1

POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

UNIT 2
CONDENSORS COOLING TOWERS AND THERMAL POWER
PLANT
Steam condenser
The steam condenser in a steam power plant is used to convert the exhaust steam from
the turbine into water. So that the condensed water can be used again as the feed
water. It also reduces the pressure (below atmospheric pressure) at the exit of the
turbine, and this creates a space for the exhaust steam to come out from the turbine.
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The various function that a steam condenser perform in steam power plant are

 It condenses the exhaust steam from the turbine.

 It creates a pressure drop at the exit of the turbine and this provides a way for
the exhaust steam to come out from the turbine.
 It is the only steam condenser that makes the exhaust steam to reuse as feed
water for the boiler.
 It increases the efficiency of the power plant.
 It reduces the requirement of water for the boiler.

The main purpose of a steam condenser in turbine is to maintain a low back pressure
on the exhaust side of the steam turbine. After releasing from nozzles, the steam has to
expand to a great extent for converting available energy into it to usable mechanical
work. So, if the steam after doing its, work, does not get condensed, it will not give
required space to other steam behind it, to expand to its required volume

Condensation of steam in a closed system creates an empty place by reduction of

volume of the low pressure steam.
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It is found that, 1 Kg of dry steam at 1.033 kg/cm 2 absolute pressure has a volume of
1.673 m3 when it is condensed into water at 100oC in a steam condenser; its volume
becomes 0.001044 m3.

The volume would be thus 1/1644 parts of the space inside the vessel, and the pressure
would fall to 0.2 kg/cm2 absolute pressure. This means, pressure in the exhaust of the
turbine falls to 0.2 kg/cm2 from 1.033 kg/cm2.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD SURFACE CONDENSER

The following are the requirements of a good surface condenser:

1. The steam should enter the condenser with least possible resistance for its easy flow.

2. For effective condensation the steam should be well distributed in the vessel and
there should be minimum pressure drop.

3. The circulating cooling water should flow through the tubes with least friction. The rise
in temperature of cooling water should be limited to 10°C for obtaining better thermal
efficiency.

4. There should be no undercooling of the condensate, so the steam should lose only its
latent heat to the circulating water. This is made possible by regulating the quantity of
circulating water in such a way that its exit temperature is same as the saturation
temperature of steam.

5. To obtain maximum heat transfer rate the tubes should be made of high thermal
conductivity material. The water should flow through tubes and steam outside so that
the outer surface of the tubes does not get deposited with sediments. If the cooling
water is dirty then sediments will get deposited inside the tubes. These sediments can
be cleaned by motor driven brushes after removing the end cover plates.

6. There should be no leakage of air from the condenser.

7. Minimum energy should be spent to extract the air from the condenser. This is
achieved by fitting a baffle plate at the coolest section where air pump is fitted. This
arrangement reduces the specific volume of air and thus reduces the size of the pump.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONDENSERS

Jet Condensers
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of jet condensers.
Advantages
1. Due to more intimate mixing of steam and cooling water it requires less quantity of
circulating water for the condensation of steam.
2. Due to direct mixing it requires less building space.
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3. The arrangement of jet condenser is simple in construction and low in cost. Its
maintenance cost is also low.
4. Low-level jet condenser does not require
Disadvantages
1. If the condensate is to be used as feed water then the cooling water should be pure
and free from any harmful impurities.

2. In the barometric condenser use of long pipe increase the cost of the condenser.

3. In the low-level jet condenser if the condensate extraction pump fails then there is
greater possibility of flooding of the engine.

4. In the case of barometric condenser a vacuum loss of about 1 to 1.5 cm of Hg occurs

due to leakage in the long exhaust pipe line.

5. Vacuum more than 66 cm of Hg cannot be achieved. This is because the dissolved air
in the cooling water gets liberated at low pressures.

6. The air extraction pump needs high power which may be about double the power
required by a surface condenser.

Surface Condensers

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of surface condensers.

Advantages

1. A high vacuum can be achieved (as much as 73.5 cm of Hg) and thus gives greater
plant efficiency.

2. Since the cooling water and steam do not mix, the condensate is recovered and can
be used as feed water to the boiler. Due to this advantage, these condensers are used in
all steam power plants.

3. Since the cooling water and steam do not mix, any kind of cooling water can be used.
This results in considerable reduction in the cost of water softening plant.

4. The chances of vacuum loss are minimized.

5. It requires much less power to run the air extraction pump and for water pumping.

6. It ideally suits high capacity plants.

7. It requires less quantity of make up water (about 4% to 5%).

Disadvantages

type condenser.

This type of condenser is used sometime because it lost some of the condensate and
requires high power for the pump during the process of condensation.

In jet condenser, as the condensate is not free from the salt, so it cannot be used as feed
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water for the boiler. It can be used at the place where sufficient amount of good quality
water is available. 1. The system is bulky and requires large floor area.

2. It requires high capital cost and maintenance cost.

3. It requires more cooling water.

Classification of Steam Condenser

The steam condenser is classified as

1. Jet condensers or mixing type condenser

2. Surface condenser or non-mixing type condenser

Jet Condenser
Jet condenser is a condenser in which the condensate gets mixed with the cooling water.
That’s why it is also called as mixing type condenser.

Types of Jet Condenser

(i) Parallel Flow Jet Condenser

In parallel flow jet condenser, the steam and water enters into the condenser at the top
and leaves at the bottom.

The cooling water and steam enters at the top. As both steam and cooling water mix
with each other, the steam gets condense. The condensate, cooling water and air moves
downward and it is removed by two separate pumps known as air extraction pump and
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condensate extraction pump. The condensate pump transfers the condensate to the hot
well and from there the extra water is made to flow in cooling water tank or pond
through overflow pipe.

(ii) Counter Flow , Low Level Jet Condenser

In counter Flow or low level jet condensers, the steam enters at the bottom and the
cooling water at the top. The steam flows upward and meets the cooling water coming
downward.

In these types of steam Condensers, the air pump is located at the top. Air pump creates
vacuum and this vacuum draws water from the cooling tower. The cooling water enter
into the condenser and falls on the perforated conical plate. The perforated conical
plates convert the cooling water into a large number of jets as shown in the figure. The
falling jet of water caught in the trays and from there it escapes out in second series of
jets and meets the exhaust steam entering at the bottom. As the steam mix with the
water, it gets condense. The condensate and cooling water moves down through a
vertical pipe to the condensate pump. And finally the pump delivers it to the hot well.

(iii) Barometric or High Level Jet Condenser

Barometric or high level jet condensers are provided at high level with a long vertical
discharge tube or tailpipe. It does not have condensate extraction pump and the
condensate and cooling water flows in the hot well because of the gravity. An injector
pump is used to flow cooling water at the top of the condenser.
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These types of jet condensers are used at a high level with a vertical discharge pipe. In
this condenser, the steam enters at the bottom and flows in upward direction and meets
with the down coming cooling water. Its working is similar as the low level jet condenser.
The vacuum is created at the top of the condenser shell. With the help of vacuum and
injector pump, the cooling water is moved to the top of the condenser. The condensate
and cooling water comes down in the hot well through a long vertical discharge pipe.
And finally the extra hot water flows to the cooling tank or cooling pond by an overflow
pipe
(iv) Ejector Condenser

Fig. 1.15 shows an ejector condenser. In this condenser cold water is discharged under a
head of about 5 to 6 m through a series of convergent nozzles. The steam and air enter
the condenser through a non-return valve. Mixing with water condenses steam. Pressure
energy is partly convert into kinetic energy at the converging cones. In the diverging
cone the kinetic energy is partly converted into pressure energy and a pressure higher
than atmospheric pressure is achieved so as to discharge the condensate to the hot well.
Surface Condensers
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Surface condenser is a type of steam condenser in which the steam and cooling water do
not mix with each other. And because of this, the whole condensate can be used as
boiler feed water. It is also called as non-mixing types condenser.
The figure above shows the longitudinal section of a two pass surface condenser.
It consists of a horizontal cylindrical vessel made of cast iron and packed with tubes.
The cooling water flows through these tubes. The ends of the condensers are cut off by
the perforated type plates. The tubes are fixed into these perforated type plates. It is
fixed in such a manner that any leakage of water into the center of condensing space is
prevented. The water tubes are passed horizontally through the main condensing space.
The exhaust steam from the turbine or engine enters at the top and forced to move
downward due to the suction of the air extraction pump. In this steam condenser, the
cooling water enters into boiler through lower half of the tubes in one direction and
returns in opposite direction through the upper half as shown in the figure above.
This type of condenser is used in ships as it can carry only a limited quantity of water for
the boiler. It is also widely used for the land installation where there is a scarcity of good
quality of water.

