УКРАЇНА

НАЦІОНАЛЬНИЙ УНІВЕРСИТЕТ БІОРЕСУРСІВ І

ПРИРОДОКОРИСТУВАННЯ УКРАЇНИ

Кафедра англійської філології

Ямнич Н. Ю., Данькевич Л. Р.

ENGLISH FOR IT STUDENTS

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УДК: 811.111(072)

Навчальний посібник з англійської мови розрахований на студентів вищих

навчальних закладів зі спеціальностей «Комп”ютерні науки» та «Програмна
інженерія».
Мета видання – сприяти розвитку і вдосконаленню у студентів
комунікативних навичок з фаху, навичок читання та письма і закріплення
навичок з граматики, а також активізувати навички автономного навчання.
Посібник охоплює теми актуальні у сучасному інформаційному середовищі, що
подаються на основі автентичних професійно спрямованих текстів, метою яких є
розвиток у студентів мовленнєвої фахової компетенції, що сприятиме розвитку
логічного мислення.
Добір навчального матеріалу відповідає вимогам навчальної програми з
англійської мови.

Укладачі: Л.Р. Данькевич, Н.Ю. Ямнич,

Рецензенти: В. В. Коломійцева, к. філол. н., доцент кафедри сучасної

української мови інституту філології Київського національного університету імені
Тараса Шевченка
В.І. Ковальчук, д. пед. наук, професор,завідувач кафедри методики навчання
та управління навчальними закладами НУБіП України
Кравченко Н. К., д. філ. наук, професор кафедри англійської філології і філософії
мови ім. професора О. М. Мороховського, КНЛУ

Навчальний посібник з англійської мови для студентів факультету

інформаційних технологій. – К.: «Компринт», 2017. – 608 с.
ISBN

Видання здійснено за авторським редагуванням

Відповідальний за випуск: Н.Ю.Ямнич
ISBN

© Н. Ю. Ямнич, Л.Д. Данькевич, 2017

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 CONTENTS

Unit 1 Higher Education 5

Language practice. Overview of verb tenses 18
Unit 2 Jobs and careers 25
Language practice. Basic sentence structures 89
Unit 3 Tied to technology 103
Language practice. Modal verbs 115
Unit 4 Computers 135
Language practice. Passive 153
Unit 5 Communication. E –commerce 167
Language practice. Reported speach 173
Unit 6 Information. Collecting data 181
Language practice. Conditionals and wish sentences 190
Unit 7 The Internet 204
Language practice. Gerund and infinitive 217
Unit 8 Management Information Systems 229
Language practice. Infinitive constructions 238
Unit 9 Innovation Management 244
Language practice. Adverb clauses 257
Unit 10 Making a presentation. Attending a conference 264
Language practice. Connecting ideas 284

READER
Your phone on steroids 297
The sky’s limit 302
Passé words 307
Consumer electronics and privacy 312
Online advertising 315
Ransomware. Your money or your data 319
New rules for IPOs in America 322
Getting hooked 325
A charged view 330
Artificial Intelligence 335
Augmented Reality 348
Mobileye and Intel join forces 364

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Smartphones are Strongly Addictive 366
To sleep, perchance 374
Ready to runcible 381
Call the plumber 383
Watching the world go by 384
Sitting ducks 386
GRAMMAR TESTS 388
GRAMMAR REFERENCES 409
GLOSSARY 463

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 Unit 1
HIGHER EDUCATION

1.1. National university of life and environmental sciences

The faculty of IT

1.1.1. Discuss the following questions:

 What do you know about the NULES?
 Why did you decide to enter this univesity? Who or what influenced
your choice?

Key vocabulary

to span
an independent educational institution
to be established
research institute
forestry faculty
engineering faculty
veterinary
to meet the needs
to solve current problems of life sciences and environment
branches of economy
to widen educational activities
to adapt to
amendments to the Charter
safety and soil fertility
energy-saving agro-technologies
to approve
to conduct research
the supervisory board
environmental and legal management
to solve current problems
rural areas
quality and safety of agricultural production

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processing
to improve the quality of people’s life

1.1.2. Read the article, then do the tasks that follow.

The history of the NULES

National University of Life and Environmental Sciences is one of the

leading institutions of higher education in Ukraine. Its history spans more
than one century when the Department of Agriculture was founded at Kyiv
Polytechnic Institute (KPI). In 1918, it transformed into the Agricultural
faculty, on the basis of which an independent educational institution - Kyiv
Agricultural Institute - was established in 1923. From 1930 till 1934, Kyiv
Institute of Agronomy, Kyiv Institute of Mechanization and Electrification
of Agriculture, Kyiv Agricultural Engineering Institute of Sugar Industry
and Agricultural Economic Institute were formed and began functioning
there. These institutes were later reorganized into independent research
institutes and faculties.
Kyiv Forestry Institute began its history in 1840 as the Faculty of
Forestry of the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry in the city of Marimont
(Poland) which moved to the city Novoaleksandria (now Pulavy) in 1862.
After the beginning of World War I (1914) the Novoaleksandrian Institute
of Agriculture and Forestry moved to Kharkiv and in 1921 it became
Kharkiv Institute of Agriculture and Forestry. In 1930 the Forestry faculty
of Kharkiv Agrarian Institute was united with the Forestry Engineering
faculty of Kyiv Agrarian Institute to form Ukrainian Forestry Technical
Institute which was reorganized into Kyiv Forestry Institute the same year.
In 1954, Kyiv Agricultural Institute was united with Ukrainian
Forestry Institute into Ukrainian Agricultural Academy (UAA).
During the period from 1956 to 1962, UAA functioned as the educational
department of the Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural sciences. In 1957,
Kyiv Veterinary Institute was added to its structure. In August 1992, on the
basis of UAA, the National Agrarian University was founded.

