Waqtc Manual 2024

Transportation Technician Qualification Program
EMBANKMENT, BASE, &

IN-PLACE DENSITY Manual
July 2024
Updated July 2024
www.codot.gov/programs/WAQTC WAQTC Embankment, Base, & In-Place Density Manual

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and Colorado Department of Transportation Accessibility
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Contents
AASHTO T-255: Total Evaporable Moisture Content of Aggregate By Drying FOP AASHTO T-265:
Laboratory Determination of Moisture Content of Soils FOP ......................................... 4
AASHTO T 99: Using A 2.5 Kg (5.5 Lb) Rammer and A 305 Mm (12 In.) Drop FOP. AASHTO T
180: Using A 4.54 Kg (10 Lb) Rammer and A 457 Mm (18 In.) Drop FOP - Moisture-Density
Relations Of Soils .......................................................................................... 14
ANNEX A - Correction of Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture for Oversized
Particles 24
ANNEX B - Standardization of the Mold .................................................... 28
AASHTO R-75Developing a family of curves FOP ...................................................... 34
AASHTO T 272: One-Point Method For Determining Maximum Dry Density and Optimum
Moisture FOP ............................................................................................... 39
Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content Determination Using an Individual
Moisture - Density Curve ..................................................................... 42
Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content Determination Using a Family of
Curves 44
AASHTO T-85: Specific Gravity and Absorption Of Coarse Aggregate FOP ........................ 49
AASHTO T 310: IN-PLACE DENSITY AND MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL AND SOIL-AGGREGATE BY
NUCLEAR METHODS (SHALLOW DEPTH) FOP ........................................................... 58

AASHTO T-255 & T-265
AASHTO T-255: Total Evaporable Moisture Content of Aggregate By Drying FOP

AASHTO T-265: Laboratory Determination of Moisture Content of Soils FOP
Significance
The amount of water contained in many materials influences design

and construction practices. Road bases are difficult to compact if they
are too dry or too wet. If too dry, water must be added, and the
amount to be added depends on how much is already present.
Scope
This procedure covers the determination of moisture content of

aggregate and soil in accordance with AASHTO T 255-22 and AASHTO
T 265-22. It may also be used for other construction materials.
Overview T-255 & T-265 Figure 1:

Phase Diagram
Moisture content is determined by comparing the wet mass of a sample
and the mass of the sample after drying to constant mass. The term constant mass is used to
define when a sample is dry.
Constant mass – the state at which a mass does not change more than a given percent, after
additional drying for a defined time interval, at a required temperature.
Apparatus
• Balance or scale: capacity sufficient for the

principal sample mass, accurate to 0.1 percent of
sample mass or readable to 0.1 g., and meeting the
requirements of AASHTO M 231
• Container: clean, dry, and capable of being sealed
• Suitable drying container
o For soils: container requires close-fitting lid T-255 & T-265 Figure 2:
Apparatus
o For aggregate: container lid is optional
• Microwave safe container with ventilated lid (for drying aggregate only)

Page 4
• Heat source, thermostatically controlled, capable of maintaining 110 ± 5°C (230 ±

9°F).
• Forced draft oven (preferred)
• Ventilated oven
• Convection oven
T-255 & T-265 Figure 3: Containers with
• Heat source, uncontrolled, for use when lids for drying soils
allowed by the agency, will not alter the
material being dried, and close control of the
temperature is not required:
o Infrared heater/heat lamp, hot plate,

fry pan, or any other device/method
allowed by the agency
o Microwave oven (900 watts minimum)
• Utensils such as spoons
• Hot pads or gloves T-255 & T-265 Figure 4: Infrared Oven
Sample Preparation
Obtain the sample in accordance with the FOP for

AASHTO R 90 in its existing condition. If necessary,
reduce the sample to moisture content sample size
according to the FOP for AASHTO R 76.
T-255 & T-265 Figure 5: Forced Air Oven
Immediately seal or cover moisture content samples to prevent any change in moisture
content or follow the steps in “Procedure.”

Page 5
For aggregate, the moisture content sample size is based on Table 1 or other information that
may be specified by the agency.
T-255 & T-265 Table 1: Sample Sizes for Moisture Content of Aggregate
Nominal Maximum Size* Minimum Sample Mass
mm (in.) g (lb)
150 (6) 50,000 (110)
100 (4) 25,000 (55)
90 (3 1/2) 16,000 (35)
75 (3) 13,000 (29)
63 (2 1/2) 10,000 (22)
50 (2) 8000 (18)
37.5 (1 1/2) 6000 (13)

25.0 (1) 4000 (9)
19.0 (3/4) 3000 (7)
12.5 (1/2) 2000 (4)
9.5 (3/8) 1500 (3.3)

4.75 (No. 4) 500 (1.1)
* One sieve larger than the first sieve to retain more than 10 percent of the material using an agency
specified set of sieves based on cumulative percent retained. Where large gaps in specification
sieves exist, intermediate sieve(s) may be inserted to determine nominal maximum.
For soil, the moisture content sample size is based on Table 2 or other information that may
be supplied by the agency.
T-255 & T-265 Table 2: Sample Sizes for Moisture Content of Soil
Maximum Particle Size Minimum Sample Mass

mm (in.) g
50 (2) 1000
25.0 (1) 500
12.5 (1/2) 300
4.75 (No. 4) 100
0.425 (No. 40) 10

Page 6
Procedure
Determine and record the sample masses as follows:
• For aggregate, determine and record all masses to the nearest 0.1 percent of the
sample mass or to the nearest 0.1 g.
• For soil, determine and record all masses to the nearest 0.1 g.
When determining the mass of hot samples or containers or both, place and tare a buffer
between the sample container and the balance. This will eliminate damage to or
interference with the operation of the balance or scale.
1. Determine and record the mass of the container.

a. For soils: the container includes the mass of the close-fitting lid.
b. For aggregate: the lid is optional unless drying with a microwave then a
ventilated lid is required.
2. Place the wet sample in the container.
3. Determine and record the total mass of the container and wet sample.
a. For oven(s), hot plates, infrared heaters, etc.: Spread the sample in the
container.
b. For microwave oven: Heap sample in the container; cover with ventilated
lid.
4. Determine and record the wet mass of the sample (MW) by subtracting the
container mass as determined in Step 1 from the mass of the container and sample
in Step 3.
5. Place the sample in one of the following drying apparatuses:
a. For aggregate –
i. Controlled heat source (oven): at 110 ±5°C (230 ±9°F).
ii. Uncontrolled heat source (Hot plate, infrared heater, or other heat
source as allowed by the agency): Stir frequently to avoid localized
overheating.
b. For soil – controlled heat source (oven): at 110 ±5°C (230 ±9°F).
Note 1: Soils containing gypsum or significant amounts of organic material require special drying. For
reliable moisture contents, dry these soils at 60°C (140°F). For more information see AASHTO T
265, Note 2.

Page 7
6. Dry until sample appears moisture free.

7. Determine mass of sample and container.
8. Determine and record the mass of the sample by subtracting the container mass
determined in Step 1 from the mass of the container and sample determined in
Step 7.
9. Return sample and container to the heat source for the additional time interval.
a. Drying intervals for aggregate –
i. Controlled heat source (oven): 30 minutes
ii. Uncontrolled heat source (Hot plate, infrared heater, or other heat
source as allowed by the agency): 10 minutes
iii. Uncontrolled heat source (Microwave oven): 2 minutes
Caution: Some minerals in the sample may cause the aggregate to overheat, crack, and explode;
altering the aggregate gradation.
b. Drying interval for soil – controlled heat source (oven): 1 hour

10. Determine mass of sample and container.
11. Determine and record the mass of the sample by subtracting the container mass
determined in Step 1 from the mass of the container and sample determined in
Step 10.
12. Determine percent change by subtracting the new mass determination (Mn) from
the previous mass determination (Mp), dividing by the previous mass determination
(Mp), and multiplying by 100.
13. Continue drying, performing steps 9 through 12, until there is less than a 0.10
percent change after additional drying time.
14. Constant mass has been achieved; sample is defined as dry.
15. Allow the sample to cool. Immediately determine and record the total mass of the
container and dry sample.
16. Determine and record the dry mass of the sample (MD) by subtracting the mass of
the container determined in Step 1 from the mass of the container and sample
determined in Step 15.
17. Determine and record percent moisture (w) by subtracting the final dry mass
determination (MD) from the initial wet mass determination (MW), dividing by the
final dry mass determination (MD), and multiplying by 100.

Page 8
T-255 & T-265 Table 3:Methods of Drying
Aggregate
Drying intervals to
Heat Source Specific Instructions achieve constant mass
(minutes)
Controlled:
Forced draft (preferred), ventilated, or 110 ±5°C (230 ±9°F) 30
convection oven
Uncontrolled:
Hot plate, infrared heater, or other
Stir frequently 10
device/method as allowed by the agency.
Heap sample and cover
Microwave 2
with ventilated lid
Soil
Drying interval to
Heat Source Specific Instructions
achieve constant mass
Controlled:
Forced draft (preferred), ventilated, or 110 ±5°C (230 ±9°F) 1 hour
convection oven
Calculations
Constant Mass
Calculate constant mass using the following formula:
𝑀𝑝 − 𝑀𝑛
% 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = × 100
𝑀𝑝
Where:
Mp = previous mass measurement
Mn = new mass measurement

Page 9
Example:
Mass of container: 1232.1 g
Mass of the container and sample after first drying cycle: 2637.2 g
Mass, Mp, of possibly dry sample: 2637.2 g - 1232.1 g = 1405.1 g
Mass of container and sample after second drying cycle: 2634.1 g
Mass, Mn, of sample: 2634.1 g - 1232.1 g = 1402.0 g
1405.1 𝑔 − 1402.0 𝑔
% 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = × 100 = 0.22%
1405.1 𝑔
0.22 percent is not less than 0.10 percent, so continue drying
Mass of container and sample after third drying cycle: 2633.0 g
Mass, Mn, of sample: 2633.0 g - 1232.1 g = 1400.9 g
1402.0 𝑔 − 1400.9 𝑔
% 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = × 100 = 0.08%
1402.0 𝑔
0.08 percent is less than 0.10 percent, so constant mass has been reached.
Moisture Content Aggregate and Soils:
Calculate the moisture content, as a percent, using the following formula:
𝑀𝑊 − 𝑀𝐷
𝑤= × 100
𝑀𝐷
where:
w = moisture content, percent
MW = wet mass
MD = dry mass

Page 10
Example:
Mass of container: 1232.1 g
Mass of container and wet sample: 2764.7 g
Mass, MW, of wet sample: 2764.7 g - 1232.1 g = 1532.6 g
Mass of container and dry sample (COOLED): 2633.5 g
Mass, MD, of dry sample: 2633.5 g - 1232.1 g = 1401.4 g
1532.6 𝑔 − 1401.4 𝑔 131.2 𝑔

𝑤= × 100 = × 100 = 9.36% 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 9.4%
1401.4 𝑔 1401.4 𝑔
Report
• On forms approved by the agency

• Sample ID
• MW, wet mass
• MD, dry mass
• w, moisture content to the nearest 0.1 percent
Tips!
• Let the sample cool before determining final dry mass.

• Divide by MD, not MW.

Page 11
T-255 & T-265 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What extra care should be taken when using a microwave to dry aggregates?
2. What is the maximum temperature that a sample should be allowed to attain for each
of the various types of ovens?
3. How is “constant mass” defined according to this FOP:
• For Aggregate?
• For Soil?

Page 12
T-255 & T-265 REVIEW QUESTIONS (KEY)
1. What extra care should be taken when using a microwave to dry aggregates?
Heap the sample in the center of a microwave safe container and cover it with a
ventilated lid. (from AASHTO T 255 / T 265, Procedure, Step 2 (b))
2. What is the maximum temperature that a sample should be allowed to attain for each of
the various types of ovens?
For a controlled heat source (forced draft, ventilated or convection oven),

maximum temperature allowed is 230o F (plus or minus 9). Temperatures for the
various uncontrolled ovens and for microwaves will just be as is.
(from AASHTO T 255 / T 265, Procedure, Step 5 (a & b))
3. How is “constant mass” defined according to this FOP:
• For Aggregate?
Less than a 0.10 percent mass change after additional drying time.
(from AASHTO T 255 / T 265, Procedure, Step 13)
• For Soil?
Less than a 0.10 percent mass change after additional drying time. Note: Typically,
a soil sample dried overnight at 230o F is sufficient.

Page 13
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
AASHTO T 99: Using A 2.5 Kg (5.5 Lb) Rammer and A 305 Mm (12 In.) Drop FOP.
AASHTO T 180: Using A 4.54 Kg (10 Lb) Rammer and A 457 Mm (18 In.) Drop FOP
- Moisture-Density Relations Of Soils
Significance
The density or degree of compaction, of soil or soil-aggregate

mixtures has a significant influence on the stability and durability
of roadways. Low density subgrade, subbase, base, or
embankment will lead to excessive deflection under load or long-
term settlement in an amount higher than anticipated, or both.
Obtaining proper density depends on two major factors:
compactive effort and moisture content. T-99 & T-180 Figure 1: Steel
Roller
Compactive effort relates to the type and weight of compaction
equipment, along with the thickness of the “lift” being
compacted and the number of times each lift is passed over by
the compaction equipment. Equipment includes static and
vibratory rollers, smooth and sheepsfoot steel rollers, and
pneumatic tire rollers of varied weights yielding many different
compactive efforts.
Density also depends upon moisture content. The moisture

content corresponding to maximum dry density of the soil or soil- T-99 & T-180 Figure 2:
Adding Water
aggregate mixture under a given compactive effort is known as
optimum water content. As the water content increases or
decreases from this optimum value, the dry density
decreases.
Agency specifications commonly require that a certain

percentage of maximum dry density be obtained while the
moisture content of the soil or soil-aggregate mixture is
held within certain limits. For example, a specification
might call for
95 percent of maximum dry density with a moisture

content of the optimum value ± 2 percent. For these
reasons, it is critical to understand the various test T-99 & T-180 Figure 3: Moisture vs.
methods and equipment used in determining the moisture- Dry Density
density relations of soil.

Page 14
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
Scope
This procedure covers the determination of the moisture-

density relations of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures in
accordance with two similar test methods:
• AASHTO T 99-22: Methods A, B, C, and D

• AASHTO T 180-22: Methods A, B, C, and D
This test method applies to soil mixtures having
40 percent or less retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve for

methods A or B, or 30 percent or less on the 19 mm (¾ in.) T-99 & T-180 Figure 4: Optimum
sieve with methods C or D. The retained material is defined as Water Content
oversize (coarse) material. If no minimum percentage is
specified,
5 percent will be used. Samples containing oversize (coarse) material that meet the percent
retained criteria should be corrected by using Annex A, Correction of Maximum Dry Density
and Optimum Moisture for Oversized Particles. Samples of soil or soil-aggregate mixture are
prepared at several moisture contents and compacted into molds of specified size, using
manual or mechanical rammers that deliver a specified quantity of compactive energy. The
moist masses of the compacted samples are divided by the volume of the mold to determine
wet density values. Moisture contents of the compacted samples are determined and used to
obtain the dry density values of the same samples.
Maximum dry density and optimum moisture content for the soil or soil-aggregate mixture is
determined by plotting the relationship between dry density and moisture content.
Apparatus
• Mold – Cylindrical mold made of metal with the

dimensions shown in Table 1 or Table 2. If
permitted by the agency, the mold may be of the
“split” type, consisting of two half-round sections,
which can be securely locked in place to form a
cylinder. Determine the mold volume according to
Annex B, Standardization of the Mold.
• Mold assembly – Mold, base plate, and a detachable
collar.
T-99 & T-180 Figure 5: Molds
and Rammer

Page 15
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
• Rammer – Manually or mechanically operated rammers as

detailed in Table 1 or Table 2. A manually operated rammer
shall be equipped with a guide sleeve to control the path and
height of drop. The guide sleeve shall have at least four vent
holes no smaller than 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) in diameter, spaced
approximately 90 degrees apart and approximately 19 mm
(3/4 in.) from each end. A mechanically operated rammer will
uniformly distribute blows over the sample and will be
calibrated with several soil types, and shall be adjusted, if
necessary, to give the same moisture-density results as with
T-99 & T-180 Figure 7:
the manually operated rammer. For additional information
Mechanical Rammer
concerning calibration, see AASHTO T 99 and T 180.
• Sample extruder – A jack, lever frame, or other device for
extruding compacted specimens from the mold quickly and
with little disturbance.
• Balance(s) or scale(s) of the capacity and sensitivity
required for the procedure used by the agency.
• A balance or scale with a capacity of 11.5 kg (25 lb) and a
sensitivity of 1 g for obtaining the sample, meeting the
requirements of AASHTO M 231, Class G 5.
• A balance or scale with a capacity of 2 kg and a sensitivity T-99 & T-180 Figure 6:
of 0.1 g is used for moisture content determinations done Modified vs. Standard
under both procedures, meeting the requirements of Proctor Curves
AASHTO M 231, Class G 5.
• Drying apparatus – A thermostatically controlled drying
oven, capable of maintaining a temperature of 110 ±5°C
(230 ±9°F) for drying moisture content samples in
accordance with the FOP for AASHTO T 255/T 265.
• Straightedge – A steel straightedge at least 250 mm (10 in.)
long, with one beveled edge and at least one surface plane
within 0.1 percent of its length, used for final trimming.
• Sieve(s) – 4.75 mm (No. 4) and/or 19.0 mm (3/4 in.), T-99 & T-180 Figure 8:
meeting the requirements of FOP for AASHTO T 27/T 11. Sample Extruder
• Mixing tools – Miscellaneous tools such as a mixing pan,
spoon, trowel, spatula, etc., or a suitable mechanical
device, for mixing the sample with water.
• Containers with close-fitting lids to prevent gain or loss of
moisture in the sample.
T-99 & T-180 Figure 9: 4.75

mm (no. 4) Sieve and a
Straight Edge

Page 16
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
T-99 & T-180 Table 1: Comparison of Apparatus, Sample, and Procedure - Metric
T 99 T 180
Mold Volume, m3 Methods A, C: 0.000943 ±0.000014 Methods A, C: 0.000943 ±0.000014
Methods B, D: 0.002124 ±0.000025 Methods B, D: 0.002124 ±0.000025
Mold Diameter, mm Methods A, C: 101.60 ±0.40 Methods A, C: 101.60 ±0.4
Mold Height, mm 116.40 ±0.50 116.40 ±0.50
Detachable Collar Height, 50.80 ±0.64 50.80 ±0.64
mm
Rammer Diameter, mm 50.80 ±0.25 50.80 ±0.25
Rammer Mass, kg 2.495 ±0.009 4.536 ±0.009
Rammer Drop, mm 305 ±2 457 ±2
Layers 3 5
Blows per Layer Methods A, C: 25 Methods A, C: 25
Methods B, D: 56 Methods B, D: 56
Material Size, mm Methods A, B: 4.75 minus Methods A, B: 4.75 minus
Methods C, D: 19.0 minus Methods C, D: 19.0 minus
Test Sample Size, kg Method A: 3 Method B: 7
Method C: 5 (1) Method D: 11(1)
Energy, kN-m/m3 592 2,693
T-99 & T-180 Table 2: Comparison of Apparatus, Sample, and Procedure - English
T 99 T 180
3
Mold Volume, ft Methods A, C: 0.0333 ±0.0005 Methods A, C: 0.0333 ±0.0005
Mold Diameter, in. Methods A, C: 4.000 ±0.016 Methods A, C: 4.000 ±0.016
Mold Height, in. 4.584 ±0.018 4.584 ±0.018
Detachable Collar Height, in. 2.000 ±0.025 2.000 ±0.025
Rammer Diameter, in. 2.000 ±0.025 2.000 ±0.025
Rammer Mass, lb 5.5 ±0.02 10 ±0.02
Rammer Drop, in. 12 ±0.06 18 ±0.06
Layers 3 5
Blows per Layer Methods A, C: 25 Methods A, C: 25
Methods B, D: 56 Methods B, D: 56
Material Size, in. Methods A, B: No. 4 minus Methods A, B: No.4 minus
Methods C, D: 3/4 minus Methods C, D: 3/4 minus
Test Sample Size, lb Method A: 7 Method B: 16
Method C: 12(1) Method D: 25(1)
Energy, lb-ft/ft3 12,375 56,250
Note: From Table 1 and 2 - This may not be a large enough sample depending on your nominal
maximum size for moisture content samples.

