magnetization even when the applied magnetic field becomes zero is
called as retentivity or remanence.
The property of a ferromagnetic material where a reverse magnetic intensity is applied so as to make the magnetic field inside the
material zero is called coercivity

6. Mention the differences between diamagnetic, paramagnetic materials and ferromagnetic materials.
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
The substances which have tendency to The substances which get weakly The substances which gets strongly
move from stronger to the weaker part of magnetized when placed in an external magnetized when placed in an external
the external magnetic field are called magnetic field and have tendency to move magnetic field and have strong tendency
to move from a region of weak magnetic
diamagnetic. from weak to strong magnetic field, i.e
field to strong magnetic field are called
they get weakly attracted to a magnet are Ferromagnetic substances.
called paramagnetic substances
When the diamagnetic material placed in When a bar of paramagnetic material When a bar of ferromagnetic material
an external magnetic field. The field lines placed in an external field, the field lines placed in an external field, the field lines
are repelled (or) expelled gets concentrated in the material and as gets concentrated in the material as
shown below. shown below.

The magnetic field inside the material is The magnetic field inside material slightly The magnetic field inside material is highly
reduced is enhanced. enhanced
Susceptibility is negative Susceptibility is positive and low Susceptibility is positive and high
Relative permeability is slightly less than Relative permeability is slightly more than Relative permeability is very large.
one. (0 ≤ 𝜇𝑟 < 1) one. (1 < 𝜇𝑟 < 1 + 𝜀) (𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1)

Susceptibility (𝜒) does not change with Susceptibility (𝜒) inversely proportional to Susceptibility (𝜒) inversely proportional to
temperature. temperature temperature above the curie temperature

7. State Gauss’s Law in magnetism

The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero.
 Ray optics & Optical instruments:
1) Derive the relation between u, v, n and R for a spherical refracting surface.
Consider a spherical refracting surface as shown. Real image ‘I’ of an object ‘O’ is formed after refraction.
𝑃𝑁
From ∆ OPN, tan α = 𝑂𝑃
𝑃𝑁
From ∆ NPC, tan β = 𝐶𝑃

