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DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS

FOURAH BAY COLLEGE (UNIVERSITY OF SIERRA LEONE)
RESEARCH METHODS (STAD 224)
FIRST SEMESTER EXAMINATIONS-SEPTEMBER 2022
DIPLOMA TWO
ANSWER 5 (FIVE) QUESTIONS:
TIME ALLOWED: 3 HOURS

1. Research: What Is It?

Research is a systematic, logical, and ethical process of inquiry and investigation that can
help people learn more and solve issues in the real world.

It is a methodical process of gathering and examining data in order to better our knowledge
and comprehension of the topic we are interested in.

Research is an endeavor to discover answers to intellectual and practical problems through

the application of scientific method. Research is done with the help of study, experiment,
observation, analysis, comparison and reasoning,

In reality, research is all around us. For instance, we are aware that the HIV (Human Immune
Virus) causes AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), the protozoan plasmodium
causes malaria, etc. How are these all known to us? These facts were only discovered through
research. It specifically looks for event predictions, justifications, connections, and
hypotheses.

Give it a clear purpose and importance for decision-making,

SCOPE / SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH FOR DECISION MAKING

• Identifies potential courses of action
• sheds insight on risks and uncertainty
• Aids in project identification
• promotes efficient use of resources
• Aids social scientists in analyzing social relationships
• looking for solutions to diverse social problems by providing the foundation for all government initiatives
• For philosophers and thinkers, research involves finding a place to share their fresh perspectives.
• For writers, research entails coming up with new writing techniques
• Research entails generalizing new theories for analysts and intellectuals
• It could be a means of support for research experts.

2. You are required to discuss the procedures involved in preparing a research proposal for your
college assignment in a term paper

RESEARCH PROCESS
• Selection of a research topic
• Definition of a research problem
• Literature survey and reference collection
• Assessment of current status of the topic chosen
Ÿ Formation of hypotheses
• Research design (including sample design)
• Actual investigation/collect data
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• Data analysis (test hypotheses if any)

Interpretation of result
• Report
• Feedback feed forward

3. Define variables.

VARIABLES
In statistical research, a variable is defined as any entity that can take on different values
Choosing which variables to measure is central to good experimental design. It is also something that we can
manipulate and something we can control.

List and describe the various types

of variables.

TYPES OF VARIABLES
I. Dependent Variable: The variable that changes in relationship to changes in another
variable(s) is called dependent variable. A dependent variable, sometimes called an outcome
variable
2. Independent variable: The variable whose change results in the change in another
variable is called an independent variable. An independent variable is one that influences the
dependent variable in either a positive or negative way. It is
sometimes called an experimental or predictor variable.

3. Explanatory Variable: The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory variables

4. Extraneous Variable: all other variables that are not related to the purpose of the study but
may affect the dependent variable are extraneous.

5. Quantitative variables: these are variables that involve numbers or amounts. Example
include height, distance or number of items. Researchers can further categories quantitative variables into two types
◦ Discrete any numerical variables
you can realistically count, such as the money in your
savings account
• Continuous numerical variables that you could never finish counting, such as time

6. Qualitative variables
Qualitative or categorical, variables are non-numerical values or groupings. Examples might include hair or eye
color. Researchers further categories quantitative variables into 1. Nominal 2. Ordinal 3. Interval 4. Ratio

4. A literature review is what?

LITERATURE REVIEW
It is a systematic identification, location, scrutinizing and presentation of summary of written
materials that contain information on the related research problems. It is the review of
research studies or other relevant proposition in the related area of the study so that all the
past studies, their conclusions and deficiencies may be known and further research can be
conducted.
It is documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from
secondary sources of data in the
areas of specific interest to the researcher. The main aim is to
find out problems that are already investigated and those that need further investigation.
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It is an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant to the field of investigation. It
gives us knowledge about what others have found out in the related field of study and how
they have done so. It gives theoretical rationale of problem being studied, what research has
been done and how it relates to the problem.
The five (5) goals of a literature review should be stated

PURPOSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

 To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.
techniques of analysis.
• To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring concepts and techniques of analysis
• To identify data sources used by other researchers.
• To learn how others structured their reports
•It helps to generate or focus on research problems.
• It ascertains which is already known in relation to topic of interest.,
. It helps to avoid unintentional duplication of the information which is useful in identifying
assumptions or truth about certain aspect of the phenomena being studied.
• It helps in understanding the insight necessary for the development of a broad conceptual context
• It seems to be function of providing a perspective on the problem in terms of interpreting
the result of the study.

5. Give a brief explanation of the two categories of research methods and

list eight (8)
differences between them.

TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS

Various factors are used to classify research methodologies. Research based on category:

(a) Quantitative research: As the name implies, pertains to the numbers where information is
gathered using numbers and a summary is generated from these figures. In quantitative research, graphs assist in
quantifying the findings,
Qualitative
Research:
Non-numerical components of the study are referred to
As qualitative.

(b) Qualitative research can be used to solve problems when the information or data
cannot be understood in numerical terms.
Although not as trustworthy as quantitative
research. Qualitative research aids in creating a better summary of the data's theories
Based on the nature of the research:
Descriptive research:

Sure, here are ten key differences between qualitative and quantitative research:

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Nature of Data Nature of Data
Involves non-numerical data such as text, images, or Involves numerical data and statistical
videos. analysis.
Purpose: Purpose:
Aims to understand concepts, thoughts, or experiences Aims to quantify variables and analyze relationships

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between them.
Approach: Approach
Uses an inductive approach, building theories from data. Uses a deductive approach, testing hypotheses derived
from theory.

Methods: Ÿ Methods:
Methods include interviews, focus groups, and Methods include surveys, experiments, and secondary
participant observation. data analysis.

Sample Size: Sample Size:

Typically involves smaller, non-random Typically involves larger, random samples.
samples.

Data Analysis: Data Analysis:

Analysis is statistical, objective, and involves numerical
Analysis is thematic, interpretive, and often subjective. manipulation.

Flexibility Flexibility
Flexible and can evolve as the study progresses. Structured and follows a predetermined research design.
Outcome: Outcome:
Produces rich, detailed descriptions and insights. : Produces measurable and comparable data.

Generalizability: Generalizability:
: Findings are often context-specific and not easily Findings can be generalized to larger populations if the
generalizable. sample is representative.

Role of Researcher Role of Researcher

The researcher is an active participant, often involved in The researcher maintains objectivity and distance from
the process and interpretation. the subjects being studied.

6. What exactly is a data collecting tool?

A data collecting tool is any device, instrument, or software used to gather, measure, and record information for
research purposes. These tools are essential in both qualitative and quantitative research to ensure that the data
collected is accurate, reliable, and relevant to the research questions being studied. Here are some examples of data
collecting tools:
1. Survey and questionnaire
2. Interviews
3. Focus groups
4. Observation checklist
5. Experiment
6. Case studies
7. Secondary data sources

Ÿ Surveys and Questionnaires: Structured instruments that consist of a series of questions used to gather
information from respondents.

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Ÿ Interviews: Conversations between a researcher and a participant, where the researcher asks questions to obtain
detailed information.

Ÿ Focus Groups: Group discussions led by a moderator to collect opinions and insights from multiple participants
simultaneously.

Ÿ Observation Checklists: Lists of behaviors, events, or conditions that a researcher observes and records during a
study.

Ÿ Experiments: Controlled procedures where variables are manipulated to observe and measure their effects.

Ÿ Case Studies: In-depth

examinations of a single instance or event to explore its context and implications.

Ÿ Secondary Data Sources: Pre-existing data collected by other researchers or organizations, such as census data,
records, and databases.

Ÿ Diaries and Journals: Personal records maintained by participants to document their experiences and behaviors
over time.

Ÿ Sensors and Instruments: Devices used to collect physical or environmental data, such as thermometers, GPS
devices, and accelerometers.

Ÿ Software and Applications: Digital tools and platforms used for online surveys, data entry, data logging, and
analysis, such as Google Forms, Survey Monkey, and SPSS.

Each data collecting tool has its advantages and is chosen based on the research objectives, the type of data needed,
and the study's context.

List and describe the various

sampling techniques used in data collection giving examples

Here are various sampling techniques used in data collection, along with descriptions and examples:

1. Probability Sampling:

Ÿ Simple Random Sampling:

Ÿ Description: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Ÿ Example: Drawing names from a hat where each name represents a member of the population.

Ÿ Systematic Sampling:

Ÿ Description: Selecting every 𝑛nth member from a list after a random start.

Ÿ Example: Choosing every 10th person from a list of employees.

Ÿ Stratified Sampling:

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Ÿ Description: Dividing the population into strata (groups)

based on a characteristic, then randomly sampling from each stratum.

Ÿ Example: Splitting a population into age groups and randomly selecting individuals from each age group.

Ÿ Cluster Sampling:

Ÿ Description: Dividing the population into clusters, then randomly selecting entire clusters for study.

Ÿ Example: Selecting several schools from a school district

and studying all students within those selected schools.

Ÿ Multistage Sampling:

Ÿ Description: Combining several sampling methods, often used in large-scale studies.