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 To widen educational, research and innovative activities of the
National Agrarian University and to meet the needs of the agro-industrial,
environmental and other branches of economy, as well as the need to adapt
these activities to the requirements of international research organizations,
the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine renamed the National Agrarian
University into the National University of Life and Environmental Science
of Ukraine (NUBiP) on October 30, 2008, as well as approved the
supervisory board of the University and made amendments to its Charter.
According to it status of the IV level of accreditation, it is the research
institution, which conducts educational, scientific, research, innovative,
production and extension activities aimed at developing modern methods to
solve current problems of life sciences and environment, use, reproduction
and balanced development of biological resources in land and water
ecosystems, the introduction of new environmental agro-biotechnology,
technology of recovery of safety and soil fertility, energy-saving agro-
technologies, environmental and legal management in rural areas,
monitoring and control of standards, quality and safety of agricultural
production, processing and environment.
The mission of the University is:
- to create, systematize, store and share modern scientific knowledge
in order to improve the quality of people’s life;
- to train specialists according to European and world standards of
intellectual and personality development.

1.1.3. Complete the text with the words:

a) subdivisions, b) lecturers, c) academic, d) seekers, e) leading

Structure of the university

The National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of

Ukraine is one of the ……. (1) institutions of education, science and
culture in Ukraine. More than 26 thousand students and more than 600
graduates, PhD students and ……. (2) study at three educational and
research institutes and 13 faculties of basic university institution (in Kyiv)
and 10 separate…… (3).

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 The …… (4) process and scientific research at the University are
provided by more than 2,600 …….. (5), including more
than 300 professors and doctors of sciences, over 1,000 assistant professors
and PhDs.

1.1.4. Read the text and translate the words and phrases in bold.

Educational and academic activity

The educational conception of the National University of Life and

Environmental Sciences of Ukraine (NULES of Ukraine) is determined by
its status as a research university. The University realises its educational,
research, scientific, innovative, training and extension service activity
directed to the development of the up-to-date technologies concerning life
sciences and environment, reproduction, usage and balanced development
of land and aquatic ecosystems.
The University introduces modern nature conserving agrarian-
biotechnologies, technologies dealing with revival, security and soil
fertility as well as agricultural technologies dealing with energy saving,
ecological and law management in rural areas, realization of monitoring
and standard control of quality and safety of agricultural production, food
processing and environment.
University activity is directed at meeting individual, state and social
needs and requirements in training and education in accordance with
the Constitution of Ukraine, Laws of Ukraine on education, as well as the
European educational requirements and standards. The teaching staff
participate in different scientific, research programs and projects,
collaborate with world leading universities and other overseas top
partners.
NULES of Ukraine offers the training programs for bachelor and
master degree in the following specialties: “Veterinary Medicine”, “Plant
Protection”, "Agronomy", “Ecology, Environmental Protection and
Balanced Nature Management”, “Biotechnology”, “Management”,
“Finance and Credit”, “Accounting and Audit”, "Philology (translation)",
"Administrative managment", "Geodesy, Cartography and Land

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Managment". For particular groups of students most subjects are taught in
English.
Besides, the University trains candidates and doctors of sciences in about
70 specialities, and it also conducts training and retraining programmes
and courses for employees in the agricultural sector of economy.

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 1.2. The Ukrainian Education and Research Institute of Dataware
and Telecommunicational Support of Agro-Industrial and
Nature Protection Branches of Economy

The Ukrainian Education and Research Institute of Dataware and

Telecommunicational Support of Agro-Industrial and Nature Protection
Branches of Economy started its activity in 2010.
The most important task of the Institute is to train specialists in computing
and information-analytic activity for agro-industrial and ecological sectors
in Ukraine.

1.2.1. Read the text about the faculty you are studying at and write out
the key vocabulary to help you retell it.

The Faculty of Computer Science and Economic Cybernetics

The Faculty of Computer Science and Economic Cybernetics is the

part of the Ukrainian Education and Research Institute of Dataware and
Telecommunicational Support of Agro-Industrial and Nature Protection
Branches of Economy. The Faculty of Computer Science and Economic
Cybernetics was founded on September 1, 2010. The Faculty trains
Bachelor students in two directions - "Economic Cybernetics", "Computer
Science" and Master students in the field of "Economic Cybernetics",
"Information Control Systems and Technologies." In this way economic
and analytical knowledge is combined with the engineering, practice and
technical approaches for solving professional tasks. The faculty focuses on
training students to use innovative technology in practice in different
industries. Specialists of leading IT companies such as IBM, Microsoft,
Intel and others are involved in the academic process.
The Faculty creates favorable conditions for student to participate in
scientific conferences and seminars, competitions and intellectual games.
The faculty organize the activities of research groups, "Kibertonus",
"Informer", "Digital Content", "Programming".
Members of Faculty prepare students for participation in competitions. In

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 The Institute supports partnerships with leading universities in
Europe, USA, Japan, countries of CIS in the scientific, education and
innovation activities. The lecturers obtain training in the structures of FAO,
scientific and educational institutions in the USA and Europe: DePaul
(Chicago), the University of Iowa, Louisiana, North Dakota, at the
universities of Holland, Germany, Austria, Sweden, Russia etc.
In coordination with FAO the teaching staff have completed several
projects, in particular, "Strategy for the Informatization of Agrarian Policy
of Ukraine and the Rural Population to 2015", adapted distance course
"Management of Electronic Documents", developed new Masters courses
that are based on the modern world information resources.
The scientists analyzed the experience of creating an Extention
service at the University of Louisiana, which is used to build information
and analysis of telecommunication systems in agricultural and
environmental spheres in Ukraine.
In 2011, an agreement on cooperation with the Warsaw University of Life
Sciences (SGGW) was signed.

1.2.2. Translate the following extract about the life of students into
English.

Студентське життя в НУБіП України дуже різнобарвне.

Університет надає широкі можливості для розвитку та самореалізації
кожної особистості. Студентам створено умови для самостійного
вдосконалення знань у вільний від навчання час, розвитку їх
захоплень, усі бажаючі можуть зайнятися громадською діяльністю,
спробувати себе у студентському самоврядуванні, різноманітних
гуртках, секціях, клубах та центрах за інтересами.

Незважаючи на деякі складнощі студентського життя, воно

наповнене неповторними моментами. Спільні походи до кафе,
вилазки на природу, веселі розіграші в гуртожитку, нічні заняття
перед іспитом, гордість за отриманий високий бал і радість отриманої
стипендії, численні свята та нові знайомства.

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 1.3. World Famous Universities

1.3.1. Discuss the following questions:

What famous universities have you heard about?
What kind of education do they provide?
What partner universities does NULES cooperate with?

Key vocabulary
rivalry
to compete for brilliant academics
the aura of intellectual superiority
to draw the cleverest students to their college
to set up business
highly educated residents
to handle urban problems
frank acknowledgment
gorgeous
assessment
the exorbitant cost of housing
to know on which side their bread is buttered
to hold back the prosperity
in conjunction with
discrepancy
to intervene and merge
to hang heads together
exorbitant cost of housing
to pour money into
to give large dollops of cash to local authorities
to boost growth
forward-looking
under the current vice-chancellor
the surrounding area
to be involved in decision-making
to form a unitary regional government
an overhaul

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1.3.2. Read the text about two ancient university towns. Use a
dictionary if necessary. Then do the tasks that follow.

Oxford v Cambridge
Trailing in its wake

How and why the fortunes of England's two ancient university towns
diverged

Their rivalry is most vividly expressed each spring, when two boats
splash up the River Thames. They compete for brilliant academics and for
the aura of intellectual superiority that draws the cleverest students to their
colleges. But Cambridge and Oxford also compete in more prosaic ways -
as cities and as economies, as places to live and to set up businesses. And
here there is no real competition.
Over the past few years Cambridge has added many more workers,
highly educated residents and well-paid jobs than Oxford. Last October 40
Oxford councillors, academics and business leaders went to Cambridge to
see how it handles urban problems such as housing and transport. That
provoked joshing from the Cambridge local press about its rival going
"back to school", but also a frank acknowledgment of how far the cities'
fortunes have diverged. "Cambridge is at least 20 years ahead of Oxford,"
admits Bob Price, the leader of Oxford City Council.
Both cities are wealthy and pretty. They are both about 60 miles
from London, along fairly good train lines. Both are constrained by large
"green belts" in which it is almost impossible to build houses. Both have
Labour-led city councils. But there are big differences between Oxford and
Cambridge, too – in topography, regional politics and priorities – and these
help to explain the gap in performance.
Whereas the land around Cambridge is flat and boring, much of
Oxfordshire is rolling and gorgeous. It attracts wealthy, powerful residents
who want to keep it that way. Oxford is surrounded by four different
districts, run by Conservative politicians who do not all want to see an
expansion of the city onto their land. Nor do they regard Oxford's economic
growth as their priority. Cambridge is surrounded by just one district, Tory-

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led South Cambridgeshire, whose councillors know on which side their
bread is buttered.
In 2014 an assessment commissioned by the city council from URS,
a consultancy, found that Oxford needed to build up to 32,000 new houses
by 2031. The city says it has space for only about 10,200 of these, so the
rest should be spread among the four rural districts. They question the
numbers and say Oxford has not done enough to build in the city. They
cannot see that Oxford's unmet housing need holds back the prosperity of
the whole county, laments Mr Price.
Companies complain that the exorbitant cost of housing is making
it hard to hold onto workers. In 2014 the average Oxford home cost 11.3
times average local earnings. That is the biggest discrepancy in Britain: the
average is 5.8 times. Each day 46,000 people commute into the city, which
has a population of 150,000. And yet local businesses have not managed to
persuade local politicians to deal with their problems.
Cambridge, with 125,000 people, is quite different. Decades ago a
few visionary academics proposed that the city should convert its boffinry
(and especially its comparative strength in the sciences) into wider regional
prosperity. In the 1970s Trinity College opened the Cambridge Science
Park; the St John's Innovation Centre followed in 1987. A whole ecosystem
emerged, combining local government and business and then investors, all
driven by the university. This success has also created housing and
transport pressures, and property is expensive in Cambridge, too. But
Cambridge built 1,020 homes in 2014-three times as many as in 2009. Ox-
ford built just 60 last year.
Cambridge's most recent housing plan, published in conjunction
with South Cambridgeshire council, is for 14,000 new homes in the city
and 19,000 in the county. There is some opposition to this-but, says Lewis
Herbert, head of Cambridge City Council, because only 3% of the new
houses will be in the green belt, so far most parties have signed on. "The
key to preserving the green belt is getting the other stuff right," he says. He
is pouring money into improving transport links and other infrastructure for
the surrounding area, assisted by a "city deal", a central-government
scheme that gives large dollops of cash to local authorities that boost
growth.