𝑃𝑁
From ∆ NPI, tan 𝛾 = 𝐼𝑃
If α, β and γ are small angles, we use small angle approximation
𝑷𝑵
tan α ≅ α, i.e α ≅ 𝑶𝑷
𝑷𝑵
tan β ≅ β, i.e β ≅
𝑪𝑷
𝑷𝑵
tan 𝛾 ≅ 𝛾, i.e 𝜸 ≅ 𝑰𝑷
From ∆ ONC,
i=α+β
𝑷𝑵 𝑷𝑵
i.e i = 𝑶𝑷 + 𝑪𝑷 …..(1)
From ∆ NCI,
β= r + 𝛾
or r = β – 𝛾
𝑷𝑵 𝑷𝑵
r = 𝑪𝑷 - ………(2)
𝑰𝑷
From Snell’s law,
n1 sin i = n2 sin r
Since i and r are small angles, sin i ≅ I and sin r ≅ r
Hence, n1 i = n2 r
Substituting for i and r from equation 1 and 2 we get,
𝑷𝑵 𝑷𝑵 𝑷𝑵 𝑷𝑵
n1 (𝑶𝑷 + )= n2( 𝑪𝑷 − )
𝑪𝑷 𝑰𝑷
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2
 + 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑃 - 𝐼𝑃
𝑂𝑃
By sign conventions, OP= - u, CP = R and IP = v
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2
=> - + = -
𝑢 𝑅 𝑅 𝑣
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛1
=> - + = -
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅 𝑅
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
Or - + =
𝒖 𝒗 𝑹
2) Derive lens makers formula for a thin lens.
Consider a thin lens as shown. Refraction occurs at two spherical surfaces, and a real image of an object ‘O’ is
formed at ‘I’. Let n1 be the refractive index of the surrounding medium and n2 is the refractive index of the lens
medium. For refraction at a spherical surface, we know that,
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
- + =
𝒖 𝒗 𝑹
Refraction through the surface AP1B:
I1 is the image. Here, v = v1, R = R1. Thus,
𝒏𝟏 𝒏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
- + 𝒗𝟐 = ………… (1)
𝒖 𝟏 𝑹𝟏
Refraction through the surface AP2B:
Here I1 is the virtual object. Hence, n1 = n2 and n2 = n1 , u =
v1 and R = R2, thus
𝒏 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐
- 𝒗𝟐 + =
𝟏 𝒗 𝑹𝟐
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
Or - 𝒗 + =-( ) ………. (2)
𝟏 𝒗 𝑹𝟐
Adding equation 1 and 2,
𝒏𝟏 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
- + 𝒗𝟐 - 𝒗𝟐 + = -
𝒖 𝟏 𝟏 𝒗 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 1 1
n1(− + 𝒗) = (n2 – n1) (𝑅 − )
𝒖 1 𝑅2
If u = ∞, then v = f,
𝟏 𝟏 1 1
∴ n1(− + 𝒇) = (n2 – n1) (𝑅 − )
∞ 1 𝑅2
𝒏𝟏 1 1
= (n2 – n1) (𝑅 − )
𝒇 1 𝑅2
𝟏 𝒏 𝟏 𝟏
Or = (𝒏𝟐 − 𝟏) (𝑹 − )
𝒇 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟐
3) Obtain relation between focal length and radius of curvature in case of concave mirror.
Angle incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r) = θ
𝑀𝐷
From ∆ MCD, tan θ = …….1
𝐶𝐷
𝑀𝐷
From ∆ MFD, tan 2θ = …...2
𝐹𝐷
For paraxial ray, θ is small, and FD ≅ FP and CD ≅ CP. ∴ tan θ ≅ θ and, tan 2 θ ≅ 2 θ, hence
𝑀𝐷
Equation 1 becomes, θ = ….. 3
𝐶𝑃
𝑀𝐷
and equation 2 becomes, 2θ = 𝐹𝑃 …… 4
Dividing equation 4 by 3,
𝑀𝐷
2𝜃 𝐹𝐷 𝑀𝐷 𝐶𝑃
𝜃
= 𝑀𝐷 = x
𝐹𝑃 𝑀𝐷
𝐶𝑃
𝐶𝑃
2= 𝐹𝑃 , but FP = - f and CP = -R (by sign convention)
−𝑅 𝑅 𝑹
∴ 2 = −𝑓 = 𝑓 or f = 𝟐
4) Derive the expression for the refractive index of the material of a prism in terms of the angle of the prism and
angle of minimum deviation.
Consider a prism as shown. Let n1 be the refractive index of the surrounding medium and n2 is the refractive index
of the prism medium.
In quadrilateral APNQ,
𝐴̂ + 𝑁
̂ =180o ………(1)
In ∆le PQN,
r 1+ r 2 + 𝑁̂ = 180o ……..(2)
From equation (1) and (2),
̂ = 𝐴̂ + 𝑁
r 1+ r 2 + 𝑁 ̂
or r1+ r2 = 𝐴̂ ………….(3)
Angle of deviation at surface AB, δ1 = i1 – r1 and angle of
deviation at surface AC, δ2 = i2 – r2
∴ total deviation δ = δ1 + δ2 = (i – r1) + (i2 – r2)
or δ = i1 +i2 – (r1 + r2)
δ = i1 +i2 – 𝐴̂ ………..(4)
When the angle of incidence is increased gradually, the angle of
deviation decreases initially, reaches a minimum value and then
increases.
At angle of minimum deviation, we have i1=i2 = i; r1 = r2 = r and δ = δm,
where δm is called the angle of minimum deviation.
Substituting above conditions
𝐴
Equation (3) becomes 2r = A or r = 2 ……… (5)
𝐴+𝛿𝑚
Equation (4) becomes 2i = A + δm or i = 2
……… (6)
sin 𝑖
From Snell’s law, n21 = sin 𝑟
𝐴+𝛿𝑚
sin( )
2
Substituting for i and r from equation (5) and (6), n21 = 𝐴
sin( )
2
This is called prism formula.
5) Derive the equivalent focal length of two thin lenses in contact.
Consider two thin lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 in contact as shown in the figure.
−1 1 1
For refraction through lens L1, + = …….(1)
𝑢 𝑣1 𝑓1
For refraction through lens L2, I1 acts as virtual object.
Here, u = v1. Hence we get,
−1 1 1
+ 𝑣 = 𝑓 …… (2 )
𝑣1 2
Adding equation (1) and (2), we get,
−1 1 1 1 1 1
+𝑣 -𝑣 +𝑣=𝑓 +𝑓
𝑢 1 1 1 2
−1 1 1 1
or, 𝑢
+ 𝑣 = 𝑓 + 𝑓 ……. (3)
1 2
If the combination of lenses is replaced by a single equivalent lens whose focal length is ‘F’, then,
−1 1 1
+ = …….. (4)
𝑢 𝑣 𝐹
 Substituting eqn. (4) in (3) we get,
1 1 1
= +
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2
1
Note: Power of a lens, 𝑃 = 𝑓
Hence, power of the combination of two lenses in contact is 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 .
6) What is total internal reflection? Write the conditions for total internal reflection.
When light travels from a dense medium to a rarer medium, it is totally reflected back to the same
medium if it is incident at an angle greater than the critical angle for the pair of media.
Conditions:
a) Light must travel from a dense medium to a rarer medium.
b) The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.