Ÿ Example: Using cluster sampling to select regions, then using stratified sampling within those regions.

2. Non-Probability Sampling:

Convenience Sampling:

Ÿ Description: Selecting subjects that are easy to reach.

Ÿ Example: Surveying people at a mall because they are readily available.

Ÿ Judgmental (Purposive) Sampling:

Ÿ Description: Selecting subjects based on the researcher’s knowledge and judgment.

Ÿ Example: Choosing experts in a field to participate in a study on advanced technology.

Ÿ Snowball Sampling:

Ÿ Description: Existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances.

Ÿ Example: A study on a rare disease where current participants refer other patients they know.

Ÿ Quota Sampling:

Ÿ Description: Ensuring that the sample reflects certain characteristics in proportion to their prevalence in the
population.

Ÿ Example: Interviewing a specific number of individuals from different ethnic groups to match population
demographics.

7. A hypothesis is what?
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. Hypothesis can be defined
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as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form
of a testable statement.
A research hypothesis is a
predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific, method. It relates an independent variable to a dependent
variable. Hypothesis must contain at least one independent variable and one dependent variable.
• Hypotheses are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem.
• It describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen in the study.
• Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of the study.
• It delimits the area of research and keeps the researcher on the right track.

Describe the five (5) different types of hypotheses and their qualities.

(a) Null Hypothesis (H₀)

Ÿ Description: The null hypothesis states that there is no effect or no difference, and it serves as the default or
starting assumption in statistical testing.

Qualities:

Ÿ Testable: Can be tested using statistical methods.

Ÿ Falsifiable: Can be proven false by empirical evidence.

Ÿ Specific: Clearly specifies no relationship or effect.

Ÿ Example: There is no difference in test scores between students who study with music and those who study in
silence.

(b) Alternative Hypothesis (H₁ or Ha)

Ÿ Description: The alternative hypothesis states that there is an effect or a difference, contrary to the null hypothesis.

Ÿ Qualities:

Ÿ Testable: Can be tested using statistical methods.

Ÿ Directional or Non-Directional: Can specify the direction of the effect (greater than, less than) or simply state that
an effect exists.

Ÿ Specific: Clearly defines the expected relationship or effect.

Ÿ Example: Students who study with music score higher on tests

than those who study in silence.

© Directional Hypothesis

Ÿ Description: Specifies the expected direction of the relationship between variables.

Ÿ Qualities:

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Ÿ Predictive: Predicts a specific direction of the effect (positive or negative).

Ÿ Specific: Clearly states how one variable will affect another.

Ÿ Testable: Can be tested to confirm the direction of the relationship.

Ÿ Example: Increasing study time will lead to higher test scores.

Non-Directional Hypothesis

Ÿ Description: States that there is a relationship between variables but does not specify the direction of the
relationship.

Ÿ Qualities:

Ÿ Open-Ended: Does not predict the direction of the effect.

Ÿ Exploratory: Useful in exploratory research where the direction of the relationship is not known.

Ÿ Testable: Can be tested to determine if a relationship exists.

Ÿ Example: There is a difference in test scores between students who study with music and those who study in
silence, without specifying which group will score higher.

Complex Hypothesis

Ÿ Description: Involves multiple variables and specifies relationships between them.

Qualities:

Ÿ Multivariate: Involves more than two variables.

Ÿ Detailed: Specifies complex relationships and interactions.

Ÿ Testable: Can be tested using advanced statistical methods.

Ÿ Example: The relationship between study time, the use of study aids (like music), and test scores is moderated by
the student’s level of prior knowledge.

8. (a) The Department of Mathematics and Statistics has been approached by a charitable group to perform research
on alcoholism in families". What general and specific objectives can you infer from this research?
From this research proposal by the Department of Mathematics and Statistics, the general and specific objectives
might be inferred as follows:

General Objectives

Ÿ Understanding the Impact of Alcoholism on Families: To study and quantify the effects of alcoholism within
family units.

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Ÿ Identifying Patterns and Trends: To identify patterns and trends in alcoholism and how it affects different
demographic groups within families.

Ÿ Providing Data for Intervention Strategies: To provide statistically significant data that can be used to develop
effective intervention and prevention strategies.

Specific Objectives

Ÿ Statistical Analysis of Alcoholism Prevalence: To determine the prevalence of alcoholism in different types of
families (e.g.,
nuclear, extended, single-parent).

Ÿ Correlation Studies: To investigate correlations between alcoholism and factors such as socioeconomic status,
education level, employment status, and mental health.

Ÿ Impact on Children: To analyze the impact of parental alcoholism on children's academic performance, social
behavior, and psychological well-being.

