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ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE A2 LEVEL
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Rebecca for personal use only.
CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS
s
1. Motion in a Circle v=
t
and s = rθ
​

⇒ v = r( )
θ
​

t
1.1. Angular Displacement: ∴ v = rω

Definition: The angle made by an arc with radii r

1.3. Angular Acceleration
F ormula : s = rθ
Using Newton’s second law, we derive a formula for the
s = Length of the arc suspended acceleration of an object in a circular motion
θ = Angular Displacement ( Unit: Radians ) Definition: Rate of change of momentum of an object in
r = Radius of the arc a circular path
Formula:
Radian: One radian is the angle subtended at the center
of the circle by an arc of length equal to the radius of the v2
a = rω 2 =
circle
​

r
v is the Linear Velocity, ω is the Angular Velocity
The direction of the acceleration is always towards the
centre
A body moving in a circle at a constant speed changes
velocity since its direction changes. Thus, it is
accelerating and hence experiences a force.

1.4. Centripetal Force:

Concept: Resultant force acting on an object moving in a
circle, always directed towards the centre of the circle
perpendicular to the velocity of the object
Note: 180∘ = π radians mv 2
F = = mrω 2
​

r
1.2. Angular Speed: The centripetal force itself is not a force, but other forces
need to act as it, and in different cases, it changes. The
Definition: Rate of change of angular displacement.
examples of it are as follows:
Formula:
θ 2π 1. A curved plane uses the horizontal component as its
ω= ​= = 2πf
​ centripetal force
t T 2. A rotating pendulum uses its weight and the tension
Where: of the spring as the centripetal force at multiple
positions
t = time taken 3. A car on a curved road used the friction of the road
One whole rotation of an object is 2π (360°), so the θ can as the centripetal force
be replaced by 2π in the formula 4. An atom uses it’s Electrical force between it’s neutron
Since 1/t = f thus, we can replace it with 1/t and make the and electrons as the centripetal force
formula ω = 2πf
ω = 2π T = 2πf
​

1.5. Rotating Flat Plate Type

One revolution means one whole circle is covered (θ =
2π ) A horizontal flat plate is free to rotate about a vertical axis
through its centre.
To determine an object's linear speed (v ), multiply its
angular speed (ω ) by the radius of its circular path (r), as
demonstrated below:

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS
Note: In such cases, one key point to remember is that the
Centripetal Force is the force towards the center of the circle
so:
Fc = Fg - Fr i.e. Centripetal Force = Gravitational Force -
Friction pushing outwards

2. Gravitational Fields
2.1. Introduction
The gravitational field is an example of a field of force
In cases of Circular Motion, it is put equal to Centripetal
A mass M is placed on the plate, a distance d, 35cm, from Force
the axis of rotation. The speed of rotation is increased from
zero until the mass slides off the plate.
The expression gives the maximum frictional force FF
2.2. Describing a Gravitational Field
between the plate and the mass It is defined as a region in space where mass experiences
F = 0.72W a force.
Each mass has a field around it that gives a pulling force
Determine the maximum number of revolutions of per to the mass around it.
minute for the mass M to remain on the plate. The field is described by gravitational field lines
Solution: A field line is the path followed by a free unit mass in that
The centripetal force on the particle is the frictional force, so gravitational field
the max speed is when friction is at the max A higher density of field lines = a region of stronger field
Centripetal Force = Frictional Force

M v2
2.3. Radial Path
= 0.72W
​

r For an isolated point mass, the gravitational field is radial

Manipulating expression by adding ω and removing M in shape, with the mass at the center
A medium with consistent density throughout is
M (ωr)2 considered to be an isolated point mass
= 0.72M g
​

This field is called a “Non-uniform” field as the closer you

r
are to the mass, the stronger the field is.
ω 2 r = 0.72g When dealing with the Earth or sun, this is considered
the field of lines on it
Find the angular velocity

0.72 × 9.81
ω= = 4.49rads−1
0.35
​ ​

Find radians covered in a minute using ratios

4.49rad : 1sec

269.5rad : 60sec

Divide radians covered by 2π to find revolutions

269.5
= 42.9
2π
​

∴ 43 revolutions min−1

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS
The orbit of the Earth, mass 6.0 × 1024 kg, may be
2.4. Uniform Path assumed to be a circle of radius 1.5 × 1011 m with the Sun
at its center, illustrated below. The time taken for one orbit
This is a uniform field as the density of the field lines is is 3.2 × 107 s.
constant.
When dealing with earth from the surface, it is
considered to be in this case. This is due to the fact that
the curvature of the Earth is ignoreable at the surface.
This has led to the constant value of g is 9.81.

a. Calculate the magnitude of the centripetal force acting on

the Earth
2.5. Newton’s Law of Gravitation b. Determine the mass of the Sun
Solution:
If two masses are near, they will face equal force in Part (a):
opposite directions Firstly, calculate the angular velocity of the earth
The gravitational force between two point masses is
proportional to the product of their masses & inversely 2π 2π
ω= = = 1.96 × 10−7
proportional to the square of their separation 3.2 × 107
​ ​

T
GMm Use centripetal force equation, F = mω 2 r
F =
r2
​

2
F = 6.0 × 1024 × (1.96 × 10−7 ) × 1.5 × 1011
Where:
F = 3.46 × 1022 N
F is the gravitational force between two masses (N)
G is the gravitational field constant = 6.67 × 10−11 Part (b):
Nm2kg-2 (Given in the exam sheet) The centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force of
M & m are point masses (kg) the sun ∴ using Newton’s inverse law
r is the distance between the centres of the two masses GMm
(m) 3.46 × 1022 =
r2
​

Key Notes: Substitute values into the expression

The gravitational force between two masses is 6.67 × 10−11 × M × 6.0 × 1024
independent of the medium separating the mass and is 3.46 × 1022 =
(1.5 × 1011 )2
​

always an attractive force

For r, we add the radius of spheres as well if not a point M = 1.95 × 1030
mass
2.7. Gravitational Field Strength
2.6. Example Question
{S05-P04} Question 1:

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The gravitational field strength at a point is the

gravitational force exerted per unit of mass [ Definition
for one mark question ]
The gravitational pull of a planet due to its mass per unit
mass of an object in its field. [ Definition for two marks
question ]
If the examiner asks for the definition of “Gravitational
Field”, the thing being referred to is “Gravitational Field
Strength” and these definitions are to be used
By equating W = mg and Newton’s Law of Gravitation
On Earth’s surface, we can use the equation g.p.e= mgh
GMm . However, this is not true for masses far from the Earth’s
mg =
r2
​

surface because we assume g is constant

GM The gravitational potential energy of a mass m at a
∴g=
r2 point in the gravitational field of another mass M , is the
​

work done in bringing that unit mass m from infinity to

2.8. Graph that point
GM
U = mϕ = − m ​

r
The gravitational potential energy difference between
two points is the work done in moving a mass from one
point to another

ΔU = mϕfinal − mϕinitial
​ ​

2.10. Centripetal Acceleration

For an orbiting satellite, the gravity provides centripetal
Key Point: force which keeps it in orbit
The g at the poles is different from the g at the equator GMm mv 2
due to the difference in the distance from the center of r2 = r
​ ​

the earth from these points. v 2 = GM

r ​

∴ velocity is independent of the mass of the satellite

2.9. Gravitational Potential
2.11. Orbiting Period
The gravitational potential at a point is work done per
unit mass in bringing a test mass from infinity to the In the section on centripetal acceleration, we have come out
point that

GM GM
ϕ=− V2 = ​

r
​

r
The negative sign is because: and for the linear velocity
Gravitational force is always attractive 2π
Gravitational potential increases to zero at infinity v = ωr where ω = = 2πf
​

T
Gravitational potential decreases in the direction of
the field If we combine and simplify them, then we will get

4π 2
T2 = ( ) r3
​

GM

2.12. Geostationary Orbits

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS
Using the following expression
Geostationary Orbit:
Equatorial orbit GM GM
ΔU = (− m) − (− m)
The period is 24hrs, same angular speed as Earth
​ ​ ​ ​

r final r initial
From West to East; the same direction of rotation as
= GM (− )
Earth m m
+
A geostationary satellite is one which always appears
​ ​

rfinal ​ rinitial ​

to be above a certain point on the Earth

For a geostationary orbit: T = 24 hrs., and orbital radius is Substitute values
a fixed value from the centre of the Earth 6.67 × 10−11 × 6.0 × 1024 × ( 6.4×10
650
6 − ​
650
4.2
​
× 107 )
= 3.45 × 10 J 10
However, the mass of the satellite was not fixed; hence
the k.e., g.p.e. and centripetal force are not fixed values
A geostationary satellite is launched from the equator in 2.13. Escape Velocity of a Satellite
the the direction of rotation of the Earth (West to East) so
that the axis of rotation of the satellite & Earth coincide By conservation of energy,
{W05-P05} Question 1: Initial K.E. + Initial G.P.E = Final = 0
The Earth may be considered to be a sphere of radius
6.4 × 106 m with a mass of 6.0 × 1024 kg concentrated at 1 GMm
mv 2 − =0
2
​ ​

its centre. A satellite of mass 650kg is to be launched from r

the Equator and put into geostationary orbit. 2GM
Thus escape velocity =
a. Show that the radius of the geostationary orbit is 4.2 × r ​

