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ABSTRACT - 1 . Gyroscopes are expected to become the next killer application for the MEMS industry in the coming years. A multitude of applications already have been developed for consumer and automotive markets. Some of the more well known automotive applications such as vehicle stability control, navigation assist, roll over detection are only used in high-end cars, where cost is not a major factor. Examples of consumer applications are 3D input devices, robotics, platform stability, camcorder stabilization, virtual reality, and more. Primarily due to cost and the size most of these applications have not reached any significant volume. Advancement in MEMS technology, fueled by the optical bubble, such as, wafer-scaleintegration, and wafer-scale-packaging will be reviewed. New opportunities for design and development of the next generation of low-cost and high-performance gyroscopes based on the latest MEMS technologies are discussed.

Dept. of EEE

1 AWH Engg. College

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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
The advent of MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical-System) technology has enabled thedevelopment of miniaturized, low-cost, low-power sensors that are currently replacingtheir macroscopic scale equivalents in many traditional applications, covering industrial, automotive, biomedical, consumer applications, etc. Competitiveness of MEMS sensors largely resides in the miniaturization and batch fabrication processes involved in their manufacture, which allow to cut down costs, size and power requirements of the final device. Moreover, miniaturization opens new perspectives and possibilities for the development of completely new class of sensors, where micro-scale phenomena are effectively pursued to achieve results that would be unfeasible at a macroscale. Several MEMS sensor typologies are either commercially available or have been presented in technical literature since the beginning of the microsystem technology more than 30 years ago. Pressure and acceleration sensors for the automotive industry have been among the first MEMS devices to be produced in large scale, and they have contributed to foster the further development of MEMS technology. Despite their maturity, these sensors are still dominating, with their sales volume, the market of silicon-based sensors. Recently, another micro-sensor that is becoming relevant in terms of sales volume, especially in the automotive and consumer electronics markets, is the angular rate sensor, or gyroscope.

Chapter 2
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GYROSCOPE
A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the principles of conservation of angular momentum. In essence, a mechanical gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disk whose axle is free to take any orientation. Although this orientation does not remain fixed, it changes in response to an external torque much less and in a different direction than it would without the large angular momentum associated with the disk's high rate of spin and moment of inertia. Since external torque is minimized by mounting the device in gimbals, its orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of any motion of the platform on which it is mounted. Gyroscopes function differently depending on their type. Traditional spinning gyroscopes work on the basis that a spinning object that is tilted perpendicularly to the direction of the spin will have a precession. The precession keeps the device oriented in a vertical direction so the angle relative to the reference surface can be measured. Optical gyroscopes are most commonly ring laser gyroscopes. These devices send two lasers around a circular path in opposite directions. If the path spins, a phase shift can be detected since the speed of light always remain constant. Usually the rings are triangles or rectangles with mirrors at each corner. Optical gyroscopes are a great improvement to the spinning mass gyroscopes because there is no wear, greater reliability and smaller size and weight. Gyroscopes based on other operating principles also exist, such as the electronic, microchippackaged MEMS gyroscope devices found in consumer electronic devices, solid-state ring lasers, fibre optic gyroscopes, and the extremely sensitive quantum gyroscope. Applications of gyroscopes include inertial navigation systems where magnetic compasses would not work (as in the Hubble telescope) or would not be precise enough (as in ICBMs), or for the stabilization of flying vehicles like radio-controlled helicopters or unmanned aerial vehicles. Due to their high precision, gyroscopes are also used to maintain direction in tunnel mining.

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3 AWH Engg. College

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3. TRANSITION TO MEMS
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) is the integration of mechanical elements , sensors, actuators, and electronics on a common silicon substrate through micro fabrication technology. While the electronics are fabricated using integrated circuit (IC) process sequences, the micromechanical components are fabricated using compatible "micromachining" processes that selectively etch away parts of the silicon wafer or add new structural layers to form the mechanical0 and electro mechanical devices. Microelectronic integrated circuits can be thought of as the "brains" of a system and MEMS augments this decision-making capability with "eyes" and "arms", to allow microsystems to sense and control the environment. Sensors gather information from the environment through measuring mechanical, thermal, biological, chemical, optical, and magnetic phenomena. The electronics then process the information derived from the sensors and through some decision making capability direct the actuators to respond by moving, positioning, regulating, pumping, and filtering, there by controlling the environment for some desired outcome or purpose. Because MEMS devices are manufactured using batch fabrication techniques similar to those used for integrated circuits, unprecedented levels of functionality, reliability, and sophistication can be placed on a small silicon chip at a relatively low cost.

