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6.1 Circular Motion

A particle is in a ​uniform circular motion if it moves in a circular path with constant
speed ‘v’. ​Linear velocity ​is always ​tangential to the circular path. Even in a uniform
circular motion, the body accelerates, as the direction of velocity constantly
changes. This acceleration, and therefore, force, is ​towards the center of the circle​.

The angle moved by an object from its starting position is the ​angular displacement​.
Angular speed (𝞈) ​is angular displacement over time.

Period and frequency

The time taken for an object to round the circle once is known as the ​period (T)​. In one
period, the distance traveled is 2𝜋. So T, in rads s​-1​, must be:

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Frequency(𝑓) is the number of times an object goes around in a circle in unit time. T and 𝑓 are linked by
the equation:

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This can be rewritten as (As T = 2𝜋/⍵)
tlo
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Angular and linear speed

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When the circle has radius r, the distance circumference is 2𝜋r, and the time to cover this is T. So:
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v​linear​ = 2𝜋r/T
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This can be rearranged to give: T = 2𝜋r/v

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T = 2𝜋/⍵, so, therefore,

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2𝜋r/v = 2𝜋/⍵
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After simplification: v = ⍵r
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Centripetal acceleration

The diagram shows the velocity of a body

at 2 different points in its circular path.
Acceleration is the change in velocity over
time. The change in velocity here is the
resultant of the subtraction of the two
vectors, which proves that the direction of
acceleration is towards the center of the
circle.
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The time taken to move from P​1​ to P​2​ is given by:

Using trig,

The acceleration towards the center of the circle can be written as:

When Θ is very small, the ratio sin (ΔΘ/2) / ΔΘ/2 is very close to 1, so the instantaneous acceleration
between P​1​ and P​2​ is given by:

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Centripetal Force
F = ma, so: tlo
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Banking
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A car can turn (bank) because of friction between the tire and the pavement. This friction points to the
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center of the circle. Some other forces that provide centripetal force are:
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● Tension
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● Friction
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● Gravitational
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● Electrical
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● Magnetic

Horizontal circular motion

Centripetal force is equal to mv​2​r​-1​ at all points on the path

Vertical circular motion

Tension at the top: Tension at the bottom:
F​C​ at the top​ ​ = Tension + Weight F​C​ at the bottom = Tension - Weight
F​C​ = T + W F​C ​= T - W
T = F​C​ - W T = F​C​ + W {At the bottom}
T​top​ = mv​2​r​-1​ - mg T​bottom​ = mv​2​r​-1​ + mg

Tension is ​greatest at the bottom of the circle

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Minimum velocity at the top and bottom of a vertical circular path

At the top At the bottom

Weight = Centripetal Force GPE​T​ + KE​T​ = GPE​B​ + KE​B
mg = mv​2​r​-1 mg2r + 0.5m((√(gr))​2​) = 0 + 0.5mv​2
g = v​2​r​-1 2gr + 0.5gr = 0.5v​2
v​2​ = gr v​2 ​= 4gr + gr
v = √(gr) v​ ​= √(5gr)

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6.2 Newton’s Laws of gravitation

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Gravitational force is the weakest force in nature:
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All masses exert a force on each other. Masses that are significantly larger than others simply appear to
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be attracting smaller masses as their gravitational force is significantly larger.

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The ​gravitational field strength at a point is the force per unit mass
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experienced by a small test mass placed at a point in the field​. If the

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mass of the test mass is ​m ​and the field is producing a gravitational

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force of F​ ​, the gravitational field strength, g​ ​, is given by ​g = Fm​-1

Cases with two-point masses that attract each other

Newton’s Law of Gravitation states that the force of

attraction between ​two point masses is directly
proportional to the product of the
masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance
between them.
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To use this equation numerically, a constant G is required, which is equal to 6.67 x 10​-11
Therefore,

If g = Fm​-1​, then g also = GMr​-2

Kepler’s Third Law

The square of the time of revolution of the planet (i.e. their periodic time T) about the sun is proportional
to the cubes of their mean distance, r, from it.
T​2​ ∝ R​3
T​2​ = kR​3
Deriving ‘k’
F​C​ = F​G
mv​ R​ = GMmR​-2
2​ -1​

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v​2​ ​= GMR​-1
(2𝜋RT​ )​ = GMR​-1
-1​ 2​

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4𝜋​2​R​2​T​-2​ = GMR​-1

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T​2​ = (4𝜋​2​(GM)​-1​) x R​3
Therefore, k = (4𝜋​2​(GM)​-1​) tlo
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10.1 Describing Fields (Gravitation part only)

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A gravitational field exists between two objects that have mass. Each mass has a gravitational field, and
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any other mass in this field has a gravitational field acting on it. ​Gravitational force (F) is a force that
a.

attracts any two objects with mass. It is always attractive. This means that the direction of field strength
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is always towards the mass that gives rise to the field.

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Gravitational field strength

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Gravitational field strength is defined as the force per unit mass acting on a small test mass
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at a point in the field. It is given by the equation: \

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The units of field strength are therefore N kg​-1

Field and equipotential in gravitation

Properties of gravitational field lines include:
● Radial field
● Closer the lines, the stronger the field
● Attractive
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Gravitational potential
Gravitational potential is the work done per unit mass in bringing a test mass from
infinity to a point in the field. It is given by the equation:

To calculate gravitational potential, ​infinity is taken as a reference point.