107 m Escape velocity is the speed a satellite needs to escape

b. Determine the increase in gravitational potential energy of the gravitational pull of a planet and get into orbit
the satellite during its launch from the Earth’s surface to the however not used as it is a huge value and satellites have
geostationary orbit. engines so provide thrust to reach height of orbit
Solution:
Part (a):
The centripetal force provided by gravity ∴ 2.14. Weightless
GMm mv 2 An astronaut is in a satellite orbiting the Earth, reports
= that he is ‘weightless’, despite being in the Earth’s
r2
​ ​

r
gravitational field. This sensation is because
GM = v 2 r
Gravitational force provides the centripetal force: the
Using angular velocity, substitute v = ωr gravitational force is equal to the centripetal force

GM = ω 2 r2 × r GMm
r2 ​ = mv 2
r ​

2π
Substituting ω = T
​
The sensation of weight (reaction force) is the difference
between FG and FC which is zero.
4π 2 Therefore, astronaut feels weightless
GM = × r3
T2
​

The time period is always 24 hours so in seconds 2.15. Graphs

24 hours = 24 × 60 × 60
Rearranging and substituting values Gravitational Field Strength of a Planet (inclusive
2
earth)
3 6.67 × 10−11 × 6.0 × 1024 × (86, 400)
r= = 4.2
4π 2
​ ​

Part (b):

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Gravitational Field Strength/Gravitational Field

Y axis: Gravitational Potential
between two masses: X-axis: Distance

2.17. Gravitational Potential between

two masses

The example added shows Earth and the Moon. It can be

seen that there is a point with 0 field between them. That
point is where the field cancels each other out (any test
mass will feel 0 net force there due to equal forces on both
ends).
It is closer to the moon due to the moon having a lesser
mass
3. Oscillations
2.16. Gravitational Potential 3.1. Oscillations:
Repeated motion of an object from its mean position
and between two extreme positions.

3.2. Key Definitions

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Displacement (x): instantaneous shortest distance of The negative sign in the equation represents that a and
the moving object from its mean position x are in opposite directions. a is always directed towards
Amplitude (A): maximum displacement from the mean the mean position.
position (displacement at extreme positions) Straight line passing through the origin implies that a is
Period (T): time taken for one complete oscillation directly proportional to x.
Frequency (f ): number of oscillations per unit of time
which is equal to 1/T
Angular frequency (ω): rate of change of angular
3.4. Equations of SHM
displacement. Displacement:
Note: This uses the same formulas as circular motions
x = x0 sin ωt x = x0 cos ωt
2π
​ ​

ω = 2πf =
T Note: These two equations need to be selected as per
​

Phase difference (ϕ): a measure of how much one the starting position. If the motion is started from the
mean position, sin needs to be used as sin at t= 0 is 0,
wave is out of step with another wave ϕ = 2π Tt where
but if motion starts from an extreme position, we will
​

T is the period and t is the time lag between waves use cos as at t=0, cos would return 1 (maximum value)
Velocity:
3.3. Simple Harmonic Motion
v = ±ω (x20 − x2 )
​ ​

Periodic motion given that the acceleration is

proportional to the negative displacement with the v = v0 cos ωt ​ v = −v 0 sin ωt​

acceleration being towards the mean position. v = x0 ω cos ωt

​ v = −x0 ω sin ωt ​

(Periodic Motion means oscillatory motion) Note: The two equations of velocity at a position are
Requirements for SHM: derived from the first two equations, thus, taking
Mass that oscillates care of the starting point of the oscillation in this
There must be a position where the mass is in case is very important as well
equilibrium (i.e., where acceleration is zero) Velocity is maximum at mean position and minimum (0)
Restoring force that acts to return mass to at extreme positions
equilibrium; F ∝ −x Acceleration:
Defining equation of SHM:
a = −ω 2 x

Note: The minus sign shows that, when the object is

displaced to the right, the direction of its acceleration is
to the left.

a = −ω 2 (x0 sin ωt) ​ a = −ω 2 (x0 cos ωt) ​

This equation also shows the derivation of the defining

equation of SHM

3.5. Graphs of SHM

a = −ω 2 x

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3.8. Energy in SHM

Note: These graphs are valid only if the motion starts
from a positive extreme point ( cosine graph ). If it starts
from the mean position, we use a sin graph with the
same values on the axis.

3.6. Velocity and Displacement Graph

Kinetic Energy:
v = ±ω (x20 − x2 ) Ek = 12 mv 2
​ ​ ​ ​

1
Ek = mω 2 (x20 − x2 )
2
​ ​ ​

Total Energy:
3.7. Acceleration and Displacement At x = 0, Ek is max and = to total energy
​

Graph Ek =
1
mω 2 (x20 − (0)2 )
2
​ ​ ​

1
∴ Etot = mω 2 x20
2
​ ​ ​

Potential Energy:

Etot = Ek + Ep so Ep = Etot − Ek
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

1 1
= mω 2 x20 − mω 2 (x20 − x2 )
2 2
​ ​ ​ ​

1
Ep = mω 2 x2
2
​ ​

Graphs:

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Solution:
3.9. Energy Time Graph (with the Part (i):
starting position being the mean Maximum speed can be calculated by
position) v0 = ωx0
​ ​

Firstly, we must find the angular velocity

ω = 2πf = 2 × π × 4.5 = 28.3 rad s-1
Next, we must find the amplitude. As the total vertical
displacement is 22 mm,
x0 = 22​

2 = 11 mm
​

Substitute data calculated into the first expression

v0 = 28.3 × 11 × 10−3 = 0.311 ms-1
​

Part (ii):
To find the velocity at that point, use the equation

v=ω (x20 − x2 )
​ ​

{W08-P04} Question 3: We need to find the displacement when the needle passes
The needle of a sewing machine oscillates vertically through through the cloth. From the annotated diagram:
a total distance of 22 mm. The oscillations are simple
harmonic with a frequency of 4.5 Hz. The cloth being sewn is
positioned 8.0 mm below the needle at its maximum height.
Calculate, for the point of the needle,

1. its maximum speed

2. its speed as it moves downwards through the cloth

Hence, substitute values into equation and calculate v

v = 28.3 × (112 − 32 ) = 0.30 ms-1 ​

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS

Car suspension:
3.10. Damping Oscillation: Car oscillates due to spring like
connection to wheels
Damping: loss of energy and reduction in amplitude Damping: Critical damping needed to stop oscillation
from an oscillating system caused by force acting in the
as quickly as possible to avoid motion sickness –
opposite direction to the motion (e.g. friction)
hydraulic in nature
Light damping: The system oscillates about equilibrium Tall buildings:
position with decreasing amplitude over a period of time Oscillation: During earthquakes
e.g. a pendulum or an hanging mass in non ideal Damping: Large weight hung at the top of the
conditions
building to supply a counter oscillation

3.12. Natural Frequency and Resonance

Free oscillation: oscillatory motion not subjected to an
external periodic driving force; oscillates at natural
frequency. e.g.: Tuning fork, Pendulum
Natural frequency f0 : the unforced frequency of
​

oscillation of a freely oscillating object

Critical damping: the system does not oscillate & is the Forced oscillation: oscillation caused by an external
amount of damping required such that the system driving force to alter amplitude; the driving force
returns to its equilibrium position in the shortest determines frequency
possible time e.g. a closing door or car brakes Resonance: Increase in an oscillation amplitude due to
Heavy damping: damping is so great that the displaced forced oscillation’s frequency equal to the natural
object never oscillates but returns to its equilibrium frequency
position very very slowly e.g. oscillations in viscous
liquids such as honey

How to increase Damping?

Use more viscous liquid to carry out oscillations in e.g. The maximum amplitude occurs when the driving
Honey frequency equals the natural frequency.
Area of the oscillatory object to be increased
3.13. Damping and Resonance
3.11. Practical Examples of Damping

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Effects of damping on the frequency response of a Temperature does not measure the amount of thermal
system undergoing forced oscillations: energy in a body:
Decreases amplitude at all frequencies Two objects of different masses made of the same
Slightly decreases resonant frequency material at the same temperature would have
The resonant peak becomes flatter different amounts of heat
Heat is input when a substance melts or boils, but
there is no temperature change.

