All Men by nature desire knowledge: Aristotle.

THE SCHOOL of ATHENS (Raphael) 1510 -11

Pythagoras
Euclid
Plato
Aristotle
Socrates
c
2
b
2
a
2
c
2
= a
2
+b
2

The Theorem of Pythagoras
b
a
c
In a right-angled triangle,
the square on the
hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares on the
other two sides.
Hypotenuse
Pythagoras of Samos
(6C BC)
25
9
16
5
2
= 3
2
+ 4
2
25 = 9 + 16
A Pythagorean Triple
3
4
5
3, 4, 5
In a right-angled triangle,
the square on the
hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares on the
other two sides.
169
144
25
13
2
= 5
2
+ 12
2
169 = 25 + 144
A 2nd Pythagorean Triple
5, 12, 13
5
12
13
In a right-angled triangle,
the square on the
hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares on the
other two sides.
The Egyptians new about the 3. 4, 5 triangle.
They were able to use this knowledge in the
construction of pyramids, temples and other
buildings to ensure a perfect right-angle at
the corners.
Rope with 12 equally
spaced knots.
They probably didnt know any other configurations such as (5, 12, 13) and they certainly
didnt know why it made a right-angle. In applying this method they were in fact using the
converse of what was to become Pythagoras Theorem, 1500 years into the future.
Ancient Egypt (2000 B.C.)
Mesopotamia
Plimpton 322 Tablet (1900 1600 B.C)
This clay tablet is written in Babylonian cuneiform text. The numbers are in base 60, not base
10.The text has been deciphered to reveal sets of Pythagorean Triples. The Mesopotamians had a
much clearer understanding of Pythagoras Theorem than the Egyptians, although they still could not
understand why such sets of triples existed. They had no idea how to produce a general proof.
The Mesopotamians had a
much more sophisticated
system of mathematics than
the Egyptians.
Bagdad
I R A Q
Ancient Greece
Aerial view of the Parthenon
(447 432 B.C.)
Reconstructed Parthenon (built on the golden ratio)
Thales of Miletus 640 546 B.C. The first
Mathematician. He predicted the Solar eclipse of 585 B.C
Platos Academy
(387 B.C.)
Pythagoras (570-500
b.c.)
c
a
b
a
2
+ b
2
= c
2

The Pythagoreans
Pythagoras was a semi-mystical figure who was born on the Island
of Samos in the Eastern Aegean in about 570 B.C. He travelled
extensively throughout Egypt, Mesopotamia and India absorbing
much mathematics and mysticism. He eventually settled in the
Greek town of Crotona in southern Italy.
He founded a secretive and scholarly society there that become
known as the Pythagorean Brotherhood. It was a mystical almost
religious society devoted to the study of Philosophy, Science and
Mathematics. Their work was based on the belief that all natural
phenomena could be explained by reference to whole numbers or
ratios of whole numbers. Their motto became All is Number.
They were successful in understanding the mathematical
principals behind music. By examining the vibrations of a single
string they discovered that harmonious tones only occurred when
the string was fixed at points along its length that were ratios of
whole numbers. For instance when a string is fixed 1/2 way along
its length and plucked, a tone is produced that is 1 octave higher
and in harmony with the original. Harmonious tones are produced
when the string is fixed at distances such as 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 2/3
and 3/4 of the way along its length. By fixing the string at points
along its length that were not a simple fraction, a note is
produced that is not in harmony with the other tones.
Pentagram
Pythagoras
Spirit
Water
Air
Earth
Fire
Pythagoras and his followers discovered many patterns and relationships between whole numbers.
Triangular Numbers:
1 + 2 + 3 + ...+ n
= n(n + 1)/2
Square Numbers:
1 + 3 + 5 + ...+ 2n 1
= n
2