Gravitational potential is defined to be zero at infinity​. Newton’s Law of gravitation tells us that force is
directly proportional to 1/r​2​, so if two masses are an infinite distance apart, there is no interaction
between them. F = 0.

As the masses begin to approach each other from infinite separation, they start to become attracted to
each other. This means that positive work must be done on the system to push the masses away from
each other and back to infinity. Therefore, whenever the masses are closer than infinity (​where
gravitational potential is maximum​), the system of the two masses has a n
​ egative potential​.

Equipotential surfaces
Gravitational potential is the same throughout each of those spheres. Work done in moving within an

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equipotential is ​0J. ​Lines get further apart as you go away. ​Furthermore, equipotential lines are
perpendicular ​to gravitational field lines.

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10.2 Fields at work (Gravitation part only)

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Force and inverse-square law behavior

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This is Newton’s Law of Gravitation (Defined earlier). G is constant and equal to

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6.67 x 10​-11
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Gravitational potential (continued)

Gravitational field strength is equal to gravitational potential over the radius.

Another equation for the gravitational potential can be derived from Newton’s Law
of gravitation.
F = -GMmr​-2
GPE = F x d = (-GMmr​-2​) x r = -GMmr​-1
GP = GPE/m = (-GMmr​-1​)/m = -GMr​-1

Step 2 of the derivation above also shows us that gravitational

potential energy is given by:
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Gravitational potential energy is the work done to move a point mass

from infinity to a point in the field. These equations offer graphs that
show that as the distance between two masses approaches infinity, the
gravitational potential and gravitational potential energy start to reach
their maximum of zero.
The area under the Force-distance graph is equal to potential energy
The area under the field strength-distance graph is potential

4 important concepts
Gravitational Definition Unit Equations Links to other
Quantity equations

Force (F) A force that attracts any two N Linked to field

objects with mass strength

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Field strength The force on unit mass acting on a N/kg Linked to force
(g) test mass at a point in the field tlo Also linked to
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potential
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Potential The work done to move a point J Linked to

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energy (W) mass from infinity to a point in potential. Divide

the field potential energy
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by mass to get
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potential
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Potential (V​g​) The work done in moving a small J/kg Linked to

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unit mass from infinity to a point potential energy

in the field Linked to field
strength

Orbiting
We can determine the orbital velocity around any body.
F​G​ = F​C
GMmR​-2​ = mv​2​r​-1
V​2​ = GMR​-1
V = √(GMR​-1​)
This shows that the mass of the object in orbit does not impact orbital velocity. It is the mass of the
larger body, and the distance between the centers of the two bodies that determine the orbital velocity
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Types of orbits
There are two useful types of orbits in which satellites are placed (in fact, they can be placed pretty much
anywhere). The ​polar orbit is used for satellites closer to the earth (less than 100km). It is called polar, as
satellites are usually put into orbit over the poles. Imagine the earth rotating horizontally, and the
satellites orbiting vertically (over the poles). This would allow the satellite to view every point on the
earth in a 24 period. The other type of orbit is a ​geosynchronous orbit​. These are at much larger
distances from the earth. Their orbital times are equal to 24 hours, which means these satellites can be
made to stay over one part of the sky. They tend to follow a figure of 8 paths over the given region.

A ​geostationary orbit is a special case of the geosynchronous orbit where the satellite is placed in orbit
above the plane of the equator. It will not appear to move if viewed from the surface. These make
antennae communications easier.

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Gravitational potential gradient ​is the change in gravitational potential per unit distance (ΔV​G​ / Δr)
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Escaping the earth

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The e​ scape speed​ is the minimum speed an object needs to escape a planet’s gravitational pull.
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OR
The minimum speed which will carry an object to infinity and bring it to rest there
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Escape speed derivation

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ΔE​K​ + ΔE​P​ = 0 {Law of conservation of energy}

{0.5mv​final​2​ - 0.5mv​escape​2​} + {(-GMm/r​final​) - (-GMm/r​body​)} = 0

- 0.5mv​escape​2​ + GMm/r​body​ = 0 {0.5mv​final​2 ​= 0, as v​final​ is 0 /// -GMm/r​final​ = 0, as r​final ​= ∞}

0.5mv​escape​2​ = GMm/r​body

0.5v​escape​2​ = GMR​-1

v​escape ​= √(2GMR​-1​)

Escape speed, therefore, depends on the mass of the planet and radius of the planet, but NOT the mass
of the object
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Orbital energy
For kinetic energy
F​G​ = F​C
GMmR​-2​ = mv​2​r​-1
GMmR​-1​ = mv​2
0.5GMmR​-1​ = 0.5mv​2

GMm
KE = ---------
2R

For total energy

Total energy = KE + PE
= 0.5GMmR​-1​ - GMmR​-1​ = -0.5GMmR​-1

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Graphs of KE, PE, and Total energy against radius

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Orbit shapes
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Depending on the speed at which a body is launched from the earth’s surface, it follows a certain type of
orbital path: