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calculating the area - Describe the construction and use

PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY of planimeter.
KARAIKUDI
STUDY MATERIAL
SYLLABUS 2.1 INTRODUCTION ABOUT SURVEYING:
SURVEYOR(CODE:387) 2.1.1. Define Surveying
UNIT-2: CHAIN SURVEYING  Surveying is the art of making linear or angular
2.1 INTRODUCTION ABOUT SURVEYING: measurements in horizontal plane or vertical plane to
Define Surveying - State the object of surveying - State determine the relative positions of points on the surface
technical terms - State the classification of Surveying - of the earth or beneath the surface of the earth.
State the principles of Surveying - State the work of Ancient Surveying
 Evidence shows that basic surveying
Surveyor - State the accuracy in chain Survey - State
techniques used in 1400 BC in ancient Egypt. There is a
steel band
2.2 Measurement of distance by a chain and chaining: representation of land measurement on the wall of a
State the methods of determining distance - State tomb at Thebes (1400 BC) men measuring a grain field.
chaining and chaining a line - State unfolding the chain They used marked rope and wooden rods for
- Describe the reading the chain - State folding the chain measuring distance. The Romans recognized land
- Calculate the errors in chaining. survey as a profession. They used some standard tools
2.3 Introduction about chain survey instruments: for basic measurement.
State the construction and uses of the following chain Modern Surveying
survey instruments.  Modern surveying starts with the introduction
2.4 Ranging: of more refined standard tools including instrument for
State ranging - State the necessity of ranging - State the measuring direction, Triangulation and resection
types of ranging - Interpret the signals surveyor and the method were introduced.
corresponding action by assistance.  The Great Trigonometeric Survey of India
2.5 Chaining on sloping ground: began in 1801. The Indian survey had an enormous
Explain the methods of changing on sloping ground - scientific impact. It was responsible for one of the first
State necessity of calculating horizontal distances. accurate measurements of a section of an arc of
2.6 Offset and Offsetting: longitude. It named and mapped Mount Everest.
State the meaning of offset and offsetting - State the  Surveyors laid out canals, road and rail playing
classification of offsets, its limits and its definition - a pivotal role in Industrial Revolution,
State the methods of taking offsets for various site  Theodolite total station and GPS survey are the
conditions. commonly used surveying instrument in 21st century.
2.7 Obstacles in chain surveying: Some specific use of surveying
Define obstacles - State the three types of obstacles -  Survey output is used for determining area,
Calculate the obstructed distance. volume.
2.8 Introduction used for setting out right angles:  Survey involves surveying existing conditions
List out the instrument used for setting out right angles of the work site.
- State the types of cross staff and optical square - State  Stake out building corners and grids.
the construction of cross staff and optical square -  Stake limit of work.
Explain the principles of optical square - State the uses  Stake out reference points.
of cross staff and optical square.  Marking floor levels.
2.9 Introduction about triangulation survey:  Verify the location of structures during
Define the triangulation and traverse in survey - State construction. Verify that the work authorized
closed and open traversed survey - State the three types was completed to the specifications set on plans
of survey lines in triangulation Explain about field  Provide horizontal control on multiple floor
work.
2.10 Calculation of area: Calculate the areas of an 2.1.2. Object of surveying:
 The main object of surveying is the preparation
irregular field - Apply geometrical formula for
of plan or map of an area.

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 In olden days the surveyors were performed precision is exercised in linear and angular
only for the purpose of reaching the boundaries of plot. measurements is termed as geodetic surveying. Such
But due to the advancement in technology the science survey extended over the longer area.
of surveying has also attaining its due importance.
 A line connecting two points is regarded as an
 The layout of alignment of road, railway, canal, arc and the angles between the intersecting line are
tunnel, transmission power lines, microwave or spherical angles.
television, relaying towers and water supplies or
sanitary scheme etc. are requirement a very accurate B. Classification based upon the nature of the field of
map i,e, the success of these engineering project is surveying
based upon the accurate and complete survey work.
Therefore, an engineer must be thoroughly familiar 1. Land surveying
with the principle and different method of surveying
and mapping. 2. Marine or navigation or hydrographical
surveying
Plan: A plan is a graphical representation of features on
the earth surface or below the earth surface on 3. Astronomical surveying
horizontal plane in a largest scale compared to map (ie.
a smaller area surveyed) 1. Land surveying