4.2. Thermal Equilibrium

Thermal energy is transferred from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature
Thermal Equilibrium: When there is no net heat/energy
transfer between two connected bodies, given that their
temperature is constant.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: if A is in equilibrium
with B, and B is in equilibrium with C, A is in equilibrium
with C
3.14. Purposes of Resonance
4.3. Measuring Temperature
Examples of Useful Purposes of Resonance:
A physical property that varies with temperature may be
Oscillation of a child's swing used for the measurement of temperature, e.g.
Tuning of radio receiver - natural frequency of radio is Change in volume of a liquid or gas
adjusted so that it responds resonantly to a specific Change in volume of gas at constant pressure
broadcast frequency Change in electrical resistance
Using microwave to cook food - produces microwaves of Change in e.m.f. of a thermocouple
frequency equal to natural frequency of water, causing Physical property should have the following qualities:
the water molecules in food to vibrate generating heat Change in property with temp. should be large
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is used in hospitals to enough to be measured accurately
create images of the human organs The recorded temperature value should be
reproducible, i.e., m.p. should be the same when
Examples of Destructive Nature of Resonance: measured at a 2nd time.
High-pitched sound waves can shatter fragile objects e.g. The property being used must be suitable for the
shattering of a glass when a soprano hit a high note temperature range being measured.
Buildings that vibrate at natural frequencies close to the It should be able to be calibrated easily; hence, the
frequency of seismic waves collapse during earthquakes property should change uniformly with temperature.
A car suspension system vibrates when going over
bumps which would give large amplitude vibrations 4.4. Empirical Scale

4. Temperature This is Celsius and not an SI unit

Triple point of pure water: temp. at which water exists
as a vapour, liquid, and solid – at 273.16 Kelvin (0.01oC)
4.1. Introduction
4.5. Thermodynamic Scale

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Note: E means Energy, m means mass and θ means
Thermodynamic (Kelvin) Scale: theoretical scale that is temperature
independent of properties of any particular substance. Specific Latent Heat: Amount of heat energy required per
SI base unit unit mass to change the state of matter of an object.
K = ℃ + 273.15 Specific latent heat of fusion (Lf ): energy required per
​

The difference between two temperatures in Celsius and unit mass of a substance to change from solid to liquid
two temperatures in Kelvin is the same phase without any change in temperature
Absolute zero: the temperature at which a system has Specific latent heat of vaporization (Lv ): energy ​

minimum internal energy (not zero) – impossible to required per unit mass of a substance to change from
remove any more energy – at 0 Kelvin liquid to gas phase without any change in temperature
E
4.6. Practical Thermometers Lf /v =​

m
​

Note: Rarely asked to this much detail now The specific latent heat of vaporization is always greater
than that of fusion for a given substance because:
Thermistor: During vaporization, greater increase in volume than
in fusion; thus more work done against the
Advantages Disadvantages atmosphere
Readings can be taken Non-linear variation with the In vaporization, particles need to be separated
remotely temp. further apart than in fusion, so more work is done
Very robust Narrower range against forces of attraction when vaporizing
Slower response time than
Fast response
thermocouple
Accurate Larger thermal capacity
4.8. Measuring Latent Heat of Materials
Sensitive at low temps. Larger in size
Note: You are NOT supposed to memorize it as this is
Not suitable to measure not directly asked in the exam, rather the ideas used in
varying temp.
it are utilized in the exam.
Thermocouple: Determining Latent Heat of Vaporisation, c

Quantities required:
Advantages Disadvantages
Accurate measurement of mass
Readings can be taken Non-linear variation with the
Temperature at time intervals
remotely temp.
Voltage and current supplied
For accurate reading, a high
Faster response
resistance voltmeter required
Wider range
Small thermal capacity
Physically small – readings
taken at point
Power supply not need

4.7. Specific Heat Capacity and Latent

Heat
Specific heat Capacity: energy required per unit mass
of the substance to raise the temperature by 1 Kelvin/1
Degree Celsius
E
c= ​

mΔθ

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Measure temperature at regular time intervals and plot a

graph of temperature θ against time t. 4.9. Internal Energy
Divide the quantity of heat equation by time.
Internal energy: sum of random distribution of kinetic
Δθ and potential energies of molecules in a system
= mc ( )
E
Δt Δt
​ ​

Internal Energy = Total P.E. + Total K.E.

E
Δt​is the power supplied P and P = V I A rise in temperature of a body is an increase in its
Δθ
Δt is the gradient of the graph plotted
​

internal energy
Replacing quantities in the original equation

V I = mc × gradient 4.10. First Law of Thermodynamics

Substitute values, rearrange, and solve The first law of thermodynamics: the increase in
internal energy of a system is equal to the sum of heat
Determining Specific Heat Capacity, c supplied to the system and the work done on the system
Quantities required: ΔU = q + w
Mass at time intervals
Voltage and current supplied ΔU : increase in internal energy of the system
Q: heat supplied to the system
W : work done on the system

Note: Keep it in mind that the work done in this case is the
one done ON the system. This means that if we apply energy
to reduce the area of the cylinder, we are doing positive
work, meanwhile, when the gas expands, the work is
negative as the work is done by the system, not us
Work Done on the system formula:

w = P ΔV
P is the pressure of the system, and v is the volume of the
cylinder
Beaker containing water heated to 100oC and Note: If the pressure changes in a system, but the volume
maintained doesn’t, the work done is 0
Mass readings taken at regular time intervals
Plot graph of mass m against time t 4.11. Example Questions
If the numerator and denominator in the latent heat
equation are divided by time: {S03-P04) Question 2:
E To harden a sample of pure gold, silver is mixed so that the
lv = Δt mixture contains 5.0% silver by weight. The initial temp. of
​

Δm ​

Δt ​

the silver is 27 °C. Calculate the initial temp. of gold so that

the final mixture is at the melting point of gold.
Δt is the power supplied P and P = V I
E
​

Δm is the gradient of the graph plotted (use +ve)

Δt ​

Replacing quantities in the original equation

lv = power ÷ gradient
​

Substitute values, rearrange, and solve

Solution:

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As mass is not provided, we will consider a mixture of 100g Part (ii):
with the mass of gold 95g and silver 5g. The solid is being heated so (q = +). As the solid is not
Firstly, calculate the energy required for silver to be at the expanding, (w = 0) and therefore there is an increase in
m.p. of gold. internal energy (U = +)
Part (iii):
Q = mcΔT
The melting of ice requires heat energy provided so (q = +)
0.005 × 235 × (1340 − (273 + 27)) = 1222J . No work is done on or by the system so
(w = 0). Hence, there is a net increase so (U = +)
As silver is being heated past its m.p., it will also melt and {S02-P04} Question 2:
change state ∴, the energy required to change it from solid Some water in a saucepan is boiling.
to liquid is required i.e. latent heat of fusion. a) Explain why:
i. External work is done by the boiling water
Q = lf × m
​

Volume increases due to evaporation (turns into a gas)

hence work is done on pushing back the atmosphere.
105 × 103 × 0.005 = 525 J
ii. there is a change in the internal energy as water
The quantity of energy gold should initially have must changes to steam
provide the above calculated therefore The Ek of atoms is constant as there is no temp. change but
Ep changes because the separation of atoms increases so
Q of Gold = 1222 + 525 internal energy increases because
Gold will already be past its m.p. so no need to calculate the ΔU = Ep + EK
heat of fusion, now using mcΔT .
​

b) By reference to the first law and your answer in (a),

0.095 × 129 × ΔT = 1747 show that thermal energy must be supplied to the water
during the boiling process
ΔT = 142.6
ΔU = q + w
Initial temp. Will be above m.p. so adding to the final temp.
of gold i.e. the m.p. Changing from a liquid to a gas, there is an increase in
internal energy. Work is done by the liquid so w is negative.
Initial Temp. of Gold = 1340 + 142.6 = 1483K
For ΔU to be positive, q must increase.
{S04-P04} Question 6:
Write down the symbol ‘+’ for increase, the symbol ‘–’ for
decrease, and the symbol ‘0’ for no change, 5. Ideal Gases
An ideal gas is a gas that has no potential energy between
the particles in it and its internal energy is purely its Kinetic
Energy

5.1. The Avogadro Constant

Avogadro’s Constant (NA): number of atoms present in
12g of carbon-12
A Mole: the amount of substance containing the same
number of particles as in 12g of carbon-12
Solution: Value is given in the exam paper
Part (i):
The gas is being compressed so work is being done on the
system (w = +) and when a gas is compressed, its
5.2. Equation of State
temperature rises. As the system is not providing heat, the
gas itself is heating, (q = −). Overall, the increase in work
done is balanced by the gas heating so the net remains 0
and internal energy is unchanged (U = 0)

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Ideal gas: a gas which obeys the ideal gas equation for all
values of P , V , and T Gas contains large no. of particles
Negligible intermolecular forces of attraction
pV = nRT The volume of particles is negligible compared to the
container
Where: Collisions between particles are perfectly elastic
No time spent in collisions
R is molar gas costant (8.31 JK−1 mol−1 ) Average k.e. directly proportional to absolute temp.
n is the amount of substance (no. of moles)
T is the temperature in kelvin
5.5. Molecular Movement and Pressure
Conditions for the equation to be valid:
Consider a cube of space with length L and a particle
fixed amount of gas moving with velocity c
ideal gas
Boyle’s Law: P ∝ V1 hence pV = constant
​

Charles’s Law: V ∝ T hence VT = constant ​

Pressure Law: P ∝ T hence PT = constant ​

P 1 V1 P 2 V2
∴ =
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​

T1 ​ T2 ​

5.3. Second Form Of Equation:

If we need to use the equation with the number of particles When a particle collides with a wall, velocity is reversed
with us, and not the number of moles, we can use two ways. and changes in momentum is
1. Calculate the number of moles using the following Δp = m (c − (−c)) = 2mc
formula and then inserting it into the main formula
mass Distance moved by particle is = L + L = 2L
M oles = ​