Pentagonal Numbers:
1 + 4 + 7 + ...+ 3n 2
= n(3n 1)/2
Hexagonal Numbers:
1 + 5 + 9 + ...+ 4n 3
= 2n
2
-n
These figurate numbers were extended into 3 dimensional space and became
polyhedral numbers. They also studied the properties of many other types of
number such as Abundant, Defective, Perfect and Amicable.
In Pythagorean numerology numbers were assigned characteristics or attributes. Odd numbers were regarded as
male and even numbers as female.
1. The number of reason (the generator of all numbers)
2. The number of opinion (The first female number)
3. The number of harmony (the first proper male number)
4. The number of justice or retribution, indicating the squaring of accounts (Fair and square)
5. The number of marriage (the union of the first male and female numbers)
6. The number of creation (male + female + 1)
10. The number of the Universe (The tetractys. The most important of all numbers representing the sum
of all possible geometric dimensions. 1 point + 2 points (line) + 3 points (surface) + 4 points (plane)
Tetrahedron
Octahedron Icosahedron
Hexahedron
Do-decahedron
The Pythagorean School consisted of about 600
followers. They believed in the re-incarnation and
the transmigration of the soul and followed certain
taboos. They would not eat meat or lentils and would
not wear wool clothing. The members were expected
to understand the teachings of their leader and
make contributions to the school by way of original
ideas or proofs. They were sworn to secrecy and any
new discovery had to be kept within the group. One
member was punished by drowning, after he publicly
announced the discovery of the 5
th
regular
polyhedron (Do-decahedron).
It is not completely certain that it was Pythagoras himself that discovered the proof
named after him. It could have been a member of the brotherhood. Legend has it that
the discovery of the proof led to celebrations that included the sacrifice of up to 100
oxen. This seems a little improbable given that they were all vegetarians.
What Makes The Theorem So Special?
The establishment of many theorems are based on properties of objects that appear
intuitively obvious. For example, base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal or the
angle in a semi-circle is a right angle. This is not at all the case with Pythagoras.
There is no intuitive feeling that such an intimate connection exists between right
angles and sums of squares. The existence of such a relationship is completely
unexpected. The theorem establishes the truth of what is quite simply, an extremely
odd fact.
There are literally hundreds of different proofs of Pythagoras Theorem. The original
6
th
Century BC proof is lost and the next one is attributed to Euclid of Alexandria
(300 BC) who wrote The Elements. He proves the Theorem at the end of book I
(I.47) after first proving 46 other theorems. He used some of these other theorems
as building blocks to establish the proof. This proof is examined later.
The Chinese may have discovered a proof sometime
during the 1
st
millennium as a diagram similar to that
shown, appears in a text called Chou pei suan ching.
Although no formal proof was left behind the
diagram clearly indicates that they had knowledge
of 3,4, 5 triangles.
Their reasoning was that the area of the centre
square was the same as the combined area of the 4
triangles + the small square contained within.
Area = 4 x 6 + 1 = 25 = (Square on hypotenuse) of a
triangle with sides 3 and 4. So the third side = 5.
Some people have suggested that Pythagoras may
have used a similar approach in his proof.
We will now examine a possible approach to a
proof based on this idea shortly.
hsuan-thu
Proving The Theorem of Pythagoras
Proof 1 (adapted) : Possibly Greek (Pythagoras)/Chinese: (6C BC 1000AD)
Concepts needed: angles sum of a triangle/straight line/congruence/area of triangle/expansion of double
brackets/simple equations
Proof 2 (adapted) Bahskara (12
th
century)
Concepts needed: Area of a triangle/expansion of Double brackets.
Proof 3 (adapted) : President Garfields (1876)
Concepts needed: angle sum of a triangle/straight line/area of a triangle/area of a trapezium/expansion
of double brackets/simple equations/algebraic manipulation
Proof 4 John Wallis: (A similarity proof with no reference to area) (17 C)
Concepts needed:angle sum of a triangle/similar triangles/algebraic manipulation
Proof 5 (adapted) Euclid (The Elements: I.47) (300 BC)
Concepts needed: Congruence (SAS)/Area of a triangle = area of a parallelogram on the same base.
Some preparation needs to be given to this before attempting it.
Proof 6 (adapted) Euclid (The Elements: I.48) Converse of the Theorem (300 BC)
Concepts needed: Angle sum of a triangle/Pythagoras Theorem/Congruence (SSS)
Proof 7 Perigals visual demonstration of his proof (Proof details are omitted) (1830)
Difficulty level: to Remember when showing proofs 1/4/5 that Algebra was
a long way in the future and that everything was based on the Geometry of the situation.
Distances were regarded as line segments.
A Collection of some of the Finest Proofs.
He was 40 years old before he looked in on Geometry, which
happened accidentally. Being in a Gentlemans library, Euclids
Elements lay open and twas the 47 El libri 1. He read the
proposition. By God sayd he (he would now and then swear an
emphaticall Oath by way of emphasis) this is impossible! So he
reads the Demonstration of it which referred him back to
such a Proposition, which proposition he read. That referred
him back to another which he also read. Et sic deinceps that
at last he was demonstratively convinced of the trueth. This
made him in love with Geometry.
From the life of Thomas Hobbes in John Aubreys Brief Lives, about 1694
Thomas Hobbes: Philosopher and
scientist (1588 1679)
Geometric Proofs
"He studied and nearly mastered the Six-books of Euclid
(geometry) since he was a member of Congress. He began a
course of rigid mental discipline with the intent to improve his
faculties, especially his powers of logic and language.
Hence his fondness for Euclid, which he carried with him on
the circuit till he could demonstrate with ease all the
propositions in the six books; often studying far into the night,
with a candle near his pillow, while his fellow-lawyers, half a
dozen in a room, filled the air with interminable snoring..
(Abraham Lincoln from Short Autobiography of 1860.)
Abraham Lincoln: 16
th
U.S. President
(1809 65)
At the age of twelve I experienced a second wonder of a totally different
nature: in a little book dealing with Euclidean plane geometry, which came into
my hands at the beginning of a school year. Here were assertions as for
example, the intersection of the 3 altitudes of a triangle in one point, which
though by no means evident, could nevertheless be proved with such certainty
that any doubt appeared to be out of the question. This lucidity and
certainty, made an indescribable impression upon me.
For example I remember that an uncle told me the Pythagorean Theorem
before the holy geometry booklet had come into my hands. After much
effort I succeeded in proving this theorem on the basis of similarity of
triangles. For anyone who experiences [these feelings] for the first time, it is
marvellous enough that man is capable at all to reach such a degree of
certainty and purity in pure thinking as the Greeks showed us for the first
time to be possible in geometry. From pp 9-11 in the opening autobiographical sketch of Albert
Einstein: Philosopher Scientist, edited by Paul Arthur.Schillp, published 1951
Albert Einstein
E =
mc
2