Page 17
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
Sample
If the sample is damp, dry it until it becomes friable Sieve 4.75 mm 19 mm

under a trowel. Drying may be in air or by use of a Mold (No. 4) (3/4”)
drying apparatus maintained at a temperature not
4” A C
exceeding 60°C (140°F). Thoroughly break up
aggregations in a manner that avoids reducing the 6” B D
natural size of individual particles.
Obtain a representative test sample of the mass required T-99 & T-180 Figure 10: Methods
by the agency by passing the material through the sieve
required by the agency. See Table 1 or Table 2 for test sample mass and material size
requirements.
In instances where the material is prone to degradation, i.e., granular material, a compaction
sample with differing moisture content should be prepared for each point.
If the sample is plastic (clay types), it should stand for a minimum of 12 hours after the
addition of water to allow the moisture to be absorbed. In this case, several samples at
different moisture contents should be prepared, put in sealed containers, and tested the next
day.
Note 1: Both T 99 and T 180 have four methods (A, B, C, D) that require different masses and employ
different sieves.
Procedure
During compaction, rest the mold firmly on a dense, uniform,

rigid, and stable foundation, or base. This base shall remain
stationary during the compaction process.
1. Determine the mass of the clean, dry mold. Include the base
plate but exclude the extension collar. Record the mass to the
nearest 1 g (0.005 lb).
2. Thoroughly mix the selected representative sample with
sufficient water to dampen it to approximately 4 to 8 T-99 & T-180 Figure 11:
percentage points below optimum moisture content. For many Compacting
materials, this condition can be identified by forming a cast by
hand.
a. Prepare individual samples of plastic or degradable material, increasing moisture
contents 1 to 2 percent for each point.
b. Allow samples of plastic soil to stand for
12 hrs.

Page 18
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
3. Form a specimen by compacting the prepared soil in the mold assembly in approximately
equal layers. For each layer:
a. Spread the loose material uniformly in the mold.
b. Lightly tamp the loose material with the manual rammer
or other similar device, this establishes a firm surface.
Note 2: It is recommended to cover the remaining material with a non-
absorbent sheet or damp cloth to minimize loss of moisture.
c. Compact each layer with uniformly distributed blows from
the rammer. See Table 1 for mold size, number of layers,
number of blows, and rammer specification for the various
test methods. Use the method specified by the agency.
d. Trim down material that has not been compacted and T-99 & T-180 Figure 12:
remains adjacent to the walls of the mold and extends Typical Mold
above the compacted surface.
4. Remove the extension collar. Avoid shearing off the sample
below the top of the mold. The material compacted in the
mold should not be over 6 mm (¼ in) above the top of the
mold once the collar has been removed.
5. Trim the compacted soil even with the top of the mold with
the beveled edge of the straightedge.
6. Clean soil from exterior of the mold and base plate.
7. Determine the mass of the mold, base plate, and wet soil to T-99 & T-180 Figure 13:
the nearest 1 g (0.005 lb). Trimming
8. Determine the wet mass of the sample by subtracting the
mass in Step 1 from the mass in Step 7.
9. Calculate the wet density (ρw), in kg/m3 (lb/ft3), by
dividing the wet mass by the measured volume (Vm).
10. Extrude the material from the mold. For soils and soil-
aggregate mixtures, slice vertically through the center
and remove one of the cut faces for a representative
moisture content sample. For granular materials, a
vertical face will not exist. Take a representative sample
ensuring that all layers are represented. This sample must T-99 & T-180 Figure 14: Mass
meet the sample size requirements of the test method of Mold and Wet Soil
used to determine moisture content.

Page 19
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
Note 3: When developing a curve for free-draining soils such as

uniform sands and gravels, where seepage occurs at the bottom
of the mold and base plate, taking a representative moisture
content from the mixing bowl may be preferred in order to
determine the amount of moisture available for compaction.
11. Determine the moisture content (w) of the sample in
accordance with the FOP for AASHTO T 255 / T 265.
12. If the material is degradable or plastic, return to Step 3
using a prepared individual sample. If not, continue with T-99 & T-180 Figure 15:
Steps 13 through 15. Extruding the Material
13. Thoroughly break up the remaining portion of the molded
specimen until it will again pass through the sieve, as judged by eye,
and add to the remaining portion of the sample being tested.
14. Add sufficient water to increase the moisture content of the
remaining soil by approximately 1 to 2 percentage points and repeat
the above procedure.
15. Continue determinations until there is either a decrease or no change
in the mass. There will be a minimum of three points on the dry side
of the curve and two points on the wet side. For non-cohesive,
drainable soils, one point on the wet side is sufficient. T-99 & T-180 Figure 16:
Diagram of Extruded
Material
T-99 & T-180 Figure

17: Representative
moisture content
sample
Calculations
Wet Density
𝑀𝑤
𝜌𝑤 =
𝑉𝑚
Where:
ρw = wet density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)

Mw = wet mass
Vm = volume of the mold, Annex B

Page 20
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
Dry Density
𝜌𝑤 𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑑 = ( ) × 100 𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑑 = 𝑤
𝑤 + 100 (100) + 1
Where:
ρd = dry density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)

w = moisture content, as a percentage
Example for 4-inch mold, Methods A, or C
Wet mass, Mw = 1.928 kg (4.25 lb)
Moisture content, w = 11.3%
Measured volume of the mold, Vm = 0.000946 m3 (0.0334 ft3)
Wet Density
1.928 𝑘𝑔 4.25 𝑙𝑏
𝜌𝑤 = 3
= 2038 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝜌𝑤 = = 127.2 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
0.000946 𝑚 0.0334 𝑓𝑡 3
Dry Density
2038 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 127.2 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
𝜌𝑑 = ( ) × 100 = 1831 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝜌𝑑 = ( ) × 100 = 114.3 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
11.3 + 100 11.3 + 100
Or
2038 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 3
127.2 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
𝜌𝑑 = ( ⁄
) = 1831 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝜌𝑑 = ( ) = 114.3 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
11.3 11.3
100 + 1 100 + 1
Moisture-Density Curve Development
When dry density is plotted on the vertical axis versus moisture content on the horizontal axis
and the points are connected with a smooth line, a moisture-density curve is developed. The
coordinates of the peak of the curve are the maximum dry density, or just “maximum
density,” and the “optimum moisture content” of the soil.

Page 21
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
Example
Given the following dry density and corresponding moisture content values, develop a
moisture-density relations curve and determine maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content.
Dry Density Moisture

3 3 Content, %
kg/m lb/ft
1831 114.3 11.3
1853 115.7 12.1
1873 116.9 12.8
1869 116.7 13.6
1857 115.9 14.2
x 1900
118.0 x
Maximum Dry Density = 1880 kg/m 3 (117.3 lbs/ft3)
Optimum Moisture = 13.2%
x
1880
117.0 x
Dry Density kg/m3

Dry Density lb/ft 3
116.0 x
x 1860
115.0
x 1860
114.0
1820
113.0 x
10 % 11 % 12 % 13 % 14 % 15 % 16 %
Moisture Content (%)
In this case, the curve has its peak at:

Maximum dry density = 1880 kg/m3 (117.3 lb/ft3)
Optimum moisture content = 13.2%
Note that both values are approximate since they are based on sketching the curve to fit the
points.

Page 22
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
Report

• Sample ID
• Maximum dry density to the nearest 1 kg/m3 (0.1 lb/ft3)
• Optimum moisture content to the nearest 0.1 percent
Tips!
• Ideally, obtain 3 dry points and 2 wet points. This produces a reliable moisture-
density curve.
• Moisture-density curves are based on dry densities.
• If oversize material exists, corrections must be made.

Page 23
AASHTO T-99 & T-180 – Annex A
ANNEX A - Correction of Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture for Oversized
Particles
(Mandatory Information)
This section corrects the maximum dry density and moisture content of the material retained
on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, Methods A and B; or the material retained on the 19 mm
(¾ in.) sieve, Methods C and D. The maximum dry density, corrected for oversized particles
and total moisture content, are compared with the field-dry density and field moisture
content.
This correction can be applied to the sample on which the maximum dry density is performed.
A correction may not be practical for soils with only a small percentage of oversize material.
The agency shall specify a minimum percentage below which the method is not needed. If not
specified, this method applies when more than 5 percent by weight of oversize particles is
present.
Bulk specific gravity (Gsb) of the oversized particles is required to determine the corrected
maximum dry density. Use the bulk specific gravity as determined using the FOP for AASHTO T
85 in the calculations. For construction activities, an agency established value or specific
gravity of 2.600 may be used.
This correction can also be applied to the sample obtained from the field while performing in-
place density.
Procedure
1. Use the sample from this procedure or a sample obtained according to the FOP for
AASHTO T 310.
2. Sieve the sample on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve for Methods A and B or the 19 mm (¾
in.) sieve, Methods C and D.
3. Determine the dry mass of the oversized and fine fractions (MDC and MDF) by one of the
following:
a. Dry the fractions, fine and oversized, in air or by use of a drying apparatus that
is maintained at a temperature not exceeding 60ºC (140ºF).
b. Calculate the dry masses using the moisture samples.
To determine the dry mass of the fractions using moisture samples.
1. Determine the moist mass of both fractions, fine (MMf) and oversized (MMc):
2. Obtain moisture samples from the fine and oversized material.
3. Determine the moisture content of the fine particles (MCf) and oversized particles
(MCC) of the material by FOP for AASHTO T 255/T 265 or agency approved method.

Page 24
4. Calculate the dry mass of the oversize and fine particles.
𝑀𝑚
𝑀𝐷 =
1 + MC
Where:
MD = mass of dry material (fine or oversize particles).
Mm = mass of moist material (fine or oversize particles).
MC = moisture content of respective fine or oversized, expressed as a decimal.
5. Calculate the percentage of the fine (Pf) and oversized (Pc) particles by dry weight of
the total sample as follows: See Note 2.
100 × 𝑀𝐷𝐹 100 × 15.4 𝑙𝑏 100 × 6.985 𝑘𝑔

Pf = = 73%
𝑀𝐷𝐹 + 𝑀𝐷𝐶 15.4 𝑙𝑏𝑠 + 5.7 𝑙𝑏 6.985 𝑘𝑔 + 2.585 𝑘𝑔
= 73%
And
100 × 𝑀𝐷𝐶 100 × 5.7 𝑙𝑏 100 × 2.585 𝑘𝑔

Pc = = 27% = 27%
𝑀𝐷𝐹 + 𝑀𝐷𝐶 15.4 𝑙𝑏𝑠 + 5.7 𝑙𝑏 6.985 𝑘𝑔 + 2.585 𝑘𝑔
Or for Pc:
Pc = 100 − Pf
Where:
Pf = percent of fine particles, of sieve used, by weight
Pc = percent of oversize particles, of sieve used, by weight
MDF = mass of dry fine particles
MDC = mass of dry oversize particles

Page 25
Optimum Moisture Correction Equation

1. Calculate the corrected moisture content as follows:
(𝑀𝐶𝐹 × Pf ) + (𝑀𝐶𝑐 × Pc )
𝑀𝐶𝑇 =
100
(10.6% × 73.0%) + (2.1% × 27.0%)
𝑀𝐶𝑇 = = 8.3%
100
Where:
MCT = corrected moisture content of combined fines and oversized
particles, expressed as a % moisture
MCF = moisture content of fine particles, as a % moisture
MCC = moisture content of oversized particles, as a % moisture
Note 1: Moisture content of oversize material can be assumed to be two (2) percent for most
construction applications.
Note 2: In some field applications agencies will allow the percentages of oversize and fine materials to
be determined with the materials in the wet state.
Density Correction Equation

2. Calculate the corrected dry density (ρd) of the total sample (combined fine and oversized
particles) as follows:
100%
𝜌𝑑 =
P P
[(𝝆f ) + ( c )]
𝒇 𝑘
Where:
ρd = corrected total dry density (combined fine and oversized
particles)
kg/m3 (lb/ft 3)
ρf = dry density of the fine particles kg/m3 (lb/ft3), determined in
the lab
Pc = percent of dry oversize particles, of sieve used, by weight.
Pf = percent of dry fine particles, of sieve used, by weight.
k = Metric: 1,000 * Bulk Specific Gravity (Gsb) (oven dry basis)
of coarse particles (kg/m3).
k = English: 62.4 * Bulk Specific Gravity (Gsb) (oven dry basis)
of coarse particles (lb/ft3)
Note 3: If the specific gravity is known, then this value will be used in the calculation. For most
construction activities, the specific gravity for aggregate may be assumed to be 2.600.

Page 26
Calculation
Example
• Metric:
Maximum laboratory dry density (ρf): 1880 kg/m3
Percent coarse particles (Pc): 27%
Percent fine particles (Pf): 73%
Mass per volume coarse particles (k): (2.697) (1000) = 2697 kg/m3
100%
𝜌𝑑 =
P P
[(𝝆f ) + ( c )]
𝒇 𝑘
100%
𝜌𝑑 =
73% 27%
[( )+( )]
1880 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 2697 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
100%
𝜌𝑑 =
[0.03883 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 + 0.01001 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 ]
𝜌𝑑 = 2047.5 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 2048 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
• English:
Maximum laboratory dry density (ρf): 117.3 lb/ft3
Percent coarse particles (Pc): 27%
Percent fine particles (Pf): 73%
Mass per volume coarse particles (k): (2.697) (62.4) = 168.3 lb/ft3
100% 100%
𝜌𝑑 = P
𝜌𝑑 = 73% 27%
P [( )+( )]
[( f )+( c )] 117.3𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡3 168.3𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡3
𝝆𝒇 𝑘
100%
𝜌𝑑 =
[0.6223 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3 + 0.1604 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3 ]
100%
𝜌𝑑 =
0.7827 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
𝜌𝑑 = 127.76 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 127.8 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
Report
• Results on forms approved by the agency

• Sample ID
• Corrected maximum dry density to the nearest 1 kg/m3 (0.1 lb/ft3)
• Corrected optimum moisture to the nearest 0.1 percent

Page 27
AASHTO T-99 & T-180 – Annex B
ANNEX B - Standardization of the Mold
(Mandatory Information)
Standardization is a critical step to ensure accurate test results when using this apparatus.
Failure to perform the standardization procedure as described herein will produce inaccurate
or unreliable test results.
Apparatus
• Mold and base plate
• Balance or scale – Accurate to within 45 g
(0.1 lb) or 0.3 percent of the test load, whichever is greater, at
any point within the range of use.
• Cover plate – A piece of plate glass, at least 6 mm (1⁄4 in.)
thick and at least 25 mm (1 in.) larger than the diameter of the
mold.
• Thermometers – Standardized liquid-in-glass, or electronic T-99 & T-180 Figure 18:
digital total immersion type, accurate to 0.5°C (1°F) Standardization of Mold
Apparatus
Procedure
1. Create a watertight seal between the mold and base plate.
2. Determine and record the mass of the dry sealed mold, base
plate, and cover plate.
3. Fill the mold with water at a temperature between 16°C and
29°C (60°F and 85°F) and cover with the cover plate in such a
way as to eliminate bubbles and excess water.
4. Wipe the outside of the mold, base plate, and cover plate
dry, being careful not to lose any water from the mold.
T-99 & T-180 Figure 19:
5. Determine and record the mass of the filled mold, base plate, Standardization Filling the
cover plate, and water. mold
6. Determine and record the mass of the water in the mold by
subtracting the mass in Step 2 from the mass in Step 5.
7. Measure the temperature of the water and determine its
density from Table B1, interpolating, as necessary.
8. Calculate the volume of the mold, Vm, by dividing the mass
of the water in the mold by the density of the water at the
measured temperature.
T-99 & T-180 Figure 20:

Standardization Dried, Filled
Mold

Page 28
AASHTO T-99 & T-180 – Annex B
Calculations
𝑀
𝑉𝑚 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Where:
Vm = volume of the mold
M = mass of water in the mold
ρwater = density of water at the measured temperature
Example
Mass of water in mold = 0.94367 kg (2.0800 lb)
ρwater at 23°C (73.4°F) = 997.54 kg/m3 (62.274 lb/ft3)
0.94367 𝑘𝑔 2.0800 𝑙𝑏
𝑉𝑚 = = 0.000946 𝑚3 𝑉𝑚 = = 0.0334 𝑓𝑡 3
997.54 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 62.274 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
T-99 & T-180 Table 3: Unit Mass of Water 15°C to 30°C
°C (°F) kg/m3 (lb/ft3) °C (°F) kg/m3 (lb/ft3)

15 (59.0) 999.10 (62.372) 23 (73.4) 997.54 (62.274)
15.6 (60.0) 999.01 (62.366) 23.9 (75.0) 997.32 (62.261)
16 (60.8) 998.94 (62.361) 24 (75.2) 997.29 (62.259)
17 (62.6) 998.77 (62.350) 25 (77.0) 997.03 (62.243)
18 (64.4) 998.60 (62.340) 26 (78.8) 996.77 (62.227)
18.3 (65.0) 998.54 (62.336) 26.7 (80.0) 996.59 (62.216)
19 (66.2) 998.40 (62.328) 27 (80.6) 996.50 (62.209)
20 (68.0) 998.20 (62.315) 28 (82.4) 996.23 (62.192)
21 (69.8) 997.99 (62.302) 29 (84.2) 995.95 (62.175)
21.1 (70.0) 997.97 (62.301) 29.4 (85.0) 995.83 (62.166)
22 (71.6) 997.77 (62.288) 30 (86.0) 995.65 (62.156)
Report
• Mold ID
• Date Standardized
• Temperature of the water
• Volume, Vm, of the mold the nearest m3 (0.0001 ft3)

Page 29
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
T-99 & T-180 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe how the plotted data is used to determine optimum moisture content and
maximum dry density.
2. How many blows of the rammer are required per lift for the various procedures and
methods?
3. Describe how the sample for moisture content is obtained.
4. What sample mass is required for Method A of the T 99 test?
o For Method C of the T 180 test?
5. Describe the purpose of Annex A.