Using the speed-distance formula, the time between

molarmass
collisions is
2. Use the second formula derived from the first one
and directly put the values: 2L
t= ​

c
pV = NkT
The rate of change of momentum (i.e., force) is
Where:
Δp 2mc mc2
N is the number of particles (not moles) F = ​= 2L = ​ ​

t c
L ​

k is the Boltzmann Constant (

k = NRA = 1.38 × 10−23 JK−1 )
​
​
Using the above quantities to find the pressure
2
Key Note: The values of both K and R are given in the F mc
mc2 mc2
P = = L2 = 3 =
​

exam paper
​ ​ ​ ​

A L L V
Rearrange to pV = mc2
5.4. Kinetic Theory of Gases Considering there are N particles, the formula becomes
pV = N mc2
Molecular movement causing pressure:
Now c2 is in 3 dimensions:
Molecules hit and rebound off the walls of the container
The change in momentum gives rise to the force c2 = cx2 + cy 2 + cz 2
Many impulses averaged to give constant force and,
hence, pressure cx2 = cy 2 = cz 2
From observation of a smoke cell under a microscope, c2 = cx2 + cx2 + cx2
the Brownian motion of particles (haphazard, random)
provides evidence of movement of gas molecules c2 = 3cx2
Basic Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS

c2 3
cx2 = ∴ kT = Ek
3 2
​ ​
​

This proves that the speed in one dimension is 1/3 of the ∴ T ∝ Ek ​

overall speed, and we need one dimension as we

considered the particle moving in one dimension, thus 5.7. Example Questions
the final formula is as follows:
1 {S11-P41} Question 2
pV = Nm < c2 > A balloon is filled with helium gas at a pressure of 1.1 ×
3
​

105 P a and a temp. Of 25 °C. The balloon has a volume of

1 6.5 × 104 cm3 . Helium may be assumed to be an ideal gas.
p = ρ < c2 >
3
​

Determine no. of gas atoms in the balloon.

Mean square velocity < c2> : mean/average value of Solution:
the square of the velocities of the molecules Firstly, calculate the number of moles
Root Mean Square Velocity: Underoot value of the
mean square velocity pV = nRT
pV
n=
5.6. Kinetic Energy of a Molecule RT
​

Substitute information given converting to standard units i.e.

There are two methods to establish the relationship
m3 and Kelvin
between Ek and T .
​

1.1 × 105 × 6.5 × 104 × (10−2 )3

Method 1 n=
8.31 × (25 + 273)
= 2.89 ​

By equating pV = nRT and pV = 13 N m < c2 >: ​

Use the relationship between Avogadro’s constant NA and ​

1 the number of moles n to find the number of particles N

nRT = N m < c2 >
3
​

N = NA × n ​

3nRT
= m < c2 > ​

N = 6.02 × 1023 × 2.89 = 1.75 × 1024

N
Avogadro’s constant, NA = N
n
6. Electric Fields
​ ​

3RT 1
= m < c2 >
2NA 2
​ ​

6.1. Introduction
​

Boltzmann’s constant, k = R
NA ​
​

The electric field of a charge is the space around the

3
kT = Ek charge in which an electric force due to that charge is
2
​ ​

experienced (this will NOT be written in the paper when

∴ T ∝ Ek ​
asked for definition)

Method 2
By equating pV = N kT and pV = 13 N m < c2 >: ​

1
N kT = N m < c2 >
3
​

Cancelling N on both sides

The direction of field lines shows the direction of the field
1 – always from the positive charge to the negative.
kT = m < c2 >
3 The higher density of lines shows a stronger region of
​

1 the field.
Multiplying both sides by 2
​

1 1 1
kT = × m < c2 > 6.2. Coulomb’s Law
2 2 3
​ ​ ​

3 1
⇒ kT = m < c2 >
2 2
​ ​

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS

Any two-point charges exert an electrical force on each

other that is proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the square of separation
F ∝ Qq r2 ​

Because they are proportional to each other, so in a

mathematical way F = kQr12Q2 which they show the
​ ​

same where k is the constant of proportionality.

The constant K is usually given in the form k = 4πε 1 ​

0 ​

Note that ε0 is the permittivity of free space. The 1 1

( − )
Q
VAB =
​

experimental value for ε0 is about 8.85 × 10−12 Fm−1 (

​
​

4πε0 b a ​
​ ​

These values are already given in the exam paper)

So the equation for Coulomb’s Law is F = 4πε Qq
2 where
VAB is equal to the gain in electrical potential energy if Q
or
​

is positive and loss if Q is negative

​

F is the force between two charges, r is the distance

between their centres.
In general,

6.3. Electric Field of a Point Charge If -ve charge moves in the direction of the electric field,
its electric potential energy will decrease.
Electric Field Strength/Electric Field: The force applied If +ve charge moves in the direction of an electric field,
per unit charge on a small, positive, stationary charge at its electric potential energy will increase.
that point. If a charge is accelerated in the field, its electrical
Dividing force by charge q as we are taking unit charge potential energy will be converted to kinetic ∴ V q =
1 2
facing the force: 2 mv
​

Q Q
E= 2
=k 2
4πεo r
​ ​

​ r
Where k = 1 = 8.99 × 109 Nm2 C−2
4πεo ​
​

6.4. Electric Potential

The electric potential at a point is the work done in
bringing positive unit charge from infinity to that point

W = V Q and W = F .d
6.5. Electric Potential Energy
F.d
V = ​

Definition: Ability of a charged particle to do work due

Q
to a change in its position it in the field of another
V =
Q charged particle
4πεo r The graph is the same as Electric Potential as Electric
​

Potential Energy is Electric Potential multiplied by a

This is a scalar quantity
charge having the energy
The potential difference between two points A and B
from an isolated charge Q is defined as work done in Qq Qq
taking a unit positive charge from B to A V = =k
4πεo r
​ ​

​
r
1 Q
2 × 106 =
4πεo
×
0.352
​ ​

6.6. Potential Due to a Conducting

Sphere
​

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A charge +Q on an isolated conducting sphere is

uniformly distributed over its surface
The charge remains on the surface and at all points
inside the sphere, the field strength is 0

Electric field lines must meet the equipotential surface at

right angles
Spacing will be closer when the field is stronger

As there is no field inside the sphere, the potential

6.8. Graphs Between Two Charged
difference from any point inside the sphere to the Particles
surface is zero. Therefore, the potential at any point
inside a charged hollow sphere is the same as its surface Electric Field between like charges

Note: The graph of Electric Field Intensity is the same as

Electric Force, and the graph of Electric Potential is the
same as the graph of Electic Potential Energy
Electric Field between opposite charges
6.7. Equipotential
Equipotential surface: a surface where the electric
potential is constant
Equipotential lines are drawn such that potential is
constant between intervals
As potential constant, the potential gradient = 0, hence E
along surface = 0
Hence, no work is done when a charge is moved along
this surface

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS

Electric Potential between two positive charges A uniform electric field exists between two parallel plates
with opposite charges.
As Work done is the change of energy, we can equate
them and get this formula:
Work Done = Electrical Energy.
Vq
F = ​

d
Moreover, one more key formula that is used for spheres
and Uniform Electric Field both alike is:
V = Ed

6.11. Example Questions

6.9. Similarity & Differences between {S06-P04} Question 2:
The maximum field strength at the surface of the sphere
Electric and Gravitational Potential before electrical breakdown (sparking) occurs is 2.0 × 106
Vm-1. The sphere has a radius r of 0.35m.
Similarities Differences Calculate the maximum values of
Ratio of work done to Gravitational forces are always
mass/charge attractive 1. the charge that can be stored on the sphere
Work done moving unit Electric forces can be attractive 2. the potential at the surface of the sphere
mass/charge from infinity or repulsive
Both have zero potential at For gravitational, work got out Solution:
infinity as masses come together Part (a):
For electric, work done on Max field strength is given, so using the field strength
charges if same sign, work got formula
out if opposite sign as charges
come together Q
E=
4πεo r2
​

6.10. Uniform Electric Field Substitute information given

1 Q
2 × 106 = ×
4πεo 0.352
​ ​

Q = 2.7 × 10−5 C
Part (b):
Using charge calculation in potential equation

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS
An electric field can cause air to become conducting by:
Q
V =
4πεo r The electric field causes forces in opposite directions on
​

the electrons and nucleus of atoms in air

Substitute information given This results in the field causing electrons to be stripped
1 2.6 × 10−5 off the atom.
V = × Results in a spark – air now contains oppositely charged
4πεo 0.35
​ ​

particles which can carry charge.