Map: A map is a graphical representation of features on It consists of re-running old land line to measure to
the earth surface or below the earth surface as projected determine the length and direction. Sub-dividing land
on a horizontal plane in a smaller scale compare to plan into pre-determined shape and size and calculating the
(i.e. larger area surveyed) areas and survey stories and locating position. Land
survey can be sub-divided into following:
2.1.3. State the classification of Surveying
a. Topographical survey: It is for the
determined by the natural as well as artificial features
A. Classification based on the accuracy surveying of a country such as hills, valleys, rivers, lakes, woods,
railways, canals, building, town, village etc.
The Surveying may be divided into two
b. Cadastral survey: The survey in which area
1. Plane surveying generally plotted to a larger scale than the topographic
survey and are carried out for fixing the property land
2. Geodetic surveying preparation of revenue maps of states are called
cadastral survey. These are also sometimes used for
1 Plane surveying fixing boundaries of municipality corporation or
candonment.
 The surveying in which the earth surface is
assumed as plane and the corrective of the earth is c. City survey: The survey which are carried
original is known as plane surveying. out for the construction of road, water supplying
system, sewer for any developing townships are called
 As the plane surveying extends only small area city survey.
the lines connecting any two points on the surface of
the earth are treated as straight line and the angles d. Engineering survey: For determining quantities and
between these lines are taken as plane angles. for collecting datas for design of engineering work such
as road, railway, reservoir or works in connection with
 Survey is covering area 200 sq.km may be water supplies, sewage etc. enginerring survey may be
treated as plane surveying. This is because of difference further divided into three.
in length between the arc and its subtended chord on
the surface of the earth for a distance of 18.2 sq.km only I Reconnaissance survey: For determine the
10cm. feasibility and rough cost of the scheme.

2 Geodetic surveying II Preliminary survey: For collecting more

precious datas and choose the best location of the work
 The survey which the corrective of the earth and to estimate the quantities and cost.
surface is taken into account and a higher degree of
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III Location survey: For setting out the work on  The main principle of survey plain or geodetic
the ground. survey is work from the whole to part.sufficient
number of primary control point are established with
2. Marine or navigation or hydrographic survery higher precision and then around the area to be
surveyed.
The Survey which deals with the mapping of large  Minor control points in between the primary
water body for the purpose of navigation construction control points are then established with less precise
of harbour work, prediction of tide and determination method, i.e. in general practice the area is divided into
of sea level are called marine or navigation or a number of large triangles and the position of their
hydrographical survey. various of surveyed with greater accuracy by using
sophisticated instrument.
3. Astronomical survey  These triangles are further divided into smaller
triangles and their vertices are surveyed with lesser
The survey which carried out for determining absolute accuracy by using these smaller triangles. The more
location of different places on the earth surface and interior details are collected.
directions of any lines by making observation to  The main idea of working from whole to the
heavenly bodies, i.e. star and sun are called part is prevented accumulation of errors and to localize
astronomical survey. minor error within the frame works of control points on
the other hand smaller error are magnified.
C. Classification based upon the object surface of
survey 2. To fix the position of new station by at least two
independent points.
1. Archeological survey: For determining unearthing
relics of antiquities The new station is fixed from points already fixed by

2. Geological survey: For determining different stratus a. Linear measurement

of earth crust.
b. Angular measurement
3. Mine survey: For exploring mineral wealth such as
gold, coal, copper etc. c. Both linear and angular measurement

4 Military survey: For determining points of strategic According to the convenient methods locating
importance of both offensive and defensive. convenient points.

D. Classification of based upon the method employed Other principal works in which surveying is
in the survey primarily utilized are

1. Triangulation survey 2. Traverse survey  To fix the national and state boundaries.

Classification of based upon the instrument used  To chart coastlines, navigable streams and
lakes.
1. Chain survey 2. Compass survey
 To establish control points and
3. Plane table survey 4. Theodolite survey
 To prepare topographic map of land surface of
5. Tacheomatric survey 6. Photographic survey the earth.
2.1.5. State the work of Surveyor:
7 Aerial survey
Surveyor: A person performing operation to obtain the
2.1.4. State the principles of Surveying requirement measurements, distance, directions, etc. to
prepare plan or map is known as surveyor,
The two fundamental principles upon the various
survey methods based are Duty of a Surveyor
A surveyor plays a pivotal role in any engineering
1. To work from whole to part project. A surveyor should possess all leadership
quality, should be punctual and responsible, know
timeand resource management techniques

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A surveyor should also have engineering thinking Length

capabilities and decision making capabilities. 12 1 foot 1 inch 2.54 cm
inches
A surveyor's duty can be mainly classified into three 3 feet 1 yard 1 foot 0.3048 m
5 ½ 1 rod / 1mile =1760 yard
1. Care and adjustment of instrument yards pole =5280 feet
=1.609 km
2. Field work 4 poles 1 chain 1 nautical =6080feet
(66 ft) mile =1.152 miles
3. Office work =1.852 km
10 1furlong 10 1 hecta metre
2.1.6. State the accuracy in chain Survey: chains decametr
e
 The degree of accuracy in chaining is expressed 8 1mile 10 hecta 1 km
as a ratio called the chaining ratio. The chaining ratio furlongs metre
may be 1/1000, 1/2000, etc. 6 feet 1fathom 1000 1 km
For example, if there is an error of 0.25 m during the metre
measurement of a total length of 500 m. 120 1 cable
chaining ratio = 0.25/ 500 = 25 / (500 x 100) = 1/2,000 fathoms length