Page 30
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
6. The adjustment is based on the mass of material retained on what size sieve?
7. A soil-aggregate mixture has a maximum dry density of 138.6 lb/ft3 English units and
an optimum moisture of 6.4 percent. The coarse particles make up 22 percent of the
material, having a Gsb of 2.631 and 1.7 percent moisture.
o What is the corrected maximum density?
o What is the corrected moisture?

Page 31
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
T-99 & T-180 REVIEW QUESTIONS (KEY)
1. Describe how the plotted data is used to determine optimum moisture content and
maximum dry density.
When dry density is plotted on the vertical axis versus moisture content on the
horizontal axis and the points are connected with a smooth line, a moisture-
density curve is developed. The coordinates of the peak of the curve are the
maximum dry density (max density) and the optimum moisture content of the
soil.
(from AASHTO T 99 / T 180, Moisture-Density Curve Development)
2. How many blows of the rammer are required per lift for the various procedures
and methods?
For T99 and T 180, methods A & C, 25 blows are required per lift of material.
For T 99 and T 180, methods B & D, 56 blows are required per lift.
(from AASHTO T 99 / T 180, Table 2, Comparison of Apparatus, Sample and
Procedure – English units)
3. Describe how the sample for moisture content is obtained.

Slice vertically through the “cylinder of soil” and take a moisture content sample
from one of the cut faces, ensuring that all layers are represented.
1. What sample mass is required for Method A of the T 99 test?
7-pound sample (from AASHTO T 99 / T 180, Table 2, Comparison of
Apparatus,
Sample and Procedure – English units)
• For Method C of the T 180 test?
12-pound sample (from AASHTO T 99 / T 180, Table 2, Comparison of
Apparatus,
Sample and Procedure – English units)
5. Describe the purpose of Annex A.
The purpose of this calculation is to adjust the maximum dry density as

determined by the field operating procedure (FOP) for AASHTO T 99 / T 180 to
compensate for coarse particles present in the total sample. (from AASHTO T 99 /
T 180, Paragraph 1)
6. The adjustment is based on the mass of material retained on what size sieve?
Retained on the No. 4 or the ¾ inch sieve, depending on the procedure.
(from AASHTO T 99 / T 180, Paragraph 1)

Page 32
AASHTO T-99 & T-180
7. A soil-aggregate mixture has a maximum dry density of 138.6 lb/ft3 English units and
an optimum moisture of 6.4 percent. The coarse particles make up 22 percent of the
material, having a Gsb of 2.631 and 1.7 percent moisture.
• What is the corrected maximum density?
100% 100 100

𝜌𝑑 = = =
𝑃𝑓 𝑃 78% 225 0.56277 𝑙𝑏⁄ 3 + 0.13400 𝑙𝑏⁄ 3
[(𝜌 ) + ( 𝑘𝑐 )] 𝑙𝑏
+
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑓 138.6 ⁄𝑓𝑡 3 2.361 × 62.4 ⁄𝑓𝑡 3
= 143.5 𝑙𝑏⁄ 3
𝑓𝑡
Answer equals 143.5 pcf
(from AASHTO T 99/T 180, Adjustment Equation Density)
• What is the corrected moisture?
(𝑀𝐶𝐹 × 𝑃𝑓 ) + (𝑀𝐶𝑐 × 𝑃𝑐 ) (6.4% × 78.0%) + (1.7% × 22.0%)

𝑀𝐶𝑇 = = 5.4%
100 100
Answer equals 5.4%
(from AASHTO T 99/T 180, Adjustment Equation Optimum Moisture)

Page 33
AASHTO R-75
AASHTO R-75Developing a family of curves FOP
Significance
Soils sampled from one source will have many different moisture-density curves, but if a
group of these curves is plotted together, similarities or relationships are usually seen. A
family of curves is a group of soil moisture-density relationships that reveal similarities
characteristic of the soil type and source. Higher-density soils have curves with steeper slopes
and maximum dry densities at lower optimum moisture contents, while the lower-density soils
have flatter curves with higher optimum moisture contents.
Scope
This procedure provides a method to develop a family of curves

using multiple moisture-density relationships developed using the
same method, A, B, C, or D from the FOP for AASHTO T 99/T 180 in
accordance with AASHTO R 75-16.
All curves used in a family must be developed using a single

Method: A, B, C, or D of a procedure for AASHTO T 99 or T 180. See R-75 Figure 1: Methods of T-99
the FOP for AASHTO T 99/T 180. & T-180
Terminology
family of curves — a group of soil moisture-density relationships (curves) determined

using AASHTO T 99 or T 180, which reveal certain similarities and trends characteristic
of the soil type and source.
spine — smooth line extending through the point of maximum density and optimum
moisture content of a family of moisture-density curves.
Procedure
1. Sort the curves by Method (A, B, C, or D of the FOP for T 99/T 180). At least three
curves are required to develop a family.
2. Select the highest and lowest maximum dry densities from those selected to assist
in determining the desired scale of the subsequent graph.
3. Plot the maximum density and optimum moisture points of the selected curves on
the graph.

Page 34
AASHTO R-75
4. Draw a smooth, “best fit,” curved line through the points creating the spine of the
family of curves.
5. Remove maximum density and optimum moisture points that were not used to
establish the spine.
6. Add the moisture-density curves associated with the points that were used to
establish the spine. It is not necessary to include the portion of the curves over
optimum moisture.
Note 1—Intermediate curves using slopes similar to those of the original moisture-density curves may
be included when maximum density points are more than 2.0 lb/ft3 apart. Intermediate curves are
indicated by a dashed line.
7. Plot the 80 percent of optimum moisture range when desired:
a. Using the optimum moisture of an existing curve, calculate 80 percent of

optimum moisture and plot this value on the curve. Repeat for each curve in
the family.
b. Draw a smooth, “best fit,” curved line connecting the 80 percent of optimum
moisture points plotted on the curves that parallel the spine.
Calculations
Calculate 80 percent of optimum moisture of each curve:
Example:
Optimum moisture of the highest density curve = 14.6%
80
80% 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = × 14.6% = 11.7%
100
Tips!
• Make sure that the selected moisture-density relationship curves were developed using
the same method from the FOP for AASHTO T 99 /
T 180 – A, B, C, or D

Page 35
AASHTO R-75
Family
x of Curves Development
122.0 lb / f t ³
Spine
80% Line
lb / f t ³
120.0
x
Intermediate Curves
118.0 lb / f t ³
x
Dry Density lb/ft3
116.0 lb / f t ³
11.7 %
114.0 lb / f t ³ x
112.0 lb / f t ³
13.4 %
x
110.0 lb / f t ³
16.0%
lb / f t ³
108.0
8 % 10 % 12 % 14 % 16 % 18 % 20 % 22 %
R-75 Figure 2: Example of a Family of Curves

Page 36
AASHTO R-75
R-75 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. To what other procedure(s) is this procedure related?
2. What does the ‘spine’ of the curve mean?
3. Describe the limitations of developing a family of curves.

Page 37
AASHTO R-75
R-75 REVIEW QUESTIONS (KEY)
AASHTO T99 and T180, and T272.
2. What does the ‘spine’ of the curve mean?
A smooth line extending through the point of maximum density/optimum moisture

content of a family of moisture-density curves (From AASHTO R75).
3. Describe the limitations of developing a family of curves.

• All curves used in a family must be developed using a single Method: A, B, C, or D
of a procedure for AASHTO T 99 or T 180.
• At least three curves are required per family.

• Curves must be developed from similar soil types from a source
(From AASHTO R75).

Page 38
AASHTO T-272
AASHTO T 272: One-Point Method For Determining Maximum Dry Density and
Optimum Moisture FOP
Significance
Soils sampled from one source will have many different moisture-density curves, but if a
group of these curves is plotted together, similarities or relationships are usually seen. A
family of curves is a group of soil moisture-density relationships that reveal similarities
characteristic of the soil type and source. Higher-density soils have curves with steeper slopes
and maximum dry densities at lower optimum moisture contents, while the lower-density soils
have flatter curves with higher optimum moisture contents.
In the field, density and moisture content are determined, and a single point is plotted on an
individual moisture curve or family of curves graphs.
Scope
This procedure provides for a rapid determination of the maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content of a soil sample using a one-point determination in accordance with AASHTO
T 272-18. This procedure is related to the FOP’s for AASHTO T 99/T 180 and R 75.
One-point determinations are made by compacting the soil in a mold of a given size with a
specified rammer dropped from a specified height and then compared to an individual
moisture-density curve (FOP for AASHTO T 99 or T 180) or a family of curves (FOP for AASHTO
R 75). Four alternate methods – A, B, C, and D – are used and correspond to the methods
described in the FOP for AASHTO T 99/T 180. The method used in AASHTO T 272 must match
the method used for the reference curve or to establish the family of curves. For example,
when moisture-density relationships as determined by T 99 - Method C are used to form the
family of curves or an individual moisture density curve, then T 99 - Method C must be used
to for the one-point determination.
Apparatus
See the FOP for AASHTO T 99/T 180.
Sample
Sample size is determined according to the FOP for AASHTO T 310. In cases where the existing
individual curve or family cannot be used, a completely new curve must be developed, and
the sample size determined by the FOP for AASHTO 99/T 180.

Page 39
AASHTO T-272
1. If the sample is damp, dry it until it becomes friable under a trowel. Drying may be
in air or by use of a drying apparatus maintained at a temperature not exceeding
60°C (140°F).
2. Thoroughly break up aggregations in a manner that avoids reducing the natural size
of individual particles.
3. Pass the material through the appropriate sieve.
Procedure
Use the method matching the individual curve or Family of Curves.

Refer to Table 1 of the FOP for AASHTO T 99/T 180 for corresponding
mold size, number of layers, number of blows, sieve size, and rammer
specification for the various test methods.
1. Determine the mass of the clean, dry mold. Include the

base plate but exclude the extension collar. Record the T-272 Figure 1: Dense,
mass to the nearest 1 g (0.005 lb). Uniform, Rigid Foundation
2. Thoroughly mix the sample with sufficient water to adjust

moisture content to 80 to 100 percent of the anticipated
optimum moisture.
3. Form a specimen by compacting the prepared soil in the

mold (with collar attached) in approximately equal layers.
For each layer:
a. Spread the loose material uniformly in the mold. T-272 Figure 2: Trim Soil
Note 1: It is recommended to cover the remaining material with a
non-absorbent sheet or damp cloth to minimize loss of moisture.
b. Lightly tamp the loose material with the manual
rammer or other similar device, this establishes a firm
surface.
c. Compact each layer with uniformly distributed blows
from the rammer.
d. Trim down material that has not been compacted and
remains adjacent to the walls of the mold and extends
above the compacted surface. T-272 Figure 3: Mass of Mold
and Wet Sample

Page 40
AASHTO T-272
4. Remove the extension collar. Avoid shearing off

the sample below the top of the mold. The
material compacted in the mold should not be
over 6 mm (¼ in.) above the top of the mold once
the collar has been removed.
5. Trim the compacted soil even with the top of the
mold with the beveled side of the straightedge.
6. Clean soil from exterior of the mold and base
plate. T-272 Figure 4: Diagram of
7. Determine the mass of the mold and wet soil to Extruded Material
the nearest 1 g (0.005 lb).
8. Determine the wet mass of the sample by subtracting the
mass in Step 1 from the mass in Step 7.
9. Calculate the wet density (ρw) as indicated below under
“Calculations.”
10. Extrude the material from the mold. For soils and soil-
aggregate mixtures, slice vertically through the center
and remove one of the cut faces for a representative
moisture content sample. For granular materials, a
vertical face will not exist. Take a representative sample
ensuring that all layers are represented. This sample T-272 Figure 5:
Representative
must meet the sample size requirements of the test moisture content
method used to determine moisture content. sample
11. Determine the moisture content (w) of the sample in
accordance with the FOP for AASHTO T 255 / T 265.
Calculations
1. Calculate the wet density, in kg/m3 (lb/ft3), by dividing the wet mass by the measured
volume of the mold (T 19).
Example – Methods A or C mold:
Wet mass = 2.0055 kg (4.42 lb)

Measured volume of the mold = 0.0009469 m3 (0.0334 ft3)
2.0055 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑤 = = 2118 𝑘𝑔 ⁄𝑚3
0.0009469 𝑚3
4.42 𝑙𝑏
𝜌𝑤 = = 132.2 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
0.0334 𝑓𝑡 3
Where:
w = Wet density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)

Page 41
AASHTO T-272
2. Calculate the dry density as follows.
𝜌𝑤 𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑑 = ( ) × 100 𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑑 = 𝑤
𝑤 + 100 (100) + 1
Where:
d = Dry density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)
w = Moisture content, as a percentage
Example:
w = 2118 kg/m3 (132.2 lb/ft3)
w = 13.5%
2118 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 3
132.2 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
𝜌𝑑 = ( ) × 100 = 1866 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚 𝜌𝑑 = ( ) × 100
13.5 + 100 13.5 + 100
= 116.5 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
or
2118 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 132.2 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
𝜌𝑑 = ( ) = 1866 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝜌𝑑 = ( ) = 116.5 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
13.5 13.5
100 + 1 100 + 1
Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content Determination Using an Individual
Moisture - Density Curve
1. The moisture content must be within 80 to 100 percent of optimum moisture of the
reference curve. Compact another specimen, using the same material, at an adjusted
moisture content if the one-point does not fall in the 80 to 100 percent of optimum
moisture range.
2. Plot the one-point, dry density on the vertical axis and moisture content on the
horizontal axis, on the reference curve graph.
3. If the one-point falls on the reference curve or within ±2.0 lb/ft3, use the maximum
dry density and optimum moisture content determined by the curve.
4. Use the FOP for AASHTO T 99/T 180 Annex A to determine corrected maximum dry
density and optimum moisture content if oversize particles have been removed.
5. Perform a full moisture-density relationship if the one-point does not fall on or within
±2.0 lb/ft3 of the reference curve at 80 to 100 percent optimum moisture.

Page 42
AASHTO T-272
Example: The results of a one-point determination were 116.5 lb/ft3 at 13.5 percent
moisture. The point was plotted on the reference curve graph. The point was plotted on the
reference curve graph. The one-point determination is within 2.0 lb/ft3 of the point on the
curve that corresponds with the moisture content.
x Reference Curve
122.0 lb / f t ³ x
lb / f t ³
120.0 Maximum DryDensity = 118.1 lbs/ft3
x
Optimum Moisture = 16.1%
one-point density = 116.5 lbs/ft3

lb / f t ³
one-point moisture content = 13.5%
118.0
x
Dry Density lb/ft3
116.0 lb / f t ³
114.0 lb / f t ³ intersects
x at 115.1 lbs/ft3 at 13.5%
one-point determination is within
2.0 lbs/ft3 of reference curve
112.0 lb / f t ³
x
80% of optimum moisture
110.0 lb / f t ³
lb / f t ³
108.0
8 % 10 % 12 % 14 % 16 % 18 % 20 % 22 %

Page 43
AASHTO T-272
Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content Determination Using a Family of
Curves
1. Plot the one-point, dry density on the vertical axis and moisture content on the horizontal
axis, on the reference family of curves graph.
2. If the moisture-density one-point falls on one of the curves in the family of curves, use
the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content defined by that curve.
3. If the moisture-density one-point falls within the family of curves but not on an existing
curve, draw a new curve through the plotted single point parallel and in character with
the nearest existing curve in the family of curves. Use the maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content as defined by the new curve.
a. The one-point must fall either between or on the highest or lowest curves. If it
does not, then a full curve must be developed.
b. If the one-point plotted within or on the family of curves does not fall in the 80 to
100 percent of optimum moisture content, compact another specimen, using the
same material, at an adjusted moisture content that will place the one-point
within this range.
4. Use the FOP for AASHTO T 99/T 180 Annex A to determine corrected maximum dry density
and optimum moisture content if oversize particles have been removed.
5. If the new curve through a one-point is not well defined or is in any way questionable,
perform a full moisture-density relationship to correctly define the new curve and verify
the applicability of the family of curves.
Note 2: New curves drawn through plotted single point determinations shall not become a permanent
part of the family of curves until verified by a full moisture-density procedure following the FOP
for AASHTO T 99/T 180.
Example: The results of a one-point determination were 116.5 lb/ft3 at 13.5 percent
moisture. The point was plotted on the reference curve graph. The point was plotted on the
appropriate family between two previously developed curves near and intermediate curve.
The “dotted” curve through the moisture-density one-point was sketched between the
existing curves. A maximum dry density of 119.3 lb/ft3 and a corresponding optimum moisture
content of 15.9 percent were estimated.

Page 44
AASHTO T-272
x Family of Curves
122.0 lb / f t ³ x
Estimated
Maximum density = 119.3 lb/ft3
80% Line Optimum moisture = 15.9%
lb / f t ³
120.0
x
one-point moisture content = 13.5%
one-point density = 116.5 lb/ft3
lb / f t ³
118.0
x
Dry Density lb/ft3
lb / f t ³
116.0
114.0 lb / f t ³ x
lb / f t ³
112.0
110.0 lb / f t ³
lb / f t ³
108.0
8 % 10 % 12 % 14 % 16 % 18 % 20 % 22 %

Page 45
AASHTO T-272
Report

• Sample ID
• Maximum dry density to the nearest
1 kg/m3 (0.1 lb/ft3)
• Corrected maximum dry density (if applicable)
• Optimum moisture content to the nearest
0.1 percent
• Corrected optimum moisture content (if applicable)
• Reference curve or Family of Curves used
Tips!
• Make sure that the moisture content of the one-point sample is between 80 and
100 percent of optimum moisture.
• Remember that a full moisture-density procedure shall be made if the curve drawn
through the one-point is not well defined or is questionable.

Page 46
AASHTO T-272
T-272 REVIEW QUESTIONS
2. How are the two procedures used together?
3. Describe the limitations of using the one-point determination with a family of curves.
4. Describe the limitations of using the one-point determination with a single reference
curve.