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 The University of Oxford has not been as forward-looking as its
ancient rival, although Mr Price says he has seen a change under the
current vice-chancellor, Andrew Hamilton. The university is now much
more involved in decision-making, he says. Like local businesses, it has
realised, belatedly, that the housing shortage affects its ability to attract
world-class academics as well as technicians and cleaners.
What the city, and the county, now need is someone to provide a
strategic overview and then to hang heads together to push it through. None
of the districts in Oxfordshire is big or powerful enough to do so. Some
politicians point to the example of Manchester, where 10 local councils
have joined together, creating efficiencies financially and in urban
planning. But they are all part of a single metropolis.
It is just possible that, if the councils cannot work out a solution,
Westminster might intervene and merge the city, district and county levels
to form a unitary regional government. "Working better together now will
build a strategic defence against being forced into unitary government," ar-
gues Keith Mitchell, a retired head of Oxfordshire County Council.
More broadly, Oxford's travails go to the heart of the problems
with England's planning system. "Development is seen as a bad thing in
this country and planning is there to stop it," says David Rudlin, a planner
whose design for solving Britain's housing woes won the Wolfson prize, a
prestigious economics award. He says Cambridge is doing much better,
though even it could learn from a place like Freiburg, a German university
town that has used town extensions and trams to solve similar problems.
What is needed is an overhaul o f both the planning system and the green
belt policy. But it does not require a DPhil from the University o f Oxford
to see how difficult that is going to be.

from The Economist January 17th 2015

1.3.3. Match English words and phrases with the corresponding

Ukrainian ones:

1 rivalry a чудова місцевість зі схилами

2 academics b суперництво

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 3 frank acknowledgment c чесне визнання
4 wealthy and pretty d найбільша невідповідність
5 constrained by green belts e багаті і гарненькі
6 rolling and gorgeous land f стиснутий лісопарковою зоною
7 unmet need g незадоволена потреба
8 the biggest discrepancy h купа грошей
9 exorbitant cost of housing i непомірні ціни на житло
10 dollop of cash j вчені

1.3.4. Find in the text the adjectives describing the word ‘academics’.

1.3.5. Give the Ukrainian equivalents to the following English words

and phrases:

• to trial
• to express vividly
• to compete for the aura of intellectual superiority
• to draw the cleverest students to the colleges
• to set up businesses
• to handle urban problems
• to provoke joshing wealthy and pretty
• to be constrained by large "green belts"
• to attract wealthy, powerful residents
• to question the numbers
• to hold back the prosperity of the whole county
• to commute into the city
• to convert its boffinry into wider regional prosperity
• to provide a strategic overview
• to hang heads together
• to push the strategy through
• to work out a solution
• to boost growth

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1.3.6. True or false? Write T or F after these statements. If they are
false, say why.

2. Over the past few years Cambridge has added more workers, highly
educated residents and well-paid jobs than Oxford.
3. Last October 40 Cambridge councillors, academics and business
leaders went to Oxford to see how it handles urban problems such as
housing and transport.

4. Both cities are about 60 miles from London, along fairly good train
lines.
5. There are big differences between Oxford and Cambridge in
topography, regional politics and priorities.
6. The University of Oxford has been as forward-looking as its ancient
rival.

1.3.7. Answer the following questions:

2 What do Oxford and Cambridge have in common? What do they

differ in?
3 What does the city, and the county, now need? is someone and then?
4 What did the authorities in Manchester do to create efficiencies
financially and in urban planning?
5 What is needed to solve housing and transportation problems in
Oxford?

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 Language practice
Overview of verb tenses

1. Complete the dialogues by using the correct form of the words in

parentheses.
1. A: I'm going to ask you some questions so that we can practice
verb tenses. What (you, do)
do you do every day before you come to class? Name one thing. B: I
(eat) eat breakfast.
2. A: What (you, do) last night? Name three separate activities.
B: Last night I (eat) dinner. Then I (visit)
some friends, and later I (write) a couple of letters.
3. A: What (you, do) right now? What activity is in progress right
now, at this exact moment?
B: Right now I (talk) to you. I (answer)
your questions.
4. A: Where were you at this exact time yesterday? And what activity
was in progress then?
B: Let me think. At this time yesterday, I was at the bookstore. I (look)
for the books I needed to buy for this class.
5. A: How many questions (I, ask) since we began this exercise?
B: I think you (ask) me five or six questions since we began this
exercise.
6. A: What (you, do) for the past five minutes? In other
words, what activity began five minutes ago and has been in progress from
then until now?
B: I (talk) to you for the past five minutes. I started
talking to you five minutes ago, and I am still talking to you.
7. A: Where (you, be) tomorrow morning?
B: I (be) in class tomorrow morning.
8. A: What (you, do) at this exact time tomorrow? In other
words, what activity will be in progress at this exact same time
tomorrow?
B: Right now I am sitting in the classroom. And at this exact time
tomorrow, I (sit) in the classroom.
9. A: What (you, do) by the time you got to class today? In

18
other words, what is one activity that you had completed before you arrived
in class today?
B: Well, for one thing, I (eat) breakfast by the time I got to class today.
10. A: What (you, do) by the time you go to bed tonight?
Name one activity that you will have completed before you go to bed
tonight.
B: I (eat) dinner by the time I go to bed tonight.

Use any appropriate tense for the verbs in parentheses.

1. My grandfather (fly, never) __________________________ in an

airplane, and he has no intention of ever doing so.
2. Jane isn't here yet. I (wait) __________________________ for her since
noon, but she still (arrive, not) ___________________________.
3. In all the world, there (be) _____________ only 14 mountains that
(reach) _____________above 8,000 meters (26,247 feet).
4. I have a long trip ahead of me tomorrow, so I think I'd better go to bed.
But let me say good-bye now because I won't see you in the morning. I
(leave, already) _________________________________by the time you
(get) _____________ up.
5. Right now we (have) ______________________ a heat wave. The
temperature (be)______________________ in the upper 90s (upper 30s
Celsius) for the last six days.
6. Last night I (go) _________________ to a party. When I (get)
_________________ there, the room was full of people. Some of them
(dance) ______________________, and others (talk)
______________________. One young woman (stand)
________________________ by herself. I (meet, never)
________________________________ her, so I
(introduce)_________________ myself to her.
7. About three yesterday afternoon, Jessica (lie) _________________ in
bed reading a book. Suddenly she (hear) _________________ a loud noise
and (get) _____________ up to see what it was. She (look)
_________________ out the window. A truck (back, just)
__________________________into her new car!