7) Draw a ray diagram for the formation of image in simple microscope. Write the expression for
magnification power produced by it near point.
In this case, u < f, and ‘D’ is the least distance of distinct
vision.

𝐷
m = 1+
𝑓

8) What is the principle of Optical fiber?Write any three uses of optical fiber?
Optical fiber works on the principle of total internal reflection.
➢ Used in communication system.
➢ Used in night vision goggles.
➢ Used in endoscopy.
➢ Used in decorative lamps.
9) Define critical angle? Mention any two applications of total internal reflection.
The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90o is called critical angle.
Applications of total internal reflection:
➢ Sparkling of diamond
➢ Optical fiber
➢ Totally internal reflecting prism and
➢ Mirage.
10) Mention the Cartesian sign conventions used in mirror/lens.
➢ All the distances are measured from the pole/optic centre and along the principal axis.
➢ Distances measured in the direction of incident light is taken positive and distances measured in the
direction opposite to the incident light is taken negative.
➢ Heights measured above the principal axis are taken positive and heights measured below the principal
axis are taken negative.
 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER
1) Name the three types of electron emission
➢ Thermionic emission
➢ Field emission
➢ Photo-electric emission
2) Write the three experimental observations of photoelectric effect (any 3)
➢ For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident
radiation above the threshold frequency, the photoelectric current is
directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.

➢ For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency of the
incident radiation, called the threshold frequency, below which no emission of photoelectrons
takes place.
➢ Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons
increases linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity of
incident light.
➢ For a given photosensitive material and frequency of
incident radiation, saturation current is found to be
proportional to the intensity of incident radiation whereas
the stopping potential is independent of its intensity.
➢ The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process
without any apparent time lag (∼10-9s or less).

3) Define the terms

a) Threshold frequency – The minimum frequency of the incident radiation below which photoelectric
effect does not take place is called threshold frequency.
b) Work function - The minimumenergy required by an electron to just escape from the metal surface
is called the work function of the metal.
c) Stopping potential - The negative potential or retarding potential applied to the collector for which
the photoelectric current becomes zero
d) Electron volt - One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when it has been accelerated
by a potential difference of 1 volt. (1𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐽)
e) Photoelectric effect- Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the
surface of metals when radiation of suitable frequency is incident on them.
4) Draw a neat labelled diagram to demonstrate photo electric effect.

T- evacuated glass/quartz tube

C – photosensitive plate (emitter)

A – collector

K – commutator

S – Source of light

5) Explain Lenard’s experimental observations on photoelectric effect. (3M)

➢ Lenard observed that, when UV radiation was incident on the emitter plate, placed in an
evacuated glass tube, current flowed in the circuit.
➢ When UV radiations were stopped, the current in the circuit also stops.
(These observations indicate that when UV radiation falls on emitter plate, electrons are emitted
from it and these electrons are attracted towards the collector plate which is kept at positive
potential. The flow of electrons through evacuated glass tube results in the current in the external
circuit. When UV radiation was cut off, no electrons were emitted from the emitter, hence no
photoelectric current.)