Some permissible limits of error:

2.1.7. Steel band:
It is also called the band chain consist of a ribbon of steel
1. For measurement with steel band = 1/2000 with brass swivel handles at each end. It is 20 or 30m
long. The graduation is marked in two ways.
2. For measurement with tested chain = 1/1000 1. The band is divided by studs at every 20cm and
numbered at every one metre. The first steel and last
3. In normal conditions = 1/500 link sub-divided into cm and mm.
2. The graduation is etched as metre, decimetre,
4. For rough work = 1/ 250. centimetre on one side and point 2 metre links all the
other. Brass tallies are fixed at every 5m length. It is
used for accurate survey work.
Area
100 m² 1 are (a) 1 acre 4840 sq. yard The following are the point on comparison between
/ 3.025 bigha the chain composed of link and band chain.
Chain composed of Steel band or band
links chain
1. It can with stand rough If carelessly used it gets
100 ares 1 hectare 1 bigha 1600 sq.yard treatment. broken.
2. It can be easily It can be repaired only by
100 1 km² 20 kathas 1 bigha
hectare repaired with the soldering or riveting
hammer in the field.
3. It can be read easily. It cannot be read so
1 hectare 10000 m² 16 chattak 1 katha easily.
4. It is heavier and sags It is lighter and doesn't
considerably when sags to extent to which
640 acres 1 square 1 katha 720 sq. ft suspended. chain sags.
mile 5. It is liable to easily in It maintain length very
crease or decrease in much better than the
1 hectare 2.47 acres 1 chattak 45 sq. ft length due to continous chain.
use and bending of links
484 1 square 10 square 1 acre respectively.
square chain chain 6. It is heavier and takes For the same length it is
yards more time to spread. lighter than chains and
easier to open.

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2.2 MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE BY A CHAIN  It is composed of 4mm dia. mild steel wire.
AND CHAINING: Each link having 20cm in length and connected
together by means of three circular rings to give
2.2.1 State the methods of determining distance flexibility to the chain.
There are two main methods of determining distance.  Length of link is the distance between the
Direct method and Computative centres of two consecutive middle rings. Brass handles
are provided at the ends of the chain with swivel joints
Direct method: The distances are actually measured on so that the chain can be turned round without twisting.
the ground by means of a chain, tape or other The outside of the handle is the zero point or the end
instruments. point of the chain.
Computative: The distances are obtained by  The length of the chain is the distance from
calculation as in tacheometry or triangulation. outside of one handle to the outside of the other handle.
End links also includes the length of the handle.
Pacing  Chain has brass rings at every one metre length.
For rough and speedy work, distances are measured by Brass tallies are provided at every 5m length
pacing (i.e) by counting the number of walking steps of
a man. The walking step of a man is considered as 80cm Chaining a line:
(average). This method is generally employed in the
reconnaissance survey of any project. For a chaining operation two chain men are required.
Measured distance: Length of pace x Number of paces The chainman at the forward end of the chain is called
leader and other chain man at the rear end is called a
Passometer follower.
It is a small pocket instrument resembling a watch in
size and appearance used for counting the number of The duties of leader and follower are tabulated under.
steps automatically by some mechanical device. The Leader Follower
mechanism requires that it should be carried vertically 1.To drag the chain 1.To direct the leader to
like in waist coat pocket and the mechanism being forward be in line with the
operated by the motion of the body. ranging rod at the end
stations.
Pedometer 2. To insert an arrow at 2. To carry the rear end of
It is also a similar instrument and is used for the same the end of every chain. the ensuring that it is
purpose, but it registers the distance traversed by the dragged above the
person carrying it. ground.
3. To obey the 3. To pick up the arrows
Speedometer instructions of the inserted by the leader.
It is an automobiles instrument which is also used to follower.
measure the distances approximately.
2.2.3. State Unfolding the chain:
Perambulator
It is a wheel fitted with fork and handle. It is wheeled  Before commencing the chain, the surveying or
along the line, the length of which is desires and the follower keeping both handles of the chain in his left
distance is registered automatically on the dials. hand, spread the chain with the forward direction with
the right hand.
2.2.2 State chaining and chaining a line  The leader taking handle of the chain in his
hand and moves towards till the chain is fully
Definition: extended.
 The operation of measuring a distance between
two points with the help of a chain, or chain with tape 2.2.4. Describe Reading the chain:
is called chaining.
 For ordinary works chain is used for measuring  The chain is marked by tallies at every 5m
the distances but where great accuracy is required, a length and small brass rings at every 1m length without
steel tape is invariably used. having difficulty in reading the chain.
 In taking measurements, observe the tag
Identification and construction of metric chain immediately before the end point, which is being
It is a measuring instrument consists of measured to and count the number of brass rings and
i) 100 links in 20m chain and links from it in the forward direction to the end point.
ii) 150 links in 30m chain.

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 In reading near the centre of the chain care must i) By closing up the joints of the opened out rings.
be taken to see the position of the central tag. To get the ii) By Hammering back to the shape, of the flattened
total distance add the above fractional part of the chain out rings.
with number of full chain, it distances exceeds more iii) By replacing some of the larger rings by smaller
than one chain length. rings.
iv) By removing some of the rings.
2.2.5. State Folding the Chain: v) By adjusting links at the handle.
After the field work the chain should be folded into a
bundle. The chain is folded by taking central two lines b. If the chain is found to decrease in length than the
in the left hand until the handle of links is formed and standard length, it may be corrected.
lied up with a strip of leather.
i) by straightening the bent up links.
2.2.6. Calculate the errors in chain ii) by replacing some of the smaller rings by larger
ones.
1. Instrumental error: iii) by inserting the new rings as required
They occur due to faulty adjustments of devices such as iv) by adjusting the links at the handle
chain may be too long or too short etc.
Error in length due to in correct chain
2. Natural errors:
They arise due to variation of temperature True distance = Measured distance x (𝐿′/𝐿)

3. Personal errors: Where L = True length of chain or tape

They are due to chain not being straight L’= Incorrect length of chain or tape

Mistakes in Chaining Error in area due to incorrect chain

Mistakes are generally done by inexperienced
chainman. These can be avoided by careful working. True area = Measured area X (𝐿′/𝐿)2

Following are the common mistakes made in the field. Error in volume due to incorrect chain

i) Miscounting the chain length: This is the most True volume=Measured Volume X (𝐿′/𝐿)3
serious mistake and occurs due to wrong counting or
due to loss of arrow 2.3 INTRODUCTION ABOUT CHAIN SURVEY
INSTRUMENTS:
ii) Displacement of arrows: If an arrow is displaced, it
may not be replaced correctly. To avoid this mistakes,  Ranging Rod
the end of the chain length should be marked both by  Offset Rod
scratching a cross on the ground and fixing an arrow.  Arrows
 Wooden peg
iii) Misreading: It happens due to reading from the  Plumb bob
wrong end of the chain. It can be avoided by carefully  Measuring Tapes
noticing the position of the central tag.
Ranging Rod
Limits of error in chain
As per Indian standard specifications every metre  It is a wooden/steel pipe of 2m or 3m in length
length with 3cm in diameter for steel and for wooden is 4 cm
of chain should be accurate to within ± 2mm when dia.
measured with tension of 8 kg and checked against a  It is painted in red and white or black and
certified steel tape which has been standardised at 200C white in 20 cm band width.
The overall length of chain should be within the  Bottom of rod is fixed with a sharp metal shoe
following limits. for fixing on ground.
20m chain : ± 5mm  Flag is fixed on the top for visibility when it is
30m chain : ± 8mm more than 200m in distance.
 It is used for marking the position of station in
Adjusting the chain chaining.
a. If the chain is found to increase in length than the  If is also used for fixing intermediate points in
standard length, it may be adjusted ranging.

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Offset rod
 It is similar to the ranging rod with a hook at
the top.
 It is used for pulling or pushing the chain
through hedges and other obstruction.
 It is also used for aligning offset line and
measuring short offset.

Arrows
 It is made up of 4mm steel wire and 40cm long
as shown in Fig. It is pointed at one end for inserting
into the ground. Another end bent into a ring for easy Measuring tape
handling.  This is the instrument used for measuring
 Each metric chain shall accompanied with 10 distances
arrows as shown in Fig.  They are made of 1 Cloth or linen tape. It is 12
 It is used to mark the ends of each chain to 15mm wide and is made of linen cloth. It is
during the process of chaining. available in lengths of 10m, 20m and 30m.
 At the end of this tape is provided with brass
Wooden peg handle which is included in the total lengths of the
 These are 15cm in length and tapered at one tape.
end. It is used to drive on the ground to mark the  It is easily affected by dampness.
position of stations.  It is used for taking measurement such as
offsets.
Plumb bob 1. Metallic tape
 While chaining along a sloping ground, it is 2. Steel tape
used to transfer the points on the ground. It is also 3. Invar tape
used as a centering aid in Theodolite, compass and 4. Fibre or plastic tape
plane table.