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8. Next month I have a week's vacation. I (plan)
______________________ to take a trip. First, I
(go)_____________________________ to Madison, Wisconsin, to visit
my brother. After I (leave)______________ Madison, I (go)
_________________ to Chicago to see a friend who (study)
____________________ at the university there. She (live)
_________________in Chicago for three years, so she
(know)___________ her way around the city. She (promise)_______ to
take me to many interesting places. I (be,
never)___________________________in Chicago, so I (look)
______________________ forward to going there.
9. Yesterday while I (sit) __________________ in class, I
(get)____________________ the hiccups.The person who
(sit)____________________________________ next to me told me to
hold my breath. I (try) ______________________________that, but it
didn't work. The instructor (lecture)______________________, and I
didn't want to interrupt him, so I just sat there trying to hiccup quietly.
Finally, after I (hiccup) __________________________ for almost five
minutes, I (raise) _________________ my hand and (excuse)
_________________ myself from class to go get a drink of water.
10. The weather has been terrible lately. It (rain)_____________________
off and on for two days, and the temperature (drop) __________________
drastically. It (be)____________ really cold today. Just three days ago, the
sun (shine) _________________ and the weather (be) ________ pleasant.
The weather certainly (change)________________________________
____ quickly here. I never know what to expect. Who knows? When I
(wake)______ up tomorrow morning, maybe it (snow)
_______________________.

Complete the sentences with the verbs in parentheses. Use any

appropriate tense.

On June 20th, I returned home. I (1. be)_____________away from home

for two years. My family (2. meet)____________________ me at the
airport with kisses and tears. They (3. miss) ________________me as
much as I had missed them. I (4.

20
be)_________________________________very happy to see them again.
When I (5. get)_________________________the chance, I (6.
take)_____________________ a long look at them. My little brother (7.
be) ___________________ no longer little. He (8. grow)_______________
a lot. He (9. be) ______________________ almost as tall as my father. My
little sister (10. wear)_________________ a green dress. She (11.
change)_________________________quite a bit, too, but she (12. be,
still)________________________mischievous and inquisitive. She (13.
ask) ______________________ me a thousand questions a minute, or so it
seemed. My father (14. gain) ______________________ some weight, and
his hair (15. turn) ______________________ a little grayer, but otherwise
he was just as I had remembered him. My mother (16. look)
_________________ a little older, but not much. The wrinkles on her face
(17. be) _____________ smile wrinkles.

Complete the sentences with the verbs in parentheses. Use any

appropriate tense.

On June 20th, I will return home. I (1. be) __________________________

away from home for two years by that time. My family (2. meet)
_________________ me at the airport with kisses and tears. They (3. miss)
__________________________ me as much as I have missed them. I (4.
be) _____________ very happy to see them again. When I (5. get)
_________ a chance, I (6. take) _________________ a long look at them.
My little brother (7. be, no longer) __________________________ so
little. He (8. grow) ______________________ at least a foot. He (9. be)
_____________ almost as tall as my father. My little sister (10. wear,
probably) ______________________________ a green dress because
that's her favorite color. She (11. change) __________________________
quite a bit, too, but she (12. be, still) _________________ mischievous and
inquisitive. She (13. ask) _________________ me a thousand questions a
minute, or so it will seem. My father (14. gain, probably)
___________________________________ some weight, and his hair (15.
turn) __________________________ a little grayer, but otherwise he will
be just as I remember him. My mother (16. look) _________________ a

21
little older, but not much. The wrinkles on her face (17. be)
_________________ smile wrinkles.

Complete the sentences with the verbs in parentheses. Use any

appropriate tense.

PART I.
A: What (1. seem) _____________ to be the trouble, Ms. Jones?
B: I (2. send) _____________ in my money for a subscription to your
magazine, Computer
Data, two months ago, but to date I (3. receive, not)
______________________________any issues.
A: I'm sorry to hear that. Unfortunately, one of our main computers (4.
function, not)______________________________ at the moment.
However, our computer specialists
(5. work) ______________________ very hard to fix it at the present time.
We (6. start)
______________________ your new subscription as soon as possible.
B: Thank you.

PART II.
A: Where's Sonia? I (1. see, not) B: She (2. recuperate, at home)
_________________her lately.
A: Oh? What (3. recuperate, she) ______________________________
from?
B: She (4. hurt) _____________ her back while she (5. play)
_____________________volleyball last week in the game against South
City College.
A: What happened? How (6. she, hurt) __________________________ her
back?
B: She (7. try) ______________________ to spike a ball when she (8.
collide)_________________ with another player and (9. fall)
_____________ to the ground. She (10. land) _________________ hard
and (11. twist) _________________ her back.
A: Gosh, that's too bad. I'm sorry to hear that. How's she doing?

22
B: Well, she's pretty uncomfortable. She (12. wear) ____________ a
special brace on her back for the last five days. Needless to say, she (13. be,
not)__________________________ able to play volleyball since her
injury. She probably (14. be, not) _________________ able to play again
for at least a month.
A: (15. her doctor, allow)
_________________________________________ her to play in the
national tournament at the end of the summer?
B: She (16. have) _______________________ the brace on her back for
more than seven weeks by then, so I think he will.
A: I hope so. I know how much she likes to compete in volleyball games.
And the team really needs her.