Page 47
AASHTO T-272
T-272 REVIEW QUESTIONS (KEY)

This procedure is related to AASHTO T 99/ T 180.
(from AASHTO T 272, Scope)
2. How are the two procedures used together?
Follow the procedure outlined for T 99 / T 180 and then use your fabricated
“one point” to land on a particular family of curves, extracting the maximum
dry density and optimum moisture content from the family.
(from AASHTO T 272, Scope)
3. Describe the limitations of using the one-point determination with a family of
curves.
The limitations are the following:
• The soil type and method used must match that of the family of
curves.
• The one point must fall either between or on the highest or lowest
curves on the family. If it does not, then a full curve must be
developed.
• The one point must plot within 80 to 100 percent of the optimum
moisture content shown on the family.
• If the family of curves is such that the new curve through the one
point is not well defined or is in any way questionable, a full
moisture-density relationship shall be made for the soil. This is
done in order to correctly define the new curve and to verify the
applicability of the family of curves.
• New curves drawn through plotted single point determinations
shall not become a permanent part of the family of curves unless
verified with an entire single curve.
(from AASHTO T 272, Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content
Determination)
4. Describe the limitations of using the one-point determination with a single

reference
curve.
The moisture content must be within 80 to 100 percent of optimum moisture of
the reference curve. The one-point does must fall on or within ±2.0 lb/ft3 of
the reference curve at 80 to 100 percent optimum moisture.
(from AASHTO T 272, Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content
Determination)

Page 48
AASHTO T-85
AASHTO T-85: Specific Gravity and Absorption Of Coarse Aggregate FOP
Significance
Bulk specific gravity is a characteristic used for calculating the

volume occupied by the aggregate or various mixtures containing
aggregate, including Portland Cement Concrete, asphalt
mixtures, and other materials that are proportioned or analyzed
on an absolute volume basis. Specific gravity is the ratio of the
mass of a material to the mass of an equal volume of water.
Several categories of specific gravity are used relative to
aggregate.
Bulk specific gravity (oven dry), Gsb, is used for computations

when the aggregate is dry. Bulk specific gravity (saturated
surface dry or SSD), Gsb SSD, is used if the aggregate is wet.
Apparent specific gravity, Gsa, is based solely on the solid
material making up the constituent particles and does not T-85 Figure 1: Phase
include the pore space within the particles that is accessible to Diagram
water.
Absorption values are used to calculate the change in the mass of an aggregate due to water
absorbed in the pore spaces within the constituent particles, compared to the dry condition,
when it is deemed that the aggregate has been in contact with water long enough to satisfy
most of the absorption potential. The laboratory standard for absorption is that obtained
after submerging dry aggregate for between 15 to 19 hours in water. Aggregates mined from
below the water table may have a higher absorption, when used, if not allowed to dry.
Conversely, some aggregates, when used, may contain an amount of absorbed moisture less
than the 15-hour-soaked condition. For an aggregate that has been in contact with water and
that has free moisture on the particle surfaces, the percentage of free moisture can be
determined by deducting the absorption from the total moisture content.
The pores in lightweight aggregates may or may not become filled with water after immersion
for 15 hours. In fact, many such aggregates can remain immersed in water for several days
without satisfying most of the aggregates’ absorption potential. Therefore, this method is not
intended for use with lightweight aggregate.

Page 49
AASHTO T-85
Scope
This procedure covers the determination of specific gravity and absorption of coarse
aggregate in accordance with AASHTO T 85-22. Specific gravity may be expressed as bulk
specific gravity (Gsb), bulk specific gravity - saturated surface dry (Gsb SSD), or apparent
specific gravity (Gsa). Gsb and absorption are based on aggregate after soaking in water. This
procedure is not intended for use with lightweight aggregates.
T-85 Figure 2: Definitions and symbology of Specific Gravity Components
Terminology
Absorption – the increase in the mass of aggregate due to water being absorbed into the pores
of the material, but not including water adhering to the outside surface of the particles,
expressed as a percentage of the dry mass. The aggregate is considered “dry” when it has
been maintained at a temperature of 110 ±5°C (230 ±9°F) for sufficient time to remove all
uncombined water.
Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) – the condition of an aggregate particle when the permeable
voids are filled with water, but no water is present on exposed surfaces.
Specific Gravity – the ratio of the mass, in air, of a volume of a material to the mass of the
same volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature.
Apparent Specific Gravity (Gsa) – the ratio of the mass, in air, of a volume of the impermeable
portion of aggregate to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated
temperature.
Bulk Specific Gravity (Gsb ) – the ratio of the mass, in air, of a volume of aggregate (including
the permeable and impermeable voids in the particles, but not including the voids between
particles) to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature.

Page 50
AASHTO T-85
Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) (Gsb SSD) – the ratio of the mass, in air, of a volume of aggregate,
including the mass of water within the voids filled to the extent achieved by submerging in
water for 15 to 19 hours (but not including the voids between particles), to the mass of an
equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature.
Apparatus
• Balance or scale: with a capacity of 5 kg, sensitive

to 0.1 g, and meeting the requirements of AASHTO
M 231.
• Sample container: a wire basket of 3.35 mm (No. 6)

or smaller mesh, with a capacity of 4 to 7 L (1 to 2
gal) to contain aggregate with a nominal maximum
size of 37.5 mm (1 1/2 in.) or smaller; or a larger
basket for larger aggregates, or both. T-85 Figure 3: Sample
Container and Scale
• Water tank: watertight and large enough to
completely immerse aggregate and basket, equipped with an overflow valve to keep
water level constant.
• Suspension apparatus: wire used to suspend apparatus shall be of the smallest

practical diameter.
• Sieves: 4.75 mm (No. 4) or other sizes as needed, meeting the requirements of FOP for
AASHTO T 27/T 11.
• Large absorbent cloth
Sample Preparation
1. Obtain the sample in accordance with the FOP for AASHTO R 90 (see Note 1).
2. Mix the sample thoroughly and reduce to the approximate sample size required by
Table 1 in accordance with the FOP for AASHTO R 76.
3. Reject all material passing the appropriate sieve by dry sieving.
4. Thoroughly wash sample to remove dust or other coatings from the surface.
5. Dry the sample to constant mass according to the FOP for AASHTO T 255/T 265 at a
temperature of 110 ±5°C (230 ±9°F) and cool in air at room temperature for 1 to 3
hours.

Page 51
AASHTO T-85
Note 1: Where the absorption and specific gravity values are to be used in proportioning concrete
mixtures in which the aggregates will be in their naturally moist condition, the requirement for
initial drying to constant mass may be eliminated, and, if the surfaces of the particles in the
sample have been kept continuously wet until test, the 15-to-19-hour soaking may also be
eliminated.
6. Re-screen the sample over the appropriate sieve. Reject all material passing that
sieve.
7. The sample shall meet or exceed the minimum mass given in Table 1.
Note 2: If this procedure is used only to determine the Gsb of oversized material for the FOP for
AASHTO T 99 or T 180, the material can be rejected over the appropriate sieve. For T 99 / T 180
Methods A and B, use the 4.75 mm (No.4) sieve; for T 99 / T 180 Methods C and D, use the 19 mm
(3/4 in).
Nominal Maximum Minimum Mass of
Size* Sample
mm in g Lb
12.5 1/2 or less 2000 4.4
19.0 3/4 3000 6.6
25.0 1 4000 8.8
37.5 1 1/2 5000 11
50 2 8000 18
63 2 1/2 12,000 26
75 3 18,000 40
T-85 Table 1: Nominal Maximum Size (Per AASHTO) vs Min Sample Mass
*AASHTO Defines Nominal Maximum Size as one sieve larger than the first sieve to retain more than 10
percent of the material using an agency specified set of sieves based on cumulative percent
retained. Where large gaps in specification sieves exist, intermediate sieve(s) may be inserted to
determine nominal maximum size.
Procedure
1. Immerse the sample in water at room temperature for a period of 15 to 19 hours.
Note 3: When testing coarse aggregate of large nominal maximum size requiring large samples, it may
be more convenient to perform the test on two or more subsamples, and then combine values
obtained.
2. Place the empty basket into the water bath and attach to the balance. Inspect the
immersion tank to ensure the water level is at the overflow outlet height and
basket is fully submerged. Tare the balance with the empty basket attached in the
water bath.

Page 52
AASHTO T-85
3. Remove the sample from the water and roll it in a large absorbent cloth until all
visible films of water are removed. Wipe the larger particles individually. If the
sample dries past the SSD condition, immerse in water for 30 min, and then resume
the process of surface-drying.
Note 4: A moving stream of air may be used to assist in the drying operation but take care to avoid
evaporation of water from aggregate pores.
4. Determine the SSD mass of the sample, and record

this and all subsequent masses to the nearest 0.1 g
or 0.1 percent of the sample mass, whichever is
greater. Designate this mass as “B.”
5. Immediately place the SSD sample in the sample

container and weigh it in water maintained at 23.0
±1.7°C (73.4 ±3°F). Shake the container to release
entrapped air before recording the weight. Re- T-85 Figure 4: SSD Sample
inspect the immersion tank to ensure the water
level is at the overflow outlet height and basket is
fully submerged. Designate this submerged weight
as “C.”
Note 5: The container should be immersed to a depth sufficient to

cover both it and the sample during mass determination. The
wire suspending the container should be of the smallest
practical size to minimize any possible effects of a variable
immersed length. T-85 Figure 5: Submerged
Sample in Container
6. Remove the sample from the basket. Ensure that
all material has been removed and place in a container of known mass.
7. Dry the sample to constant mass according to the FOP for AASHTO T 255/T 265 at
110 ±5°C (230 ±9°F) and cool in air at room temperature for 1 to 3 hours.
8. Determine and record the dry mass. Designate this mass as “A.”

Page 53
AASHTO T-85
Calculations
Perform calculations and determine values using the appropriate formula below.
Bulk specific gravity (Gsb)
𝐴
𝐺𝑠𝑏 =
𝐵−𝐶
Bulk specific gravity, SSD (Gsb SSD)

𝐵
𝐺𝑠𝑏 𝑆𝑆𝐷 =
𝐵−𝐶
Apparent specific gravity (Gsa)

𝐴
𝐺𝑠𝑎 =
𝐴−𝐶
Absorption
𝐵−𝐴
Absorption = × 100
𝐴
Where:
A = oven dry mass, g

B = SSD mass, g
C= weight in water, g
Sample Calculations
Sample A B C B-C A-C B-A
1 2030.9 2044.9 1304.3 740.6 726.6 14.0
2 1820.0 1832.5 1168.1 664.4 651.9 12.5
3 2035.2 2049.4 1303.9 745.5 731.3 14.2
Sample Gsb Gsb SSD Gsa Absorption

1 2.742 2.761 2.795 0.7
2 2.739 2.758 2.792 0.7
3 2.730 2.749 2.783 0.7
These calculations demonstrate the relationship between Gsb, Gsb SSD, and Gsa. Gsb is always
lowest since the volume includes voids permeable to water. Gsb SSD is always intermediate.
Gsa is always highest since the volume does not include voids permeable to water. When
running this test, check to make sure the values calculated make sense in relation to one
another.

Page 54
AASHTO T-85
Report
• Sample ID
• Specific gravities to the nearest 0.001
• Absorption to the nearest 0.1 percent
Tips!
• Shake the container and sample when weighing in water to release entrapped air.
• Compare Gsb, Gsb SSD, and Gsa to see if they make sense.

Page 55
AASHTO T-85
1. What size sample is required for aggregate with a nominal maximum size of
25 mm (1 in.)?
2. When is soaking required? For how long must material be soaked?
3. When, in the process, are dry and SSD masses determined?

Page 56
AASHTO T-85
1. What size sample is required for aggregate with a nominal maximum size of
25 mm (1 in.)?
Sample size of 4000 grams (8.8 say, 9 pounds) is required.
(from AASHTO T 85, Sample Preparation, Step 7, Table 1, page 7-5)
2. When is soaking required? For how long must material be soaked?
Soaking for a period of 15 to 19 hours is required for this procedure after the
sample preparation is complete, once the aggregate sample has reached
constant mass and has been allowed to cool to room temperature.
(from AASHTO T 85, Procedure, Step 1, page 7-5)
3. When, in the process, are dry and SSD masses determined?
Three separate masses are needed in order to calculate the specific gravity of coarse
aggregate in the lab. SSD mass is determined first. The dry mass of the sample is
determined last. (The third mass needed is called the “in water” weight (or mass). It
is determined second of the three.)
(from AASHTO T 85, Procedure, Step 4 through 7, page 7-6)

Page 57
AASHTO T-85
AASHTO T 310: IN-PLACE DENSITY AND MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL AND

SOIL-AGGREGATE BY NUCLEAR METHODS (SHALLOW DEPTH) FOP
Significance
The final in-place density of backfill, roadway embankment, and

base is critical to the quality and longevity of a highway project.
Low-density material will lead to excessive deflection under load or
permanent deformation, or both.
Performance of this test method in trenches and near structures

requires a trench offset correction.
The nondestructive nature of the test allows repetitive T-310 Figure 1: Checking
measurements to be made at a single test location between roller Deflection
passes. The procedure is normally suitable from test depths of 50
mm (2 in.) to 300 mm (12 in.).
Scope
This procedure covers the determination of density, moisture content, and

relative compaction of soil, aggregate, and soil-aggregate mixes in
accordance with AASHTO T 310-22. This procedure provides a rapid,
nondestructive technique for determining the in-place wet density and
moisture content of soil, aggregate, and soil-aggregate mixes. This field
T-310 Figure 2:
operating procedure is derived from AASHTO T 310. The nuclear moisture- Caution!
density gauge is used in the direct transmission mode. Radioactive
Materials
Apparatus
• Nuclear density gauge with the factory matched standard reference block.
• Drive pin, guide / scraper plate, and hammer for testing in direct transmission
mode.
• Transport case for properly shipping and housing the
gauge and tools.
• Instruction manual for the specific make and model of
gauge.
• Radioactive materials information and calibration
packet containing:
o Daily Standard Count Log
o Factory and Laboratory Calibration Data Sheet T-310 Figure 3: Gauge,
o Leak Test Certificate Transport Case , and
o Shippers Declaration for Dangerous Goods Instruction Manual
AASHTO T-85
o Procedure Memo for Storing, Transporting and Handling Nuclear Testing

Equipment
o Other radioactive materials documentation as required by local regulatory
requirements
• Sealable containers and utensils for moisture content determinations.
Radiation Safety
This method does not purport to address all the safety problems associated with its use. The
gauge utilizes radioactive materials that may be hazardous to the health of the user unless
proper precautions are taken. Users of this gauge must become familiar with the applicable
safety procedures and governmental regulations. All operators will be trained in radiation
safety prior to operating nuclear density gauges. Some agencies require the use of personal
monitoring devices such as a thermoluminescent dosimeter or film badge. Effective
instructions together with routine safety procedures such as source leak tests, recording and
evaluation of personal monitoring device data, etc., are a recommended part of the
operation and storage of this gauge
Calibration
Calibrate the nuclear gauge as required by the agency. This calibration may be performed by
the agency using manufacturer’s recommended procedures or by other facilities approved by
the agency. Verify or re-establish calibration curves, tables, or equivalent coefficients every
12 months.
Standardization
1. Turn the gauge on and allow it to stabilize
(approximately 10 to 20 minutes) prior to
standardization. Leave the power on during the day’s
testing.
2. Standardize the nuclear gauge at the construction site
at the start of each day’s work and as often as deemed
necessary by the operator or agency. Daily variations in
standard count shall not exceed the daily variations
established by the manufacturer of the gauge. If the
daily variations are exceeded after repeating the
standardization procedure, the gauge should be
repaired and/or recalibrated. T-310 Figure 4:
3. Record the standard count for both density and Standardizing the Nuclear
moisture in the Daily Standard Count Log. The exact Density Gage
procedure for standard count is listed in the
manufacturer’s Operator’s Manual.
Note 1: New standard counts may be necessary more than once a day. See agency requirements.
AASHTO T-85
Overview
There are two methods for determining in-place density of soil / soil aggregate:
• Method A: Single Direction
• Method B: Two Directions
Procedure
1. Select a test location(s) randomly and in accordance with
agency requirements. Test sites should be relatively smooth and
flat and meet the following conditions:
a. At least 10 m (30 ft.) away from other sources of
radioactivity
b. At least 3 m (10 ft.) away from large objects
T-310 Figure 5: Prepared
c. The test site should be at least 150 mm (6 in.) away Area
from any vertical projection.
d. Correct for trench wall effect according to
manufacturer’s correction procedures if the test site is
closer than 600 mm (24 in.) to vertical projection. See
Note 2.
Note 2: To perform moisture and density tests in a trench or against a large
solid object, it is necessary to perform a trench moisture correction to
adjust the gauge or it may read a falsely high moisture content.
Moisture present in the walls can thermalize neutrons which return to T-310 Figure 6: Filling
the gauge and are read as moisture by the detector in the gauge. Surface Voids
2. Remove all loose and disturbed material and remove additional
material as necessary to expose the top of the material to
be tested.
3. Prepare a flat area sufficient in size to accommodate the
gauge. Plane the area to a smooth condition to obtain
maximum contact between gauge and the material being
tested. For Method B, the flat area must be sufficient to
permit rotating the gauge 90 or 180 degrees about the source
rod.
4. Fill in surface voids beneath the gauge with fines of the
T-310 Figure 7: Guide
Plate and Drive Pin
material being tested passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve or
finer. Smooth the surface with the guide plate or other
suitable tool. The depth of the filler should not exceed approximately 3 mm (1/8 in.).
5. Make a hole perpendicular to the prepared surface using the guide plate and drive pin. The
hole shall be at least 50 mm (2 in.) deeper than the desired source rod depth and shall be
aligned so that insertion of the source rod will not cause the gauge to tilt from the plane of
the prepared area. Remove the drive pin by pulling straight up and twisting the extraction
tool.
AASHTO T-85
6. Place the gauge on the prepared surface so the source rod

can enter the hole without disturbing loose material.
7. Lower the source rod into the hole to the desired test depth
using the handle and trigger mechanism.
8. Seat the gauge firmly by partially rotating it back and forth
about the source rod. Ensure the gauge is seated flush
against the surface by pressing down on the gauge corners
and making sure that the gauge does not rock.
T-310 Figure 8: Taking a
9. Pull gently on the gauge to bring the side of the source rod Reading
nearest to the scaler / detector firmly against the side of the
hole.
10. Perform one of the following as required by agency:
a. Method A Single Direction: Take a test consisting of the average of two one-
minute readings, and record both density and moisture data. The two wet density
readings should be within 32 kg/m3 (2.0 lb/ft3) of each other. The average of the
two wet densities and moisture contents will be used to compute dry density.
b. Method B Two Direction: Take a one-minute reading and record both density and
moisture data. Rotate the gauge 90 or 180 degrees, pivoting it around the source
rod. Reseat the gauge by pulling gently on the gauge to bring the side of the source
rod nearest to the scaler / detector firmly against the side of the hole and take a
one-minute reading. (In trench locations, rotate the gauge 180 degrees for the
second test.) Some agencies require multiple one-minute readings in both
directions. Analyze the density and moisture data. A valid test consists of wet
density readings in both gauge positions that are within 50 kg/m3 (3.0 lb/ft3). If
the tests do not agree within this limit, move to a new location. The average of the
wet density and moisture contents will be used to compute dry density.
11. If required by the agency, obtain a representative sample of
the material, 4 kg (9 lb) minimum, from directly beneath
the gauge full depth of material tested. This sample will be
used to verify moisture content and / or identify the correct
density standard. Immediately seal the material to prevent
loss of moisture.
The material tested by direct transmission can be
approximated by a cylinder of soil approximately 300 mm
(12 in.) in diameter directly beneath the centerline of the T-310 Figure 9:
radioactive source and detector. The height of the cylinder Representative Sample Site
will be approximately the depth of the measurement. When
organic material or large aggregate is removed during this operation, disregard the test
information, and move to a new test site.
12. To verify the moisture content from the nuclear gauge, determine the moisture content
with a representative portion of the material using the FOP for AASHTO T 255/ T 265 or
other agency approved methods. If the moisture content from the nuclear gauge is within 
1 percent, the nuclear gauge readings can be accepted. Moisture content verification is
gauge and material specific. Retain the remainder of the sample at its original moisture
AASHTO T-85
content for a one-point compaction test under the FOP for AASHTO T 272, or for gradation,
if required.
Note 2: Example: A gauge reading of 16.8 percent moisture and oven dry, or 17.7 percent are within
the ±1 percent requirement. Moisture correlation curves will be developed according to agency
guidelines. These curves should be reviewed and possibly redeveloped every 90 days because of
moisture source decay.
13. Determine the dry density by one of the following methods:
a. From nuclear gauge readings, compute by subtracting the mass (weight) of the
water (kg/m3 or lb/ft3) from the wet density (kg/m3 or lb/ft3); or compute using
the percent moisture by dividing wet density from the nuclear gauge by 1 plus the
moisture content expressed as a decimal.
b. When verification is required and the nuclear gauge readings cannot be accepted,
the moisture content is determined by the FOP for AASHTO T 255/T 265, or other
agency approved methods. Compute dry density by dividing wet density from the
nuclear gauge by 1 plus the moisture content expressed as a decimal.
Percent Compaction
Percent compaction is determined by comparing the in-place dry density as determined by

this procedure to the appropriate agency density standard. For soil or soil-aggregate mixes,
these are moisture-density curves developed using the FOP for AASHTO T 99 / T 180. When
using maximum dry densities developed by the FOP for AASHTO T 99 / T 180 or FOP for
AASHTO T 272, it may be necessary to use the Annex in the FOP for AASHTO T 99/T 180 to
determine corrected maximum dry density and optimum moisture content.
For coarse granular materials, the density standard may be density-gradation curves
developed using a vibratory method such as AKDOT&PF’s ATM 212, ITD’s T 74, WAQTC TM 15,
or WFLHD’s Humphres.
See appropriate agency policies for use of density standards
Calculation
Calculate the dry density as follows:
𝜌𝑤 𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑑 = ( ) × 100 𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑑 = 𝑤
𝑤 + 100
100 + 1
Where:
w = Wet density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)
w = Moisture content from the FOP’s for AASHTO T 255 / T 265, as a percentage
AASHTO T-85
Calculate percent compaction as follows:
𝜌𝑑
% 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝐴𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑
where:
Agency density standard = Corrected maximum dry density
from the FOP from T 99/T 180 Annex
Example:
Wet Density readings from gauge:

1948 kg/m3 (121.6 lb/ft3)
1977 kg/m3 (123.4 lb/ft3)
Avg.: 1963 kg/m3 (122.5 lb/ft3)
Moisture readings from gauge: 14.2% and 15.4% = Avg. 14.8%
Moisture content from the FOP’s for AASHTO T 255 / T 265: 15.9%
Moisture content is greater than 1 percent different so the gauge moisture cannot be
used.
Calculate the dry density as follows:
1963 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝑜𝑟 122.5 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3 1963 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝑜𝑟 122.5 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3

𝜌𝑑 = ( ) × 100 𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑑 =
15.9 + 100 15.9
100 + 1
= 1694 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝑜𝑟 105.7 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
Given:
w = 1963 kg/m3 or 122.5 lb/ft3
w = 15.9%
AASHTO T-85
Calculate percent compaction as follows:
105.7 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
% 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100 = 95%
111.3 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
Given:
Agency density standard = 111.3 lb/ft3
Report
• Sample ID
• Location of test, elevation of surface, and thickness of layer tested
• Visual description of material tested
• Make, model and serial number of the nuclear moisture-density gauge
• Wet density to the nearest 0.1 lb/ft3
• Moisture content as a percent, by mass, of dry soil mass to the nearest 0.1 percent
• Dry density to the nearest 0.1 lb/ft3
• Density standard to the nearest 0.1 lb/ft3
• Percent compaction to the nearest 1 percent
• Name and signature of operator
Tips!
• Check to make sure that:
o base of gauge is clean prior to testing.
o shutter block and assembly are free of debris and operating correctly.
o source rod tip does not have a buildup of material on end.
o gauge is reading the proper position of the source rod when it is indexed, and
that it has been seated correctly.
o the hole into which the source is lowered is at least 50 mm (2 in.) deeper than
the indexed position of the source rod.
o surface is flat and the gauge does not rock.
o surface has been properly prepared using filler material.
• Make sure battery is charged before starting work
AASHTO T-85

1. Describe the calibration and standardization process.
2. What precautions must be taken in selecting a test location?
3. Describe the procedure leading up to the taking of test measurements.
4. What is the difference between Method A and Method B?
5. What is the purpose of determining moisture content by other means than the nuclear
gauge?
AASHTO T-85
1. Describe the calibration and standardization process.
Annual calibration on the nuclear gauge is done every 12 months, or as required by

the agency.
Standardize the nuclear gauge at the start of each day or when weather conditions
change drastically. Warm the gauge up for 10 to 20 minutes and then take standard
counts as per the recommendations of the manufacturer. Record both the moisture
and density counts in the Daily Standard Count Log Book.
(from AASHTO T 310, Calibration & Standardization)
2. What precautions must be taken in selecting a test location?
The test location shall be at least 30 feet away from any other radioactive source
(like another gauge), at least 10 feet away from any large object (like a pickup truck
or a piece of heavy equipment), and at least 6 inches away from any vertical
projection (like a sewer trench wall or raised manhole prior to paving in the middle
of a road / street grade).
(from AASHTO T 310, Procedure, Step 1 (a, b & c)
3. Describe the procedure leading up to the taking of test measurements.
Remove all loose material from the test site. Prepare a flat area large enough to
accommodate the test procedure to be used. Fill the surface voids up to 1/8 inch in
depth. Using the guide plate, drive the pin into the surface at least 2 inches deeper
than the test to be taken. Remove the pin without damaging the hole. Place the gauge
over the hole and lower the pin to the desired test depth without deforming the sides
of the hole. Pull the gauge back until it is seated against the back side of the hole.
Check the gauge for being level by placing hands on opposite corners of the gauge to
see if it rocks or moves. The nuclear gauge is now ready to begin collecting test data.
(from AASHTO T 310, Procedure, Steps 2 through 9)

AASHTO T-85
4. What is the difference between Method A and Method B?
Method A is known as the single direction method. Take two readings in the same
direction. Each test lasts for one minute. The allowable tolerance between the two
wet density readings from the gauge should be within 2 pound per cubic foot (pcf).
Method B is known as the two-direction method. Take the second reading either 90o
or 180o from the original reading location. An example of a 180o pivot would be in a
trench (sewer project, etc.). Each test lasts for one minute. The allowable tolerance
between the two wet density readings from the gauge should be within 3 pcf.
(from AASHTO T 310, Procedure, Step 10 (a & b)
5. What is the purpose of determining moisture content by other means than the nuclear
gauge?
Moisture content is determined via the field operating procedure (FOP) for AASHTO
T 255 / T 265 in order to verify the moisture as read from the nuclear gauge. If the
two moistures are within plus or minus one percent of each other, the nuke gauge
moisture content may be used.
(from AASHTO T 310, Procedure, Step 12)

Soils, Excavation, & Embankment Inspection
Manual
July, 2024
Colorado Department of Transportation: Soils, Excavation, and Embankment Inspection Manual – July 2024
Table of Contents
List of Acronyms & Abbreviations ........................................................................iii
Introduction ................................................................................................. 1
1 Road Construction Basics ............................................................................ 2
2 Preliminary Investigations ........................................................................... 4

2.1 Geotechnical Explorations ............................................................. 4
2.2 Borrow Sources .......................................................................... 6
3 Basic Soil Mechanics .................................................................................. 6

3.1 Gradation Analyses ...................................................................... 6
3.2 Atterberg Limits ........................................................................ 10
3.3 AASHTO Soil Classification ............................................................ 11
3.4 Soil Compaction......................................................................... 13
3.4.1 Zero Air Voids Density ......................................................................................................... 14
3.5 Generalized Soil Properties ........................................................... 15
4 CDOT’s Roadway and Embankment Construction Methods ..................................... 16

4.1 Foundation Preparation and Excavation ............................................ 16
4.2 Embankment Fill ........................................................................ 18
4.3 Placement and Lift Thickness Requirements ....................................... 19
4.4 Moisture Conditioning and Compaction Requirements ............................ 21
4.4.1 Soil Embankment with less than or equal to 30 percent retained on the ¾-inch sieve: .... 22
4.4.2 Soil Embankment with greater than 30 percent retained on the ¾-inch sieve: ................. 22
4.4.3 Non-durable bedrock within soil embankment: ................................................................. 23
4.4.4 Rock Embankment and Rock Fill: ........................................................................................ 23
4.4.5 Compaction Equipment: ..................................................................................................... 24
4.5 Grade Control and Proof Rolling...................................................... 26
5 Common Soil Problems in Colorado That Can Affect Construction ........................... 27

5.1 Soft Clay Deposits – Consolidation and Stability ................................... 27
5.2 Swelling Soil and Heaving Bedrock ................................................... 30
5.3 Collapsible Soils ......................................................................... 32
www.codot.gov/programs/WAQTC Soil Inspector Manual

Page i
5.4 Unsuitable Materials ................................................................... 33

5.5 Geosynthetics for Problem Soil Treatment ......................................... 35
Appendix 1: Determining the Liquid Limit of Soils – FOP for AASHTO T89 Determining the
Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of Soils – FOP for AASHTO T90................................... 38
Appendix 2: AASHTO M-145 Soil Classification and Partial Group Index Determination ........ 57
Appendix 3: Determination of Zero Air Voids Density of Soils with Varying Moisture Content
and Specific Gravity....................................................................................... 65

Page ii
List of Acronyms & Abbreviations
American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials AASHTO
Colorado Department of Transportation CDOT
Colorado Procedure CP
Expanded Polystyrene Geofoam EPS Foam
Field Operating Procedure FOP
Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design M-E Pavement Design
Liquid Limit LL
Non-Plastic NP
No Value NV
Operational Assurance OA
Optimum Moisture Content OMC
Plasticity Index: PI
Plastic Limit: PL
Process Control PC
Western Alliance for Quality Transportation Construction: WAQTC

Page iii
Introduction
Inspection and testing during embankment and roadway construction is one method that is
used to improve the quality and performance of our highways. This process provides
documentation that materials and construction procedures conform to project plans and
specifications. The Colorado Department of Transportation (CDOT) qualifies soils and
embankment inspectors through the Western Alliance for Quality Transportation Construction
(WAQTC) through their Embankment and Base and In-Place Density module. In addition to the
WAQTC qualification materials, CDOT desires to have our inspectors familiar with construction
practices, geological conditions, testing procedures, and construction specifications that are
unique for Colorado.
The goal of this manual is to help familiarize our inspectors with the equipment, testing, and
construction practices utilized by CDOT for road and embankment construction. This manual
provides background knowledge to help prepare our inspectors to perform their
responsibilities during construction. The second portion of CDOT’s soils and embankment
qualification process includes demonstrating a familiarity of the materials contained in this
manual by passing a written exam with questions related to its content. Additional
performance exams are also required to demonstrate ability and knowledge to complete
other soil tests beyond that which are required to qualify for WAQTC Embankment and Base
and In-Place Density certification.

Page 1
1 Road Construction Basics
Constructing a roadway through a corridor typically requires alternating cut and fill sections
to bring the roadway to the specified alignment and grade (Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2).
Roadway designers make an attempt to balance cut and fill sections to avoid the need for
importing embankment fill materials and to avoid disposal of excess material derived from
cuts after construction is completed.
Figure 1.1: Generalized embankment cross section.
Figure 1.2: Generalized roadway cut cross-section.

Page 2
Roadway/Embankment Foundation – The native materials onto which a road or embankment

is constructed. These materials need to be adequately prepared to provide a stable
foundation for the roadway and/or embankment. Preparation at a minimum requires clearing
and grubbing, followed by moisture conditioning and compaction. Preparation may also
involve in-situ stabilization or even over-excavation and replacement if the materials consist
of weak or poor-quality soils.
Embankment Fill – The materials used to raise grade to build the roadway up to a specified
elevation and to provide support for the roadway and pavement section. Embankment fill
material will vary from project to project based on geological conditions (i.e. the material
that is locally available), project requirements, specifications, and cost.
Subgrade – The boundary between the top of the embankment fill (in fill sections) or the
foundation materials (in cut sections) and the base of the pavement section.
Sub-Base – A layer of aggregate material placed on the subgrade (or completed

embankment), onto which the base course layer is placed.
Base Course – A layer of clean sand and gravel that is designed as part of the pavement
section to provide strength and increase the life span of the pavement. This layer also
provides drainage and separation between the pavement and the underlying fill materials.
Side Slope – The slope formed between the edges of the roadway shoulder and the toe of the
embankment. The angle permitted for construction will vary depending on the materials used
in the embankment, the quality of the foundation soils, quantity of fill materials available,
and the height of the embankments on the project.
Cut Slope – A designed slope that results from removing a high section of topography to
accommodate the roadway alignment. The angle permitted for construction will vary
depending on materials present within the cut section (i.e. stability), and the need to balance
cut and fill quantities (cut slope angles may be increased/decreased to provide the required
amount of fill materials for a project).
It is important for the inspector to become familiar with the structure of the roadway, the
different soil types that are expected to be encountered in cut slopes and the foundations,
and the types of soils that are specified for constructing the embankment and pavement
section. Changed conditions or a change in expected materials may require modification of
the construction requirements to improve the quality of the finished roadway.

Page 3
2 Preliminary Investigations
Before roadway or embankment construction even begins, designers and engineers need to
become familiar with the types of soils and bedrock that will be encountered on a project. An
understanding of groundwater conditions is also necessary. It is necessary to understand
foundation conditions for the roadway and embankments, to characterize the materials in cut
sections, and to characterize materials in potential borrow source areas. A subsurface
investigation is conducted prior to design of any road construction project to gain an
understanding of the geological conditions present, and to identify the materials available for
construction. These investigations assist engineers in designing embankments and roadways to
perform adequately with the materials available and the ground conditions present.
2.1 Geotechnical Explorations

General guidelines for geotechnical explorations are presented in Chapter 4 of the Colorado
Mechanistic-Empirical (M-E) Pavement Design Manual and Chapter 200 of the CDOT Field
Materials Manual: Soil Survey/Preliminary Soil Profile. These manuals provide information on
several methods used to characterize the subsurface conditions within a project site or
alignment and provide guidelines for the collection of soil and bedrock samples for testing
and classification. Geotechnical explorations can include drilling soil borings into the
subsurface, excavating test pits, and/or the use of geophysical methods to characterize the
subsurface conditions. The primary purpose of conducting geotechnical explorations is to
identify, delineate, and classify various geological units and soil types through a corridor, and
to collect soil samples for laboratory testing.
Photograph 2.1: Subsurface explorations and soil sampling being conducted with a drill rig.

Page 4
With this information designers can determine which materials are/are not suitable for use as
construction materials, what areas are suitable to build roadways and embankments on, and
what areas will require special treatment and stabilization during construction. This
information is then conveyed to contractors through the Plans and Specifications that are
developed for a project. CDOT soil inspectors need to become familiar with the unique
earthwork requirements specified for their given projects.
Chapter 4 of the Colorado M-E Pavement Design Manual and Chapter 200 of the CDOT Field
Materials Manual also provide general guidelines for the minimum recommended spacing and
depth of geotechnical explorations. For new roadway and embankment construction projects,
the following recommendations are given:
• Test holes should not be spaced more than 1,000 feet apart along a corridor alignment
through at-grade or fill sections. In continuous cut sections, test holes should not be
spaced more than 500 feet apart (Figure 2.1).
• Subsurface characterization of the upper 10 feet of the subgrade is required for the M-
E Pavement Design Methodology (cuts and at-grade sections). Therefore, it is
recommended that borings extend a minimum of 10 feet below the final proposed
grade (Figure 2.1).
• For embankments higher than 5 feet, test holes should extend to a minimum depth
equal to 2 times the embankment height or into bedrock or similar hard stratum
(Figure 2.1).
• Test holes should extend through the highest portion of a cut section and extend to a
minimum depth of 10 feet below the proposed finished grade (Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1 Generalized roadway profile illustrating minimum required geotechnical test hole
spacing and depth requirements.

Page 5
In addition to these requirements, it is recommended that additional explorations be

conducted to capture known changes in geological conditions within a corridor. Some projects
may require more extensive investigations, in particular high-speed multi-lane facilities in
rough terrain or through areas with complex geological conditions.
2.2 Borrow Sources

Another purpose of conducting preliminary geotechnical explorations is to identify potential
borrow sources for materials that can be used for new highway construction. Borrow pits are
permitted areas where approved material is excavated or acquired from stockpiles. If CDOT
has the permits to a borrow pit and offers the pit to a contractor, it is designated an
available source. Any borrow sources other than an available source is considered a
contractor source, and it is the contractor’s responsibility to obtain any necessary permits
and certify that no hazardous materials exist in the source.
Geotechnical explorations are required to identify, sample, and classify potential borrow
source areas. Representative soil samples must be submitted to a Region/Central lab for
classification and testing before being approved for use in embankment construction. A pit
sketch and sampling request must be submitted to the Region Materials Engineer for approval.
3 Basic Soil Mechanics
Soil and embankment inspectors need to understand basic information about soils, testing
procedures to classify soils, and how different soil types behave when they are used as an
engineered material (i.e. compaction, drainage, stability, etc.). This chapter provides a
summary of basic soil mechanics and laboratory testing procedures used to determine soil
index and engineering properties.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) has
developed a system for classifying soils into groups based on their different index properties.
This classification system is referred to as AASHTO M-145 and is described below. The
classification system is based on a soil’s grain size distribution and Atterberg limits. These
index properties, the tests used to determine them, and a summary of the classification
system are also described below.
3.1 Gradation Analyses

A gradation analysis is a method used to quantitatively determine the distribution of particle
sizes in soils, aggregate, or soil-aggregate mixtures. Colorado Procedure (CP) 21, Mechanical
Analysis of Soils, describes the procedure to run this test. An oven-dried soil sample that
consists of a variety of particle sizes is passed through a series of sieves with different-sized
openings. The material that is collected or retained on each sieve is then weighed, and the
percent mass of each particle size for the soil sample is calculated, then plotted on a grain
size curve. The various sieve sizes that are used to classify the grain size distribution of a soil

Page 6
are included in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 below. This test is also referred to as a grain size
analysis, particle size analysis, or sieve analysis. An example grain size curve is provided in
Figure 3.1.
Table 3.1: Standard Sieve Sizes Used for Gradation Analyses (ASTM Classification)
Sieve Size/Number Number of Openings per Soil Type

Linear Inch
3-inch --
1-½ -inch --
¾-inch -- Gravel
⅜-inch --
#4 4
# 10 10
# 20 20 Coarse Sand
# 40 40
# 50 50
# 100 100 Fine Sand
# 200 200
Fines
< # 200 --
(Silt and Clay)
Notes: Cobbles are defined as particle sizes between 3 inches and 12 inches in
diameter. Boulders are defined as particle sizes larger than 12 inches in
diameter.

Page 7
Table 3.2: Standard Sieve Sizes Used for Gradation Analyses (AASHTO Classification)
Sieve Size/Number Number of Openings per Soil Type

Linear Inch
3-inch --
1-inch --
¾-inch --
Gravel
⅜-inch --
#4 4
# 10 10
# 40 40 Coarse Sand
# 200 200 Fine Sand
< # 200 -- Fines

(Silt and Clay)

Page 8
Figure 3.1: Example grain size curve (AASHTO Classification).
A sufficient amount of soil needs to be sampled to run a representative gradation test. The
minimum mass of material required is dependent on the Nominal Maximum Size of aggregate
or particle in the sample. CDOT defines the Nominal Maximum Size as the smallest sieve
opening through which the entire amount of specimen passes. For example, if 100 percent of
a specimen passes the 1-½ -inch sieve, and material begins to collect on the next smallest
sieve, the nominal maximum size of the sample is 1-½ -inch. Table 3.3 below summarizes the
minimum test sample masses that are required for a gradation test given various nominal
maximum particle sizes.

