The practical work in the second year of your A level course builds on what you have covered in the

first year. The examination will test you on two areas: planning experimerts, and analysis and evaluation of your results.

(fixed) temperature of the second junction of the therrnocouple.

Data coUeetion
The next task is to think about how you are going to carry the experiment out. Once you have a method in mind you need to: Deseribe the method to be used to vary the independent variable. Deseribe how the independent variable is to be measured. Deseribe how the dependent variable is to be measured. Deseribe how other variables are to be controlled. Describe, with the aid of a clear, labelled diagram, the arrangement of apparatus for the experiment and the procedures to be followed. In the experiment to investigate the response time of a thermocouple you may decide that the sirnplest way of varying the independent variable is to have a water bath and to vary its temperature. When the temperature has reached the required level, plunge the 'probe junction' into the water. The procedure would be: 1 Measure the temperature of the water with a laboratory thermometer. 2 The reading from the therrnocouple will be displayed on a millivoltmeter and the dependent variable, the time taken for the reading to reach its steady value, measured with a Stop watch. 3 There are several different variables that need to be controlled. In practice you will only need to consider one or two. The second junctior of the thermocouple should be kept at a constant temperature by keeping it in cortact with melting ice. The probe junction should be cooled to the same temperature each time, again by holding it in the melting ice. Your description of the experiment should be clear and concise. It sometimes helps to give the description in the form of bullet points or a numbered list. A labelled diagram will always clarify your description. In the experiment deseribed here, the diagram shown in Figure Al. would be sufficien t.

Planning
Alrhough you should be thinking of experimental procedures from as soo n as you embark on an A level course, if not before, by the time you complere the course you should be competent in planning . experimental procedures. There are different stages in planning an experiment.

Defining the problem

it may seem obvious, but the first thing is to idertify the problem. To do that you must idenrify: the independent variable in the experiment the dependent variable in the experiment the variables that are to be controlled. For instance you may be investigating the response time of a thermocouple when it is used to measure changing temperatutes, as shown in Figure Al. I. What are the variables here?

probe juction water bath fixed junction =---I~~ins melting ice

Figure A2.1 Investigating the response time of a thermocouple thermometer.

The independent variable would be the temperature which is to be measured. The dependent variable would be the time it takes for the reading on the thermocouple meter to reach a steady value. There maybe severalother variables that could affect the result. One might be the starting temperature of the therrnostat 'probe junction', arother is the

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Appendix A2 Further practical skills

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Method of analysis
This requires that you deseribe how the data should be used in order to reach a conclusion, including details of derived quantities to be cakulated. In our example, we could plot a graph of the temperature of the water bath (x-axis) against the response time (y-axis). How would we use the graph? If the graph gives a straight line through the origin, ther we see that the response time is linear across the temperatlire range tested.

Additional details
This tests your experience of doing practical work. Have you had suflicient experience to see things which will improve the experiment? Here are some ideas that might be incorporated in the general description of the experiment: Stir the water in the bath so that it all reaches a unitorm temperature. Use an oil bath to give a wider range of temperatures. Replace the water bath with different substances at rheir melting or boiling points so that the temperatures are more repeatable. Check the reading on the therrnocouple volrrneter at the melting or boiling points of the different substances before carrying out the main experiment. Use a digital voltneter so that it is easy to spot when the thermocouple reaches the steady temperature.

1 Figures A2.2a and A2.2b show two possible sets of results for the therrnocouple experiment. For each, state how the response time depends on the temperature.
Time Time

Mathematical analysis of data

In Appendix Al, we saw how to rearrange simple equations into the form y= mx+ c and how to use a straight-lire graph to hnd the constants m and c. However, you also need to be able to deal with quantities related by equations of the form y= ax" and y = ae", For these, you need to be able to use logarithms (logs). In handling data, our aim is usually to process the data to obtain a straight line graph. Then we can deduce quantities from the gradient and the intercepts. Table A2. i shows the graph which should be plotted in each case, and the quantities which can be deduced from the graph.

Temperature

Temperature b

Figure A2.2 Graphs showing how the response time of a thermocouple might depend on the temperature being measured.