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4 AWH Engg. College

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4. TYPES OF MEMS GYROSCOPE

Laser Ring Gyroscopes In order to discuss the difficulties in creating a laser ring gyroscope in the micrometer scale, the theory behind the macroscopic gyroscope must be derived. Below is a picture of a simple laser gyroscope that happens to be in the shape of a triangle rather than a ring. A laser source outputs two beams traveling in an opposite direction around the ring until they reach the detector. The detector counts the beat frequency of the combined light wave. This beat frequency is directly proportional to the angle of rotation of the gyroscope.

General Ring Laser Gyro

The following formula is derived for any constant laser ring gyroscope [1]. (2) = p A

4 A = area of ring P = perimeter of ring There are two main sources of error for laser ring gyroscopes. They are varying offset bias and a dead band at very small rotation rates. The offset bias is due to different indices of refraction for the beam pairs. This is caused by small differences in the degrees of saturation in the original beams. Diddams, Atherton and Diels experimented with a light scatterer placed in the laser pulses at different distances from the detector while keeping the gyroscope at rest. This scatterer represented a reflection of light particles back with the beam traveling the other direction. They found that when the scatterer was more than 500 microns away from the detector, the beat Dept. of EEE 5 AWH Engg. College

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frequency was constant and stable. The width of the dead band also showed good consistency through many tests. When the scatterer was within 100 microns, the beat frequency became non-sinusoidal and therefore very hard to measure. When the scatterer was placed within 10-30 microns of the detector, the beat frequency was erratic and noncontinuous. The dead band region is another limiting factor for this type of sensor. When you are at very small turning rates, the frequencies of the two light waves are very close to each other. When these frequencies are within a critical value, it creates a phenomenon where the frequencies converge toward each other until they are the same. This gives you a false reading of a zero turning speed when you are actually moving at a small angular velocity Draper Tuning Fork Gyroscope One of the most widely used micro-machined gyroscopes is the tuning fork design from the Charles Stark Draper Lab. The design consists of two tines connected to a junction bar which resonate at certain amplitude. When the tines rotate, Coriolis force causes a force perpendicular to the tines of the fork. The force is then detected as bending of the tuning fork or a torsional force. These forces are proportional to the applied angular rate, from which the displacements can be measured in a capacitive fashion. Electrostatic, electromagnetic, or piezoelectric mechanisms can be used to detect the force. Since the development of their first tuning fork gyroscope in 1993, the Draper Laboratory has made significant improvements to the device. Their first gyroscope was developed for the automobile industry. The gyroscope had command of 1 degree/hr drift, and possessed 4000 deg/hr resolution. These devices eventually functioned as the yaw rate sensor for skid control in anti-lock braking applications. Tests run on these sensors involve the examining the change in bias and error of such over a number of variables.. These systems need to operate in a range of temperatures, specifically from -40 to 80 degrees Celsius. Over this range, both the bias error and the scale factor error are both quite stable. The bias error is approximately 2200 deg/h. Scale factor error was approximately 0.08%.

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6 AWH Engg. College

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Tuning Fork Since this initial design, the performance of the tuning fork gyroscope and gradually increased. In 1994, a 500 deg/hr resolution was achieved. The designs in 1997 resulted in resolutions of 100 deg/hr. Drift stability improved an order of magnitude to 0.1 deg/hr. With these types of results, these gyroscopes can be implemented with near exact data replication and production. Along with the increased resolution, the input voltage noise was lowered significantly, leading to a stronger signal-to-noise ratio, providing sensors with the ability to communicate better with their devices Piezoelectric Plate Gyroscope While vibrating ring gyroscopesand tuning fork gyroscopes were the first nsuccessful MEMS gyroscopes and are still the most widely produced, other successful MEMS gyroscopes have since been created. One of these gyroscopes is the Piezoelectric Plate Gyroscope which uses a PZT plate as its base. This method, which in the past has been used to try to build macroscale gyroscopes, is actually ideal for micro devices. At micro levels, an entire plate can be made of piezoelectric material. It has advantages over the common vibrating gyroscopes in that it requires a much smaller drive voltage to create readable outputs. The piezoelectric plate gyroscope is very simple in its design. In fact, it is much simpler than the ring or fork gyroscopes. There is a piezoelectric plate, which has a length and width much larger than its depth. The plate has electrical leads connected to all 6 sides and sits on top of a thin membrane of a cavity in a silicon wafer. The cavity allows more freedom for the PZT to vibrate and deform. The leads provide the driving voltage and measure the output.

