WEEK 5 & 6:

SYNTAX
WHAT IS SYNTAX?
• THE RULES THAT GOVERN THE COMBINATIONS OF
WORDS.
• RULES FOR FORMATION OF PHRASES, CLAUSES AND
SENTENCES.
• IN TECHNOLOGY, THE ORDER OF SYMBOLS, CODES AND
NUMBERS, WILL DETERMINE THE COMMANDS AND
INSTRUCTIONS RECEIVED.
HEARD AND SPOKEN SYNTAX
• NATIVE SPEAKERS ACQUIRE SYNTAX BY EXPOSURE.
• WORD ORDER UNCONSCIOUSLY LEARNT BY INFANTS.
• WITH THIS, SOME IDEAS “SOUND WRONG”.
• “THE BALL HIT THE CHILDREN”.
• GENERALLY, THERE IS NO CONSCIOUSNESS OF SYNTAX
RULES ON NATIVES.
PARTS OF A SENTENCE
• SUBJECT
• PREDICATE (OBJECT)
• CLAUSES
• PHRASES
PARTS OF A SENTENCE: SUBJECT
• PERSON OR THING THAT PERFORMS AN ACTION.
• IT IS MANDATORY IN ENGLISH.
• OPTIONAL IN SPANISH.
• THE SUBJECT COMES FIRST.
• UNLESS IT IS AN AGENT IN PASSIVE VOICE.
• IT CAN BE A NOUN PHRASE OR A PRONOUN.
PARTS OF A SENTENCE:
PREDICATE (OBJECT)
• INCLUDES THE VERB (MANDATORY).
• DESCRIBES THE ACTION BEING PERFORMED.
• FOLLOWS THE SUBJECT.
• IT CAN INCLUDE OTHER STRUCTURES.
TYPES OF SENTENCES: FUNCTIONS:
• DECLARATIVE:
• MENTIONS IDEAS, STATEMENTS, FACTS, ETC.
• END WITH A FULL STOP (.).
• THEY LOVE STUDYING SYNTAX.
• INTERROGATIVE:
• THEY ARE USED TO ASK QUESTIONS AND INTERROGATE.
• WH-QUESTIONS & YES/NO QUESTIONS.
• “DO YOU HAVE ANY QUESTIONS?”
• EXCLAMATORY:
• THEY EXPRESS STRONG EMOTIONS (HAPPINESS, ANGER, GRIEF, ETC.).
• THEY END WITH EXCLAMATION MARKS (!).
• “I AM FINALLY UNDERSTANDING ALL THIS!”.
TYPES OF SENTENCES: FUNCTIONS:
• NEGATIVE:
• THEY ARE USED TO NEGATE INFORMATION.
• “NOT” IS NEEDED.
• “THEY ARE NOT LOOKING CONFUSED”.

• IMPERATIVE:
• THEY ARE USED TO GIVE A COMMAND, ORDER, OR INSTRUCTION.
• THEY DO NOT INCLUDE THE SUBJECT, IT IS IMPLIED (YOU).
• ENDS WITH A FULL STOP (.).
• IF A STRONG EMOTION IS INVOLVED, IT CAN INCLUDE AN EXCLAMATION
MARK.
• “BRING YOUR NOTES FOR NEXT CLASS”.
CLAUSES:
• INDEPENDENT:
• THIS IS THE MAIN CLAUSE OF A SENTENCE.
• IT STATES A FULL THOUGHT AND CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS ONE
COMPLETE THOUGHT.
• A SIMPLE SENTENCE IS JUST ONE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE.
• “THE DOG RAN ACROSS THE STREET”.