​

V = 7.0 × 105 V
7.4. Capacitors in Parallel
7. Capacitance
7.1. Capacitors
Function: storing energy
Usage: Time delay, power smoothing, and protection
against surges and spikes
Dielectric: an electrical insulator
By conservation of energy and hence charge (W = QV ),
How a Capacitor Stores Energy: the total charge in a circuit is sum of individual charges
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
On a capacitor, there is a separation of charge with +ve
​ ​ ​ ​

Apply Q = CV and V same in parallel

on one plate and –ve on the other.
To separate the charges, work must be done; hence, QT = V (C1 + C2 + C3 )
​ ​ ​ ​

QT
energy is released when charges come together V = C1 + C2 + C3
​

​ ​ ​ ​

Hence,
CT = C1 + C2 + C3
​ ​ ​

7.5. Capacitors in Series

7.2. Capacitance and Farad

Capacitance: the ratio of charge stored by a capacitor to
the the potential difference across it
Farad (F): Unit of capacitance, 1 coulomb per volt. Total p.d. in a circuit is sum of individual p.d.
VT = V1 + V2 + V3
​ ​ ​ ​

Q Apply Q = CV and Q same in series

C=
VT = Q ( C11 + C3 )
​

V 1
+ 1
​ ​

C2 ​ ​

The capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to

​ ​ ​

the area of the plates and inversely proportional to the

distance between the plates
A
C∝ ​

7.3. Dielectric Breakdown

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS
VT
Q = C11 + C12 + C13
​

​
​

​
​

​
​

Hence,
1 1 1 1
CT = C1 + C2 + C3
​
​

​
​

​
​

​
​

7.6. Capacitance of a Spherical Shape

Capacitor
Any isolated body can have a capacitance.
Considering a sphere of radius r carrying charge Q, the
potential at the surface is
Q
V =
4πεo r
​

Area under a potential-charge graph is equal to work

Q Q done
C= = Q = 4πεo r
​ ​ ​

V Q2
4πε r W = 12 QV = 12 CV 2 = 1
⋅
​

o
2
​

​ ​ ​

C ​

{W09-P42} Question 4: The half comes in because:

An isolated metal sphere of radius 63cm is charged to a When the first charge flows onto the capacitor plates
potential of 1.2 × 106 V. At this potential, there is an there is no potential difference opposing the flow
electrical discharge in which it loses 75% of its energy. As more charge flows, the potential difference
1. Calculate the capacitance of the sphere increases, so more work is done
2. Calculate the potential of the sphere after the The average potential difference is equal to half the
discharge has taken place. maximum potential difference

Part (a):
Solution
8. Magnetic Fields
Using the equation derived above

C = 4π × 8.85 × 10−12 × 63 × 10−2

8.1. Concept of Magnetic Field
= 7.0 × 10−11 Farad Magnetic field: Force per unit current per unit length
that is placed at a right angle to external magnetic fields
Part (b): It can be produced by
Using the equation for energy Current-carrying conductor
Permanent magnets
W = 1/2CV 2

After the discharge, the sphere contains 25% of the energy 8.2. Representing Magnetics Fields
before so equating energy before and after
Magnetic Field due to Permanent Magnet
6 2 2
25% × C × (1.2 × 10 ) = CV

Cancel the C and calculate V

V = 6.0 × 105 V

7.7. Energy Stored in a Capacitor

Magnetic field lines come out of the north pole and go

into the south pole
Tangent drawn to the field line at any point in the field
shows the direction of the force that a ‘free’ magnetic
north pole would experience
Field is strongest where field lines closest together

8.3. Electromagnetism
Strength of magnetic field can All be increased
Reserved. Thisby:
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Increasing the current

Increasing number of turns per unit length of solenoid
Using soft-iron core within solenoid

Right Hand Grip Rule:

For a solenoid and flat, circular coil:

Magnetic field pattern produced identical to that
produced by a bar magnet
Magnetic field lines within solenoid are parallel
indicating strength is same (uniform field)

For a long, straight conductor:

Magnetic field lines are concentric circles centered at
the conductor
Separation between adjacent field lines increases
with distance from the conductor
Magnetic field is non-uniform

8.4. Determing Pole of Magnetic Field

Determined by Right Hand Grip rule however this time,
fingers represent current

For a flat, circular coil:

Magnetic field pattern produced represents that
produced by a short bar magnet

8.5. Effect of Ferrous Core in Solenoid

The strength of the generated magnetic field can be
increased (by about 1000 times) by adding a ferrous
(iron) core inside the solenoid.

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS
Two possible reasons to explain this effect
Ferrous material has a higher permeability than air;
stronger ability to support the formation of a magnetic
field within itself
Ferrous material is magnetic and become magnetized
when placed into the solenoid, thus contributing to
overall magnetic field strength of the solenoid.

8.6. Force on a Current-Carrying

Conductor
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
Can be worked out by considering one wire’s magnetic
field (using Right Hand Grip rule), drawing a tangent at
the position of the the other wire and then applying
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

8.8. Magnetic Flux Density

Magnetic flux (Φ): product of (magnetic) flux density
and area where the area is perpendicular to the
(magnetic) field. Unit = weber (Wb)
Magnetic flux density (B): force acting per unit current
on unit length of conductor placed at right angles to the
magnetic field
Force Acting on a Current-carrying Conductor in a
Magnetic Field Φ = BA

1 Tesla is the magnetic field producing a force of 1 N m-1

on a wire carrying current of 1 A normal to the field

1T = 1 N A−1 m−1
The magnitude of the force on a current-carrying
conductor with:

F = BIL sin θ
Find direction using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
If wire parallel to the field lines, θ = 0 and F = 0
If the wire is at right angles to field lines, θ = 90 and
Strength of force can be increased by: force acting on wire maximum (F = BIL)
Increasing the current
Using a stronger magnet
{W09-P42} Question 5:
8.7. Forces between Currents Two long straight vertical wires X and Y pass through a
horizontal card, carrying current upward. The magnetic flux
density B at a distance x from a long straight wire due to a
current I in the wire is given by

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS

B=
μ0 I
​

If particle moving at an angle θ to the magnetic field, the

2πx component of velocity ⊥ to magnetic field is v sin θ
​

The current in wire X is 5.0 A and that in wire Y is 7.0 A. The

separation of the wires is 2.5 cm 8.11. The Hall Effect
a) Calculate the force per unit length on wire Y due to the
current in wire X
b) The currents in the wires are not equal. State and explain
whether the forces on the two wires are equal in magnitude
Solution:
Part (a):
Using given expression, find B due to wire X by substituting
current in X and separation
4π × 10−7 × 5
B= = 4 × 10−5
2π × 2.5 × 10−2
​

To find force per unit length, divide expression for force by

The Hall effect is a mechanism in which magnetic and
length and substitute values – calculated B from above and electric forces on a moving charged particle are balanced
current in Y The probe is made of semiconductor material as
F = BIl ÷ l = BI electrons travel faster in it than metal ∴ greater effect
A small current flow through the probe and a magnetic
F field is applied so the electrons are pushed sideways by
= 4 × 10−5 × 7 = 2.8 × 10−4
the magnetic force, accumulating on one side hence
​

l
producing a small voltage; Hall voltage
Part (b): The greater the flux density, greater the Hall voltage
The force due to the magnetic field depends on the product
If magnetic field direction is reversed, electrons pushed
of the currents in the two wires hence both values would be
to opposite side and Hall voltage is reversed
equal. Also, Newton’s 3rd law applied and the reaction force
is equal but opposite.
8.12. The Hall Voltage
8.9. Measuring Flux Density An electric field is set up in the probe as there is a
difference in voltage between a distance d so
The force on a current-carrying conductor can be used to
measure the flux density of a magnetic field using a E= VH
d
​

current balance
As a single electron travels with drift velocity v , it
experiences a force to the left due to the magnetic field
Bqv and a force to the right due to the electric field Eq
Soon an equilibrium is reached hence forces equated

Eq = Bqv

Substitute for E
qVH
d
​

​ = Bqv

Current is related to mean drift velocity by

I = nAvq
Small weights = mg where A = td is cross sectional area and n is number
Force due to current = BIl density of conducting particles
Assuming forces act at same distance from pivot, so no need
Substitute for v and rearrange
to take moments, equate forces

mg = BIl
mg
B=
IL
​

8.10. Force on a Moving Charge

F = BIl and I = Qt ​

∴ F = Bq ( tl ) ​ and v= l
t ​

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS
qVH BqI
= n(td)q
​

d ​ ​

​
BI
VH = ntq ​

8.13. Deflection of e- through B-Field

Circular motion

Circular path
Ek constant
mv 2 mv
BQv = r ​ so r = BQ ​

Faster moving particles move in bigger circles, r ∝ v

Determining the motion of the electron:
Heavier particle move in bigger circles, r ∝ m
Stronger field, particle moves in smaller circle, r ∝ B1 1
s = ut + at2 and initial vertical velocity = 0 ms−1
​

2
​

1
y = at2
2
​

Finding an equation for acceleration

F = qE and F = ma
eE
∴a= ​

m
As particle moving horizontally at constant velocity and time
is the same for the whole journey
x
x = vt t=
8.14. Charge-to-Mass Ratio
​

v
eE
The charge-to-mass ratio is known as the specific charge y=( ) .x2
2mv 2
​

on the electron
Hence, y ∝ x2 therefore parabolic (projectile) motion
e
Determination of me :​
​

Gain in y -component of velocity ∴ Ek increases ​

Work done by an electron is equivalent to Ek it possesses

8.16. Crossed-Fields (Velocity Selector)
1
W = QV Ek = mv 2
2 Considering a setup where electric and magnetic field
​ ​

1 are perpendicular to each other and act on a moving

eV = me v 2 charge simultaneously
2
​ ​

In such case, a certain velocity exists where fields exert

Using equation for an electron travelling in a circle in a equal and opposite forces.
magnetic field to eliminate v
B-Field = E-Field
rBe BQv = QE
v= E
v=B
​

me ​ ​

1 rBe 2
eV = me ( )
2
​ ​ ​

me ​

e 2V
= 2 2 ​ ​

me r B
​

8.15. Deflection of e- through E-Field

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EM induction is an action-at-a-distance phenomenon

e.m.f. is induced when magnetic flux linking a conductor
change either by
no. of lines linking B-field changes
no. of field lines being cut change
e.g. moving coil from A to B