PART III
A: Hi, Jim. How's it going?
B: Great.
A: (1. you, enjoy) __________________________ the rock concert last
night?
B: You bet! I had a terrific time.
A: Tell me about it. I (2. go, never) __________________________ to a
rock concert.
B: Well, I (3. go, never) __________________________ to a rock concert
before either, so I (4. know, not) ______________________ what to
expect. I've been to symphony concerts lots of times, but never a rock
concert. Ten minutes before the concert was supposed to start, hundreds of
teenagers (5. try, still) __________________________ to find their seats.
The place was a madhouse. I thought that things would settle down once
the concert began. Boy, was I wrong! As soon as the lead singer (6.
appear) _____________ on the stage, everyone (7. start)
_________________ screaming at the top of their lungs. I couldn't hear
myself think. But after a while things calmed down. And the music was
great. At one time during the concert, while the lead singer (8. sing)
_________________________________ a famous hit song, many people
in the audience knew the song so well that they sang along with him. All in
all, the concert (9. be) _____________ a lot of fun, but very noisy. A: It
does sound like it was a lot of fun!

23
PART IV.
Mark Twain, the author of the The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, is one of
America's best-loved storytellers. He (1. grow up) _____________ in a
small town on the Mississippi River. As a young boy, he (2. admire,
greatly) __________________________ the pilots of the riverboats and
dreamed about being a riverboat pilot on the mighty river. He pursued his
dream, and by the age of 22, he himself (3. become)
______________________ a riverboat pilot. Later in life, when he (4.
become) _____________ a writer, many of his stories (5. contain)
_________________ elements of his own experiences. He wrote many
humorous stories and articles about life on the Mississippi River before he
(6. die) _____________ in 1910 at the age of 74. Sadly, Twain (7. work)
_____________________ on a new story for several months before his
death, but he (8. finish, never) ______________ it. Over the years since his
death, his boyhood home in Hannibal, Missouri, (9. become)
_________________________ a favorite place for Americans to visit to
learn about Twain and life on the Mississippi at the turn of the 19th
century.

24
 Unit 2
JOBS AND CAREERS

2.1 Career paths

Discussion:

2.1.1. Complete the sentences with the ideas of your own:

In my opinion, WORK is …

(e.g. the most important thing in life, a way to get money so you can
do the things you enjoy, etc.)

2.1.2. What are the most important factors for you in choosing or
keeping a job? Put the following factors in order of importance and
then compare the order you have chosen with a partner’s.

a) good salary or wages

b) interesting and varied work, not boring and monotonous

c) work which is useful to society

d) good working conditions

e) flexible hours

f) opportunities to meet people

g) friendly and considerate management and colleagues

h) opportunities to travel

i) long holidays

j) another factor — what?

2.1.3. In your opinion, which jobs or professions fit your criteria? Does
the job that you have or that you hope to have fit them?

25
2.1.4. Have you got a job? If so, are these statements true for you at
work? If you haven't got a job, answer the questions about someone
you know well. Compare your answers with a partner if possible.

I work at a computer a lot of the I have to do a lot of paperwork.

time.
I show people round my workplace.
I use e-mail a lot.
I attend quite a lot of meetings.
I arrange meetings.

2.1.5. Study the following word combinations with ‘work’.

If you work or have work, you have a job. Work is also the place where
you do your job.

Here are some phrases with ‘’work’’:

I work for a software company.

I work in a bank in New York City. I leave for work at 7.30 every
morning.

I go to work by train and subway. I get to \ arrive at work at about nine.

I am usually at work till six.

Luckily, I don’t get ill very much so I’m not often off work.

The economy is growing fast and more people are in work than ever
before.

The percentage of people out of work has fallen to its lowest level for 30
years.

26
 Key Vocabulary

to earn money заробляти гроші

to work for a company працювати в компанії

apply for the post подати заяву на посаду

fill the position займати посаду

job advertisement оголошення про роботу

to move to a different job перейти на іншу роботу

to suit відповідати вимогам;

to be suited to влаштовувати, годитися

to graduate, a graduate закінчити ВНЗ, випускник

occupation заняття, професія, фах

accountant бухгалтер

be interested in бути зацікавленим

to attend an interview прийти на співбесіду

work long hours працювати довго

special training спеціальне навчання

people skills уміння спілкуватись з людьми

to be fluent in вільно володіти

to look forward to seeing чекати з нетерпінням

available доступний

challenging стимулюючий

secure безпечний

confident упевнений

27
to determine визначати

to rely on покладатися на

temporary тимчасовий

to recruit, to employ, to hire наймати, давати роботу

cover letter супровідний лист

to fire, to sack, to dismiss звільняти

a curriculum vitae (CV) or résumé біографія

a personnel manager начальник відділу кадрів

search firm кадрова агенція

to accept приймати

an applicant претендент

a letter of application лист-заява

to be in charge of бути відповідальним

job responsibilities посадові обов'язки

to clock in and out починати і закінчувати роботу у

визначений час, фіксувати час
to run a department керувати, управляти відділом
colleague колега
variety різноманітність
perks пільги (як доповнення до
грошової винагороди)
chance of promotion шанс просування по службі
a questionnaire анкета
to contribute to job satisfaction сприяти задоволенню від роботи

28
2.1.6. Study the ways of using the following words.

job, work, post, position, occupation, profession, career

– Your job is the work that you do regularly in order to earn money,
especially when you work for a company or public organization:

• My last job was with a computer firm.

• He finally got a job in a supermarket.