6) Explain Hallwachs’ experimental observations on photoelectric effect. (3M)

➢ Hallwach connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an electroscope and observed that the zinc
plate lost its charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet radiation.
➢ He also observed that the uncharged zinc plate became positively charged when it was exposed to
ultraviolet radiation.
➢ The positive charge on a positively charged zinc plate was further enhanced when it was
illuminated by ultraviolet radiation.
From these observations he concluded that negatively charged particles were emitted from the
zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet radiation.
7) Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation and explain the terms (2M)
Kmax = hν - ϕo
where,
h - Planck’s constant.
ν- Frequency of incident radiation.
φo – Work function of the metal
Kmax – Maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
8) Using Einstein’s photoelectric equation explain the experimental results of photoelectric effect.
Consider Einstein’s photoelectric equation, Kmax = hν – ф0
➢ According to equation, Kmax depends linearly on frequency . As frequency of incident radiation
increases, the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the emitted electron also increases. But Kmax does
not depend on intensity.
➢ Kmax = hν -ϕo
We know, ϕo = ho
Kmax = hν - ho
Kmax= h (- o)
Let  = frequency of incident radiation and o = threshold frequency
If >o
LHS becomes positive. Maximum velocity of photo electron is positive. Electrons are emitted and
has kinetic energy
If  = o. LHS = 0. Maximum velocity of photoelectron = 0. Electrons are just emitted, but without
any kinetic energy.
If <o. LHS = negative.
Maximum velocity of photo electron is negative which is impossible. Electrons are not emitted.
Hence for a given photo metal there is a minimum frequency of incident radiation below which no
photo electric emission takes place.
➢ During photoelectric effect, the photon and an electron in the metal is said to undergo an elastic collision,
transferring the entire energy from the photon to the electron instantaneously.
➢ According to Einstein, photoelectric effect arises from the absorption of a photon by a single electron.
Intensity of radiation is proportional to the number of photons per unit area per unit time. Greater the
intensity, greater is the number of photons available, therefore, greater is the number of photoelectrons
emitted. Thus, photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of light.

9) Give three characteristics of photon (Any 3)

➢ In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles called photons.
ν
➢ Each photon has energy E and momentum p, where, (E = hν) and (p = h 𝑐 ).
➢ Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
➢ In a photon-particle collision, the total energy and total momentum are conserved. However, the number
of photons may not be conserved in a collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be
created.
➢ All photons of light of a particular frequency ν and wavelength λ, have the same energy and momentum,
whatever may be intensity of radiation.
10) a) What are de-Broglie waves/matter waves?
b)Write the expression for de Broglie wavelength.
c) Name an experiment which verified the wave nature of electron.
➢ The waves associated with material particles in motion are called matter waves.
ℎ ℎ
➢ λ= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
➢ Davisson and Germer experiment verified the wave nature of electron
11) An alpha particle, a proton and an electron are moving with equal kinetic energy. Which one of these
particles has the longest de Broglie wavelength? Give reason. (2M)
De-Broglie wavelength in terms of Kinetic energy.
ℎ
λ=
√2𝑚𝐾
1
For equal kinetic energy, λ α
√𝑚
Electron has the longest de-Broglie wavelength because it has the least mass when compared to proton
and alpha particle.
12) Write the expression for de-Broglie wavelength of electrons in terms of electric potential and explain
the terms used. (2M)
ℎ
λ=
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
h = Planck’s constant; m – mass of the electron; V – potential difference applied.
ℎ
Note: In general, de- Broglie wavelength of a charge ‘q’ is λ =
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
1. Classify conductors, semiconductors and insulators on the basis of band theory of solids.

a) In insulators, the valence band and conduction band are separated by a large energy gap (Eg > 3eV).
b) In conductors, the valence and conduction band overlap with each other (Eg ≅ 0)
c) In semiconductors, the valence and conduction band are separated by a small energy gap (Eg < 3eV).
2. Distinguish between n-type and p-type semiconductors.

n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

• It is obtained by adding pentavalent • It is obtained by adding trivalent

impurity atom to the pure impurity atom to pure semiconductor.
semiconductor • Holes are majority charge carriers and
• Electrons are the majority charge electrons are minority charge carriers.
carriers and holes are minority • Impurity atom added is called acceptor
charge carriers. impurity.
• Impurity atom added is called donor • Conductivity is less.
impurity. • Energy level of impurity atom is close
• Conductivity is more. to valence band.
• Energy level of impurity atom is close
to conduction band.