If velocity higher, F = BQv hence magnetic force

stronger & effect of force due to electric field
decreases
If velocity lower, F = BQv hence magnetic force
weaker & effect of force due to electric field no. of lines linked increases from 3 to 5
increases no. of lines cut increases from 0 to 2

Hence an e.m.f. is induced

8.17. Force in Gravitational, Electric and
Magnetic Fields 9.2. Magnetic Flux Linkage
Gravitational Electric Magnetic Magnetic flux: product of magnetic flux density and
Force always area normal to the field through which the field is
Forces is attractive or repulsive
attractive passing.
Force directly Force directly Force directly
proportional to the proportional to the proportional to the ϕ = BA
mass charge current
Force inversely proportional to square of the distance 1 Weber (Wb) is the flux that passes through an area of
Force independent of 1m2 when the magnetic flux density is 1 tesla.
Force depends on the medium
the medium
Force is weak Force is strong 1 Wb = 1 T m2
Force is in direction Force is parallel to Force is perp. to the
of field the field field Magnetic flux linkage: product of magnetic flux and
Force directly number of turns
Force independent of state of motion of
proportional to
the body Magnetic flux linkage = Nϕ
velocity of body
Factors affecting magnitude of induced e.m.f.
9. Electromagnetic Induction Magnetic field density, B
Speed of motion of magnet, v
Number of turns of coil, N
9.1. Inducing e.m.f
9.3. Faraday’s and Lenz’s Law
Faraday’s Law: the magnitude of induced e.m.f is
proportional to rate of change of magnetic flux-linkage
dNϕ
V = dt
​

Lenz’s Law: the direction of the induced e.m.f. is such

that it tends to oppose the flux change causing it

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−dNϕ
V = dt ​

The coil is held between the poles of a large magnet so that

{S11-P42} Question 5: the coil can rotate about an axis through its centre.
Use Faraday’s Law to explain why When the current in the coil is 170 mA, the maximum torque
produced in the coil is 2.1 × 10–3 N m.
1. there is a reading on the voltmeter a) What position to the magnetic field should the coil be in
Moving magnet causes a change of flux linkage for maximum torque
2. this reading varies in magnitude b) For the coil in position shown, calculate the magnitude of
Speed of magnet varies so varying rate of change of the force on side AB
flux c) Show that the magnetic flux density (B) is 70 mT
3. the reading has both positive and negative values d) The current in the coil is switched off and the coil is
Magnet changes direction of motion turned through an angle of 90° in a time of 0.14 s. Calculate
the average e.m.f induced.
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: Solution:
Part (a):
Maximum torque when parallel. When normal to the plane,
there is no perpendicular distance between the two forces ∴
minimum/0 torque.
Part (b):
Torque = Force × ⊥ Distance between Forces
2.1 × 10−3 = 2.8 × 10−2 × x
x = 0.075N
Part (c):
Using force calculated previously, and information from
question
0.075 = B × 170 × 10−3 4.5 × 10−2
{S08-P04} Question 6: B = 9.80T
A small rectangular coil ABCD contains 140 turns of wire Value calculated is for 140 turns so dividing by it
9.80
140 = 0.0700T = 70mT
​

Part (d):
Firstly, calculate ϕ from B calculate above

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ϕ = BA
ϕ = 70 × 10−3 × (2.8 × 10−2 ) × (4.5 × 10−2 ) I0 is the peak I value
​

ϕ = 8.82 × 10−5 Wb V0 is the peak V value

​

Using Faraday’s law:

V = dNϕdt
​
10.2. Mean Power in an a.c. Supply
Substituting information given and ϕ calculated
−5 For a sinusoidal alternating current, peak power is twice
V = 140×8.82×10 = 0.0882V
0.14 the average power
​

10. Alternating Currents P = IV and using Irms and Vrms

P = I02 × V02 = 12 IV
​

​
​

​ ​
​ ​

​ ​

{S10-P42} Question 7:
10.1. Sinusoidal Current An alternating voltage is represented by the equation
V = 220 sin (120πt)
For this alternating voltage, determine

1. peak voltage
2. the r.m.s voltage
3. the frequency
Solution:
Part (a):
Simply using the equation, V = 220 V
Part (b):
Period, T: the time for one complete cycle of the a.c. Vrms = V02 = 2202 = 156 V
​
​

​ ​
​

Frequency, f : number of oscillations per unit time Part (c):

The quantity in sin ( ) is equal to ωt ∴
1 ω = 120π
f= ​

T Also, ω = 2πf so
Peak value, I0 /V0 : highest point on the graph
​ ​
f = 120π
2π = 60 Hz ​

Instantaneous current/voltage, I/V: the

current/voltage at a particular instant of time (t) 10.3. Eddy Currents
I = I0 sin ωt V = V0 sin ωt
​

If a metallic conductor moves in a magnetic field, an

where ω = 2πf = 2π e.m.f is induced which will make free e-s in the metal
T
move, causing electric current – eddy currents
​

The root-mean-squared (r.m.s.) value, The eddy currents will oppose change in flux linkage of
the conductor by Lenz’s law and energy of motion will be
Irms /Vrms ​ ​

dissipated as heat.
is the value of steady current/voltage that produces
same power in a resistor as the alternating 10.4. Transmission of Electrical Energy
current/voltage
Electricity transmission lines have resistance, therefore,
Irms
I
= 0
​

energy will be lost through heating in the wires

2
​ ​

Electricity transmitted at high voltage a.c. supply:

​

V0
=
​

Vrms High voltage: for same power, current is smaller so less

2
​ ​

heating and voltage loss in cables/wires

​

Where: a.c. supply: can change output voltage efficiently using

transformers

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10.5. Half-Wave Rectification

For one-half of the time, the voltage is 0; this means that
the power available from a half-wave rectified supply is
reduced.

10.7. Smoothing
In order to produce steady d.c. from ‘bumpy’ d.c. that
results from rectification requires a smoothing capacitor
The capacitor charges and maintains the voltage as a.c.
voltage rises, (first half of the wave).
As the wave slopes downward, the capacitor begins to
discharge in order to maintain the voltage

10.6. Full-Wave Rectification

The four diodes are known as a bridge diode
When current flowing for first half of period

A small capacitor discharges more rapidly than a large

capacitor and gives rise to a greater ripple in output
If the load resistor is small, the capacitor will also
discharge rapidly
CR is the time constant of a capacitor resistor: time
taken for charge to fall 1e times original value
​

When current flowing for second half of period Time constant is the time taken by capacitor to
discharge to 37% of its original V /C/Q
Value should be much greater than the time period of
a.c. supply so capacitor does not have sufficient time to
discharge significantly
In general, the greater the value R × C , the smoother
the rectified a.c.

11. Quantum Physics

11.1. Wave and Particle Model

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Particle model: objects that are hard, have mass and 1st Law: The number of photoelectrons emitted per
move about according to laws of Newtonian mechanics second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident
Wave model: shaped like a sine graph, do not have mass radiation
or charge. Their defining characteristics are diffraction
2nd Law: max kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly
and interference
proportional to the frequency of the incident radiation
but independent of its intensity
11.2. Photoelectric Effect 3rd Law: for every metal, there is a minimum frequency
of incident radiation below which photoelectric emission
Photoelectric effect: when an electromagnetic radiation does not take place; threshold frequency
of sufficiently high frequency falls on a metal surface,
Threshold frequency: minimum frequency required to
electrons are emitted
release electrons from the surface of a metal
Delocalized electrons in metal are removed by supplying
a small amount of energy provided by the incident
electromagnetic radiation 11.4. Particulate Nature of
Emitted electrons are called photoelectrons Electromagnetic Radiation
Photoelectric current: current due to photoelectrons
Energy of an electromagnetic wave doesn’t flow
11.3. Demonstrating Photoelectric continuously but in discrete quanta
Photon: each quantum (particle) of electromagnetic
Effect radiation
Energy of a photon of an electromagnetic radiation of
frequency f is given by

E = hf
where h is the Planck’s constant = 6.63 × 10−34 Js

Work function (Φ): minimum amount of energy

required by an electron to escape its surface
For a given frequency, electrons are emitted with a range
of k.e. because electrons deeper inside the metal lose
energy in collision with atoms as they are emitted

11.5. Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

+vley charged: when the zinc plate is exposed to u.v.,
the leaf remains open because though electrons are hf = ϕ0 + Emax
​ ​

emitted, they are attracted back due to +ve charge on where ϕ0 is the work function of the metal
​

the zinc plate

-vley charged: when the zinc plate is exposed to u.v., the Thus, the energy of the absorbed photon is partly used
leaf slowly collapses as electrons are emitted, the -ve to release the electron from the metal and partly to give
charge on electroscope decreases it a kinetic energy

