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CHAPTER - 11
Condenser
The Work done in any heat engine is directly proportional to the temp. range of the
working fluid in the engine, OR For greater amount of expansion of working fluid,
greater will be the work done. In case of steam engines, the lower limit of expansion
(or exhaust) may be decreased below the atmospheric pressure. This is done by
exhausting the steam into a closed vessel called condenser. In condenser exhaust steam
is condensed & vacuum is maintained in it.
Steam condenser is an appliance in which the steam exhausted from a steam engine is
condensed.
Condenser is installed such that the exhaust steam from a Steam Engine is delivered into
it. In the condenser, the heat is removed from the exhausted steam in form of latent
heat by means of cooling water which absorbs this latent heat. The exhaust steam after
losing its latent heat changes its state into water, which is termed as Condensate and
this process is called as condensation.
In effect a Condenser is a heat exchanger wherein the exhaust steam of a Steam Engine
is condensed either in direct or indirect contact with cooling water through a heat
transfer medium separating them.
Condenser in power plant:
When the steam has completed its work in the turbine and before it can be returned to
the boiler, it is necessary to change it back into water. The volume of water is much less
than the volume of equal quantity of steam and therefore the work involved in handling
the condensate is much less than the steam. This is the duty the condenser must perform
as efficiently as possible and, for this reason, it is the largest and most important of the
heat exchangers in a power station. The heat in the exhaust steam, which can no longer
be converted into mechanical energy, must be transferred from the steam to the cooling
water.
Functions of a Condenser:
By designing the turbine to exhaust into a condenser which maintains a pressure lower
than atmospheric there are three important advantages to be gained.
1) Saving in steam :
There is a big reduction in the amount of steam required to generate each unit of
electricity by using a condenser. In a turbine without a condenser the lowest pressure to
which the steam can be expanded is that of the atmosphere. It can be said that in this
case the back pressure against which the steam is exhausted is atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is equivalent to the pressure which would support a column of
mercury approximately 760 mm high.
If the last stages of the turbine were under vacuum, and the back pressure reduced by a
condenser to 68 mbar, then the steam would be able to continue its expansion down to
68 mbar. During this expansion each pound of steam is capable of doing a great deal
more work. For example, in a 62 bar turbine with a back pressure 51mbar, the steam
does nearly 30% of its work as it expands below atmospheric pressure. Thus the use of a
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condenser brings considerable saving.

Conservation of pure feed water :

Very large quantities of steam pass though a turbine, for example, a 660 MW machine on
full load uses some 532 kg/sec. It would, of course, be not only very wasteful but almost
impracticable to allow this vast amount of steam to be exhausted to atmosphere. By
using a condenser the exhaust steam is converted back to hot water which is removed
from the condenser for continuous use in the power station heat cycle. This water is
known as condensate. It being free from impurities and non-condensable gases, does not
produce corrosive action and also it being hot (@ 40-50 C), saves a considerable amount
of fuel. Thus the overall efficiency of the plant is increased.

Deaeration of make-up water:

Due to leakage, blowing down, steam sootblowing, etc., some of the feed water
in the boiler/turbine system is lost, and must be made-up.
Make-up water is usually supplied from Reserve Feed Water (RFW) tanks, where the air
in contact with the water surface introduces oxygen into the RFW. Dissolved oxygen in
feed water must be kept to the lowest practicable minimum, since oxygen causes
corrosion of tubes and turbine internals.
The most convenient method of removing oxygen form the make-up water is to admit
this water to the condenser, where due to the very low pressure and corresponding low
boiling point, the water flashes off to steam, and dissolved oxygen separates off to be
removed with other air and gases by the air-ejectors.
Elements of a condensing plant:
The auxiliaries, which are essentially required for the proper functioning of a condensing
plant, are known as elements of a condensing plant. Figure below shows Condensing
plant lay-out.
The main elements of a condenser are:
1) A Condenser where steam is condensed,
2) A Hotwell in which the condensate is collected.
3) A Pump for circulating Cooling Water,
4) A supply of Circulating Cooling Water,
5) An air pump (or ejector) to remove air and non-condensing gases from the
condenser,
6) A Condensate Pump (extraction pump) to remove Condensate from the condenser
and
7) A Feed Pump for supplying feed water from Deaerator to the boiler.