Types of Surface Condensers

The surface condenser on the basis of direction of flow of condensate, the arrangement
of the tubing system and the position of the extraction pump are classified as:

1.Down Flow
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In Down flow surface condenser, the steam enters at the top of the condenser and flows
downwards over the tubes due to the gravity and air extraction pumps. The condensate
gets collected at the bottom and then pumped with the help of condensate extraction
pump. The pipe of dry air extraction pump is provided near the bottom and it is covered
by baffle plates so as to prevent the entry of the condensate into it.

The steam in down flow condenser flows perpendicular to the direction of flow of cooling
water, so it is also called as cross-surface condenser.

(2) Central Flow

In central flow condenser, the steam enters at the top of the condenser and flows in
downward direction. In this the suction pipe of the air extraction pump is provided in the
center of the tube nest as shown in the figure. Due to this placement of the suction pipe
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in the center of the tube nest, the exhaust steam flows radially inward over the tubes
towards the suction pipe. The condensate is collected at the bottom of the condenser
and pumped to the hot well.
We can say that it is the improved form of the down flow surface condenser.
(iii) Regenerative
In regenerative surface condensers, the condensate is heated by the use of regenerative
method. In that the condensate is passed through the exhaust steam coming out from
the turbine or engine. This raises its temperature and it is used as the feed water for the
boiler.

(iv) Evaporative

In evaporative surface condensers, the steam enters at the top of the condenser in a
series of pipes over which a film of cold water is falling. At the same time, current of air
is made to circulate over the film of water. As the air circulates over the water film, it
evaporates some of the cooling water. As a result of this rapid evaporation, the steam
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circulating inside the series of pipes gets condensed. Remaining cooling water that left is
collected at an increased temperature and reused. It is brought to the original
temperature by adding required quantity of cold water.

Advantages of Steam Condenser

 It increases the efficiency of the plant.

 It reduces the back pressure of the steam and as a result of this, more work can be
done.
 It reduces the temperature of the exhaust steam and this allows to obtain more
work.
 It allows the reuse of condensate for the feed water and hence reduces the cost of
power generation.
 The temperature of the condensate is more than the feed water. This reduces the
supply of heat per kg of steam.

Comparison of Jet and Surface Condenser in Tabular Form

S.n Jet Condenser Surface Condenser

o
1. Exhaust steam and cooling water Exhaust steam and cooling water are not
mixed with each other. mixed with each other.
2. It is less suitable for high capacity It is more suitable for high capacity
plants. plants.
3. The condensing plant using this type The condensing plant using surface
of steam condenser is simple and condenser is costly and complicated.
economical.
4. Condensate is wasted and cannot be The condensate is reused.
reused.
5. Less quantity of circulating water is Large quantity of circulating water is
required. required.
6. It has low maintenance cost. It has high maintenance cost.
7. In jet condenser, more power is In surface condenser, less power is
required for the air pump. required for the air pump.
8. High power is required for water Less power is required for water
pumping. pumping.

Vacuum Creation in Condenser:

When the steam condenses in a closed vessel, the vapour phase of working
substance changes to liquid phase, and thus its specific volume reduces
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to more than one thousand times. Due to change in specific volume, the
absolute pressure in the condenser falls below atmospheric pressure and a
high vacuum is created.
This minimum pressure that can be attained depends on the temperature
of condensate and air present in the condenser.
Measurement of vacuum
The vacuum in a condenser is usually expressed in millimeters of mercury
and it is the difference between the atmospheric pressure (or barometric
pressure) and absolute pressure in condenser. In order to know the absolute
pressure in the condenser, both the vacuum gauge and barometer must be
read. The difference between the barometer and vacuum gauge readings
will give the absolute pressure in the condenser.
The absolute pressure = barometric pressure – Vacuum Gauge in the
condenser
Corrected vacuum=760-(barometer reading in Hg-Vacuum gauge reading in
Hg)
Atmospheric pressure=760 mm of Hg=1.013 bar
1.013
1mm of hg= 760 =.0.00133 bar