– Work is used in a more general way to talk about activities that you
do to earn money, either working for a company or for yourself:

• Will you go back to work when you've had the baby?

Note: Do not say 'what is your job?' or 'what is your work?'.

Say what do you do? or what do you do for a living?

– Post and position are more formal words for a job in a company or
organization. They are used especially in job advertisements and when
you are talking about someone moving to a different job:

• This post would suit a recent graduate.

• He left last summer for a teaching position in Sevastopol.

– Use occupation to talk about the kind of work that someone usually
does, for example if they are a teacher, lawyer, driving instructor etc.

Occupation is used mainly on official forms:

• State your name, age, and occupation in the box below.

Do not use occupation to talk about your own job

• I am an accountant. (NOT My occupation is an accountant).

– A profession is a kind of work for which you need special training

and a good education, for example teaching, law, or medicine

29
 • the legal profession

– Your career is the type of work that you do or hope to do for most of
your life

• I'm interested in a career in television.

2.1.6. Make up sentences:

He doesn’t like challenging

She Have stressful

We would like to have well-paid Job

I don’t want boring

They Has creative

He his colleague(s)

She Are my Staff

We Is their owner(s)

I Am her manager(s)

They our employee(s)

2.1.7. Choose which word is more suitable in each sentence:

1. His profession/career is more important to him than his family.

2. I was so desperate that I took the first career/job that came along.
3. I applied for the post/occupation and was asked to attend an
interview.
4. I’m sorry the occupation/position has been filled (someone has been
found to do the job).
5. There are now a lot more women in the legal profession/job.

30
 6. I started profession/work when I was 18.
7. Please write your name, address, and occupation/career in the
spaces below.

2.1.8. Choose the correct preposition:

I am fluent about/at/in French and Spanish.

She is interested about/in/of working with young people.

I look forward at/in/to seeing you soon.

I am writing in response on/to/for your advertisement.

She interviewed me for/on/to a job about three weeks ago, and I haven’t
heard anything yet.

The candidate needs previous experience with/of/at work on a farm.

2.1.9. Match the words in the columns to make phrases connected with
work and use them in the sentences of your own:

opportunities training

work a job

apply for to travel

special time

physically long hours

good people -paid

well skills

full fit

31
2.1.10. In each line one word is not an adjective. Underline it, and
make necessary changes to make it an adjective:

a) available / challenging / imagination / secure

b) ambitions / creative / interested / stressful
c) confident / determine / experienced / possible
d) fit / important / rely / intelligent
e) kind / envy / sympathetic / temporary

2.1.11. Find the synonyms or variants (British/American) among the

following words and expressions and write them out in groups:

To recruit, cover letter, to fire, a curriculum vitae, to employ, a

personnel manager, a position, search firm, to accept, résumé, a
candidate, an applicant, a letter of application, to hire, a Human
Resources specialist, to sack, a recruitment agency, a recruit, a job, to
dismiss.

2.1.12. Work with a partner. One of you has just started to work. The
other is hunting a job and asking the following questions about the
work. Simulate a conversation.

e.g. What do you do? (What are you in charge of? What are you
responsibilities?)

What time do you leave for work?

How long does it take you to get to work?

What time do you arrive at work?

Do you have to clock in and out?

Do you take a lot of time off work?

2.1.13. Your friend is talking about his work. Correct what he says.

I work for a Ukrainian supermarket company.

(1)I work about the development of new supermarkets.

32
 (2) In fact, I running the development department and

(3) I am manage for a team looking at the possibilities in different

countries. It's very interesting.

(4) One of my main is to make sure that new supermarkets open on

time.

(5) I'm also charged with financial reporting.

(6) I deal at a lot of different organizations in my work.

(7) I'm responsible of planning projects from start to finish.

(8) I work closely near our foreign partners, and so I travel a lot.

2.1.14. Complete the text with the appropriate prepositions.

Rebecca lives in London and works in public relations. She leaves

home for work at 7.30 a.m. She drives (1)… work. The traffic is often
bad and she worries about getting (2) … work late, but she usually
arrives 3) … work at around nine. She finishes work quite late, at
about eight. 'Luckily, I'm never ill,' she says. 'I could never take the
time (4) … work.' She loves what she does and is glad to be (5) …
work. Some of her friends are not so lucky: they are (6) … work.

2.1.15. Put the events in Josef Gutkind's career in chronological order.

1 Before graduating, Josef applied for jobs in twenty companies.

___ Josef was offered a position as a management trainee.

___ He attended a second interview conducted by a panel of managers.

___ He found a new job, but was dismissed after arguing with his boss.

___ Two years later he was appointed Logistics Manager.

___ Не was short-listed for a second interview at Wilson Brothers.

___ While he was unemployed Josef studied for a master's degree.

___ When Wilson's got into difficulties, Josef was made redundant.

33
___ In his early fifties he took a sabbatical to write a book.

___ Не retired from business and now lives in the south of France.

___ Thanks to his enhanced CV, Josef was hired by a firm of consultants.

___ The book was a best-seller, and Josef resigned from the firm.

2.1.16. Discuss the following questions in pairs.

1. Are there any jobs that men/women are naturally better suited to?

2. Is it common for people in our country to leave stressful jobs in the

3. city and start a new life in the country? What do you think of this
idea?