3. Define the terms cut-in voltage, breakdown voltage and reverse saturation current in
the study of I-V characteristics of semiconductor diode.
i. The forward bias voltage at which the current through the diode starts to increase sharply even for
a small variation in voltage is known as cut in (or knee) voltage.
ii. The reverse bias voltage at which the reverse bias current through the diode increases sharply is
known as breakdown voltage.
iii. The reverse bias current through the diode which remains almost constant with increase in bias
voltage is known as reverse saturation current.
4. Explain the working of p-n junction in forward\reverse bias.

Forward bias: When the positive terminal of the battery is

connected to p-side and negative terminal to n-side, p-n
junction is said to be forward biased. The holes are
repelled by the positive terminal and electrons are
repelled by the negative terminal of the battery. As the
bias voltage increases, the width of the depletion region
and potential barrier decreases. When the bias voltage is
slightly greater than the barrier potential, holes and
electrons move across the junction, i.e., the diode allows the current to pass through it. Hence it offers
low resistance and acts as closed switch.
 Reverse bias:

When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to n-side and

negative terminal to p-side, p-n junction is said to be reverse biased.
The holes are attracted by the negative terminal and electrons are
attracted by the positive terminal of the battery. As a result, the
width of the depletion region and potential barrier increases i.e., the
p-n junction does not allow the majority charge carriers to flow
across the junction. Hence p-n junction offers very high resistance
and acts as an open switch.

5. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

Intrinsic semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors

• These are pure semiconductors. • These are doped semiconductors.

• Number of electrons and holes are equal. • Number of electrons and holes are
• Conductivity is low. unequal.
• Conductivity depends on the • Conductivity is high.
temperature. • Conductivity depends on the
temperature and also doping level.

6. Explain working of Zener diode as voltage regulator.

Zener diode is a special diode which is used to operate in reverse breakdown voltage.
➢ In the reverse bias condition, if the input DC voltage
increases, the current through Rs and the zener increases. The
voltage drop across Rs increases, but the voltage across the
zener remains the same (𝑉𝑍 ).
➢ In the reverse bias condition, if the input DC voltage
decreases, the current through Rs and the zener decreases. The
voltage drop across Rs decreases, but the voltage across the
zener remains the same (𝑉𝑍 ).
➢ Thus, any change (increase/decrease) in the input voltage results in change (increase/decrease) of
voltage drop across Rs without any change in voltage across the zener diode. Thus it acts as a
voltage regulator when reverse biased.
7. What are optoelectronic devices? Name any two optoelectronic devices.
These semiconductor diodes in which light energy is converted to electrical energy or vice versa.
The two optoelectronic devices are:
Photodiode, light emitting diode (LED) and photo voltaic device (solar cell) (Any 2)
 8. Write the circuit symbol and truth table for NAND gate.

9. What is a photodiode? Mention any two uses of photodiode.

Ans: Photodiode is a reverse biased p-n junction which is designed to respond to light absorption.
Photodiodes are used:
• As a photodetector to detect optical signals.
• To measure the intensity of radiation.
• In switching circuits
• As a light meter in cameras.

10. a). What is a rectifier?

b). Explain the working of a full wave rectifier.
c). Draw the input and output waveforms.

Rectifier is an electronic device which converts AC to DC.

➢ During positive half cycle of input AC, diode D1 becomes forward biased and diode D2 becomes reverse
biased. Hence D1 conducts and allows current to flow through the load resistor.
➢ During the negative half cycle of input AC, diode D1 becomes reverse biased and D2 becomes forward
biased. Hence diode D2 conducts and allows current to flow through load resistor in the same direction.
11. What is a p-n junction? Explain the formation of p-n junction.
The junction formed between p-type and n-type semiconductor
is called p-n junction.

The p-n junction is obtained by adding trivalent impurity atom to

one side of a pure semiconductor (p-type) and pentavalent
impurity atom to the other side (n-type).

Because of difference in the concentration of holes and

electrons, the diffusion of majority charge carriers takes place to
the other side. After sufficient number of majority charge carriers are diffused on both sides, further
diffusion is stopped. This results in the formation of fixed layer of negative ions and fixed layer of
positive ions at the junction. This develops a potential difference across the junction and is called barrier
potential. The region in which p-n junction contains only immobile ions is called depletion region. The
formation of the barrier (or depletion) region leads to drift of minority charge carriers across the
junction. At equilibrium, a stable p-n junction is formed.
12. Working of semiconductor diode as half wave rectifier.