Metallic tape
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 It is made up of linen and reinforced with fine

brass or copper wire. It is covered in a leather case with
winding device.
 It is available in 15m (50ft) and 30m(100ft)
 Each metre length is divided into 10 parts
(Decimetre) and each part is further subdivided into 10
parts (Centimetre)
 The other side of the tape is graduated with feet
and inches.
 It is commonly used for taking offsets in chain
surveying.
 This cannot be used for taking very accurate
measurement
Methods of testing chain
Following are the methods of testing a chain.
Steel tape
 By comparing it with a chain standard or with
 It is made of steel ribbon varying in width 6mm a test gauge
to 16mm and available in 1m, 3m, 5m, 10m,15m, 30m  By comparing the chain with the levelling staff
and 50m in length. laid down successively.
 Each metre is divided into 200 parts. (Each  By comparing the chain with the steel tape
being 5mm) First 10cm length of the tape is divided into reserved specially for this purpose.
Millimetre.
 It is used for taking measurements and also 2.4 RANGING:
used for testing chain lengths.
2.4.1. State Ranging
 The process of establishing intermediate points
Invar tape
in line with the terminal points before chaining is
 It is made of an alloy steel (64%) and nickle
known as ranging. This is necessary when the distance
(36%) and available in 30m, 50m and 100m lengths.
is longer than one chain length.
 It is easily kinked and broken, so care should
be taken while taking measurements. It has very low
2.4.2. State the necessity of ranging
coefficients of thermal expansion.
 To measure the length of a survey line also
 It is only used for highest precision
called a chain line, it is necessary that the chain should
measurement like baseline in triangulation work.
be laid out on the ground in a straight line between the
end stations.
Testing of metric chain (20m/30m)
Necessity of checking the chain  If the line AB is with in a chain length or the end
 The length of chain changes due to wear and stations are clearly visible, it is easy to put the chain in
tear, mud sticking and change in temperature. a true alignment as show in Fig 1.

The length of chain increases due to

1. Stretching of links and joints.
2. Opening out of the rings.
3. Wear of the wearing surfaces.
4. rough handling in pulling it through
hedges and fences.

The length of chain decrease due to bending of the

links and mud-sticking. But if the line AB is more than one chain length or the
end stations A and B are not clearly visible, it is
 Therefore it becomes necessary to check the necessary to place intermediate ranging rods at M and
chain before commencing the survey work. Before N to maintain a straight line between the stations as
testing the chain the bent uplinks should be shown in Fig 2.
straightened and mud should be removed from the
joints.

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S. Signal by the surveyor Action by the

No. Assistant
1. Rapid sweep with right Move considerably to
or left hand the right or left.
2. Slow sweep with right Move slowly to the
or left hand right or left
3. Right or left arm Move continously to
extended the right or left
4. Right or left arm up Plumb the rod to the
2.4.3. State the types of ranging
and moved to right or right or left
There are two types of ranging. They are
left
 Direct ranging
5. Both hands above head The position of the
 Indirect ranging
and then brought down rod is correct
Direct ranging 6. Both arms extended Fix the rod
 When intermediate ranging rods are placed forward horizontally
along the chain (in between the visible end) line by and then brought
direct observation from either end station is known as down.
direct ranging.
 Direct ranging may be done either by eye 2.5 CHAINING ON SLOPING GROUND:
judgement or by using line ranger but in important
works theodolite is preferably used. 2.5.1. Methods of chaining on sloping ground
 Direct method or Stepping method
Indirect ranging (or) Reciprocal ranging  Indirect method
 When the ends of the line are not intervisible
Direct method(Fig 1):
due to high ground or a hill or a valley intervening,
and also when the ends of a line are not distinctly  In this method the horizontal distance on
sloping ground is directly measured.
visible from one another due to the distance being too
great.
 In this case, to fix the intermediate points
indirect ranging is adopted.

2.4.4. Interpret the signals surveyor :

The following hand signal are used by a surveyor to
direct the assistant to move to the desired position.

Indirect method (Fig 2)

 In this method the actual sloping ground is
measured and the angle of slope is also measured by
an angle measuring instruments.
 Then the horizontal distance of the sloping
ground is calculated by using the given formula.
Horizontal distance, D = A1B= L Cos θ.

2.5.2. State necessity of calculating horizontal

distance:
 Actually the distances measured on a sloping
ground are inclined distance. This will be more than
the horizontal distance for plotting purpose only
horizontal distance (D) is taken into account.
Hence all the sloping distances are converted into a
horizontal equivalent.

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This is taken when

2.6 OFFSETS AND OFFSETTING OFFSET  The object is at a long distance
 accuracy is required.
2.6.1. State the meaning of offset and offsetting
 The lateral distance measured from the chain 2.6.3. State the methods of taking offsets for various
line to the object is called offset. site condition:
 The operation of taking and recording the
Offsetting distance on either side of a chainline is known as
 The process of measuring lateral distances taking offsets.
from the Chain line to the objects which are to be  The measurement on the chain line is recorded
plotted is called as offsetting. as ‘Chainage’
 It is done to locate the objects with reference to  Long offsets are measured with steel tape and
the Chain line. These are measured on either side of a short offsets are measured with metallic tape.
chain line.  When the offsets are short, perpendicular
offset is laid by holding the zero end of the tape at the
2.6.2. State the Classification of offsets object and swing the tape over the chain to find the
chainage.
Based on length of chain line  The minimum distance will be the
 Short offset perpendicular offset.
 Long offset  When greater accuracy is required or the
Based on direction of chain line offsets are long, the right angles should be laid out
 Perpendicular offset with cross staff or optical square.
 Oblique offset
Methods of Taking offsets
Limits of Offsets  An offset should be taken wherever the outline
 The length of offset depends upon the degree of an object changes.
of accuracy required, scale used, method of setting out  In case of straight wall or boundary, an offset
the perpendicular and nature of the ground. should taken at each end of the corner. (Fig 3)
 Hence the length of perpendicular offset  In case of an irregular boundary, sufficient
should be within 15m number of offsets at suitable interval should be
taken.(Fig 4)
Short offset - Less than 15m
Long offset - More than 15m