Cross Section of Gyroscope

Like other MEMS gyroscope the piezoelectric plate gyroscope works on the principle of a vibrating body. In this case, the vibrating body is a piezoelectric sheet. The sheet does not vibrate like a plate or fork. Instead the thickness vibrates which oscillates with time. This requires an AC driving voltage applied vertically across the plate, which uses the electromechanical properties of the PZT to create the vibration. Any piezoelectric material can be used, but PZT has high piezoelectric constants, and can be added at a precise thickness. Dept. of EEE 7 AWH Engg. College

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When the vibrating plate is rotated about an axis perpendicular to the drive voltage, a voltage is produced in the third perpendicular direction. This output voltage is proportional to the angular velocity.

Piezoelectric Plate with orthogonal directions shown

The piezoelectric plate gyroscope is a feasible alternative to traditional MEMS gyroscopes. One of its advantages is a lower required drive voltage. However, the sensitivity is only about 38 microvolts, whereas the sensitivity of a ring gyroscope is around 200 microvolts .Also, when there is no rotation, traditional gyroscopes come much closer to the ideal zero volts output than the piezoelectric plate gyroscope, which still outputs up to 100 millivolts. A major advantage and the one that could prove most practical is the versatility of the piezoelectric plate gyroscope. It can measure rotation in two directions. In addition, if the driving voltage direction is switched, the same device can measure rotation in the third direction, although with much less sensitivity. Since this device is easily incorporated into other IC chips, it could be controlled to do more things than a ring or tuning fork gyroscope, which require three gyroscopes to measure three rotation directions .

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8 AWH Engg. College

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Absolute Angle Measurement using MEMS Gyroscope

Measuring the angle using a typical MEMS gyroscope over a period of time is not possible by integrating the angular rate, due to the presence of bias errors which would cause a drift. An innovative design of a vibrating gyroscope is being developed which would directly measure both angle and angular rate. The design is based on the principle of measuring the angle of free vibration of a suspended mass with respect to the casing of the gyroscope. A traditional vibrating massgyroscope consists of a mass suspended by elastic members that allow it to travel in both x and y direction as shown in figure 10. The equations of motion for such a system once appropriately compensated can be approximated as shown below.

Schematic drawing of a suspended mass vibratory gyroscope

When experiencing an external angular velocity the 2x term in the 2nd equation causes the y mode to vibrate at the driven frequency with amplitude that is proportional to the angular rate. The value of the angular rate can then be obtained by demodulating the y output signal.

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9 AWH Engg. College

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DESIGN CONSIDERATION
Damping needs to be compensated The design for angle measurement is based on the principle of measuring the angle of free vibration of the suspended mass with respect to the casing of the gyroscope. The mass is given an initial condition so that it vibrates in a know direction. The angle, , in the global frame can be calculated by keeping track of the direction of vibration if the mass in the local frame, given by the angle , as shown in Figure 11. When the gyroscope is rotated in the global frame the mass continues to vibrate in the same direction with respect to the global frame.

mass motion with initial x-axis oscillation The method relies on the free vibration of the mass; therefore the effects of damping forces must be negated as it would drive the motion of the mass to zero. Energy is supplied using actuators, which deliver small forces to the x and y modes proportional to the respective velocities. These forces counteract the effect of damping in the system. Due to various difficulties a fixed force cannot be selected for this purpose. A control loop is used instead to keep the total energy of the system constant. The forces counteracting the damping of the system are continuously adjusted using the equations stated below:

where E is the energy set point and represents the instantaneous energy of the system and is a constant positive gain. A steady state of energy function can be achieved close to the desired energy by selecting an appropriate positive value for . Dept. of EEE 10 AWH Engg. College

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Angular Rate Measurement

In order to measure the angular rate a sinusoidal excitation (d) is added to the steady state equation for the x-axis force defined earlier, while the y-axis force remains the same

When the system undergoes an angular rotation, the excitation term in the x-axis equation causes vibrations along the y-axis at the driven frequency of d. The value of the angular rate can then be obtained by demodulating the yaxis motion at the driving frequency. In the above system, the x and y signals obtained from the gyroscope need to go through a separate band pass filter at the natural frequency in order to determine the angle value. When running the gyroscope at both its natural nfrequency and the driving frequency the relative amplitude of the oscillation at the two frequencies becomes important. Therefore it is necessary to endure that the driving frequency is at least an order of magnitude different from the natural frequency.