Laws of Photoelectric Emission: hf = hf0 + 12 mvmax

2 ​ ​ ​

where f0 is the threshold frequency

​

11.6. Wave-Particle Duality

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Wave Behaviour: electromagnetic radiation shows The energy of an atom is the total energy of its electrons
properties of diffraction and interference Under normal conditions, an atom is in its ground state,
Particle Behaviour: photoelectric effect where it possesses the minimum possible energy
Thus, electromagnetic radiation has a dual nature and its When the atom absorbs energy, the energy of the atom
particles are photons increases and the atom is in an excited state
The excited state is unstable, so atoms eventually emit
11.7. Electron Diffraction absorbed energy, bringing the atom back to the ground
state
de Brogile suggested since waves can behave like Transition: shifting of electrons between energy levels
particles, particles should be able to behave like waves Electrons release energy in the form of e-m radiation
Matter Wave: a moving particle of matter of momentum The frequency of the emitted radiation is given by:
p will have an associated wave of wavelength λ where hf = E2 − E1 ​ ​

h h
λ= = where f is the frequency, E2 is the energy of the higher
mv
​ ​

p
​

level and E1 is the energy of the lower level

​

where h is Plank’s constant, m is the mass, and v is the

The frequencies of e-m radiation emitted by electrons
particle's velocity. λ is the de Brogile wavelength
when they come down to ground state were found to be
Diffraction of Electrons:
discrete, showing electrons can only absorb specific
discrete values ∴, the energy of an atom is quantised.

11.9. Line Spectra

When a beam of electrons strikes a thin carbon foil, a

diffraction the pattern is obtained on a screen
When the velocity of electrons in the beam was
increased by increasing voltage, the rings in the pattern
became narrower, showing wavelength decreases as Emission Line Spectra: the composition of light emitted
velocity is increased, agreeing with de Brogile’s equation by a hot gas
The frequencies emitted by atoms of a substance
11.8. Energy Levels when they de-excite from higher to lower energy
levels
Absorption Line Spectra: when white light is passed
through a cool gas
The frequencies absorbed from a continuous
spectrum by the electrons a substance
The emission and absorption spectra are characteristic
of each element

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Mass Defect (ΔM): the difference between the total

12. Particle and Nuclear mass of the individual, separate nucleons and the mass
of the nucleus
Physics Binding Energy (ΔE): the minimum external energy
required to separate all the neutrons and protons of a
nucleus. It is also the energy released when the nucleus
12.1. Balanced Equations is assembled from its constituent nucleons
The binding energy of a nucleus is a measure of how
α decay: - 4 α 2
tightly the nucleus is bound and hence how stable it is
nucleon no. decreases by 4
Binding Energy per Nucleon of a nucleus is the ratio of
proton no. decreases by 2
β+ decay: - 0 β -1 the total binding energy to its nucleon number
The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more
proton no. decreases by 1
stable the atom is
β- decay: - 0 β +1
proton no. increases by 1
γ decay: - 0 γ 0 12.3. Atomic Mass Unit
proton and nucleon no. unchanged
1
1u is defined as 12 of the mass of a neutral atom of
​

{S17-P42} Question 12: carbon-12 – approx. equal to 1.661 × 10-27 kg

One nuclear reaction that can take place in a nuclear reactor
may be represented, in part, by the equation mass excess = mass (in u) – nucleon number
92235 U +01 n → 4295 Mo + 57139 La+ 201 n+ .…… +energy
Data for a nucleus and some particles are given in Fig. 12.1.
Nucleus or Particle Mass/ u
12.4. Nuclear Fission & Fusion
57139La 138.955
01n 1.00863
59139p 1.00728
-10e 5.49 × 10-4

1. Complete the nuclear reaction shown above. [1]

Solution:
Part (a):
According to the law of conservation of mass,
The sum of the number of nucleons always remains the
same on both sides of the equation.
Assuming the unknown particle to possess x nucleons,
235+1=95+139+ 21+x
x=0
The only particle in the table to contain 0 nucleons is the
electron (-10e).
92235U +01n→ 4295Mo+57139La+ 201n+-10e+energy [1]

12.2. Mass-Energy Equivalence

Einstein’s mass-energy relation:

E = Δmc2

where c is the velocity of light in free space

“mass of a system increases when energy is supplied to it”

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Fission: process in which a massive nucleus splits to

form two smaller fragments
The large nucleus has a lower binding energy per
nucleon so splits into fission fragments which have
higher binding energy per nucleon ∴ more stable
Fusion: process by which two very light nuclei join
together to form a heavier nucleus
Two light nuclei fuse so the final binding energy per
nucleon will be greater than the original value
In general, if energy is released in a nuclear reaction,
then it shows that the binding energy of the product
nuclei is greater than that of the reactants
The activity of a radioactive substance represents an
12.5. Spontaneous & Random Nature exponential decay
The half life (t 1 ) of a radioactive sample is the mean
Radioactive process are random and spontaneous
​

2
​

time taken for half of the active nuclei in a sample to

Random: impossible to predict and each nucleus has the decay
same probability of decaying per unit time Assuming the initial activity is 1, at half life the activity
Spontaneous: not affected by external factors such as would be ½ so:
the presence of other nuclei, temperature and pressure
1
Evidence on a graph: = (1)e−λt
2
​

Random; graph will have fluctuations in count rate

Spontaneous; graph has same shape even at Take ln on both sides of the equation
different temperatures, pressure etc.
1
ln = −λt 1
12.6. Radioactive Decay 2
​ ​

2
​

Calculate and rearrange:

The rate of decay of a given nuclide at any time is ∝ to
0.693
the number (N ) of nuclei present at that time λ= ​

t 12
​

dN
= −λN Thus, decay constant is inversely proportional to its half
dt
​

life.
The activity (A) of a radioactive sample is the rate at
which nuclei decay or disintegrate
The decay constant (λ) is the probability that an 13. Medical Imaging
individual nucleus will decay per unit time interval

A = λN 13.1. Ultrasonic Waves

The above relationship can also be written as: Ultrasound is any sound wave that has a frequency
above the upper limit of human hearing, 20kHz
x = x0 e−λt
​

Piezo-electric transducers can be used to record and

produce ultrasonic waves
Where x could represent activity, number of undecayed A diagram of a Piezo-electric transducer:
nuclei, received count or mass.

12.7. Exponential Nature

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Ultrasound requires ultrasonic waves to pass from one

medium to another
When a beam of ultrasound wave reaches a boundary
between two different media, the beam is partially
refracted and partially reflected

Quartz crystal is the macromolecule formed by SiO2

Generating Ultrasonic Waves:

Charged atoms of a transducer in an electric field move

closer to oppositely charged plates and the overall
crystal either compresses or extends: From the law of conservation of energy:

I = IR + IT ​ ​

Specific Acoustic Impedance (Z): product of density of

medium and speed of sound in medium

Z = ρc

Between two media, the difference in acoustic

impedance determines the fraction of incident intensity
that is reflected
When an alternating voltage with frequency f is applied to Intensity Reflection Coefficient (α): ratio of intensity of
the crystal, it causes it to contract and expand at the same reflected wave and intensity of incident wave
frequency of f
(Z2 −Z1 )2
α= IR
I
​

​ = ​

(Z2 +Z1 )2
​

This acts as the vibrating source of ultrasound waves ​ ​

Comparing acoustic impedances ( IIR ) : ​

Receiving Ultrasonic Waves:

​

Very large fraction reflected at air-tissue boundary

Ultrasonic waves change pressure in medium Large fraction reflected at tissue-bone boundary
Charged atoms in crystal shift position closer to plates Very little reflected at boundary between soft tissues
Opposite charges induced in the silver plates A gel is applied before carrying out scan because when
Induced potential difference across the plates wave travels in or out of the body, there is:
Potential difference fluctuates which can be processed Very little transmission at an air-skin boundary
Almost complete transmission at a gel-skin boundary
because acoustic impedance of gel & skin very similar
13.2. Reflection of Ultrasonic Waves
13.3. X-Ray Spectrum
X-rays emerge from the tube with a range of energies as
represented in the spectra below

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Production of X-rays:
Heated filament undergoes thermionic emission
releasing high-speed electrons
p.d between cathode & anode causes e-s to
accelerate
Electrons bombard metal target emitting X-rays
which leave through the window
Some kinetic energy of electrons transferred into the
metal target as thermal energy
Metal target is cooled by water or spun around to
increase target area
Tube Current: the rate of arrival of electrons at a metal
The spectra is made up of two components: target
Braking radiation: X-ray photons released when e- Intensity Hardness
decelerate as it strikes anode, attracted by the
Depends on no. of e-s hittingDepends on the acceleration of
nucleus of an atom in the anode and loses energy anode per unit time electrons
Characteristic radiation: rearrangement of e-s in Proportional to the heater Proportional to p.d. between
anode when a high-speed e- strikes, excites orbital e- current anode & cathode
s which then de-excite, emitting photons & giving rise A more intense X-ray produces A harder X-ray has more
to spectrum lines; specific to material of anode an image quicker penetrating power