Perpendicular offset
 It is also known as rectangular offset or right
offset. The distance measured at right angles to the
chain line from the objects is known as perpendicular
offset. (Fig 1)

Oblique offset
 Offsets which are other than right angles to the
chain line are known as oblique offset such as CD and
CE in Fig 2

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 Whenever the outline of the object changes its

direction an offset, must be taken at each change of
direction (Fig 5)

2.7 OBSTACLES IN CHAIN SURVEYING:

2.7.1. Definition Obstacles:

During chaining, sometimes rivers, ponds, buildings,
 In case of polygonal objects such as pentagon, hills, thick jungles may prevent the chainman to take
Hexagon, Octagon etc, offsets should be taken at the the measurements directly. These obstructions are
ends of the side nearer to the chain line and the length known as obstacles.
of the sides (Fig 6)
2.7.2. Type of obstacles
1. Obstacles to ranging
2. Obstacles to chaining
3. Obstacles to both chaining & Ranging.

1. Obstacles to ranging:
 Case (i)
Both ends of the line may be visible from intermediate
points on the chain line.
 In case of circular shapes, an offset should be E.g. Hill, Valley (Fig 1a) AB = AM + MN + NB
taken to its centre and its radius should be measured. (Fig 1b) XY = XE + EB + BY
(Fig 7) Horizontal distances are calculated by stepping
method.

 Case (ii)
Both ends of the line may not be visible from
intermediate points on the chain line. (Fig.1b)

 In case of a nallah, offsets should be taken to

both the sides of its width. (Fig 8)

 In case of roads or foot paths with constant

width offsets should be taken at the beginning, middle
and the end of the curve and at few points in between
(Fig 9) width should also be measured.

 In case of fair curve such as railway line, offset

should be taken at a regular interval and width should
be measured. (Fig 10)
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3. Obstacles to both chaining and Ranging

E.g. Buildings. (Fig 5)

2. Obstacles to chaining
 Case (i)
When it is possible to chain round the obstacle.
E.g. Pond, hedge etc. (Fig 3)

2.8 INTRODUCTION USED FOR SETTING OUT

RIGHT ANGLES:
 There are several types of instruments used to
set out a right angle to a chain line. The most common
being
(1) cross staff
(2) optical square
(3) prism square
(4) site square

(1). CROSS STAFF

 The simplest instrument used for setting out
right angles is a cross muff It consists of either a frame
or box with two pairs of vertical slits and is mounted on
Following are the cases applicable in obstacles to a pole shod for fixing in the ground.
chaining. In all the cases AB is the required chain line  The common forms of cross staff are
but not able to run over the obstacles and is to be (a) open cross staff
calculated. (b) French cross staff
 Case (ii) (c) adjustable cross staff
When it is not possible to chain round the obstacles.
E.g. River (Fig 4) (a)Open Cross Staff.
 Fig 4 14 (a) shows an open cross staff It is
provided with two pas of vertical slits giving two lines
of sights at right angles to each other.
 The cross staff is set up at a point on the line
from which the right angle is to run, and is then
turned until one line of sight passes through the
ranging pole at the end of the survey line.
 The line of sight through the other two vanes
will be a fine at right angles to the survey line and a
ranging rod may be established in that direction.
 If, however, it is to be used to take offsets, it is
held vertically on the chain line at a point where the
foot of the offsets is likely to occur.
 It is then turned so that one line of sight passes
through the ranging rod fixed at the end of the survey
line Looking through the other pair of slims, it is seen
if the point to which the offset is to be taken is
bisected.

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 If at the cross staff is moved backward or  Optical square is somewhat more convenient
forward till the line of sight also passes through the and accurate instrument than the cross staff for setting
point. out a line at right angles to another line. Fig 4.15 (a)
illustrates the principle on which it works.
 It consists of a circular box with three slits at E,
F and G. In line with the openings E and G. a glass
silvered at the top and unsilvered at the bottom is fixed
facing the opening E Opposite to the opening F.
 a silvered glass is fixed at A making an angle of
45 to the previous glass A ray from the ranging rod at
Q passes through the lower unsilvered portion of the
mirror at B, and is seen directly by eye at the slit E.
 Another ray from the object at P is received by
the mirror at A and is reflected towards the mirror at B
which reflects it towards the eye.
 Thus, the images of P and Q are visible at B. If
both the images are in the same vertical line as shown
in Fig. 4.14 (b), the line PD and QD will be at right
angles to each other.
(b) French Cross Staff.
Let the ray PA make an angle a with the mirror at A.
 Fig 4.14 (b) shows a French cross stuff. If comits
∟ACB = 450 or ∟ABC=1800 – (450 0 -
of hollow octagonal box Vertical sighting slits are cut in
the middle of each face, such that the lines between the
By law of reflection ∟EBb1 = ∟ABC= 1350 -
centres of opposite slits make angles of 45 with each
Hence ∟ABE=1800 –2 (1350 - -900
other.
Also ∟DAB=1800 –
 It is possible, therefore, to set out angles of
From ABD , ∟ADB =1800 –(2 - 900) –( 1800 -
either 45° or 90 with this instrument
= 1800 –2 0) – 1800 0

(c) Adjustable Cross Staff

 Thus, if images of P and Q lie in the same
 The adjustable cross staff (Fig 4.14 (c)] consists
vertical line, as shown in Fig 4.14 (b) the line PD and
of two cylinders of equal diameter placed one on top of
QD will be at right angles to each other.
the other Both are provided with sighting slits.
 The upper box carries a vernier and can be
To set a right angle:
rotated relatively to the lower by a circular rack and
 To set a right angle on a survey line, the
pinion arrangement actuated by a milled headed screw.
instrument held on the line with its centre on the point
 The lower box is graduated to degrees and sub-
at which perpendicular is erected. The slits F and G are
divisions It is, therefore, possible to set out any angle
directed towards the ranging rod fixed at the end of the
with the help of this instrument.
line.
 The surveyor (holding the instrument) then
OPTICAL SQUARE
directs person, holding a ranging rod and stationing in
a direction roughly perpendicular to the chain line, to
move till the two images described above coincide.

Testing the Optical Square (Fig. 4.16)

 Hold the instrument in hand at any

intermediate point C on AB, sight a pole held at A and
direct an assistant to fix a ranging rod at a, such that the
images of the ranging rods at a and A coincide in the
instrument.
 Turn round to face B and sight the ranging rod
at a. If the image of the ranging rod at B coincides with
the image of ranging rod at a, the instrument is in
adjustment.
 If not, direct the assistant to move to a new
position b so that both the images coincide. Mark a

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point d on the ground mid-way between a and b. Fix a 2.9 INTRODUCTION ABOUT TRIANGULATION
ranging rod at d. SURVEY:
 Turn the adjustable mirror till the image of the
ranging rod at d coincide with the image of the ranging 2.9.1. Define the triangulation & traverse in survey
rod at B. Repeat the test till correct.
Triangulation
PRISM SQUARE The method of dividing the whole area to be surveyed
 The prism square shown in Fig. 4.17 works on into network of triangles and the sides of all the
the same principle as that of optical square. It is a more triangles are measured directly in the field and no
modern and precise instrument and is used in a similar angular measurements are taken is known as
manner. Triangulation survey.
 It has the merit that no adjustment is required
since the angle between the reflecting surfaces (i.e. 45°) As a surveyor, you will not able to plot the Fig 1a
cannot vary. Fig. 4.18 shows a combined prism square without anyone of the angular measurements.
as well as line ranger.
You can able to plot the same figure without any
angular measurements, if the length AC and BD is
given. (Fig 1b)

Fig 1a is converted into number of triangles as in Fig

1b.

SITE SQUARE (Fig. 4.19)

A triangle is the simplest plane figure, which can be
 A site square, designed for setting out straight drawn without any angular measurements.
lines and offset lines at 90°, consists of a cylindrical
metal case containing two telescopes set at 90° to each Hence the area to be surveyed is divided into a
other, a fine setting screw near the base, a circular spirit network of triangles.
level at the top and a knurled ring at the base. It is used
in conjunction with a datum rod screwed into the base Frame work
of the instrument. The lines or the triangles covering the whole area to be
surveyed is called frame of work such as ABCD in Fig.
(1a,b)
According to the nature and shape of the area of the
triangles are to be arranged.
When forming traingles in a chain survey, the angle
between the triangles should be selected more than 300
and less then 1200. This process of forming triangles are
called as well conditioned triangle.

The angles formed in a chain survey should be an

equilateral one which is best suited for plotted work.

Traverse
A series of connected survey lines of known lengths
and directions is called as traverse. The survey lines
are measured with chain or tape and directions are

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determined with angular instruments. It is of two

types. They are closed traverse and open traverse.