Page 9
Table 3.3: Required Test Sample Masses for Gradation Analyses of Aggregate Given Various
Nominal Maximum Particle Sizes
Nominal Maximum CDOT Required Minimum Test Sample Masses

Size of Aggregate
Pounds Grams
3-½ -inch 33.0 15,000
3 -inch 27.5 12,500
2-½ -inch 22.0 10,000
2 -inch 16.5 7,500
1-½ -inch 11.0 5,000
1 -inch 5.5 2,500
¾ -inch 4.4 2,000
½ -inch 3.3 1,500
⅜ -inch 2.2 1,000
< ⅜ -inch 0.66 300
Notes: All test sample masses are dry masses.

For gradation analyses of soil, CP-20 requires a minimum of 500 grams (1.1 pound) of
material passing the No. 4 sieve for a gradation analysis.
3.2 Atterberg Limits

The Atterberg limits define the range of moisture contents in which a soil behaves as a
plastic. As the moisture content of a clayey soil increases, the material behavior will change
from a dry solid, to plastic, and eventually to a liquid (Figure 3.2). The specific moisture
contents that need to be determined for AASHTO M-145 soil classification are the plastic limit
(PL) and the liquid limit (LL). The plastic limit of a soil is the lowest water content at which
the soil remains plastic. The liquid limit is the moisture content at which the soil behavior
changes from a plastic to a liquid state. The range of moisture contents that a soil behaves as
a plastic is referred to as the plasticity index (PI) and is taken as the difference between the
liquid limit and the plastic limit moisture content:
(PI = LL – PL).

Page 10
Figure 3.2: Graphical representation of soil behavior with increased moisture content.
Soils that do not exhibit plastic behavior (clean granular soils) will have a value of zero for
the PI and are referred to as Non-Plastic (NP). These soils will have No Value (NV) prescribed
for their liquid limit and plastic limit. Soils with higher clay content are characterized by
higher liquid limits and higher plasticity indices. If a soil can be rolled into threads after
moisture is added, or after the sample is partially dried if it is initially too wet to roll, then
the material is considered plastic. If the material cannot be easily rolled, it is likely non-
plastic.
The two test procedures used to define the Atterberg limits of a soil are AASHTO T 89,
Determining the Liquid Limit of Soils, and AASHTO T 90, Determining the Plastic Limit and
Plasticity Index of Soils. These test procedures and the calculations used to determine the
liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index are provided in Appendix 1.
3.3 AASHTO Soil Classification

The AASHTO Soil Classification system classifies soils into eight major groups based on their
grain size distribution and Atterberg limits. These groups are designated A-1 through A-8
(Table 4). Soils that fall within the lower numbered groups are granular (sands and gravels),
contain less than 35 percent fines, and tend to be either non-plastic or low plasticity (A-1, A-
2, and A-3 soils). Soils that classify within the higher numbered groups have a higher fines
content (silt and clay sized particles) and are generally characterized by higher plasticity (A-
4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 soils). Peat classifies as an A-8 soil, and this material is characterized by
an organic content of 15 percent or more.

Page 11
Table 3.4: AASHTO M-145 Soil Classification System Based on Grain Size Analyses and
Atterberg Limit Values
Silt and Clay Materials

General Granular Materials
(More than 35%
Classification (35% or less passing No. 200 Sieve)
passing No. 200 Sieve)
A-1 A-2 A-7

Group
A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6
Classification A-7-5
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-6
Sieve Analysis
Percent Passing:
No. 10 50 max -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
No. 40 30 max 50 max 51 min -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
No. 200 15 max 25 max 10 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min
Characteristics
of fraction
passing No. 40
sieve
LL
-- -- 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min
(Liquid Limit)
PI
6 max NP 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min
(Plasticity Index)
Usual types of
Stone fragments, Fine
significant Silty or clayey gravel and sand Silty soils Clayey soils
gravel, and sand sand
constituents
General
Excellent to good Fair to poor
subgrade rating
Notes: A-8 soils are not included on Table 3.4, but classify as peat or highly organic
soils, and are not suitable for use within embankment foundations or
embankment fill.
Plasticity index of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than LL minus 30.
Plasticity index of A-7-6 subgroup is greater than LL minus 30.

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To classify a soil using AASHTO M-145, gradation information and the Atterberg limits of a soil
must be determined. The sieves used for this classification system are the No. 10, the No. 40,
and the No. 200 sieves. To use this classification system, an individual can determine the
correct soil classification by process of elimination. An example showing how to classify soils
using the AASHTO M-145 system is provided in Appendix 2.
In addition to the major groups and subgroups listed above, additional classification using the
liquid limit, plasticity index, and percent fines can be conducted to determine a soils partial
group index. The partial group index is a number placed in parentheses after an AASHTO
group number: e.g. A-6(5) indicates an A-6 group soil with a partial group index of 5. This
number provides an indication of the percent fines a soil contains, the degree of plasticity of
the fines, and gives an indication of the quality of the soil as a subgrade material. Higher
partial group indices indicate poorer quality soils (i.e. an A-6 with a partial group index of 30
is a poorer quality soil than an A-6 with a partial group index of 5). The procedure to
determine the partial group index of a soil is also covered in Appendix 2.
It is important for the inspector to familiarize themselves with this soil classification system.
Project specifications will often require specific soil types be used for various types of backfill
(i.e. retaining wall backfill, embankment fill, pipe bedding etc.). For example, many projects
will require that “Select Material” be used in the upper 2 feet of an embankment prior to
placing aggregate base course or pavement. The following AASHTO soil groups qualify as
“Select Material”: A-1, A-2-4, and A-3.
3.4 Soil Compaction

The foundation soils and the materials used to construct embankments must be properly
compacted during construction to improve stability, increase the strength of the soils, reduce
the likelihood of post-construction settlement, and increase the long-term performance of
the roadway. To determine the degree of compaction of an engineered fill, a soil’s optimum
moisture content and maximum dry density are used as a reference or benchmark. The
following discussion is included to help the inspector understand this concept.
Any soil sample, native or engineered, is composed of solid particles (gravel, sand, silt,
and/or clay) and void space/pore space. If the soil is completely dry (zero percent moisture)
then the void spaces are filled with air. If a soil is completely saturated, then the void spaces
are 100 percent filled with water. Compaction is by definition, the densification of a soil by
removal of air/void space through mechanical energy. To adequately compact any soil with
conventional construction equipment, water must be added to the soil to increase the degree
of compaction that can be achieved. Water acts as a softening agent and allows soil particles
to slip over one another and move into a denser configuration.
As water is added to a completely dry soil, the degree of compaction that can be achieved
increases. In other words, the density of the soil that can be achieved increases.

Page 13
However, if too much water is added the soil, then begins to behave as a liquid. The soil will
simply pump or deform with compactive effort, and an increase to densification can no longer
be achieved. The moisture content at which the maximum density of a soil can be attained is
referred to as the optimum moisture content. When a soil is compacted at its optimum
moisture content, it can be compacted to its maximum dry density.
The test procedures that are used to determine a soil’s maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content are the Standard and Modified Proctor tests. These tests are described in
AASHTO T99 and T180, respectively: Moisture-Density Relations of Soils. A fundamental
knowledge of these test procedures and interpretation of the data is already required for
WAQTC certification; therefore, the test procedures and data interpretation will not be
repeated in this manual.
3.4.1 Zero Air Voids Density

Zero Air Voids Density represents the dry density that would be obtained at various moisture
contents if the soil could be compacted to eliminate all air voids present, i.e., when all voids
between soil particles are filled with moisture. It is not possible to achieve this level of
compaction with conventional construction equipment. At a given moisture content and
specific gravity of the soil particles, the zero air voids density represents the maximum
density that can be obtained for a given soil. Appendix 3 provides Table A-1 i summarizing
zero air void densities of soils with varying moisture content and specific gravities. Equations
to calculate the zero air void densities of soils is also provided in Appendix 3. The maximum
dry density of a soil cannot exceed the zero-air void or 100% saturation curve for a given soil
(Figure 3.3)
Figure 3.3: Example zero air voids curve with relation to Standard and Modified Proctor
curves shown for a soil.

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If the results of a density test fall above the zero air voids line for a soil; then a new proctor
curve needs to be developed for the material tested. Similarly, if the results of a density test
indicate the percent compaction is greater than 5 percent above the maximum dry density for
that soil, then the soil’s proctor curve should be verified.
3.5 Generalized Soil Properties

There are three divisions of particle sizes that are determined from a gradation analysis:
gravel, sand (course and fine), and fines (silt and clay). Sand and gravel are granular soils that
are non-cohesive with particles that are visible to the naked eye. Soils composed primarily of
sand and gravel have high strength, a high porosity (i.e. good drainage), and are not prone to
long-term post-construction settlement. These soils are also easier to work with to gain
adequate compaction during construction. Soils composed primarily of sand; however, are
highly erodible.
Natural deposits of granular soils are described based on their in-situ density using the
following terms: very loose, loose, medium dense, dense, and very dense. The denser the soil
deposit, the higher the strength. This information is collected with field tests during a
subsurface investigation program.
Silt and clay are classified as “fines”, or particles that pass the No. 200 sieve for a gradation
analysis. These particles are not distinguishable by the naked eye. Silt is the courser portion
of the fines content (particle sizes varying from 0.002 mm to 0.075 mm). Soils composed
primarily of silt are non-cohesive and are characterized by low plasticity. Soils composed
primarily of silt are also highly erodible, and the same density terms used to describe sand
also apply to silty soils.
Clay is cohesive and can have a high variability in plasticity, depending on the mineralogy of
the clay particles present. Clay represents particles smaller than 0.002 mm, or 2 microns
(m) in a soil sample. The terms that are used to describe clayey soils refer to their
“consistency” or “cohesiveness”: very soft, soft, medium stiff, stiff, very stiff, and hard. The
cohesion of a clay soil is an indication of its strength, and softer clay soils are characterized
by a lower cohesion or lower strength. This information is also collected with field tests
during a subsurface investigation program.
Both silt and clay soils are characterized by low permeability (i.e. water does not flow
through these soils quickly and they do not drain well). They have lower strength than sand
and gravel, and they can be prone to long-term post-construction settlement. These soils are
more difficult to work with during construction to achieve adequate compaction. Because of
their low permeability, it is more difficult to moisture condition these soils uniformly to
achieve near-optimum moisture conditions for adequate compaction. The presence of fines
within sandy or gravelly soils results in a decrease in strength, a decrease in permeability,
and an increase in the likelihood of post-construction settlement.

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4 CDOT’s Roadway and Embankment Construction Methods
4.1 Foundation Preparation and Excavation

The first stage of foundation preparation for embankment and roadway construction is
clearing and grubbing. Clearing and grubbing operations involve the removal of trees, shrubs,
sod, and other deleterious materials from the construction area. Specifically, clearing refers
to the removal of trees, brush, and boulders; and grubbing to the removal of roots and
stumps. CDOT specifications require that all sod, trees, bushes, boulders, and organic matter
be removed from the foundation area of the roadway prior to the placement of any fill
material.
After clearing and grubbing are completed, excavation in cut sections can begin, and the
foundations for embankment fill areas are prepared. The cleared ground surface is broken up
by plowing, scarifying, or ripping to a minimum depth of 6 inches. This can be accomplished
through use of dozers or graders with ripper attachments, or a tractor pulling a disk. Once the
ground surface is scarified, it must be moisture conditioned and compacted to the specified
embankment density and moisture content.
Photograph 4.1: Foundation preparation Photographs 4.2: Foundation preparation

by means of a tractor with a disk to open by means of using a dozer with a ripper
the subgrade soils. attachment.
Excavation in cut areas can be accomplished by a variety of methods. Where soils or rippable
bedrock are present in cuts (i.e. very low to low strength bedrock such as claystone, friable
sandstone, and shale), dozers and excavators can be used to loosen the material and scrapers
can be used to haul the material to fill areas. Where more competent bedrock is present in a
cut section, the use of hydraulic hammers, rock pickers, and/or controlled blasting
techniques are necessary to excavate the material.

Page 16
Photograph 4.3: Excavator with hydraulic Photograph 4.4:Dozer with ripper attachment
hammer being used to remove competent being used to loosen material in a cut section.
bedrock from a cut section.
To prepare the foundation area in cut sections, CDOT requires that cuts in bedrock be
excavated between 0.5 and 1 foot below the final planned subgrade elevation. Approved
embankment fill is then used to bring the excavated areas back to finished grade. Undrained
pockets or depressions cannot remain in the excavated area and must be graded to drain.
Excavation is classified in CDOT project specifications using the following terms:
• Unclassified Excavation – the excavation of all materials within the right of way
including any materials removed to grade ditches. This can include soil, bedrock,
and/or boulders.
• Stripping – the removal of overburden or other material from borrow pits to expose a
source material that is intended to be mined and used as embankment fill.
• Removal of Unsuitable Material – the removal of soils and/or mixtures of soil and
organic matter that would be detrimental to the roadway or embankment if left in
place in its existing condition. This material is removed to a depth determined by an
engineer and backfilled to finished grade with approved material properly compacted.
• Rock Excavation – Excavation of competent or durable rock that cannot be removed
through the use of rippers attached to a dozer with a minimum flywheel power rating
of 235 horsepower (typical of a D-7), or a 48,000-pound excavator (typical of a 320
excavator) utilizing a bucket with rock teeth. Rock excavation typically involves
controlled blasting methods, and is generally required for the removal of igneous,
metamorphic, and high strength strongly cemented sedimentary rocks. Rock
excavation also includes the removal of boulders having a volume of ½ cubic yard or
more.

Page 17
4.2 Embankment Fill

Embankment fill is approved material acquired from excavations or borrow pits that is hauled
and placed in fill areas. If the material is obtained from outside of the right of way, it is
referred to as “Borrow.” Use of material in embankments is contingent upon it meeting
specific requirements for the project (i.e. gradation requirements, Atterberg limits, soil
classification, and/or strength [R-value/resilient modulus]). The material must also be
compacted to the specified density and moisture content.
Any imported fill must meet minimum requirements for corrosivity (sulfate content, chloride
content, resistivity, and pH) specified in Standard Special Provision 203 – Excavation and
Embankment. Contract documents may specify minimum sulfate exposure levels permitted
for imported material, and this must be verified through testing. Imported material for
backfilling around any pipe structures must also be tested for compatibility with the pipe
material specified and meet the minimum corrosion requirements specified in Standard
Special Provision 203 – Excavation and Embankment.
CDOT defines three types of embankment fill, described below:
• Soil Embankment – all particle sizes must be less than 6 inches. The material is
classified in accordance with AASHTO M 145 and placed and compacted using methods
prescribed for the different soil classifications.
• Rock Embankment:
1. Contains 50 percent or more retained on the No. 4 sieve.
2. Contains > 30 percent retained on the ¾-inch sieve.
3. Classifies as an AASHTO A-1 soil type.
4. All particle sizes shall be less than 6 inches.
5. Particles retained on the No. 4 sieve shall not be composed of non-durable
bedrock types.
• Rock Fill:
1. A minimum of 50 percent of the material shall be retained on a 4-inch sieve.
2. The maximum dimension of any particle permitted is 36 inches.
3. Shall be well-graded by visual inspection.
4. Shall contain less than 20 percent by volume of material passing the No. 200
sieve based on visual inspection.
5. Particles retained on the No. 4 sieve shall not be composed of non-durable
bedrock types.

Page 18
Non-durable bedrock is identified and classified using slake durability testing (CP-L 3104).
Materials that break down or degrade to a degree that classifies them as “Non-durable / Soil-
like” as described in the procedure are treated as Soil Embankment. Claystone, weakly
cemented siltstones or sandstones, and some shales are the most typical types of sedimentary
rock that will exhibit slaking behavior.
It is critical for soil inspectors to be aware of the types of embankment fill that are specified
for various components of a construction project. If borrow is to be used, the borrow area
should be checked to observe if all clearing and grubbing has been completed at the pit site.
In addition, soil inspectors need to observe the materials being delivered from a borrow
source. The same is true for materials that are excavated from within the project corridor or
from within the right of way that are to be used as embankment fill.
Geologic materials in their natural state tend to be in layers; therefore, drastic changes in
the borrow brought to a project site needs to be noted and monitored. Keeping track of
where questionable material is placed can help isolate areas that may require rework. In
addition, different material types will have different compaction characteristics, and the
correct placement and compaction requirements must be followed in the field. Not all
materials derived from cut slopes or from borrow pits may be permitted to be used as
embankment fill on the project. Excavation areas where the material is known to be
unsuitable for embankment construction will be indicated on the project plans.
4.3 Placement and Lift Thickness Requirements

Embankment material is spread through a fill section in layers called lifts. Maintaining exact
grade is not required when placing lifts; however, lift thickness must be controlled to achieve
adequate compaction. The maximum lift thickness that is permitted is dependent on the
material being used to construct the embankment. Before a subsequent lift is placed, each
lift must be adequately compacted in accordance with the compaction requirements for the
material type being used.
Soil Embankment and Rock Embankment must be placed in loose lifts not to exceed 8 inches.
Rock Embankment or Soil Embankment that classifies as an A-1 soil can be placed in lift
thickness greater than 8 inches if it is being used to bridge across standing water or swampy
ground if approved by the Engineer.
Rock Fill can be placed in a loose lift thickness equivalent to the average particle size, up to a
maximum permitted lift thickness of 18 inches. Rocks larger than 18 inches must be separated
enough to allow compaction equipment to operate in between, and finer material must be
placed to fill in voids between larger stones to avoid nesting. Rock Fill cannot be placed
within 2 feet of the final subgrade elevation, and it cannot be placed directly over a structure
until 2 feet of compacted Soil/Rock Embankment is initially placed.