5afety
You need to assess the risks of the experiment and deseribe precautions that should be taken to keep risks to aminimum. In our example it is sufficient to mention simple ideas such as wearing goggles to protect the eyes when heating liquids, or ensuring that the water bath is stable and cannot be easily knocked over. The use of tongs to put the thermocouple junction into the bath is arother example.
Relationship Graph
y against x

Gradient m
n

Intercept on j-axis c Ina Ina

because ...

r==
y=axn y=aekx Table
A2.1

Inyagainst
Inx

Iny=
nlnx+lna Iny=kx+

Iny against x k

Ina

Choice ofaxes for straight-line graphs.

i Appendix A2 ~--------~~---Further practical skills

IIL

A relationship of the form v= ax"

Abali falls under graviry in the absence of air resistance. It falls a distance s in time t. The results are given in the first two columns ofTable Al.2. Notice that the unit for the logarithm is written as In (s / m) and not In (s) / m or In (s) / In (m). form y= ax", we can test this idea by plotting a graph of In s against In t (a 'log-log plot'). Table Al.2 shows the values for Ins and In t, and the resulting graph is shown in Figure Al.4. (Notice that here we are using 'natural logs', bur we could equally well use logs to base 10, written as 'lg'.)

Time tls 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 L.OO 1.20

Distanee fallen s m 0.20 0.78 L.76 3.14 4.90 7.05

in (tl s) -L.61 -0.92 -0.51 -0.22 0.00 0.18

1.

in (sm) -L.61 -0.25

In (sm)
2.0

1.0

0.57 1.14 L.59 L.95

-2.0 -1.5 -1

-05
-1.0

<i.s

In (t/s)

Table A2.2 Results for Example

8.0

Rgure A2.4 A log-log plot for the data shown in Table A2.2.

6.0

From this graph the gradient is equal to the value of n, the power of t. . n = gradent (-1.55-0.5)
= -----------

-~
E
c

<LI u

4.0

(- 1.50 - 2.55)
=

2 .~
o
2.0

1.98 ",,2.0

o~~--,-----,------r-----o
0.80 1.20

So the equation is of the form s = at? The intercept on the y-ax:is is equal to In a, so: Ina
=

Time/s

1.6

Figure A2.3 A distance-time graph plotted using the data in Table A2.2.

By taking the antilogarithm we ger:

a= 4.95 ms-2""

5.0 rns?

A graph of the distance fallen against time gives the curve shown in Figure Al.3. This, being a curve, tells us little about the relationship between the variables. If, however, we suspect that the relationship is of the

If we think of the eq uation for free fall 5= gt?-, the constant a = g. But g = 9.8 m S-2 which is consistent with the value we get for our constant.

1-

1-

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Appendix

A2 Further practical skills

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A relationship

of the form y= ae"

r/mA
10

A current flows from a charged capacitor when it is connected in a circuit with a resistor. The current decreases exponentially with time (the same pattem we see in radioactive decay). Figure A2.S shows the circuit and Table A2.3 shows typical values of current i and time t from such an experiment.

Current I/mA o.OO 6.70 4.49 3.01 2.02 1.35

Table A2.3

Time t/s 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

ln(I/mA)
2.303 1.902 1.502 1.102 0.703 0.300
discharge experiment.
2.0

0+------,-----,,-----,-----1.2 o 0.4 0.8

Time / s

FigureA2.6

InI

Results from a capacitor

c = 10 IlF

1.0

o+------,------,---~,-----o
Lo
=10

0.8
Time/s

1.2

mA
Figure Az.z

.J

R=

20.0

kQ
the discharge of a

The gradient of the graph gives us the value of the constant k. . (O- . 16) k=gradent= =-0.S04l::::-0.SOl (2.30 - O) From the graph, we can also see that the intercept on the y-axis has the value 2.30 and hence (taking the inverse log) we have 10=9.97 = 10.OmA. Hence we can write an equation to represent the deereasing current as follows:

Figure A2.5 A circuit for investigating capacitor.