2.9.2. State closed and open traversed survey

Closed traverse (Fig 2):

 When the finishing points of the survey
coincides with the starting point of the survey is Baseline
known as a closed traverse.  The longer line of the chain line is considered
 It is suitable for the survey of boundaries of as baseline is AC (in Fig 4) From this line the
forests, ponds, estate, lakes etc. chainages and offsets are taken.
 The accuracy of the whole survey is mainly
based on the accuracy of this line.
 Baseline should be decided in such a way that
it should divide the whole area approximately equal
on both sides of chain line.

Check line/Proof line

 A line joining the apex of a triangle ‘C’ and a
fixed point on the opposite side ‘E’ (In Fig 4) CE is the
check line.
 It is used to check the accuracy of the frame
work

Tie line:
 A line joining some fixed points on any two
lines in a main survey line is known as tie line. (FG in
Fig 4)
 It is used to check the accuracy of framework
to locate the interior details which are faraway from
main lines.

2.9.4. Explain about Field work

It consists of
Open traverse (Fig 3):
1. Reconnaissance
 It consists of series of survey lines extending in
2. Marking and fixing stations
the same direction and not returning to the starting
3. Reference sketches
point.
4. Running survey lines
 It is suitable for the survey of road, railway,
1. Reconnaissance
river, coast line etc.
 The preliminary inspection of the whole area
of the site to be surveyed is known as reconnaissance.
2.9.3. State the three types of survey lines in
 It is always essential to fix survey stations for
triangulation
running survey lines and taking details.
To conduct a triangulation survey stations are to be
 Hence the surveyor should walk over the
established.
whole area to examine the ground and decide about
 The beginning and end points of a chain line is
for laying survey lines. A key plan also being
called as survey stations. Stations are denotes as
prepared.
 Stations are divided into main stations and Tie
station
2. Marking and fixing stations
or subsidiary station.
 After preparing a key plan the survey stations
 The stations connecting boundaries of the area
are fixed by driving a wooden pegs or nails.
are called as main stations (in Fig 4, A,B,C,D)
 Wooden pegs are used in soft ground and for
 The stations other than main stations are called
roads or hard surface nails may be used for fixing on
as Tie stations.
the ground.

3. Reference sketches
 Each and every survey stations are referred
with some permanent points.
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 These permanent points to the survey stations 2.10.2. Application of geometrical formulae for
are located by measurement and made with reference calculating the area.
sketches.  Now apply the geometrical formulae for
 These are very useful to refix a survey station calculating the according to the shape of the figures.
when it is displaced or lost. (Fig. 1)

4. Running survey lines

 Survey lines are then laid in between the survey
stations and details should be taken by offsetting
method.

Chain angles
 In a chain traversing the entire work is done
only by a chain or tape without having angular
instrument is known as chain angle method.
 It is to be done when the area cannot be divided 1. Area of triangle
into triangles such as river, standing crop etc. (Fig 6 and = ½ x base x height
7) 2. Area of trapezium
= base (a+b)/2 x height

2.10.3. Instrumental method Planimeter

 It is a mechanical device which is used for
measuring of the area of any irregular shape of the
figure. It gives best results more than that can be
achieved by any other method except by direct
calculation from the field notes.

Angular polar planimeter

Constructional details of a planimeter:
 It consists of two arms. The arm ‘A’ is called as
Tracing arm. Its length can be adjusted and graduated.
 It carries a tracing point ‘D’ which can be
moved along the boundary of the line of the area.
 An adjustable support ‘E’ which keeps the
tracing point just clear of the surface.
 The other arm ‘F’ is called as the pole arm (or)
anchor arm.
 It is having a needle point with a weight ‘K’ at
2.10 CALCULATION OF AREA: one end.
 The weight forms the centre of rotation.
2.10.1. Calculation of the area of an irregular field  The other end of the pole arm can be pivoted
 In this survey the area of plot may be at a point ‘P’ by a ball and socket arrangement.
determined by the direct use of field notes.  A carriage point ‘B’ which can be set at various
 In this method of survey a chain line known as points of the tracing arm with respect to the vernier of
base line to be laid through the centre of the area of the the index mark I.
field.  The carriage point having a measuring wheel
 The offset are taken to the boundary points in ‘W’ and a vernier ‘V’.
the order of their chinages on both the sides of the base  The wheel is divided into 100 divisions and
line. the vernier is divided into 10 divisions.
 The chainages and offsets are entered in the  The wheel and the vernier measure readings
field book. upto three places (i.e) 0.145, 0.194 etc.
 With reference to the field book the boundary  The wheel is geared to a counting disc which is
points are plotted and the area to be divided into divided into 10 divisions. For ten complete revolutions
number of triangles and trapezium according to the of the wheel, the disc shows a reading of one divisions.
shape.  Therefore the planimeter shows a reading of
four digits (i.e. 1.145, 1.194).
The wheel shows - tenth and hundreth
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Vernier shows – Thousandth

 The planimeter rests on the tracing point, anchor point and the measuring wheel.

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