1 bar = 750 mm of Hg
• Barometric pressure is a variable quantity and varies from place to place.
Standard barometric pressure is 760 mm of mercury (or 1.01325bar).
Vacuum Efficiency
In a steam condenser we have a mixture of steam and air, and the total
pressure which exists in the condenser is the sum of the partial pressures
exerted by the steam and air. With no air present in the condenser, the total
absolute pressure in the condenser would be equal to partial pressure of
steam corresponding to the temperature of condenser, and maximum
vacuum would be obtained in the condenser.
The ratio of the actual vacuum obtained at the steam inlet to the
condenser, to this maximum vacuum (or Ideal vacuum) which could
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be obtained in a perfect condensing plant (with no air present) is

called the vacuum efficiency.
¿
Vacuum efficiency = Actual vacuum at the steam inlet ¿ the condenser Ideal vacuum

Vacuum efficiency=

Actual vacuum at the steam inlet ¿ the condenser ¿ the temperature

Barometric pressure− Absolute pressure corresponding ¿

[ Barometric pressure ] – [ Absolute pressure∈the condenser ]

[ Barometric pressure ] −[ Absolute pressure corresponding¿temperature of condensation]

The vacuum efficiency would be 100%, if the absolute pressure of steam

corresponding to the temperature of condensation were equal to the
absolute pressure in the condenser. In fact, there will always be some air
present in the condenser due to leakage and dissolved air present in the
steam entering the condenser. The value of vacuum efficiency, therefore,
depends upon the quantity of air removed from the condenser by the air
pump.
Example: Steam enters a condenser at 32.88°C and with barometer
standing at 760 mm of Hg, a vacuum of 685 mm of Hg was produced.
Determine the vacuum efficiency. From steam (Pressure) tables, at 32.88°C,
partial pressure of steam = 0.05 bar = 0.05 x 750 = 37.5 mm of Hg.
Vacuum efficiency
Actual vacuum
= Ideal vacuum

Actual vacuum
= Barometric Pressure− Absolute pressure corresponding ¿ temperature of Condensation ¿

685
[760−(0.05 X 750)]
685
= 722.5
= 0.9481 or 94.81 %

Condenser Efficiency:
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Thermal efficiency of a condenser is stated as the ratio of the difference between the
outlet and inlet temperatures of cooling water, to the difference between the
saturation temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure in the condenser and
inlet temperature of the cooling water

Condenser efficiency=
R ise∈temperature of cooling water
[ saturation temperature corresponding¿the absolute pressure∈the condenser ]−[Inlet temperature of cooling water ]
T ₂−T ₁
Ts−T ₁

Where,
T1-inlet temperature of cooling water.
T2 -Outlet temperature of cooling water.
Ts- saturation temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure in the
condenser

The condenser efficiency is also defined as the ratio of actual rise in

temperature to the maximum possible rise in temperature of cooling water.
Problem:The vacuum in a surface condenser is found barometer reading
760 mm of Hg. The cooling water enters the condenser 1at 15°C and leaves
at 36°C. Find the condenser efficiency.
Absolute pressure in the condenser = 760 – 707.5 = 52.5 mm of Hg
52.5
= 750 = 0.07bar , (1 bar = 750 mm of
Hg)

Saturation temperature corresponding to 0.07 bar is 39°C [from steam

(Pressure) tables
Using the eqn, Condenser efficiency=
R ise∈temperature of cooling water
[ saturation temperature corresponding¿the absolute pressure∈the condenser ]−[Inlet temperature of cooling water ]
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36−15
Condenser efficiency= 39−15 =0.875 or 87.5%

FACTORS AFFECTING CONDENSER PERFORMANCE –

1. Cooling Water Temperature – if the cooling water temperature is

high then its heat exchanging capacity is low and it decrease the
performance of the condenser.
2. Cooling Water Quantity – if the cooling water quantity is less than
the required then proper heat exchange in condenser will not be there,
resulting a decrease in performance.
3. Fouled And Dirty Tubes Of Condenser – this also restricts the heat
exchange process and it degrades the water quality.
4. Malfunctioning In Ejector And Vacuum Pump – because of this
there is vacuum drop in condenser which affecting directly plant
efficiency and condenser performance. It also leads to the LP Hood
heating due to the back pressure developed in the Condenser.