The graph obtained from these results (Figure A2.6) shows a typical decay curve, but we cannot be sure that it is exponential. To show that the curve is of the form 1=10 ek" we plor In i against t (a 'log-linear plor'). Values of n are included in Table A2.3. (Here, we must use logs to base e rather than to base 10.) The graph oflnI against t is a straight line (Figure A2.?), confirming that the decrease in current followsan exponential pattern. The negative gradient showing exponential decay, rather than growth.

1= 10.Oe-o.50'
We could use this equation to calculate the current at any time t.

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Appendix A2 Further practical skills

11l1

Combining uncertainties
When 2 In the expressions that follow x and y are variables in an experiment. All the other quantities in the expressions are constants. absolute quantities are added or subtracted, A simple their example uncertainties are added.

is that when measuring the length of a stick using a millimetre scale there is likely to be an uncertainty of 0.5 mm at both ends, giying a total uncerta irty of 1.0 mm. To combine rnultiplied uncertainties when quantities if theyare are You in the or divided is a little more complex. quantities subtract current

In each case, state the graph you would plot to produce a straight line. Give the gradient of each line in terms of the constants in the expression.

a y= kX3/2

b v= c.x'l
c m= 8x

can only add or subtract same units; you cannot However, the combined the percentage
2

from voltage!

Bi
x

you can multiply uncertainry uncertainties.

or divide them. To find in a cas e like this we add

dy=yoe
e
-

kx

R- (Y- Yo) T of a small spherical by a length i of thread is given

3 The period of oscillation

mass supported by the expression

Worked example
1 The potertial difference across aresistor is measured as 6.0 0.2 V, whilst the current is measured as 2.4 O. 1 A.

T=2n

f-f
due to gravity. using this due showing In your attention to: experiment to determine the acceleration

where g is the acceleration Design a laboratory expression

Calculate absolute

the resistance uncertainty

of the resistor and the

in its measurement. uncertainty in each

Step 1 Find the percentage

of the quantities: percentage uncertainty

to gravity. You should draw a diagram the arrangement account, of your equipment. to be followed to be taken you should pay particular

in p.d. = 0.2 6.0 =3.3%

100%

a the procedure

b the measurements

c how to analyse the data to determine

percentage

uncertainty

in current = 0.1 x 100%=4.2% 2.4 uncertainties = (3.3 + 4.2)% = 7.5%

d any safety precautions

that you would take.

Step 2 Add the percentage

Treatment of uncertainties
All results should indude uncertainty. a runner to cornplete an estimate of the absolute the time for For example, when measuring the 100 m you may express this as as a percentage Al); the percentage so we

Step 3 Calculate the resistance value and find

the absolute uncertairry

R= V = 6.0 =2.50

2.4

12.1 0.2 s. This can also be expressed uncertainty uncertairry (see Appendix

7.5% of2.5=0.1875===0.20 The resistarce of the resistor is 2.5 0.2 O.

is equal to 0.2 x 100% = 1.65%. 12.1 write the value as 12.1 s 7%.

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Appendix A2 Further practical skills

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When you calculate the uncertainty in the square of a quantity rher, since this is an example of multiplicatior you should double the percentage uncertainty. For example if A = 2.0 + 0.2 cm then A has a percentage uncertainty of 10% so A2 = 4.0 m ' 20%; or using the absolute uncertai nty A2 = 4.0 0.8 crn".

Worked example
2 The resistance of aresistor is given as 47 5 o. The value of In (R i O) is to be plotred on a graph. Calculate the value and uncertainty in In (RIO). Step

Calculate

the logarithm of the given value:

In (RIO) = ln47 = 3.85 4 You measure the following quantities: A= 1.0m0.4m B=2.0m0.2m C=2.0ms-lO.5ml D=0.20s0.01s. Calculate the answer and the uncertainry for the following expressions. You may express your uncertainty either as an absolute value or as a percentage. aA+B bB-A c CxD Step 2 Calculate the logarithm of the maximum value: maximum value = 47 In 52 = 3.95 Step 3 The uncertainty= 3.95 - 3.85 = O.10 Thus In (RIO) = 3.85 O.10
+

5 = 520

dlL
D e A2 f 2xA g the square root of (A x B) 5 A rifie bullet is photographed in Hight using rwo Hashes of light separated by a time interval of 1.00 ms 0.02 ms. The nrst image of the bullet on the photograph appears to be at a position of 22.5 0.5 cm on a scale underneath the Highr path. The positior of the second image is 37.5 0.7 cm on the same scale. Find the speed of the bullet and the absolute uncertainty.