We first need to show that the shape in
the middle is a square.
The sides are equal in length since each is
the hypotenuse of congruent triangles.
The angles are all 90
o
since x+y = 90
0
and
angles on a straight line add to 180
o

Take 3 identical copies of this right-angled triangle and arrange like so.
a
b
c
x
o

y
o

a
b
c
x
o

y
o

b
a
c
x
o

y
o

b
a
c
y
o

x
o

Area of large square
= (a + b)
2
= a
2
+ 2ab + b
2

Area of large square is also
= c
2
+ 4 x ab = c
2
+ 2ab
So
a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
= c
2
+ 2ab
a
2
+ b
2
= c
2
QED
A Proof of Pythagoras Theorem
To prove that a
2
+ b
2
= c
2

b
a
c
b-a
To prove that a
2
+ b
2
= c
2

c
2
= 4 x ab + (b-a)
2

c
2
= 2ab + b
2
2ab + a
2

c
2
= a
2
+ b
2
(QED)
Bhaskaras Proof (Indian Mathematician 12
th
century)
Bhaskaras approach is to partition the square on the hypotenuse
into 4 right-angled triangles that are congruent to the original,
plus a central square.
We first need to show that the angle between
angle x and angle y is a right angle.
This angle is 90
o
since x + y = 90
o
and angles on a
straight line add to 180
o

Take 1 identical copy of this right-angled triangle and arrange like so
Area of trapezium
= (a + b)(a + b) = (a
2
+2ab + b
2
)
Area of trapezium is also equal to the
areas of the 3 right-angled triangles.
= ab + ab + c
2

So
(a
2
+2ab + b
2
) = ab + ab + c
2

a
2
+2ab + b
2
= 2ab + c
2
a
2
+ b
2
= c
2
QED
a
b
c
x
o

y
o

a
b
c
x
o

y
o

Draw line:The boundary shape is a trapezium
To prove that a
2
+ b
2
= c
2

President James Garfields Proof(1876)
A
B
C
a
b
c
o
|
John Wallis Proof: English Mathematician (1616-1703)
Draw CD perpendicular to AB
Angle BCD = o since o + | + 90
o
= 180
o
(from large triangle)
o
Angle ACD= | = since o + | + 90
o
= 180
o
(from large triangle)
|
Angle BDC is a right angle (angles on a straight line)
All 3 triangles are similar since they are equiangular
Comparing corresponding sides in 1 and 2:
2 2
a
a
c c
c
c x a
x =

=
Comparing corresponding sides in 1 and 3:
2
b c
x b
b cx = =
2 2 2
adding equations gives: a b c + =
D
x
1
2 3
A
B
C
a
b
c
o |
A
B
C
a
b
o
|
D D
|
o
x
C
Triangles ACB, CDB and ADC are
similar
c - x
a
The Theorem of Pythagoras
Euclid 1.47
The Windmill
Euclid of Alexandria
D
E
F
G
H
K
Proof:
Construct squares on each of the 3 sides (1.46)
To Prove that area of square BDEC = area of square ABFG + area of square ACHK
A
B
C
Draw AL through A parallel to BD (1.31)
Draw Lines AD and FC
M
L
CA and AG lay on the same straight line (2 right angles)(1.14)
In triangles ABD and FBC AB = FB (sides of the same small square)
BD = BC (sides of the same larger square)
Also included angles are equal (right angle + common angle ABC)
triangles are congruent (SAS) and so are equal in area (1.4)
Rectangle BDLM = 2 x area of triangle ABD (1.41)
Square ABFG = 2 x area of triangle FBC (1.41)
Area of rectangle BDLM = Area of square ABFG
Draw lines BK and AE
BA and AH lay on the same straight line (2 right angles (1.14)
In triangles ACE and BCK, AC = CK (sides of smaller square)
BC = CE (sides of larger square)
Also included angles are equal (right angle + common angle ACB)
triangles are congruent (SAS) and so are equal in area (1.4)
Rectangle MLCE = 2 x area of triangle Ace (1.41)
Square ACHK = 2 area of triangle BCK (1.41)
Area of rectangle MLCE = Area of square ACHK
Area of square BDEC = area of square ABFG + area of square ACHK. QED
Euclids Proof
Euclids Proof of the Converse of Pythagoras Theorem (I.48)
To prove that: If the square on the hypotenuse
is equal to the sum of the squares on the other
two sides then the triangle contains a right angle.
Draw CE perpendicular to BC
o
To prove that angle o is a right angle
Given c
2
= a
2
+ b
2

The Proof
b
c
a
C
A
B
E
Construct CD equal to CA
and join B to D
Applying Pythagoras Theorem to triangle BCD
BD
2
= BC
2
+ DC
2
(I.47)
BD
2
= a
2
+ b
2
(since BC = a and DC = b)

BD
2
= c
2
(since a
2
+ b
2
= c
2
given)

BD = c
D
Triangles BCD and BCA are congruent by (SSS) angle o is a right angle QED
Incommensurable Magnitudes (Irrational Numbers)
1
1
\2
The whole of Pythagorean mathematics
and philosophy was based on the fact
that any quantity or magnitude could
always be expressed as a whole number
or the ratio of whole numbers.
Unit Square
The discovery that the diagonal of a
unit square could not be expressed in
this way is reputed to have thrown the
school into crisis, since it undermined
some of their earlier theorems.
Story has it that the member of the school who made the
discovery was taken out to sea and drowned in an attempt to
keep the bad news from other members of the school.
He had discovered the first example of what we know today as
irrational numbers.
1
1
\2
1
It is possible to draw a whole series of lengths that are irrational by
following the pattern in the diagram below and using Pythagoras
Theorem. Continue the diagram to produce lengths of \3, \5, \6, \7,
etc. See how many you can draw. You should get an interesting shape.
1
1
\2
1
\3
1
\4
1
\5
1
\6
1
\7
1
\8
1
\9
1
\10
1
\11
1
\12
1
\13
1
\14
1
\15
1
\16
1
\17
1
\18
221 220 21 10
181 180 19 9
145 144 17 8
113 112 15 7
85 84 13 6
61 60 11 5
41 40 9 4
25 24 7 3
13 12 5 2
5 4 3 1
? ? 2n+1 n

There are an infinite number of triples of this type

Pythagorean Triples (Shortest side odd)
2n
2
+ 2n 2n
2
+ 2n + 1
485(125) 483(117) 44 10
401 399 40 9
325 323 36 8
257 255 32 7
197(53) 195(45) 28 6
145 143 24 5
101(29) 99(21) 20 4
65 63 16 3
37 35 12 2
17 15 8 1
? ? 4n+4 n

There are an infinite number of triples of this type

Pythagorean Triples (Shortest side even)
4n
2
+ 8n + 3 4n
2
+ 8n + 5
INVESTIGATE