Factors affecting condenser efficiency

Air pump in a condenser removes air from the condenser .Vacuum efficiency
depends up on amount of air present in the condenser. If there is no air
inthe condenser vacuum efficiency will be zero. Vacuum efficiency also
depends on the temperature of steam without air.

Air extraction equipment

The objectives of the air extraction plant are:
 To remove air which has leaked into the condenser via flanges and glands
effectively.
 To remove other incondensable gases that are present in the steam
exhausting from the LP turbines.
It is important that both are removed from the condenser, as their presence
in any quantity impairs the heat transfer performance of the condenser.

The main parameters which determine the quantity of air to be extracted

from the condenser are:
 The design air leakage into the condenser.
 The degree of sub-cooling of the air/steam mixture leaving the air cooling
section.
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 The limiting approach temperature difference between the saturation

temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure p c in the condenser,
and the CW outlet temperature.

It is a wet air pump of reciprocating type .The main function of air pump
is to maintain a vacuum in the condenser. This is done by removing
incondensable air from the condenser .There is no suction valve in this
pump. The Edward pump consists of a delivery valve placed at the cover
which is at the top of the pump barrel. Pump barrel has a ring ports around
the lower end along the whole circumference. This communicates the
condenser.
Working: Air and condensate enter at A, and flow either directly into top of
plunger B, (depending on its position) or into lower chamber E. The piston
going up forces the water through the delivery valves . On coming down,
the water in E is forced up through ports, as shown by arrows, to the top of
plunger. This water is removed on the upstroke.

Cooling Tower:
1.0 Introduction to Cooling Tower:
Cooling Tower is the most common equipment/ facility in any Refinery,
Petrochemical and Petroleum plants. Cooling towers are heat
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exchangers that are used to dissipate large heat loads to the atmosphere
generated in the Process Plants.
This design guide provides the guidelines for the designing of the
equipment layout and piping arrangement for Cooling Towers.
2.0 Types of Cooling Tower:
There are two types of Cooling Tower:
a) Mechanical Draft
(i) Mechanical Forced Draft
(ii) Mechanical Induced Draft (Refer figure 1, 2, 3 &4)
b) Natural Draft (Refer figure 5 & 6)
The most commonly used in the chemical plants is the Mechanical Induced
Draft Cooling Tower which is covered in this document.

Definitions used for Cooling Tower:

The general terms used for Cooling towers are defined below:
a) Casing
Cooling Tower casing acts to contain water within tower. It is enclosure
housing the fill (packing) and drift eliminators.

b) Louvers
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These are provided on the sides of the tower to equalize the air flow into the
fill and to prevent the water drops from falling out.
c) Fill (Packing)
This is the main component of Cooling Tower responsible for heat transfer
and is of two types i.e. splash type and film type.
d) Fill & Tower supporting structure
The fill, casing and fan deck are all supported from the basin.
e) Fan Deck
This is the deck (floor) at the top (above the fill) to provide the access to the
fan and water distributing system.
f) Fan
Fans create the required air flow through the tower and are driven by
electric motors through gear drives for all towers.
g) Fan cylinders and Recovery stack
Recovery stack is provided above fan cylinder to recover kinetic energy of
air thereby reducing the power consumption. Suitable air tight access door
shall be provided in the cylinder for approach to the fans and for
maintenance of gear box and fans etc. Suitable removable rail with tripod
and handrail shall be provided for large cooling towers. It is not essential for
the small cooling towers.
h) Drift Eliminators
These are provided at the air outlet from fill, to trap the water particles
carried by the air stream and thereby reduce the drift loss.
i) Water Distribution System
In case of cross flow tower the hot tower is fed to hot water basins or
troughs located on the top of tower by means of hot water inlet pipes. From
this basin, water flows over the fill by gravity through orifices located in hot
water basin.
Counter-flow system normally necessitates the use of pressure type system
of closed pipe and spray nozzles.
This holds the re-cooled
j) Cold Water Basin
water falling through the fill and provides an outlet for the cooled water.