• SUBORDINATE:
• A.K.A. DEPENDENT CLAUSE.
• IT DOES NOT STATE A COMPLETE THOUGHT.
• IF IT IS WRITTEN ALONE, IT IS CALLED “FRAGMENT”.
• IT STARTS WITH A SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION, FOLLOWED BY THE
SUBJECT AND A VERB.
• “HIS FAMILY COMFORTED HIM BECAUSE HE WEPT”.
CLAUSES:
• ADJECTIVE:
• IT STARTS WITH A RELATIVE PRONOUN (WHO, WHOM, WHOSE, WHICH,
THAT) OR A RELATIVE ADVERB (WHEN, WHERE, WHY).
• IT FUNCTIONS AS AN ADJECTIVE, WHICH MODIFIES THE SUBJECT OR
ANOTHER NOUN OR PRONOUN IN THE SENTENCE.
• “THE TEACHER WHO TAUGHT THIS COURSE LAST YEAR WAS VERY
FUNNY”.

• ADVERBIAL:
• IT MODIFIES THE PREDICATE OR ANOTHER ADVERB OF THE SENTENCE.
• OFTEN STARTS WITH SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (BECAUSE,
UNLESS, WHEN, ALTHOUGH, IF).
• IN ORDER TO RECOGNIZE THEM, THEY ANSWER QUESTIONS SUCH AS:
HOW, WHEN, WHERE, WHY, TO WHAT EXTENT, ETC. (JUST LIKE
ADVERBS).
• “WHEN JONATHAN LEFT THE HOUSE , HE FORGOT HIS KEYS”.
CLAUSES:
• NOUN:
• IT IS A GROUP OF WORDS (SUBJECT+VERB) THAT FUNCTIONS AS ONE
NOUN.
• YOU CAN CHECK IF YOU CAN REPLACE THE CLAUSE BY A PRONOUN OR A
SINGLE NOUN.
• “RAFIKI ENCOURAGED SIMBA TO REMEMBER WHO HE WAS”.

• RELATIVE:
• IT STARTS WITH A RELATIVE PRONOUN (THAT, WHO, WHICH)
• IT IS KIND OF AN ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.
• PROVIDES MORE INFORMATION.
• DEFINING: IT CANNOT BE REMOVED (NO COMMAS NEEDED).
• NON-DEFINING: IT CAN BE REMOVED (PLACED BETWEEN COMMAS).
• “TOM, WHO IS AUSTRALIAN, ENJOYS COOKING PIZZA”.
CLAUSES:
• CONDITIONAL:
• THEY SHOW THAT SOMETHING IS POSSIBLE (IF, UNLESS).
• THEY CANNOT BE ALONE IN THE SENTENCE (DEPENDENT).
• “IF IT RAINS, I WILL SHOW YOU MY NEW BROLLY”.

• INFINITIVE:
• STARTS WITH AN INFINITIVE VERB (WITH “TO”).
• IT CAN ACT AS SUBJECT.
• “TO BAKE A CAKE, WE NEED TO USE THE OVEN”.

• APPOSITIVE:
• IT RENAMES OR PROVIDES MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THE SUBJECT.
• SIMILAR AS RELATIVE CLAUSES BUT WITHOUT THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.
• MAURICIO, THE NEW TEACHER, BROKE THE LAPTOP”.
TYPES OF SENTENCES: STRUCTURE:
• SIMPLE:
• IT CONTAINS A SUBJECT THAT DESCRIBES A PERSON OR A THING
PERFORMING AN ACTION.
• ALSO CONTAINS A PREDICATE (OBJECT).
• IT IS AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE (MAKES COMPLETE SENSE BY ITSELF).
• “SUSAN IS READING A NEW BOOK”.
• COMPOUND:
• THEY ARE MADE UP WITH TWO OR MORE INDEPENDENT CLAUSES.
• JOINED BY A COORDINATING CONJUNCTION (BUT, YET, NOR, OR, AND,
FOR, ETC).
• THEY CAN ALSO BE JOINED BY ADVERBS (THEREFORE, LIKEWISE,
RATHER, ETC.).
• “ANA WAS WRITING HER ESSAY BUT SHE FORGOT TO SAVE THE
DOCUMENT”.
TYPES OF SENTENCES: STRUCTURE:
• COMPLEX:
• THEY ARE MADE UP BY ONE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE AND ONE OR MORE
DEPENDENT CLAUSES.
• THEY CAN BE JOINED BY SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (WHEN,
AFTER, BECAUSE, ETC.) OR RELATIVE PRONOUNS (WHO, WHICH, THAT,
ETC.).
• “THE TEACHER ASKED A QUESTION TO THE STUDENTS BEFORE
CONTINUING WITH THE TOPIC”.
• COMPLEX-COMPOUND:
• IT CONTAINS ONE OR MORE DEPENDENT CLAUSES.
• AT LEAST TWO INDEPENDENT CLAUSES, JOINED WITH A COMMA BEFORE
THE COORDINATING CONJUNCTION.
• “AFTER HE BOUGHT A NEW CAR, THE BOY, WHO IS TALL AND YOUNG,
WENT ON A DRIVE, BUT FORGOT HIS DRIVER’S LICENSE”.
TYPES OF PHRASES:
• NOUN PHRASE:
• A PHRASE THAT ACTS AS A NOUN.
• INCLUDES A NOUN AND DETERMINERS.
• “ONE OF OUR RELATIVES HAS WON THE LOTTERY”.

• PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE:
• CONSTRUCTED WITH A PREPOSITION AND AN OBJECT.
• IT MAY ALSO CONTAIN OTHER MODIFIERS.
• “THE KIDS WERE LAUGHING AT THE JOKER”.

• ADJECTIVE PHRASE:
• A PHRASE THAT ACTS AS AN ADJECTIVE
• IT INCLUDES ADJECTIVES, MODIFIERS AND OTHER WORDS.
• “SHE BOUGHT A BEAUTIFUL RED CAR”.
TYPES OF PHRASES:
• ADVERB PHRASE:
• A PHRASE THAT ACTS AS AN ADVERB BY GIVING MORE INFORMATION
ABOUT A VERB.
• IT INCLUDES ADVERB AND OTHER WORDS.
• “SHE WAS RUNNING VERY FAST”.

• VERB PHRASE:
• IT IS A GROUP OF WORDS THAT INCLUDE THE MAIN VERB AND
AUXILIARIES.
• DESCRIBES THE ACTION BEING PERFORMED.
• “WE ARE STUDYING SYNTAX”.
TYPES OF PHRASES:
• INFINITIVE PHRASE:
• IT CONTAINS AN VERB IN INFINITIVE (TO+VERB).
• INCLUDES MODIFIERS AND OTHER RELATED WORDS.
• IT CAN ACT AS A NOUN, ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB.
• “I LIKE TO DRIVE A CAR”.

• GERUND PHRASE:
• IT IS A GROUP OF WORDS THAT INCLUDES A VERB IN GERUND.
• IT FUNCTIONS AS A NOUN IN THE SENTENCE.
• “WE STARTED WRITING THE REPORT”.
TYPES OF PHRASES:
• PARTICIPLE PHRASE:
• IT IS A GROUP OF WORDS THAT INCLUDES A PRESENT PARTICIPLE
(VERB+ING) OR A PAST PARTICIPLE (PARTICIPIAL VERB).
• IT ACTS AS AN ADJECTIVE.
• IT IS PUNCTUATED BY A COMMA OR BETWEEN COMMAS.
• “THE STUDENTS, RAISING THEIR HANDS, ARE ABLE TO ASK QUESTIONS”.
• “THE CHAIR, MADE OF PLASTIC, LOOKS VERY RESISTANT”.

• ABSOLUTE PHRASE:
• IT CONSISTS OF A NOUN OR A PRONOUN, A PARTICIPLE AND MODIFIERS.
• IT ADDS MORE INFORMATION TO THE SENTENCE.
• “SHE, HAVING READ ALL THE BOOKS, WAS READY FOR THE EXAM”.
CLAUSE OR PHRASE?
• A CLAUSE CONTAINS A SUBJECT AND A VERB.
• PHRASES… DO NOT.
IN-CLASS QUIZ 2
• USE THE REST OF THE CLASS FOR COMPLETING IT.