Ÿ Intergenerational Patterns: To
study the intergenerational transmission of alcoholism and its associated behaviors.

Ÿ Geographical Variations: To explore geographical variations in the incidence of alcoholism and its impact on
families.

Ÿ Statistical Modeling: To develop predictive models to identify families at high risk of developing alcoholism-
related issues.

Ÿ Effectiveness of Support Systems: To evaluate the effectiveness of existing support

systems and interventions for families dealing with alcoholism.

Ÿ Survey and Data Collection: To design and implement surveys for collecting primary data on family dynamics
and alcoholism.

Ÿ Comparative Studies: To conduct comparative studies between families with a history of alcoholism and those
without to understand the differential impacts.

Ÿ Policy Recommendations: To provide evidence-based recommendations for

policymakers to address alcoholism within families.

These objectives would guide the research towards generating valuable insights and actionable data to help mitigate
the effects of alcoholism on families.

(b) A questionnaire is what?

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts designed to gather
information from respondents. It is commonly used in surveys, research studies, and evaluations to collect data
from a large number of people.
Questionnaires can be administered in various ways, including paper forms, online surveys, face-to-face interviews,
and over the phone.

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Describe three (3) benefits and drawbacks of a questionnaire.

Describe three (3) benefits and drawbacks of a questionnaire.

Benefits of a Questionnaire

Ÿ Cost-Effective and Time-Efficient:

Ÿ Benefit: Questionnaires are relatively inexpensive to administer, especially when compared to other data collection
methods like interviews or focus groups. They can be distributed to a large number of respondents simultaneously,
saving time and resources.

Ÿ Anonymity and Honesty:

Ÿ Benefit: Respondents may feel more comfortable providing honest answers when their
identity is protected. This can lead to more accurate and candid responses, especially on sensitive topics.

Ÿ Standardization and Comparability:

Ÿ Benefit: Questionnaires ensure that each respondent is presented with the same questions in the same order, which
helps in standardizing the data collection process. This makes it easier to compare responses across different
respondents or groups.
Drawbacks of a Questionnaire

Ÿ Limited Depth of Responses:

Ÿ Drawback: Questionnaires often use closed-ended questions, which can limit the depth and richness of responses.
They may not capture the full complexity of respondents' thoughts and feelings compared to open-ended methods
like interviews.

Ÿ Misinterpretation of Questions:

Ÿ Drawback: Respondents might misinterpret questions or answer choices, leading to inaccurate data. Without the
presence of an interviewer to clarify, misunderstandings can affect the quality of the responses.

Ÿ Low Response Rates:

Ÿ Drawback: Questionnaires, especially those distributed via mail or online, often suffer from low response rates.
This can result in a biased sample if certain types of individuals are more likely to respond than others, potentially
affecting the generalizability of the findings.
(c) Describe the qualities of a good questionnaire
Ÿ Clarity:

Ÿ Quality: Questions should be clear and unambiguous. Use simple, straightforward language that is easily
understood by respondents to avoid misinterpretation.

Ÿ Relevance:

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Ÿ Quality: Every question should be relevant to the research objectives. Irrelevant questions can confuse respondents
and
reduce the overall quality of the data.

Ÿ Brevity:

Ÿ Quality: Keep the questionnaire concise. Shorter questionnaires are more likely to be completed fully, reducing
respondent fatigue and dropout rates.

Ÿ Neutrality:
Ÿ
Ÿ Quality: Avoid leading or loaded questions that could bias respondents' answers. Questions should be neutral to
ensure that responses reflect true opinions or behaviors.

Ÿ Logical Flow:

Ÿ Quality: Arrange questions in a logical order, grouping similar topics together. This helps maintain respondent
engagement and makes the questionnaire easier to follow.

Ÿ Comprehensive Response Options:

Ÿ Quality: Provide comprehensive and mutually exclusive response options for closed-ended questions. This ensures
that all possible answers are covered and
avoids overlap.

Ÿ Pilot Testing:

Ÿ Quality: Conduct a pilot test with a small sample from the target population to identify any issues with question
clarity, format, or sequencing. Adjust the questionnaire based on feedback.

Ÿ Anonymity and Confidentiality:

Ÿ Quality: Ensure that respondents' identities are protected to encourage honest and candid responses. Clearly
communicate how their data will be used and protected.

Ÿ Consistency:

Ÿ Quality: Maintain consistency in question format and response scales throughout the questionnaire. This reduces
confusion and ensures more reliable data.

Ÿ Clear Instructions:

Ÿ Quality: Provide clear instructions for completing the questionnaire, including any necessary definitions or
examples. This helps respondents understand what is required for each question.

Da BESTMAN
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