➢ During positive half cycle of input AC, diode D is

forward biased and hence it conducts and current flows through the resistor.
➢ During negative half cycle of input AC, diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not conduct and
current does not flow through the load resistor.
Possible 1 m questions
1. Circuit symbol and truth table of all logic gates.
2. How can the conductivity of a pure semiconductor be increased?
Ans: By increasing the temperature.
3. Which are the universal logic gates?
Ans: NAND and NOR gates.
4. The semiconductor diode which is used as a voltage regulator is Zener diode.
5. What is meant by doping?
Ans: The process of adding impurities to the pure semiconductor is called doping.
6. Write 2 uses of LED, solar cells.
7. Define the terms conduction band, valence band and energy gap.
Ans: The energy band formed by energy levels of conduction electrons is called conduction band.
The energy band formed by energy levels of valence electrons is called valence band.
The energy difference between conduction band and valence band is called energy gap.
8. How is a p-type semiconductor obtained?
 Ans: It is obtained by adding trivalent impurities to a pure semiconductor.
9. Photodiode works in reverse bias.
10. In a good conductor, the energy gap between conduction band and valence band is zero.
11. Write any 2 conditions for doping?
 The size of the dopant atom must be equal to the size of the pure semiconductor atom (of Ge or Si
atoms)
 Doping should not distort the pure semiconductor crystal structure.
12. When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to p-region and negative terminal to n-region,
then p-n junction diode is said to be in forward bias.

ATOMS
1) Explain briefly the observations of Geiger Marsden’s experiment on scattering of α particles by a
nucleus.
➢ Most of the alpha particles pass through the gold foil without any appreciable deflection or scattering
(deflection less than 10)
➢ Only about 0.14% of the incident 𝛼- particles are scattered by more than 10.
➢ About 1 𝑖𝑛 8000 particles are deflected by more than 90o.

2) Define Ionisation energy and excitation energy of an atom?

Ionisation energy: The minimum energy required to remove the electron from an atom to infinite
distance from the atom is called the ionisation energy.
Excitation energy: The excitation energy is defined as the energy required to raise an electron in an atom
from a lower energy level to a higher energy level.
3) Mention any three spectral series of Hydrogen atom.
Lyman series, Balmer series, Paschen series, Brackett series, Pfund series. (Any 3)
4) Draw the labelled diagram representing the schematic arrangement of Geiger-Marsden experiment for
alpha particle scattering. (2M)

5) Write the three postulates of Bohr model of the hydrogen atom.

1) Every electron in an atom revolves round the nucleus in certain stable orbits called the stationary states
or non-radiating states. Electrons in these states do not emit energy, hence remain stable.
2) The electrons revolve in only those orbits around the nucleus for which the angular momentum is an
ℎ
integral multiple of 2𝜋.
ℎ
That is, L = n 2𝜋, (where n = 1,2,3…., ‘n’ is called the principal quantum number)
 3) When an electron makes a transition from a stationary orbit of a higher energy to a stationary orbit of a
lower energy, it emits a photon whose energy is equal to the energy difference between the initial and
final states.
That is, E2 – E1= hν
6) Mention any two limitations of Bohr’s atom model
➢ Bohr’s model is applicable only to hydrogen and hydrogen-like atoms.
➢ The model can predict the wavelengths of light emitted by the hydrogen atom, but it cannot
explain the relative intensities of different wavelengths in the spectrum.
7) Using Bohr’s postulates, derive the expression for the radius of n th stationary orbit of electron in
hydrogen atom.
Consider an electron revolving in an orbit in a hydrogen atom.
The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron provides the necessary
centripetal force to keep the electron in its dynamically stable orbit. That is,
Fc = F E
mv2 1 e2
= 4πє ---(1)
r 0 r2
According to Bohr’s quantum condition, the angular momentum of the electron in the orbit is given by,
𝑛ℎ
mvr = 2𝜋 (where, n = 1,2,3….)
Squaring on both the sides,
𝑛2 ℎ 2
m2v2r2 = 4𝜋2 -----(2)
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2), we get
𝐦𝐯 𝟐 𝟏 𝐞𝟐
𝐫 𝟒𝛑є𝟎 𝐫 𝟐
= 𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑟 2
4𝜋2
є𝟎 𝑛2 ℎ2
On simplifying, we get, r =
𝜋𝑚𝐞𝟐
8) Using Bohr’s postulates, derive the expression for orbital speed of electron in hydrogen atom.
Consider an electron revolving in an orbit in a hydrogen atom.
The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron provides the necessary centripetal force
to keep the electron in its dynamically stable orbit.
Fc = F E
mv2 1 e2
= 4πє ---(1)
r 0 r2
According to Bohr’s quantum condition, the angular momentum of the electron in the orbit is given by,
𝑛ℎ
mvr = -----(2) (where, n = 1,2,3….)
2𝜋
Dividing eqn. (1) by eqn. (2), we get,
mv2 1 e2
r 4πє0 r2
= 𝑛ℎ
mvr
2𝜋
𝑒2
On simplifying we get, 𝑣 = 2𝜀
𝑜 𝑛ℎ
9) Write the expression for energy of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom.
1 𝑚𝑒 4
E = - 𝑛2 8ℎ2є2
0
m – mass of electron, e- charge on electron.
10) Obtain Bohr’s quantisation condition on the basis of de Broglie’s theory.
➢ According to Bohr’s quantisation condition, the electrons revolve only in
those orbits around the nucleus for which the angular momentum is an
ℎ
integral multiple of 2𝜋
➢ de Broglie proved this using his matter wave hypothesis.
➢ According to de Broglie, an electron around the nucleus is associated with
matter waves. Due to resonance, these waves form standing waves as
shown in the diagram.
Using de Broglie’s hypothesis,
ℎ ℎ
λ = 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣–(1)
Also, from the diagram we get, 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛 λ
Substitute 1 in above equ,
ℎ
2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛 𝑚𝑣
On rearranging,
ℎ
mvr =n 2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
L=
2𝜋
Hence, proving Bohr’s quantisation condition on the basis of de Broglie’s theory.