Page 19
Non-durable bedrock must be watered to promote slaking, pulverized, broken down, and
processed to 6-inch maximum particle size before being placed as Soil Embankment. Non-
durable bedrock particles larger than 6 inches cannot be used in any embankment fill. These
materials cannot be used to bridge over standing water or swampy ground within an
embankment foundation. These materials also cannot be placed within 2 feet of the final
subgrade elevation.
Recycled concrete and asphalt can be incorporated into embankment fill, and the maximum
dimension permitted is 24 inches for concrete and 12 inches for asphalt. These materials shall
be processed, placed, and compacted using appropriate methods dependent on the overall
classification of the embankment material once the recycled material is incorporated. Rebar
shall not extend more than one inch beyond the edges of recycled concrete particles.
Recycled concrete or asphalt shall not be permitted in the upper 2 feet of the final subgrade
elevation or within 2 feet of the final finished side slopes unless otherwise noted in the
Contract.
Regardless of the type of material being placed, frozen materials shall not be used in the
construction of embankments. Embankment fill other than A-1 soil types cannot be placed
within standing water, and the embankment surface must be maintained to provide surface
drainage at all times.
Where embankments are to be placed on existing slopes steeper than 4-horizontal-to-1-

vertical (4H:1V), the embankment layers must be continually benched into the existing slope
as it is built. A two-foot-deep key must be excavated at the base of the slope and backfilled
with approved and compacted embankment material, and the benches are constructed
upwards from the key as seen in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 Generalized embankment cross section illustrating proper benching requirements
when a new embankment is constructed onto an existing slope steeper than 4H:1V

Page 20
Embankment side slopes are to be built a minimum of 12 inches beyond the final grade shown
in the plans to allow for compaction equipment to compact the outer edges of the
embankment. Once the specified level of compaction is achieved, the side slopes are
trimmed back to the final grade, and the excess material can be used in subsequent lifts as
the embankment is built to subgrade elevation.
4.4 Moisture Conditioning and Compaction Requirements

Compaction requirements for embankment fill are dependent on the type of embankment fill
being placed (Soil Embankment vs. Rock Embankment vs. Rock Fill). Soil Embankment is
further divided into different groups, which are assigned different compaction criteria and
methods dependent on the overall classification of the material. Compaction is achieved in
the field through control of lift thickness, and through the use of appropriate compaction
equipment for the materials being placed. Moisture conditioning may be required, which
requires the use of water trucks if the material is too dry. To achieve the desired effect for
compaction, the spray bars on the water trucks should distribute water evenly over the
material that is to be compacted. If the material is too wet to achieve compaction, then it
must be disked or scarified, then allowed to aerate to reduce the moisture content.
Photograph 4.5: Water truck being used to moisture condition soils in preparation for
compaction.
Samples of embankment fill are to be collected for classification (gradation and Atterberg
limit testing), corrosion testing (sulfate content, chloride content, resistivity, and pH),
moisture density relations as required for the material type (AASHTO T 99/T 180 modified by
CP 23), and slake durability testing as required for the material type (CP-L 3104) at the
frequencies prescribed in the Field Materials Manual or as specified in the Contract. The
following sections summarize compaction requirements for each of the embankment fill
types.

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4.4.1 Soil Embankment with less than or equal to 30 percent retained on the ¾-inch
sieve:
• A-1, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 soils are compacted at +/- 2 percent of optimum moisture
content and to at least 95 percent of maximum dry density determined in accordance
with AASHTO T 180, modified by CP 23.
• All other soil types are compacted to 95 percent of maximum dry density determined
in accordance with AASHTO T 99, modified by CP 23.
o Soils with 35 percent fines or less are compacted at +/- 2 percent of optimum
moisture content.
o Soils with more than 35 percent fines are compacted at a moisture content
equal to or above optimum to achieve stability of the compacted lift, which is
defined as the absence of rutting or pumping. If the soils prove to be unstable
when compacted at or above optimum moisture content, the moisture required
for compaction can be reduced below optimum as approved by the Engineer.
Compaction control will be tested using nuclear density gauges (AASHTO T 310) at the
frequencies prescribed in the Field Materials Manual or as specified in the Contract. A one-
point moisture/density verification test (CP 25-13) shall be performed at the frequency
required in the Field Materials Manual to verify the use of the correct moisture/density curve.
The test sites should be selected randomly and should be representative of the materials
placed in the surrounding areas.
4.4.2 Soil Embankment with greater than 30 percent retained on the ¾-inch sieve:
• The contractor must construct a test strip to the dimensions specified, which can be
incorporated into the final embankment.
• The contractor is responsible for determining the moisture conditioning, the type of
equipment, and number of passes that are needed to achieve adequate compaction.
However, compression-type or vibratory rollers are required for granular materials,
and sheepsfoot rollers are required for cohesive soils.
• Adequate compaction will be demonstrated by the absence of rutting, pumping, or
deflection during a proof roll of the test strip using a piece of construction equipment
that exerts a minimum 18-kip per axle load.
• Once the test strip passes a proof roll, the contractor can resume embankment
construction with the material using the same moisture conditioning and compaction
methods that were used to construct the test strip.
• Changes in material type require construction of a new test strip followed by a proof
roll.
• Placement, moisture conditioning, and compaction of every lift will be observed by
the Contractor’s Process Control (PC) Representative and accepted by the Engineer.

Page 22
• Adequate compaction of each lift will be demonstrated as the absence of rutting,

pumping, or deflection as construction equipment is routed over a lift following the
compactive efforts that were used and accepted for the respective test strip.
• The Engineer may request a proof roll at any time to document the condition of a lift.
4.4.3 Non-durable bedrock within soil embankment:

• These materials must be compacted using a sheepsfoot roller weighing at least 30
tons. The projections shall extend at least 4 inches from the drum.
• A minimum of 4 passes is required, and the roller speed shall not exceed 3 miles per
hour.
• Additional roller passes may be required to achieve adequate compaction.
4.4.4 Rock Embankment and Rock Fill:

• Contractor must construct a test strip to the dimensions specified, which can be
• The contractor is responsible for determining the moisture conditioning necessary to
achieve adequate compaction.
• Vibratory or compression-type rollers are required.
o Compression rollers must weight a minimum of 20 tons. Compression type
rollers cannot be operated at speeds over 3 miles per hour.
o Vibratory roller must exert a minimum dynamic force of 30,000 pounds of
impact per vibration and achieve a minimum of 1,000 vibrations per minute.
Vibratory rollers cannot exceed 1.5 miles per hour.
• A minimum of 4 passes over the entire width of each lift is required.
• Adequate compaction will be demonstrated by the absence of rutting, pumping, or
deflection during a proof roll of the test strip using a piece of construction equipment
that exerts a minimum 18-kip per axle load.
• Once the test strip passes a proof roll, the contractor can resume Rock Fill or Rock
Embankment construction with the material using the same moisture conditioning and
compaction methods that were used to construct the test strip.
• Changes in material type require construction of a new test strip followed by a proof
roll.
• The contractor can deviate from the minimum equipment and compactive efforts
specified; but every lift placed for the first 2,000 cubic yards of fill must pass a proof
roll.
• Placement, moisture conditioning, and compaction of every lift will be observed by
the Contractor’s PC Representative and accepted by the Engineer.
• Adequate compaction of each lift will be demonstrated as the absence of rutting,
pumping, or deflection as construction equipment is routed over a lift following the

Page 23
compactive efforts that were used and accepted for the respective test strip. Finer
material shall be placed between larger stones of a rock fill.
• The Engineer may request a proof roll at any time to document the condition of a lift.
4.4.5 Compaction Equipment:

Steel vibratory rollers either have single or dual drums with control over the amplitude and
frequency of vibrations. The drums must be filled with ballast, and the vibration may need to
be adjusted to achieve the desired compaction. If the amplitude or frequency is set
incorrectly, the material being compacted may be pushed away or forced in front of the
drums rather than being directed downward to densify the material. This is referred to as a
“roll front” and is an indication that compaction is not being achieved.
Compression-type/pneumatic rollers have rubber, air-filled tires used for compaction. The
tires should be smooth without tread and should all be uniformly inflated. The tire pressure
influences the degree of compaction that can be achieved. In addition, the weight of
pneumatic rollers can be adjusted by adding water or sand to the ballast box to adjust the
compactive effort achieved.
Photograph 4.6: Dual drummed steel vibratory Photograph 4.7: Rubber-tired pneumatic roller
roller
Sheepsfoot compactors are used to compact fill materials composed of cohesive (clayey) soils
and clay-rich non-durable bedrock. These compactors roll on steel metal drums with long,
steel projections. The weight of these compactors can also be adjusted by adding sand or
water to the ballast box on the compactor.

Page 24
Photograph 4.8: Sheepsfoot compactor
Instead of relying on vibration to achieve compaction, sheepsfoot rollers accomplish

compaction through a kneading action of clay soils. When clay soils are compacted at the
appropriate moisture content, the projections will sink into the material and penetrate into
the preceding lift that was placed. As the soil is densified with multiple passes from the
compactor, the projections will penetrate less until the roller begins to ride on top of the
compacted lift. This is referred to as “walking out” (Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2: Diagram illustrating proper penetration and eventual “walking out” of the
projections from a sheepsfoot compactor following multiple passes.

Page 25
If clay soils are too wet, the soils will either pump or begin to collect between the roller
projections, and compaction will not be achieved. Similarly, if clay soils are too dry the
projections will not penetrate into the lift adequately, and compaction of the base of the lift
will not be achieved.
4.5 Grade Control and Proof Rolling

As cuts and fills progress during a road construction project, the grade and slopes should be
checked periodically. Grade and elevations should be checked at known stations by referring
to cross sections in the project plan sets. If the final lift of the embankment is to be select
material, the proceeding lift will be rolled with a sheepsfoot to leave the top 2 inches rough.
If no select material is required, the contractor will bring the embankment to final grade
prior to placing sub-base (if required) and base course (if required). The final surface will be
fine bladed with a grader and rolled smooth with a steel drum roller to seal the surface of the
top lift and provide protection against weather and construction traffic. Variations in the final
grade elevations in both cut and fill sections shall not be more than 0.08 foot (1 inch). Where
asphalt or concrete pavement are to be placed, the final grade plane shall not vary by more
than 0.04 foot (1/2-inch).
Prior to placing any sub-base, base course, or pavement (if pavement is to be placed directly
on the prepared subgrade), the completed surface is proof rolled with pneumatic tire
equipment. Proof rolling is required after the required compaction of the
embankment/subgrade has been achieved and it has been built to the required grade. A
minimum axle load of 18 kips per axle is required, and a weigh ticket must be submitted to
prove this requirement is met. Proof rolling must be performed within 48 hours prior to
placing any sub-base, base course, or pavement; or if the condition of the final surface
changes due to weather or other circumstances. Soft spots can be identified by non-uniform
deflection in localized areas during the proof rolling operations. These areas must be ripped,
dried, or wetted as necessary, and recompacted to the appropriate density.
Photograph 4.9: Proof rolling operation being completed by a filled water truck.

Page 26
5 Common Soil Problems in Colorado That Can Affect Construction
Geological conditions may exist within a corridor that led to difficult highway and
embankment construction. In addition to making construction difficult, some soil deposits, if
they go unnoticed or are left untreated, can contribute to post-construction problems such as
differential movement of the embankments that support a roadway, or even failure of the
pavement structure and/or the embankments. This chapter provides a brief overview of
common soil problems that need to be addressed during design or construction to improve the
quality of the finished roadways. Basic information for how these soil problems are addressed
or mitigated are also included. Problem soils require special attention beyond the generalized
earthwork preparation and compaction specifications found in CDOT’s Standard
Specifications. A project will have Special Provisions written into the specifications to address
soil problems that are expected to be encountered within a corridor.
5.1 Soft Clay Deposits – Consolidation and Stability

Thick deposits of soft clay within an embankment foundation can pose a number of problems
during construction. Soft clays in Colorado can be encountered in stream flood plains,
wetland areas, and in areas where claystone bedrock is capped by a thick weathered layer
referred to as “residual soil”. Soft clays will generally have a high moisture content (some in
excess of the liquid limit), and as a result, may not have the strength or cohesion to
adequately support a roadway or a new embankment.
A major issue that soft clays pose if fully saturated is consolidation, which can lead to post-
construction settlement if mitigation is not implemented during construction. Consolidation is
the process where a saturated clay deposit is placed under a surcharge load (i.e. adding 20
feet of fill material for construction of an embankment), and the increased load results in an
expulsion of pore water from the clay. As the pore water is expelled, the clay deposit and
anything built over top of it begins to settle and deform. Because clays have a very low
permeability, this process takes a significant amount of time; in some instances, several
years, and settlement of the overlying embankment and roadway occurs gradually but
continually. If the thickness or strength of a clay deposit varies beneath a long stretch of
embankment, differential settlement can occur. In other words, thicker sections will settle a
higher magnitude and over a longer time duration than thinner deposits, resulting in uneven
rates and magnitudes of deformation to the overlying embankment and roadway structure.

Page 27
Photograph 5.2
Photograph 5.1 and 5.2: Resultant pavement damage due to differential settlement
caused by consolidation of saturated clays beneath a high embankment.
Consolidation can be mitigated through a process known as accelerated embankment

consolidation. A combination of strategies can be implemented to pre-consolidate a clay
deposit to a desired magnitude before the pavement structure is built:
• Constructing an excess surcharge to pre-load the deposit. In other words, if a 20-foot
embankment is to be built, additional material can be placed to increase the load on
the deposit and accelerate the consolidation process before the road is constructed.
Once the predicted/desired amount of settlement is achieved (this is monitored
through time with survey and instrumentation); the surcharge is removed, and the
final pavement structure is built.
• Installation of wick drains into the deposit, which decreases the flow paths for pore
water expulsion, thus accelerating the process.
• Time: whether using wick drains or surcharging or if both procedures are used, time is
required to allow settlement to occur before the roadway structure is built.

Page 28
Photograph 5.3: Accelerated consolidation Photograph 5.4: Accelerated consolidation

being achieved through the use of being achieved through the use of
surcharging and settlement plates. surcharging and wick drains.
If the deposit is near the ground surface and not too thick to be removed cost effectively, the
material can also simply be removed from the embankment foundation and replaced with an
approved fill material. This process is known as over-excavation and replacement. Another
option that can be used to reduce the effects of consolidation is to reduce the surcharge of
the embankment through the use of Expanded Polystyrene Geofoam blocks (EPS foam) in
place of soil or rock fill.
Photograph 5.5: Light-weight EPS foam blocks being used to bridge over soft clay deposits
for new embankment construction.
Soft clays also pose stability problems for new embankment construction. If a high
embankment is placed over a soft clay deposit, and the material is loaded beyond its shear
strength, bearing capacity failures of the embankment or a landslide can result. These issues
may not manifest during construction but can come into play months or years down the road
if the deposit becomes overly saturated with an excessive amount of rainfall or snow melt.

Page 29
Photograph 5.6: Landslide that developed as a result of embankment construction over a

weak clay deposit.
Mitigation of soft clay deposits that can lead to embankment stability problems can be
addressed using a variety of methods that are dependent on a number of factors including but
not limited to cost, construction access, subsurface conditions, and material properties.
Drains can be installed in the material, buttresses can be constructed at the toe of an
embankment to prevent movement (i.e. slope flattening), the embankment can be
constructed of light-weight fill materials to reduce the load on the deposit (EPS foam), the
soil can be treated to improve its strength (deep soil mixing, grout injection), or
reinforcement elements can be installed to increase the stability of the ground such as
geotextiles, piles, drilled shafts, or ground anchors.
5.2 Swelling Soil and Heaving Bedrock

Swelling soils are clay-rich soils that exhibit a volume change with increases or decreases to
their moisture content. These soils are very common in Colorado and are derived from
weathering of certain claystone bedrock formations. Heaving bedrock operates by the same
mechanism; but is differentiated because the swelling occurs from intact bedrock layers
rather than from unconsolidated soil deposits. Swelling soils and heaving bedrock contain clay
particles with a specific mineral referred to as montmorillonite. This mineral is characterized
by a platy or layered structure that absorbs water, causing the individual layers to expand.
This expansion can increase the volume of a deposit by more than 20 percent; and the
swelling action can exert thousands of pounds of force onto overlying structures.

Page 30
Once a pavement or structure is placed over these soils; natural evaporation is restricted,
which can cause moisture to build up in the subsurface. In addition, if pavement cracks
develop through time and allow water infiltration into the subsurface, an increase in moisture
content can occur. The underlying soils then expand, and buckling and differential heave can
occur to the overlying structures.
Photograph 5.8
Photograph 5.7 and 5.8: Damage to asphalt pavement and separation along a concrete
construction joint as a result of swelling soils.
Problems due to swelling soils and heaving bedrock most often occur in cut areas, where dry
claystone bedrock or residual soils can be exposed, and in transitions from cut to fill areas.
However, swelling soils can also result in problems in fill areas if clay soils with expansion
potential are used as embankment fill. CDOT requires that soils with more than 35 percent
fines be compacted at a moisture content at or above optimum moisture to help reduce the
magnitude of swell that can occur post-construction.
Remedial measures to address swelling soil generally involve reducing the likelihood of water
infiltration as an increase in moisture content is required to initiate swell. The crown of the
roadway is generally sloped to promote runoff and eliminate ponding water. In addition,
drainage ditches are constructed below the subgrade level in low areas and are graded to
allow rapid runoff of surface water.
Other methods to mitigate swelling soil include over-excavation and replacement; where
potential expansive layers are removed to a specified depth and replaced with non-expansive
material compacted to the appropriate density. Chemical treatment of the subgrade soils
with lime, fly ash, or combinations of these materials have also been used to successfully
reduce the swell potential of these soils.

Page 31
Photograph 5.9: Mixing a lime slurry into subgrade soils to reduce the swell potential.
Some clay soils in Colorado contain high sulfate content. It should be noted that chemical soil
treatment such as lime or other cement agents can result in a different type of heave for soils
characterized by a high sulfate content. Sulfate in the soils can react with the lime (or other
calcium-based products) resulting in the growth of ettringite and/or thaumasite crystals in
the soil.
The growth of these crystals in the soil also results in a volume expansion and heave to
overlying structures. It is not advisable to use lime or calcium-based products on soils with
high sulfate content.
The soil inspector needs to be aware if swelling soils are encountered within a corridor; and
what, if any, mitigation measures were specified to address these soils during construction.
5.3 Collapsible Soils

Collapsible soils (also known as hydrocompactive soils) are typically dry, fine-grained soils
with a honeycomb skeletal fabric with open pore spaces between the individual soil particles.
The soil is typically characterized by a high dry strength and can support loading conditions
from overburden stresses in addition to structures. However, once the soil becomes wet, a
water content threshold can be reached which can dissolve or weaken the soil binding agents,
resulting in rapid densification of the soil particles into the open void structure, and
subsequent settlement.
Contrary to consolidation, soil collapse can occur relatively rapidly. However, a thick deposit
of collapsible soil may experience continued collapse for several years as the subsurface

Page 32
moisture content slowly increases with time. Similar to consolidation and swelling soils, the
magnitude and time frame of soil collapse is rarely uniform across a deposit. Therefore,
differential settlement often occurs to structures and roadways built over these deposits if
mitigation was not implemented during construction.
Photograph 5.10: Sinkhole development as a result of collapsible soil deposits settling at

depth.
Proactive mitigation techniques for collapsible soils include pre-wetting and/or pre-
densification, or over-excavation and replacement. Pre-wetting involves intentionally
saturating the soil deposits prior to construction by sprinkler irrigation, flood irrigation,
trenching, ponding water, or pumping water into the subsurface through the use of injection
wells. Pre-densification can be used alone, or in combination with pre-wetting. For shallow
deposits, dynamic compaction with construction equipment can be conducted. For deep
deposits, injection of compaction grout in combination with pre-wetting is one method that
has successfully treated collapsible soils. Compaction grout is a stiff, high-slump grout that is
injected at high pressures to actively displace and densify soils at depth.
Passive mitigation techniques include measures to reduce water infiltration into the
subsurface where these deposits may exist through the use of surface and subsurface drainage
systems. The use of low-permeability fill materials (clay) can also reduce surface water
infiltration.
5.4 Unsuitable Materials

CDOT’s specification requires removal of materials that can have a detrimental effect to the
roadway or embankment if left in place in their current condition. If these materials can be
moisture conditioned and compacted following the specifications, they can be reused.
However, soils that contain organics or soils that cannot be moisture conditioned and

Page 33
compacted in accordance with the specifications must be removed and replaced with
approved fill.
Soils containing a high organic content pose a problem for embankment foundations and are
not permitted to remain in place or be incorporated into embankment fill. These soils are
typically very low strength and are not suitable as a subgrade or foundation material to build
new embankments or pavement structures on.
Continued decomposition of organic materials can result in voids being formed in the deposit,
which can lead to differential settlement and stability problems post-construction. These soils
are typically dark in color and smell of rotting vegetation. This material can be found in low-
lying flood plains adjacent to stream channels and in wetland areas.
Typically, these soils will be addressed during construction by over-excavation and

replacement with approved material. When organic soils are expected to be encountered on a
project or are identified during a subsurface exploration program, the project plan sheets will
delineate areas where removal is required. This material must be removed to the depth and
extents indicated in the plans and specifications. It may be possible for deposits to vary in
depth and extent than what is shown on the plans. Soil inspectors must observe the areas
being excavated and document whether or not all of the poor-quality soil has been removed
from an embankment foundation.
Photograph 5.11: Organic soils being excavated from a project site.