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Fig 9. Elements of a condensing plant

Classification of Condensers
The Jet condensers are classified as:
1). Parallel flow condensers
2). Contra-flow condensers
3). Barometric condensers (High level jet condensers)
4). Ejector condensers
The surface condensers are classified as;
1). Down flow surface condensers
2). Central flow surface condensers
3). Inverted type surface condensers
4). Regenerative surface condensers
5). Evaporative condensers

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Jet condenser :
It is a direct contact heat exchanger in which steam to be condensed comes into direct
contact with the cooling water (cold condensate) which is usually introduced in the
form of a spray from a jet (fig.10). Upon contact with cooling water, the steam gives its
enthalpy and gets cooled and ultimately settles as condensate.

Fig . 10
Parallel flow jet condenser:
There are two types :
1). Low level parallel flow jet condenser
2). High level parallel flow jet condenser (Barometric condenser).
1). Low level parallel flow jet condenser
Exhaust steam is introduced from the top of the condenser while cold condensate is
sprayed upon it through multiple jets. As steam comes in contact with cold condensate
particles, it s enthalpy drops and it settles at the bottom as condensate. Vacuum is
maintained in the condenser with the aid of a dry air pump which also extracts air
present in the condenser. The condensate collected at the bottom is cooled in the
condensate cooler by cooling water and is partly recycled and partly sent as boiler
feedwater.

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Fig.11 Low level parallel flow jet condenser

2). High level parallel flow jet condenser (Barometric condenser).
The condenser is mounted on a long pipe (at least 10.34 m) called a barometric leg
which acts identical to a barometer.
Now if water is used in the barometer then the barometric weight would be 10.34 m. If
some vacuum exists in the condenser, the height of water column (h) will be less than
10.34 m. Now it is possible , by using this condenser leg, to drain away the condensate
from the condenser.
This vacuum is maintained by constant high level discharge from the atmospheric tan
through the atmospheric leg that dips deeply into water in the atmospheric tank.

Fig. 12
High level parallel flow jet condenser (Barometric condenser).

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Contra-flow jet condenser:

Two types :
1) Low level contra-flow jet condenser
2) High level contra-flow jet condenser

1) Low level contra-flow jet condenser

Exhaust steam enters the condenser near the bottom and moves up through a pipe
P. As it goes up, it comes in direct contact with cold condensate distributed into the
condenser through perforated trays T1,T2 and T3 (fig 13).
Vacuum is maintained through an air suction pump. Condensate collected at the bottom
is partly sent as BFW and the rest is recycled via the condensate cooler

Fig 13
.
The efficiency of low-level contra-flow jet condenser is more because the hottest steam
comes in contact with the hottest water. So as steam goes more and more up, it comes
into contact with more and more colder condensate and that enhances the steam
condensation.
2) High level contra-flow jet condenser
The condenser is placed 10.34 m above the hot-well. The condenser is operated at a
pressure somewhat les than atmospheric pressure such that the water level in the tail
pipe remains always below 10.34 m. And therefore, any steam condensing to the
condensate is spontaneously drained off. (fig 14)

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Fig 14.
4.4.3 Ejector condenser:

Fig .15
It is a kind of jet condenser in which mixing of cooling water and steam takes place in a
series of combining cones and the kinetic energy of the steam is expended to drain of
the condensate and cooling water from the condenser (fig 15)

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Surface condensers
It is also known as Non-mixing type of condenser as in this type of condenser the
exhaust steam and the cooling water do not come in direct contact with each other.
Surface condenser is a shell & tubes type of heat exchanger where normally c.w. is on
the tube side & exhaust steam is on the shell side. It is generally used where large
quantity of inferior quality water is available & condensate formed from exhaust steam
is to be recalculated to be used in boiler. This results in considerable saving in make-
up water to boiler.
If we think thermodynamically, in surface condenser, the latent heat of exhaust
steam is being removed there by converting it into hot condensate.
The surface condenser requires three (or two) pumps: one for circulating c.w.; one for
extracting the condenser & the third one is for removing air from condenser. In case of
third pump, we can use steam ejector.
The surface condensers may be classified according to
(a) No. of water posses : single or multipass
(b) Direction of condensate flow and tube and tube arrangement down flow, central
flow.
In all surface condensers the c.w. is passed through the tubes & steam surrounds the
tube. the volume occupied by these tubes in the condenser shell is hardly 10% of the
total shell volume due to very large volume of exhaust steam. A good surface
condenser should have a low-pressure drop, maximum effective surface arrangement
and should be economical in first cost.
In modern condensers, a steam bypass line is provided along the side of the shell to
pass steam to the hotwell for reheating the condensate, This also helps for deaeration
of condensate before use in boiler.
The rise in temp. of the c.w. passing through the condenser is maximum 10 degree C
therefore, quantity of water & surface are condenser causing the heat flow required
are large for calculation purpose, we can write.
Heat given away by steam = Heat gain by c.w.

Following are the types of surface condensers:

Down flow type :
Exhaust steam is admitted to the top of the condenser which is tube-and-shell type
crossflow heat exchanger. Cooling water flows through the tubes and extracts heat from
the steam which is on the shell-side. After having condensed on the surface of the water
tubes, steam is converted into condensate which is discharged from the condenser
bottom.(fig 16)

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Fig. 16

Central flow type surface condenser :

Fig. 17
It is also a shell-and-tube type crossflow heat exchanger, at the centre of which is
located the suction of an air extraction pump so that the entire steam moves radially
inward and comes in better contact with the outer surface of the best of tubes through
which the cooling water flows. The steam condensate is extracted from the bottom by
the condensate-extraction pump.(fig.17)

Inverted type surface condenser:

Steam is admitted at the bottom and flows upward in cross-flow with the cooling
water flowing in the tubes. The air extraction pump draws its suction from the top of the
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condenser, maintaining a steady upward current of steam which after having been
condensed on the outer surface of the water tubes is removed by the condensate
extraction pump.
Evaporative condenser:

Fig 18
Exhaust steam is condensed inside the finned tubes as cooling water rains down
from the to through the nozzles. Apart of the cooling water in contact with the tube
surface evaporates by drawing enthalpy from the steam which upon losing its latent heat
condenses and discharges out as condensate.(fig 18)
Comparison between Jet and Surface Condensers:
The comparison is as under:
S. Jet Condenser Surface Condenser
No.
1. Exhaust steam and C.W. are in Exhaust steam and C.W. are not
direct contact with each other directly in contact with each other.
2. The condensate may not be used The condensate is generally used as
as feed water. feed water.
3. Less suitable for high capacity Very high vacuum can be created, so
plant higher plant efficiency.
4. Lesser quantity of C.W. is Large quantity of C.W. is required.
required
5. More power is required for air Less power is required for air pump
pump
6. It is simple and less costly It is costly as compared to Jet
condenser.
The maintenance cost is less. The maintenance cost is high.

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Condenser Efficiency
The condenser efficiency may be defined as the ratio of temperature rise of
cooling water to the difference between the temperature corresponding to vacuum and
the inlet temperature of the cooling water.
i.e. c = Temperature rise of cooling water ( Tc.w)
Temperature corresponding to vacuum-Inlet temp.of c.w.
OR
c = Temperature rise of cooling water ( Tc.w)
Sat. Temp. corresponding to abs. pressure - Inlet temp of c.w.
Weight of cooling water required:
For condensation of steam in condenser, weight of C.W. required may be found out as
follows:
Consider total heat lost by exhaust steam in kJ per hour = total heat gained by cooling
water in kJ per hour.
Let, W = Wt. of c.w. required per kg of steam
ti = Inlet temp. of c.w.
to = Outlet temp of c.w.
ts = Saturation temp. of the exhaust steam corresponding to the vacuum in
condenser
tc = Temp. of condensate leaving the condenser.
x = dryness fraction of entering steam.
Hfg= Enthalpy of evaporation of the exhaust steam
K is the specific heat of CW and condensate
Heat lost by 1 kg of steam= x × Hfg + (ts – tc) × K kJ
Heat gained by c.w. = W (to-ti) × K kJ
 W (to-ti) × K = x × Hfg + (ts – tc) × K
or, W = {x × Hfg + (ts – tc) × K}/ (to-ti) × K
Sources of air in condensers and effects of such air leakage.
The different sources of air in condenser are:
1). The dissolved air in the water, which is supplied to the boiler. This air is taken along
with the exhaust steam to the condenser.
2). Due to the high vacuum inside the condenser, the air may leak into the condenser
through various joints etc.
3). The air enters into the jet condenser, along with the mixing injected water. The
presence of air in the condenser produces the following effects on condenser & its
performance.
Following are the effects of such leakage of air in condenser:
1). Air leakage reduces the vacuum in the condenser.
2). Larger the air leakage, greater will be the capacity of the vacuum pump required o
exact it, hence more power wastage.
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3). Presence of air in condenser increases the corrosive action of Oxygen in Boiler.
4). Leakage of air reduces the rate of transmission because of its poor conductivity.
Vacuum Efficiency:
The maximum vacuum or the ideal vacuum in a condenser is the pressure
corresponding to the temperature of the exhaust steam entering the condenser. Actual
condenser pressure is higher than the ideal by an amount equal to the pressure of air
present in the condenser.
The ratio of the actual vacuum to the ideal vacuum is known as vacuum efficiency
of a condenser.
ηv = (Barometric Pressure – Actual pressure)/ (Barometric Pressure – ideal
pressure)
Desirable features of good condensing plant:
The desirable features of a good condenser are:
1). Minimum quantity of circulating cooling water.
2). Minimum cooling surface area per kW capacity.
3). Minimum auxiliary power.
4). Minimum steam condensed per M2 of surface area
As the cooling water temp. entering the condenser increases vacuum decreases.
The following figure shows this:

Fig 19.
Dalton's law of Partial Pressure and its application to Condensers:
Dalton's law of partial pressure states that "the total pressure exerted by a mixture of
gases or a mixture of gas and vapour is equal to the sum of individual partial
pressure of the constituents of the mixture”. Partial Pressure of each constituent of the
mixture is the pressure of the constituent gas if this individual mass of the constituent
gas alone occupies total volume occupied by mixture having the same temp of mixture".
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The total pressure in the condenser is the sum of the partial pressures of steam and air.
According to Dalton's low of partial pressure:
Pc = Ps + Pa ------------>(20)
V = Volume of condenser shell
T = Temperature in the condenser
Pc = Actual total pressure in the condenser
Ps = Partial pressure of steam in condenser
Pa = Partial pressure of air in condenser
m = Total mass of mixture (air steam) in the condenser shell.
ms = Mass of steam in condenser shell
ma = Mass of air in condenser shell
vs = Specific volume of saturated water vapour at temp.T & pressure Ps
va = Specific volume of air at temp. T & pressure Pa
V = msvs = mava
 ma / ms = vs / va ------------ (21)
3
The mass of air per m of the condenser shell
= ma/ V = 1/ va
and the Mass of Water Vapour per m3 of the condenser shell
= Ms/V = 1/ vs
The total mass of mixture in the condenser shell,
m = ma + ms = ma ( 1 + ms/ma)

m = ma ( 1+ va/vs) ---------------
or (22)
m = ms ( 1+ vs/va) ---------------

Apparatuses used to remove air from Condensers to create good vacuum:

Air pumps and Steam Ejectors are used to emit air from condenser. Air pumps employed
to eject air out of condensers work on the principle of vacuum pumps. An air ejector is
simple device which occupies less space compared to a Vacuum Pump. Steam is used in
ejectors which expands in nozzles and as the mixture of steam and air rushes, kinetic
energy of the mixture is converted into pressure energy and steam and air are
compressed and discharged in boiler feed tanks where steam of the mixture is
condensed.
Cooling Towers and their purpose in association with Condenser:
Cooling towers are provided in large industrial units, specially in power stations to
cool hot water after it is circulated through condenser and other heat exchangers in
the plant to be used again after it has been cooled.
A cooling tower may consists of either concrete or wooden structures so arranged
that the hot cooling water from the top of the tower is allowed to trickle down over
cooling tower fill material, thus exposing large surface to atmosphere cooling. Cooling
towers may be designed either for natural draught or mechanical draught.

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EXAMPLES

Example 1: Air entering a steam condenser with steam is estimated 6 kg/hr. The
temperature at inlet to section is 30 degree C and at the outlet 260C. The vacuum in the
shell is essentially constant throughout & is 721 mm of Hg. while barometer reads 758
mm of Hg.
Calculate,
(1) The volume of air entering the cooling section /hr
(2) The mass of moisture contained in the air and
(3) The mass of steam condensed/hr in the cooling section

Solution : Given,
Mass of air entering in a steam condenser=6 kg/hr.
Temp. at inlet of air cooler section=300C
Temp. at outlet of air cooler section =260C
Vacuum in the condenser=721 mm of Hg.
Atmospheric pressure=758 mm of Hg.
Total absolute pressure in condenser = 758 - 721 = 37 mm Hg
= 37/750 = 0.04933 bar (1 bar = 750 mm of Hg)
At 300C
Partial pressure of vapour=0.04246 bar (from steam table)
Partial pressure of air=0.04933 bar - 0.04246 =0.00687 bar
1 kg of air occupies 0.7734 m3 at NTP (0o C and 1.0133 bar)
As P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 or V2 = {P1V1/T1} x T2/ P2
at 30o C and 0.00687 bar 1 kg of air will occupy
{(0.7734 x 1.0133) / 273} x {(30 + 273) / 0.00687}
= 126.61 m3
 volume of air entering the cooling section per hour
= 6 x 126.61 = 759.66 m3……….Ans. 1
Now
Steam at partial pressure of 0.04246 bar and at 30o C will occupy the same volume i.e.
759.66 m3
 Mass of steam entering the cooling section per hour
= 759.66 / 32.894 = 23.09 kg
(Sp. Vol. of dry saturated steam at 30oC = 0.32.894 m3/kg)
Again at 26o C,
Partial pressure of vapour=0.03363 bar (from steam table)
Partial pressure of air=0.04933 bar - 0.03363 =0.0157 bar
(Since total pressure remained constant)

Volume of air at 26o C and 0.0157 bar pressure

= 6 x {(0.7734 x 1.0133) / 273} x {(26 + 273) / 0.0157}
= 328.02 m3 = volume of vapour
Mass of vapour in air = 328.02/ 40.994 = 8 kg……….Ans. 2

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And the mass of steam condensed/hr in the cooling section

= 23.09 – 8 = 15.09 kg……………Ans. 3

Example 2: A surface condenser deals with 2100 kgs steam and the air leakage amounts
to 0.8 kg/hr. The temp. of the air pump suction is 350C & the vacuum is 580 mm of Hg
when barometer reads 760 m of Hg. Determine the capacity of the wet air pump
which has a volumetric efficiency of 75%.

Solution: Absolute pressure in Condenser = (760 – 580)/750 = 0.24 bar

At 35o C, the partial pressure of vapour = 0.05628 bar
Hence partial pressure of air = 0.24 – 0.05628 = 0.184 bar
Volume of air at this condition
= 0.8 x {(0.7734 x 1.0133) / 273} x {(35 + 273) / 0.184}
= 3.844 m3 per hour
Volume of condensate = 2100 x 0.00101 = 2.121 m3
wet air to be handled by the pump = 3.844 + 2.121
= 5.965 m3 per hour
Volumetric capacity of the pump required = 5.965/ 0.75
= 7.953 m3/ hour………Ans.

Example 3: In a small capacity of Thermal Power plant, the condenser is provided with a
separate air-cooling section. The temp. of steam entering the condenser is 56 0C and
temp. at the air pump section is 460C. The barometer reads 76 cm of Hg, find
(1) Vacuum in Condenser
(2) If discharge of dry air-pump is 90 m3/min., find the air leakage in the condenser in
kg/hr.