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11 AWH Engg. College

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APPLICATIONS MILITARY MUNITIONS With the advancements made on the Draper tuning fork gyroscope, it became obvious that this device could be used for more intricate devices such as guided military munitions and exact Global Positioning Devices. Not only are these devices considerably accurate at determining positioning and rates of motion, they are also low cost to manufacture and due to their scale, easy to implement in many military operations. Currently, the Draper Laboratory is working in part with the Competent Munitions Advanced Technology Demonstration Program from the Office of Naval Research. The object is to design a munition that is fully GPS aided and is able to fly inertially to prevent countermeasures or signal jamming from either detonating the explosive early, or running it off course. A MEMS gyroscope is implanted in the fuse assembly of the warhead to sense direction. Joined with an accelerometer, the system is able to control its flight with little adverse conditions

GPS guided munitions Inertial Measurement Unit Honeywell has also used the Draper tuning fork gyroscope design for their technology. In 1999, Honeywell acquired the Draper lab technology in MEMS gyroscope design. One of Honeywell.s major programs is the development of an Inertial Measurement Unit, a unit that can measure the rates of motion and displacements of an object in action. At the time, they had been using macroscale gyroscopes, specifically, the ring laser gyroscope. This gyroscope was implemented in the HG1700 system which could function properly and beyond the original requirements for which it was planned. However, this device was too costly, too large, and too high performance for the emerging smaller, gun-launched systems. By acquiring Draper.s tuning fork gyroscope, a new inertial measurement unit could be developed that was cheaper Dept. of EEE 12 AWH Engg. College

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and smaller. Eventually, the HG1700 system was integrated with MEMS gyroscopes from the Draper laboratory, replacing the ring laser gyroscope clusters. These systems functioned similarly to their predecessors, with the exception that they could be made smaller at an economical cost. Soon after, the HG1910 was developed with the use of Honeywell designed gyroscopes, utilizing similar techniques taken from the Draper laboratories. This unit was designed to withstand the rigors of an in-combat environment.

Exploded View of HG1920 Gyroscope-based sensor embedded in a shoe insole A gyroscope based gait-phase detection sensor (GPDS) is used in conjunction with a programmable functional electrical simulation (FES) to help people with a dropped-foot walking dysfunction. The GPDS is entirely embedded in the shoe insole and detects in real time the four phases during the gait cycle; stance, heel off, swing and heel strike. The gyroscope in the GPDS measures the angular velocity of the foot and the three force sensitive resistors measure the force load at 3 different locations. The gait-phase signal is processed in the embedded microcontroller and then transmitted in real time to the electrical stimulator attached to the affected muscles. The electrical stimulations induce muscle contractions in the paralyzed muscles leading to a more physiological motion of the affected leg. Previous versions of the gaitphase detectors had been insufficiently reliable in everyday use as they would be affected by non-walking activities like standing, shifting the weight from one leg to another, sitting, etc. Therefore those designs had to be turned on and off to avoid stimulations during nonwalking activities. Also the gyroscope in this device can be effectively used to measure the angle of the foot relative to the ground and since there is a built in reset mechanism it avoids the accumulation of drift errors in the integrated system. Tests conducted with the system show positive results. The GPDS works robustly on different types of terrains with an accuracy level of over 96%, increasing comfort and confidence the user has in the system. The GPDS has helped users with dropped-foot walking dysfunctional to effectively walk faster while feeling safer and less tired at the same time. Figure 13 shows by illustration the how the FES reduces the excessive plantar flexion of the foot during the swing phase and provides a better clearance.

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13 AWH Engg. College

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GPDS and the embedded components

Illustration of the foot position during a gait-cycle under variousconditions

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