Page 34
5.5 Geosynthetics for Problem Soil Treatment

In some situations, poor subgrade conditions may be present within a corridor where either a
demanding schedule or high cost prohibits remedial measures such as over-excavation and
replacement, or deep soil treatment. Geosynthetics are a cost-effective means to address
soft and low-strength subgrade soils and can be installed relatively quickly on a construction
project.
These materials can also be used to bridge an embankment over standing water where high
ground water conditions cannot be economically dealt with through grading or drainage
construction. Geosynthetics include a variety of materials that are used for different
applications. Products common to embankment construction and their applications are
included in Table 5.1 below:
Table 5.1: Common Applications for Geosynthetics in Embankment Construction
Applications Geotextiles Geogrids Geocomposites
Separators X X
Reinforcement X X X
Filtration X X
Drainage X X X
Geotextiles consist of synthetic fibers that are either woven or matted together in a random,
non-woven fashion. Some are also knitted. The woven materials are characterized by a higher
tensile strength. The use of synthetic fibers increases their durability for permanent use in
earthwork construction. Geotextiles are porous and allow water to flow across their plane.
Geogrids are polymers formed into an open, grid-like pattern. These materials are stretched
in the manufacturing process to improve their physical properties (tensile strength and
deformation characteristics). While they can be used as a drainage medium, geogrids are
almost exclusively used as reinforcement to improve the strength of soils.
Geocomposites consist of a combination of geotextiles and geogrids (or other geotextiles that
are not listed here) to provide a material with a variety of properties for multiple
applications.
A separator may be needed where the embankment fill specified for a project is composed of
a different gradation characteristic than the foundation soils (i.e. placing a granular fill over

Page 35
a soft clay layer). If high ground water conditions and a soft clay deposit exists within an
embankment foundation, it is necessary to install a drainage layer at the base of the
embankment (i.e. a clean granular soil such as gravel).
Photograph 5.12: various types of geosynthetics. From left to right: woven geotextiles,
geogrid, and geocomposite.
However, if the clay is very soft, an excessive amount of gravel may be required to bridge
over the deposit as the gravel may sink into the clay with repeated construction loading. In
this example, a geotextile fabric or geocomposite can be placed as a separator over the clay
subgrade soils to eliminate this problem and avoid excessive costs associated with hauling and
placing excess gravel until it finally bridges over top the poor subgrade soils.
The use of geosynthetics over soft subgrade soils is also a method to reinforce or increase the
strength of the embankment foundation. Certain types of geotextiles and geogrids are
manufactured to have a high tensile strength to resist deformation from settlement or
subgrade failure in the form of a bearing capacity failure. The installation of a layer at the
base of an embankment acts as a rigid layer to resist movement or deformation of the
subgrade soils.
Photograph 5.13: Geotextile installation over soft, unstable subgrade soils

Page 36
Drainage and filtration would be required where a roadway is constructed into a slope that is
characterized by high ground water conditions or springs (Figure 5.1). A drainage fabric can
be installed to intercept a seep and direct the water flow beneath the embankment to
discharge at the toe.
Similarly, a drainage layer such as gravel can be used for this application; however, the
material may need to be wrapped in a geotextile to prevent fines from infiltrating and
plugging the gravel; reducing the permeability and life of the drainage material (i.e.
filtration).
Figure 5.1: Geosynthetic application for drainage and filtration to direct groundwater flow
beneath an embankment.
If geosynthetics are specified and included on a roadway and embankment construction

project, the CDOT soils inspector must be familiar with the properties of the material
specified and its application. CDOT uses the New York DOT’s Approved Products List for
geosynthetic approval on projects. It is important to document that the materials that arrive
on site have the properties (i.e. drainage characteristics, tensile strength, etc.) that are
required in the specifications. The inspector also must document whether the Contractor
installed the materials in accordance with either the project specifications or with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.

Page 37
Appendix 1: Determining the Liquid Limit of Soils – FOP for AASHTO T89 Determining the
Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of Soils – FOP for AASHTO T90
For accessibility requirements

of the materials in this Appendix contact
AASHTO Publications at:
800-231-3475
www.codot.gov/programs/WAQTC Soil Inspector Manual – Appendix 1

Page 38

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Appendix 2: AASHTO M-145 Soil Classification and Partial Group Index Determination

Page 57
AASHTO M-145 Soil Classification System – Black and White

(More than 35%
A-1 A-2 A-7

Group
A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-6
Sieve Analysis
Percent Passing:
No. 10 50 max -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
50 51
No. 40 30 max -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
max min
25 10 35
No. 200 15 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min
max max max
Characteristics
of fraction
passing No. 40
sieve
LL 40
-- -- 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min
(Liquid Limit) max
PI 10
6 max NP 10 max 11 min 11 min 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min
(Plasticity Index) max
Vibratory,
Compaction
Vibratory or Pneumatic Rollers Pneumatic, or Sheepsfoot Rollers
Method
Sheepsfoot
Rollers
Proctor Method T-180 (Modified Proctor) T-99 (Standard Proctor)
Stone
Usual types of
fragments, Fine
gravel, and sand
constituents
sand
General
subgrade rating

Page 58
AASHTO M-145 Soil Classification System - Colored
General Classification Granular Materials Silt and Clay Materials (More than 35%
(35% or less passing No. 200 Sieve) passing No. 200 Sieve)
A-1 A-2 A-7

Group
Classification A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-5
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-6
Sieve Analysis
Percent Passing:
No. 10 50 max -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
No. 40 30 max 50 max 51 min -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

No. 200 15 max 25 max 10 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min
Characteristics of
fraction passing No.
40 sieve
LL (Liquid Limit) -- -- 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min
11 min
PI (Plasticity Index) 6 max NP 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min 10 max 10 max 11 min
Vibratory,
Compaction Method Vibratory or Pneumatic Rollers Pneumatic, or Sheepsfoot Rollers
Sheepsfoot Rollers
Proctor Method T-180 T-99
Usual types of Stone fragments,

Fine sand Silty or clayey gravel and sand Silty soils Clayey soils
significant gravel, and sand
constituents
General subgrade
rating
A-1, A-3, A-2-4, and A-2-5 Soils: Compacted +/- 2% OMC to 95% max.
dry density via T 180 modified by CP 23. Use vibratory or pneumatic
rollers.
A-2-6 and A-2-7 Soils: Compacted +/- 2% OMC to 95% max. dry density
via T 99 modified by CP 23. Use vibratory, pneumatic, or sheepsfoot
rollers.
A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 Soils: Compacted at or above OMC to 95% max.
dry density via T 99 modified by CP 23 if soils are stable. If unstable,
compact below OMC with Engineer’s approval. Use sheepsfoot rollers.
Soil Embankment with greater than 30 percent retained on the ¾-inch sieve: The
contractor must construct a test strip to the dimensions specified, which can be

Page 59
Example - Classification of Soil using M-145:

What is the classification of the soil with the following index properties?
Gradation (% Passing):
#10 = 72.1
#40 = 53.3
#200 = 38.2
Liquid Limit = 33
Plastic Index = 8
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Use a process of elimination to determine the soil classification. In this example, the percent
passing the number 200 sieve is greater than 35. All A-1, A-2, and A-3 soils can be eliminated:
(More than 35%
A-1 A-2 A-7

Group
A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-6
Sieve Analysis
Percent Passing:
No. 10 50 max -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
50 51
No. 40 30 max -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
max min
35
25 10
No. 200 15 max max 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min
max max
Characteristics
of fraction
passing No. 40
sieve
LL 40
(Liquid Limit) max
PI 10
Vibratory,
Compaction
Method
Sheepsfoot
Rollers
Stone
Usual types of
fragments, Fine
gravel, and sand
constituents
sand
General
subgrade rating

Page 60
The Plastic Index of this soil is below 11; therefore, all A-6 and A-7 soils can also be eliminated:

(More than 35%
A-1 A-2 A-7

Group
A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-6
Sieve Analysis
Percent Passing:
No. 10 50 max -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
50 51
No. 40 30 max -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
max min
35
25 10
No. 200 15 max max 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min
max max
Characteristics
of fraction
passing No. 40
sieve
LL 40
(Liquid Limit) max
PI 10
Vibratory,
Compaction
Method
Sheepsfoot
Rollers
Stone
Usual types of
fragments, Fine
gravel, and sand
constituents
sand
General
subgrade rating

Page 61
Finally, the Liquid Limit is less than 41; therefore, the A-5 Soil Group can also be eliminated:

(More than 35%
A-1 A-2 A-7

Group
A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-6
Sieve Analysis
Percent Passing:
--
No. 10 50 max -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
50 51
No. 40 30 max -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
max min
25 10 35
No. 200 15 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min
max max max
Characteristics
of fraction
passing No. 40
sieve
LL 40
(Liquid Limit) max
PI 10
Vibratory,
Compaction
Method
Sheepsfoot
Rollers
Stone
Usual types of
fragments, Fine
gravel, and sand
constituents
sand
General
subgrade rating
(Original example info given on pg. 5)

Gradation (% Passing):
#10 = 72.1
#40 = 53.3
#200 = 38.2
Liquid Limit = 33
Plastic Index = 8
The resulting soil classification is A-4.

Page 62
Partial Group Index Determination
A soil’s Liquid Limit, Plasticity Index, and percent passing the No. 200 sieve are used to determine
the partial group index. The liquid limit partial group number, and the plasticity index partial group
number are determined separately, then added together and rounded to a whole number to
determine the partial group index for a soil.
The liquid limit partial group number is determined by the liquid limit and the percent passing the
No. 200 sieve. The equation to calculate the liquid limit partial group number is:
(F-35)*[0.2+0.005*(LL-40)]
where: F = % passing the No. 200 sieve

LL = Liquid Limit of the soil
If the % passing the # 200 sieve is < 35%, then the LL partial group index will be 0.
The plasticity index partial group number is determined by the plasticity index and the % passing the
No. 200 sieve. The equation to calculate the plasticity index partial group number is:
0.01*[(F-15)* (PI-10)]
where: F = % passing the No. 200 sieve

PI = Plasticity Index of the soil
Partial Group Index = LL Partial Group Number + Plasticity Index Partial Group Number
(Rounded to the nearest whole number)

Page 63
Example - Partial Group Index:
What is the partial group index of the soil with the following characteristics?
F = 45.1%
LL= 38
PI = 26
The initial soil classification for the soil is an A-6.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
For Liquid Limit Partial Group Number:
= (F-35) *[0.2+0.005*(LL-40)]
= (45.1- 35) *[0.2+0.005*(38-40)]
= (10.1)* [0.2+ (-0.01)]
= (10.1)* [.19]
= 1.92
For Plasticity Index Partial Group Number:
= 0.01*[(F-15)*(PI-10)]
= 0.01*[(45.1-15)*(26-10)
= 0.01*[(30.1)*(16)]
= 0.01*[481.6]
= 4.82
Answer: LL partial group number = 1.92

PI partial group number = 4.82
Partial Group Index = 1.92 + 4.82 = 6.74 = 7
Completed classification is A-6(7)

Page 64
Appendix 3: Determination of Zero Air Voids Density of Soils

with Varying Moisture Content and Specific Gravity

Page 65
Determination of Zero Air Voids Density of Soils with Varying Moisture Content and
Specific Gravity
The zero air voids density (Dz) for a soil at a given moisture content is calculated using the
equation below. The specific gravity of the soil particles must be known to calculate the zero
air voids density that can be achieved at a specific moisture content. The zero air voids curve
is typically plotted on the proctor curve at each percent moisture point to provide a
reference for checking relative compaction in the field. This curve is also referred to as the
100% saturation curve.
𝑙𝑏
(𝑆. 𝐺. 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙) ∗ (62.4
)
𝑓𝑡 3
𝐷𝑧 =
(𝑆. 𝐺. 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙) ∗ (% 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
1+( 100 )
Where: S.G. = Specific Gravity of the soil

Dz = Zero Air Voids Density at a specific moisture content
Example – Zero Air Voids Density:
S.G. soil = 2.650
Percent moisture = 11.2%
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
𝑙𝑏
(2.650) ∗ (62.4 3 )
𝑓𝑡
𝐷𝑧 =
(2.650) ∗ (11.2)
1+( )
100
𝑙𝑏
165.4
𝑓𝑡 3
𝐷𝑧 =
11.296
Dz = 127.6 lbs/ft³ at 11.2% Moisture
The Zero Air Voids Density Tabulation shown on the next page provides a quick reference to
determine the zero air voids density that would be obtained at various moisture contents
given typical specific gravity values for soil. When a specific gravity test is not conducted for
a soil; this table can be used to estimate the zero air voids density. For sands, specific gravity
is typically 2.65. For clays, specific gravity can range from 2.70 to 2.75.

Page 66
Table A-1 i:Zero Air Voids Density Tabulation Given Various Moisture Contents and Common
Specific Gravities for Soils
Zero Air Void Dry Densities

Moisture Content
(Percent of dry At 2.65 At 2.70 At 2.75
weight) Specific Gravity Specific Gravity Specific Gravity
(lb / ft3) (lb / ft3) (lb / ft3)
9.0 133.5 135.5 137.6
9.5 132.1 134.1 136.1
10.0 130.7 132.7 134.6
10.5 129.4 131.3 133.2
11.0 128.0 129.9 131.7
11.5 126.7 128.6 130.4
12.0 125.5 127.3 129.0
12.5 124.2 126.0 127.7
13.0 123.0 124.7 126.4
13.5 121.8 123.5 125.1
14.0 120.6 122.3 123.9
14.5 119.5 121.1 122.7
15.0 118.3 119.9 121.5
15.5 117.2 118.8 120.3
16.0 116.1 117.7 119.2
16.5 115.1 116.6 118.0
17.0 114.0 115.5 116.9
17.5 113.0 114.4 115.8
18.0 112.0 113.4 114.8
18.5 111.0 112.4 113.7
19.0 110.0 111.4 112.7
19.5 109.0 110.4 111.7
20.0 108.1 109.4 110.7
20.5 107.2 108.5 109.7
21.0 106.2 107.5 108.8
21.5 105.3 106.6 107.8
22.0 104.5 105.7 106.9
22.5 103.6 104.8 106.0
23.0 102.7 103.9 105.1

Page 67
Table A-1 ii: Continuation of Zero Air Voids Density Tabulation Given Various Moisture
Contents and Common Specific Gravities for Soils
Zero Air Void Dry Densities

Moisture Content
(Percent of dry At 2.65 At 2.70 At 2.75
weight) Specific Gravity Specific Gravity Specific Gravity
(lb / ft3) (lb / ft3) (lb / ft3)
23.5 101.9 103.1 104.2
24.0 101.1 102.2 103.4
24.5 100.3 101.4 102.5
25.0 99.5 100.6 101.7
25.5 98.7 99.8 100.9
26.0 97.9 99.0 100.1
26.5 97.1 98.2 99.3
27.0 96.4 97.4 98.5
27.5 95.7 96.7 97.7
28.0 94.9 95.9 96.9
28.5 94.2 95.2 96.2
29.0 93.5 94.5 95.5
29.5 92.8 93.8 94.7
30.0 92.1 93.1 94.0
30.5 91.4 92.4 93.3
31.0 90.8 91.7 92.6
31.5 90.1 91.0 91.9
32.0 89.5 90.4 91.3
32.5 88.8 89.7 90.6
33.0 88.2 89.1 90.0
33.5 87.6 88.5 89.3
34.0 87.0 87.8 88.7
34.5 86.4 87.2 88.1
35.0 85.8 86.6 87.4
35.5 85.2 86.0 86.8

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Transportation Technician Qualification Program

EMBANKMENT, BASE, &

Updated July 2024

www.codot.gov/programs/WAQTC WAQTC Embankment, Base, & In-Place Density Manual

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AASHTO R-75Developing a family of curves FOP ...................................................... 34

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AASHTO T-255: Total Evaporable Moisture Content of Aggregate By Drying FOP

The amount of water contained in many materials influences design

This procedure covers the determination of moisture content of

Overview T-255 & T-265 Figure 1:

• Balance or scale: capacity sufficient for the

• Container: clean, dry, and capable of being sealed

• Suitable drying container

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• Heat source, thermostatically controlled, capable of maintaining 110 ± 5°C (230 ±

• Forced draft oven (preferred)

o Infrared heater/heat lamp, hot plate,

o Microwave oven (900 watts minimum)

• Utensils such as spoons

• Hot pads or gloves T-255 & T-265 Figure 4: Infrared Oven

Obtain the sample in accordance with the FOP for

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Nominal Maximum Size* Minimum Sample Mass

150 (6) 50,000 (110)

100 (4) 25,000 (55)

90 (3 1/2) 16,000 (35)

75 (3) 13,000 (29)

63 (2 1/2) 10,000 (22)

50 (2) 8000 (18)

37.5 (1 1/2) 6000 (13)

9.5 (3/8) 1500 (3.3)

Maximum Particle Size Minimum Sample Mass

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Determine and record the sample masses as follows:

1. Determine and record the mass of the container.

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6. Dry until sample appears moisture free.

b. Drying interval for soil – controlled heat source (oven): 1 hour

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T-255 & T-265 Table 3:Methods of Drying

Calculate constant mass using the following formula:

Mp = previous mass measurement

Mn = new mass measurement

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Mass of container: 1232.1 g

Mass, Mp, of possibly dry sample: 2637.2 g - 1232.1 g = 1405.1 g

Mass of container and sample after second drying cycle: 2634.1 g

Mass, Mn, of sample: 2634.1 g - 1232.1 g = 1402.0 g

Mass of container and sample after third drying cycle: 2633.0 g

Mass, Mn, of sample: 2633.0 g - 1232.1 g = 1400.9 g

Moisture Content Aggregate and Soils:

Calculate the moisture content, as a percent, using the following formula:

w = moisture content, percent

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Mass of container: 1232.1 g

Mass of container and wet sample: 2764.7 g

Mass, MW, of wet sample: 2764.7 g - 1232.1 g = 1532.6 g