Solution: (1) Considering no ingress of air at the inlet, the pressure in the condenser will
be the same as the pressure of the steam entering at that temperature.
From the steam table at 56oC, the corresponding pressure
= 0.1653 bar absolute = 0.1653 x 750 = 123.98 mm of Hg,
The vacuum in the condenser = 760 – 123.98 = 636.02 mm of Hg
(2) Now at the outlet the partial pressure of the steam
= 0.10101 bar abs. (from steam table at 46oC)
Therefore the partial pressure of air = 0.1653 – 0.10101 = 0.0643 bar The discharge of air
pump = 90 m3/ min = 540m3/ hr.
Now from the relation PV = mRT
Here T = 46oC + 273 = 319 K,
P = 0.0643 bar = 0.0643 x 102 kPa,
V = 540 m3
We know R of air = 0.287 kJ/ kg K
Therefore mass of air leakage in the condenser per hour
= (0.0643 x 102 x 540)/ (0.287 x 319) = 37.93 kg/ hr.

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Example for practice

Question 1: In a condenser test, the following observations were made:

Vacuum = 690 mm of Hg;
Barometer reading = 750 mm of Hg;
Mean temp. of condensation = 35oC
Hot well temperature = 28oC;
Mass of CW = 50000 kg/ h;
Inlet temp. = 17oC;
Outlet temp. = 30oC;
Mass of condensate per hour = 1250 kg.
Find: 1. The mass of air present per m3 of condenser volume,
2. The state of steam entering the condenser and
3. The vacuum efficiency
Take R of air = 0.287 kJ/ kg K

Question 2: A vacuum of 722 mm was obtained with a barometer reading 756 mm. of
mercury. Correct the vacuum to a standard barometer of 760 mm.

Question 3: During a trial of a condenser following readings were taken :

Barometer reading – 766 mm of mercury
Actual vacuum in the condenser – 710 mm of mercury
Temp. of the hot well – 29 deg C
Inlet temp of cooling water – 18 deg C
Outlet temp of cooling water – 27 deg C
Determine :
1. Vacuum corrected to a standard barometer of 760 mm. Of mercury.
2. Vacuum efficiency
3. Under cooling of condensate
4. Coefficient of performance

Question 4: The vacuum in the condenser shell is 710 mm of Hg and atmospheric

pressure is 760 mm of Hg. The temp. at inlet and outlet of the air cooling section are
35oC and 30oC respectively. Calculate for a leakage of 0.50 kg of air per hour:
1. The volume of air entering the cooling section per hour and
2. The mass of steam condensed per hour in the section
Take R of air as 0.294 kJ/ kg K

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Question 5: The condition of steam entering into a jet condenser is 0.9 dry, if it
condenses by using the water at 15°C. The mass of air in the condenser is 30% of the
mass of air and water vapour in the condenser. Assuming that the flow of water is
adjusted in such a way that only latent heat of steam is absorbed by the cooling water.
Find
(a) The temp. of mixture of condensate and water leaving the condenser.
(b) Mass of water required per kg of steam condensed.
Given that condenser vacuum = 61.3 cm of Hg.
Barometer reading = 76 cm of Hg.
Take your own constant for air & steam.

Question 6: A surface condenser operate at a vacuum of 6.992 mm of Hg ; when the

barometric head is 760mm of Hg. It receives steam at the rate of 10 tons per hour, which
is 0.9 dry, calculate
1. Condenser Efficiency
2. Cooling water flow rate
If cooling water inlet temperature = 33˚C and cooling water outlet temperature = 44˚C.

Question 7: In a surface condensing plant the following data were obtained.

i. Temp. of exhaust steam entering the condenser 42.67°C
ii. Temp. of condensate leaving the condenser 35°C
iii. Inlet temp. of cooling water 16.5°C
iv. Outlet temp. of cooling water 30°C
v. Quantity of cooling water per hour 46250 kgs
vi. Quantity of condensate per hour 1190 Kgs

Calculate the dryness fraction of Exhaust steam entering the condenser.

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