NUCLEI
1) Write two properties of nuclear force.
1) Nuclear forces are strongest forces in nature.
2) Nuclear forces are short range forces.
3) They are charge independent.
4) Nuclear forces do not obey inverse square law.
2) Define half-life of a radioactive sample. Write the relation between half life and decay constant of a
radioactive sample (2M)
Half life of a radioactive sample is defined as the time during which half of the original nuclei in the
sample disintegrate.
0.693
Thalf = λ
3) State and explain radioactive decay law.
The rate of disintegration of a radioactive substance at any instant of time is directly proportional to the
number of atoms of that substance present in the sample at that instant of time.
𝑑𝑁
∝N
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
= - λ N, where λ is called the decay (or disintegration) constant.
𝑑𝑡

4) What are isotopes? Give example.

Nuclei having same atomic number but different mass number are called isotopes.
Example 11𝐻 , 21𝐻
5) What are isobars? Give example.
Nuclei having same mass number but different atomic number are called isobars.
Ex: 31𝐻 , 32𝐻𝑒
6) What are isotones? Give example.
Nuclei having equal number of neutrons but different atomic number are called isotones.
Ex: 146𝐶 , 168𝑂
7) What is α decay? Explain with an example.
Alpha decay is a process in which a nucleus decays spontaneously emitting an alpha particle.
When a nucleus decays with the emission of alpha particle, the product nucleus has atomic number two
less and mass number four less than that of the decaying nucleus.
𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝟐𝟑𝟒 𝟒
𝟗𝟐𝑼→ 𝟗𝟎𝑻𝒉 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆
8) Define mass defect and binding energy of a nucleus. Write the relation between them.
Mass defect: The difference between the sum of the masses of the constituent nucleons and the actual
mass of the nucleus is called mass defect (M).
Binding energy of a nucleus can be defined as the minimum energy required to split the nucleus into its
constituent nucleons.
Binding energy = M  c2 = [Z mp + (A-Z)mn – M] c2

9) Distinguish between Nuclear fission and Nuclear fusion. (ANY 2)

Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fission is a process in which nucleus Nuclear fusion is a process of combining two lighter
of an atom of heavy element splits up into nuclei to form heavy nucleus with the release of
two or more nuclei of comparable masses large amount of energy.
with release of large amount of energy.

Slow neutrons are required. Slow neutrons not required.

Energy produced per unit mass is lower than Energy produced per unit mass is higher than in
in fusion. fission.

Radioactive waste is left behind. No radioactive waste is left behind.