Some ‘soft’ X-rays are always produced which cannot

13.4. X-Ray Production fully pass through the patient and contribute to the total
radiation dose of the patient.
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation To reduce the radiation dose hence cut off ‘soft’ X-rays,
Produced when high-speed electrons hit metal targets an aluminium filter used to absorb them

13.5. Attenuation of Ultrasonic Waves

Similar to X-Rays ultrasonic waves are also absorbed by
the medium in which they are passing through
Also follows the same decay equation as X-Rays:

I = I0 e−kx
​

Note the constant is different

k is called the absorption coefficient

13.6. X-Ray Imaging

X-ray radiation blackens photographic plates in the same
way as visible light
Degree of blackening depends on total X-ray exposure
Mostly used to distinguish bones from tissue because
bones have a higher density than surrounding tissue
Can be used to identify organs if the densities of
surrounding tissues are sufficiently different

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13.7. X-Ray Quality

Sharpness is the ease with which the edge of a structure
can be determined
Improving sharpness of X-Ray:
Reduce the area of target anode

Half-value Thickness (x1/2 ): thickness of the medium

​

required to reduce the transmitted intensity to one half

of its initial value
Reduce aperture size (window): reduces beam width Related to the linear absorption coefficient by:
Place lead grid in front of photographic film: absorbs
scattered X-rays and reduces partial image x1/2 × μ = ln 2
​

Contrast is the visual difference between the areas of

blackening and light 13.9. Computed Tomography (CAT/CT
Improving contrast of X-Ray: Scan)
Increase Exposure time
Use harder X-Rays: increases penetration power X-Ray imaging only produces a 2 dimensional image with
Reduce scattering of X-Ray beam no impression of depth, cannot tell if tissue is near to the
Use fluorescent ‘contrast medium’ surface or deep within the body
Tomography is a procedure which forms a 3 dimensional
13.8. X-Ray Intensity plane of the object
The diagram below shows the procedure
In medium where X-Rays are absorbed, intensity of a
parallel X-Ray beam decreases by a constant fraction in
passing through equal small thicknesses of the medium.
This gives rise to an exponential decrease in the intensity
of the transmitted beam:

I = I0 e−μx
​

I is the instantaneous intensity of the X-ray beam

I0 is the initial intensity of the X-Ray beam
​

x is the thickness of the medium passed by X-Ray

μ is the linear absorption coefficient unique to
medium, dependent on photon energy and in mm-1
Putting together several planes produces a whole 3
This can be represented graphically: dimensional image which can be rotated

13.10. Ultrasound Imaging Procedure

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Transducer is placed in contact with skin and a gel acting For a well-defined image in a CT scan, we need voxels to
as a coupling medium be small and to do so:
Pulses of ultrasound are directed into the body X-ray beams must be well collimated so that it
The wave is reflected at boundary between tissues consists of parallel ray – rays must not spread
The reflected pulse is detected and processed Detector must consist of regular array of tiny
The time for return of echo gives information on depth detecting elements – smaller the detector the better
Amount of reflection gives information on structures the image
Two techniques for display: Advantages of a CT scan:
A-scan: measures distance of different boundaries Produce images that show three-dimensional
from transducer held in one position graphically relationships between different tissues
B-scan: repeats A-scan from multiple angles to form Can distinguish tissues with quite similar densities
2 dimensional image
13.12. Comparing Medical Imaging
Methods
X-Ray:

Advantages Disadvantages
Equipment heavy and not
Sharp image
portable
May cause ionization and
Improvable contrast
damage tissues
Can form image where air is
trapped (lung)

Ultrasound:
13.11. Building the Image
Advantages Disadvantages
Cannot be used to form image
Portable equipment
where air is trapped e.g. lungs
Image not sharp due to
Less harmful than X-ray
refraction
Rapid movements in tissue –
Can break kidney stones
may damage
Used for treatment of sprained
joints

CT/CAT:

Advantages Disadvantages
Equipment heavy and not
show metabolic activity of cells
portable
can be used to detect cancer

13.13. Positron Emission Tomography

Uses: diagnosing cancers, heart diseases, gastrointestinal
disorders and brain function

Radiotracer

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Radiotracer: made by fluorodeoxyglucose, glucose base 1. A crystal receives gamma-photon

molecule with attachment of fluorine-18. Radiotracer will 2. An electron is excited according to photoelectric
emit beta+ particle (positron). effect
Radiotracer is injected into vein, travels through the body 3. One electron will excite more electrons
and is absorbed by organs. 4. As electrons back to ground state, they emit visible
Cancer cells are more active, so they absorb glucose and light photon
decay more rapidly. 5. Photomultiplier converts photon into electrical signal
which can be read by computer.
Annihilation
Computer can build up the image by by processing the
1. Isotope fluorodeoxyglucose decays by emitting beta+ arrival times of the gamma-ray photons.
(positron, antiparticle of electron)
2. Positron moves a short distance and pair with an
electron 14. Astronomy and
3. The pair will annihilate and their mass becomes pure
energy Cosmology
4. Two gamma rays emitted in opposite direction
5. Gamma rays will be detected 14.1. Luminosity [L]
Noted that in this process, both the energy and momentum
Definition: Total energy emitted per unit time by a star
are conserved.
(this is the power emitted by a star and can be swapped
with power in formulas)
Unit: W or J/s
Key Relation: Luminosity ∝ Area of the star (as the
bigger the star, the more energy it can emit per unit of
Production of suitable radioisotopes time)

Scientists use cyclotron:

14.2. Radiant Flux Intensity [F]
1. Particles are continuously accelerated by alternating
electric field Definition: Power per unit area seen per unit area at earth
2. Travel in a spiral path and hit target nuclei Formula:
L L
F= =
Area 4πd²
​ ​

d: The distance between Earth and the star

Noted that Fl-18 has half-life of 2 hours so no danger for Unit: Wm−²
patient. Assumptions:

Detecting the gamma rays Radiation is emitted uniformly around the star
No radiation is absorbed beforehand
Like CT, series slices of image are taken by ring shape
Key Points:
detectors.
Principal of detector: Power per unit area equals Intensity, so the Radiant Flux
Intensity is the star's intensity on Earth.
The graphs in this will be derived from the formula with F
(Radiant Flux Intensity) having a directly inverse
relationship with d²

14.3. Standard Candle

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Definition: An astronomical object of known luminosity Light Year

Used for: Measuring the distance to the star using
intensity at Earth Distance travelled by light in a vacuum in a year

Types 14.5. Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Cepheid Variable Stars: the period of changing
The luminosity of a star depends upon the surface
brightness is related to its average luminosity. So, the
luminosity of Cepheid variable stars can be determined thermodynamic temperature of the star and its area as
by measuring the period. So, Cepheid variable stars are well. Thus, this law is used:
considered to be standard candles. L = 4πσr2 T 4
Type 1A Supernovae: always implode rapidly and
scatter matter and energy into space. The star's Experimental value of σ is 5.67 × 10−8 Wm−2 K−4
luminosity at the time of implosion is always the same. (given in the paper)
So, it can be considered a Standard candle. T = Thermodynamic temperature on the surface of the
star
14.4. Wein’s Displacement Law L = Luminosity of the star

The higher the temperature of the body: How to determine the star radii
the shorter the wavelength (thus the different
colour of the star) 1. First, we use Wien’s displacement law to determine
the greater the intensity of the electromagnetic the surface thermodynamic temperature T.
radiation at each wavelength 2. Then, we can use Radiant flux density to determine
the star's luminosity.
λmax T = constant
​
3. Finally, we substitute T and L into Stefan-Boltzmann
law to calculate the radii.
∴ λ1 T 1 = λ2 T 2
​ ​ ​ ​

λmax = Wavelength at maximum intensity

​
14.6. Hubble’s law and the Big Bang
T = Temperature of the star Theory
The Experimental Value of the constant is 2.9 × 10−3 mK Every galaxy in this universe is moving away from us,
(given in exam) which indicates that the universe is expanding, and this
The Graph: is known with the help of Doppler’s Effect.
As per Doppler’s Law (studied in AS), as an object moves
away, the observed frequency decreases, and as the
wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency, the
wavelength is increased. On the electromagnetic
spectrum, as wavelength increases, we approach red
colour which is known as Redshift, and it is seen for
multiple galaxies showing us the expansion of the
universe:
(Doppler’s effect formula is in the paper)
Formula: (given in the exam sheet)
Δλ Δf v
λ ​ = f ​
= c ​

(No need to memorize the values, but the features of the

graph need to be memorized)

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CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS

λ is the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves from

the source
Δλ is the change in the wavelength
f is the frequency of the electromagnetic waves from the
source
Δf is the change in frequency
v is the recession speed of the source
c is the speed of light in a vacuum.

14.7. Hubble’s Law

The recession speed V of a galaxy is directly proportional
to its distance d.
V = H0 d ​

H0 : Hubble Constant. The experimental value is 2.4 ×

​

10−18 s−1

Big Bang Theory:

Around 13.7 billion years ago, everything in the entire
universe was condensed in an infinitesimally small
singularity, a point of infinite denseness and heat.
The expansion found in the Redshift effect (shows that
everything is moving away after the big bang) and the
Hubble’s Law (shows that all the planets were once
together with distance and speed between them 0) are
proof of it

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CAIE A2 Level
Physics

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