Description
Hyperbolic natural draft towers shown in Fig. are commonly used in power
plants. The shell of these cooling towers is hyperbolic in shape and hence
called hyperbolic natural draft towers. This geometry facilitates the rapid
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movement of hot air towards the upper portions of the tower. These towers
are fairly large in diameter as well as in height. The cooling water from the
condenser is sprayed across the cross section of the tower at the bottom.
The air entering the tower is unsaturated. In simple language, the water
vapor content of unsaturated air is lower than the maximum water vapor
carrying capacity of air at a given temperature.

For instance, we often come across weather reports where temperature and
relative humidity are mentioned. Air with relative humidity less than 100 %
is unsaturated. When such unsaturated air comes into contact with water,
the difference between partial pressure of water vapor in air and the vapor
pressure of water at its temperature acts as the driving force for
evaporation of water. Since the temperature of air is lower than that of
water, the heat required for evaporation of water must be utilized from
water itself. This causes cooling of water and hence the term ‘evaporative
cooling’ is used
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THERMODYNAMIC VAPOUR POWER CYCLES

CARNOT CYCLE
What is the isothermal process?
An isothermal process is a change of a system, in which
the temperature remains constant: ΔT = 0. ... In contrast, an adiabatic
process is where a system exchanges no heat with its surroundings (Q = 0).
For Example, all the reactions going on in the refrigerator are isothermal as
a constant temperature is maintained in it. The melting of ice at zero degree
is an example of isothermal process. The reaction in a heat pump is
an example of isothermal process
Carnot Cycle:

Assume a heat engine, which operates between high-temperature and low-

temperature reservoirs, does so in a cycle in which every process is
reversible.
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Consider a simple power plant similar to a simple steam power plant, which
operates on a Carnot cycle and the working fluid to be a pure substance.

Boiler takes heat from high temp. reservoir in reversible isothermal manner
and for that the temperature of working fluid must be infinitesimally smaller
than that of the high temp reservoir and the temperature of both must
remain constant during the process.

Next process occurs in the turbine whose work is generated without heat
transfer, so it is reversible adiabatic process, where temperature of working
fluid decreases to that of low temp reservoir.

Next process occurs in the condenser; where heat is rejected to the low
temp reservoir form the working fluid. This must also be the reversible
isothermal heat transfer process.

The final process occurs in the pump where the temperature of the working
fluid increases from lower to higher temperature in a reversible adiabatic
manner.

Since, Carnot heat engine cycle is reversible, every process could be

reversed, in which case it would become a refrigerator.

Carnot cycle can be executed in many different ways and many different
devices.

It always has four basic processes:

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1. Reversible isothermal heat transfer from high temperature

reservoir.

2. Reversible adiabatic work transfer where temperature of working

fluid decreases

3. Reversible isothermal heat transfer to low temperature reservoir

4. Reversible adiabatic work transfer where temperature of working

fluid increases.

The P-V and T-S diagrams of he Carnot cycle can be plotted as:
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Rankine Cycle

The steam cycle is a practical one, it is the basis of virtually all steam power plants and hence electricity generation.
The main difficulties of the Carnot cycle are overcome by complete condensation in the condenser and by
superheating (optional). We shall first consider the Rankine cycle in its generalised form without looking at the
details of processes within components. Considering individual components:
Turbine
SFEE:
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Thermal losses are normally very small compared to the work output. Potential terms and inlet velocities are usually
ignored. The outlet velocity term may be significant when the turbine is considered in isolation.
Condenser
SFEE:

The condenser is normally a constant pressure component with the heat transfer effected by cooling water. The inlet
velocity term may be significant when the condenser is considered in isolation. (Sub cooling is not considered here)
Feed Pump
SFEE:

WFP is relatively small since a nearly incompressible liquid is pumped.

Boiler
SFEE:
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The boiler is normally a constant pressure component with the heat transfer effected by high temperature gases
from a furnace. The superheater is simply a part of the boiler where heat transfer takes place in the absence of
saturated liquid, at exit from the boiler.