Uncertainties and graphs

We can use error bars to show uncertainties on graphs. Table A2.4 shows results for an experiment on stretching a spring.

Load/N O 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Length of spring/cm 12.40.2 14.00.2 15.80.2 17.60.2 18.80.2 20.40.2

Extension i cm 0.0 1.60.4 3.40.4 5.20.4 6.40.4 8.00.4

Table A2.4 Results from an experiment on stretching a spring.

Uncertainties and logarithms

When a log graph is used and we need to include error bars (see uncertainties and graphs) we must nnd the logarithm of the measured value and either the logarithm of the largest or smallest possible value. The uncertainty will be the difference between the two.

When plotting the graph the points are plotted as usual, and the n theyare extended to show the extreme values, as shown in Figure A2.8. Then the best nt line is drawn. To estimate the error in the gradient we draw not only the best nt line but also the 'worst acceptable line'. This line is the worst line which goes through all the error bars, and is shown in Figure A2.9.

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Appendix A2 Further practical skills

EDI

: ---::,-.:,:~~:~
,

'

Extension i cm 8.0

In our experiment, the gradients are:

line ofbest fit: gradient

8.2 - OJ ( 5.0 - cmN-I

1.58 cm N-I", 1.6 N cm N-i 8.4-0J ( 5.0 =

6.0

line of worst fit: gradient

cm N-i

1.4cmN-I

2.0

So the uncertain ty in the gradient

= . 6 - . 7 =O.l cm N:' The gradient is therefore: 1.6 O.1 cm N-I.

o~------r------.------.------o
2

6 Load i N

Figure A2.8 A graph representing the data in Table A2.4, with error bars and a line of best fit drawn.

6 Suggest why there are no uncertainties induded in the measurements of the load.

Extension i cm 8.0

7 it s suggested that R and

equation:

are related by the

R = al'

where a and b are constants.

6.0

a A graph is plotted with In R on the y-axis and In r on the x-axis. Express the gradient and y-intercept in terrns of a and b. b Values of R and r are given in Table A2.5.

r mm
2.00.1
2.0

RO.
175.0 77.8 43.8 28.0 19.4 3.00.1 4.00.1

o~-----,r------.------.------o
2

5.00.1 6.00.1
Table A2.5 Results for Test yourself Q 7.

6 Load i N

Figure A2.9 The same graph as in Figure A2.8, with a 'worst acceptable' line drawn (dashed).

The gradients for both best fit and worst fir lines are calculated and the error is the difference in their gradients: error
=

Calculate and record values of In (R i Q) and In (r mm) in the table and indude the absolute uncertainties in In (r mm). c Plot a graph ofln (RI Q) and In (r mm). Indude error bars for In (r mm). continued ...~.

(gradient of best fit line) - (gradient of worst acceptable line)

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Appendix A2 Further practical skills

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d Draw the line of best nt and a worst

acceptable straight line on your graph.
e Determine the gradient of the line of best nt.

Include the uncertainty in your answer. f Using your answer to e, determine the value of b. g Determine the value of a and its uncertainty.

Conclusions and evaluation of results

.In the previous experiment we can conclude that the extension/load for the spring in this example is .6 0.2 cm N-I. If a hypothesis is rnade that the

extensior is proportional to the load ther there is enough evidence here for the conclusion to be supported, as a straight line can be drawn from the origin through all the error bars. If this is not possible ther the hypothesis is not validated. Now, suppose that the hypothesis is that the spring obeys Hooke's lawand stretches by 5.8 cm when a load of 3.5 N is applied. The firsr part is validated for the reasons given above. However, an extension of 5.0 cm for a load of 2.5 N gives a value of 2.0 cm N-I for the gradient. This is clearly outside the range allowed for by the uncertainty in our measurements, and therefore the hypothesis is not supported .

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Appendix A2 Further practical skills