4. Is it easy for graduates to find a job in our country?

5. Do most people start a career immediately?

6. What sort of job would you like to do?

7. What routine would you like to have?

34
 2.2. Job Satisfaction

2.2.1. What does success mean to you? Arrange the following ideas
into the order of importance for you:

□ a happy family life □ plenty of money

□ a successful career □ friends and fun
□ a nice home □ a good love life
□ something else

e.g: I strongly believe that a successful person is the one that …

2.2.2. What is more important for you in a job? Put the phrases in the
order of preference:

1. colleagues 7. holidays
2. being your own boss 8. the hours
3. meeting people 9. chance of promotion
4. variety 10. job satisfaction
5. working conditions 11. perks (e.g. car, lunch)
6. money 12. travel

2.2.3. The Guardian newspaper sent out a questionnaire to its

readers on the subject of work and careers and received more than
11.000 replies. In one section, aspects of work which might contribute
to job satisfaction were listed and readers were asked to say how
important they were.

challenge(89%) being part of a team(69%)

meeting people through exercising power(28%)

work(71%)
helping other people(88%)
security(79%)
being praised by your

35
 the respect of colleagues(93%) superior(68%)

working conditions(74%) social status(25%)

status in your organization(58%) being promoted(62%)

learning sth new(92%) making money(62%)

personal freedom(91%)

Write a short paragraph explaining how each of these aspects are

important to you in providing you with job satisfaction.

2.2.4. Discuss the following questions before you read:

What is, in your opinion, good work/life balance like?

In what way do many companies try to increase productivity?

Do any of your relatives or friends experience job burnout?

2.2.5. Essential vocabulary

Burn out phr verb– to work so hard over a period of time that you become
unable to continue working because you are tired, ill, or unable to think of
any new ideas: It's a high-pressure job and you could burn out young.

Word list

to face job burnout стикатися з виснаженням через

роботу
to tighten staff скорочувати штат
to increase productivity збільшити продуктивність
a growing influx наплив, притока, що зростає
recently conducted survey огляд, що недавно проводився
a huge productivity drain on the величезна витрата
economy продуктивності в господарстві
at 100 percent capacity у повному об'ємі, навантаженні
the discretionary effort зусилля на власний розсуд

36
consistent results послідовні результати
career priority пріоритет кар'єри
enhance the work experience збільшити професійний досвід
a sign знак, ознака
to feel overwhelmed відчувати себе переповненим

2.2.6. Read this article from Los Angeles Times and answer the
questions.

Younger workers facing job burnout

Many corporations are tightening staffs and pushing their workers to

their limit in order to increase productivity these days, and according to
Spherion Corporation in Ft.Lauderdale, Fla., this directly contributes to a
growing influx of job burnout among today’s younger workers.
Approximately a third of workers between the ages of 25 to 39 are feeling
the effects of job burnout, reports Spherion in their recently conducted
survey.

“That’s a huge productivity drain on the economy and the employers,”

says Robert Morgan, president, employment solutions for Spherion.
“When people are burned out, they’re not functioning at 100 percent
capacity. They’re not giving the discretionary effort.”

The survey sampled 2,612 employed adults 18 and older in a variety of

occupations and salary ranges. Morgan says the results of the survey are
consistent with what employees say they’re looking for out of work.

“What’s important to many workers is a good work/life balance,” he

says. “That’s a major career priority for many people. Also, about 40
percent want to make a job change in the next year.”

Not all companies are rushing to respond to this problem, however.

“Some organizations do a very good job of responding, some don’t

even notice, some don’t want to notice,” he says. “Employers are really
looking at things like work/life balance and flex time – how can they
enhance the work experience of employees and what are they doing to help

37
the employees get what they’re looking for in their work so they can stay
interested and contribute.”

Some signs that you may be experiencing job burnout include not
caring about your work and not caring about the quality.

“You feel overwhelmed and like your contribution is not being

noticed or valued,” says Morgan.

Feel the burn? (Male & female, young & old)

Here’s the burnout breakdown:

Age 18-24 25-29 30-39 40-49 50-64 65+

Not
burned 50% 42% 45% 45% 60% 72%
out:
Neutral: 19% 25% 21% 27% 19% 18%
Burned 32% 33% 34% 28% 21% 10%
out:

Gender male female

Not burned out: 48% 51%

Neutral: 22% 22%

Burned out: 29% 27%

Chart percentages: From Spherion Workplace Snapshot survey

1. What, according to Spherion, directly contributes to a growing

influx of job burnout among today’s younger workers?
2. How does job burnout affect the quality of employees’ work?
3. How many people did the survey sample?
4. How do companies respond to the problem of job burnout?

38
 5. What, according to Robert Morgan, is the major career priority for
many people?

2.2.7. Read the article. What do these numbers in the article refer to?

a) 1,400
b) 4-45
c) 27,650
d) eight
e) one
f) 100
g) three
Cosmopolitan readers queue for Tube job

By Paul Marston, Transport Correspondent

More than 1,400 readers of Cosmopolitan have applied to become a

London Tube train driver. London Underground described the response to
its single advert in this month's issue as 'exceptional'.

Successful applicants will have to get out of bed for regular 4.45 a.m.
starts, but the £27,650 salary and up to eight weeks' holiday may prove
sufficient compensation.

Lorraine Candy, editor of Cosmo, said the interest her readers had
shown demonstrated that young women were not bound by traditional
career patterns.

“It's always been a classic thing for boys to want to be train drivers.
Now we're seeing that girls can do it too,” she said.

“I don't think the job is boring or unsexy and I'm sure the passengers
couldn't care less whether the train is being driven by a man or a woman —
as long as it's on time.”

The ability to break bad news to travellers more sympathetically is

one reason London Underground is keen to increase its number of female
drivers from 100 — just three percent of driving staff.
From the Daily Telegraph

39
2.2.8. Answer these questions about the article.

1. How many adverts did London Underground put in Cosmopolitan?

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the job?

3. What do passengers care about most?

4. Why does London Underground want to hire more women?

2.2.9. Read the dialogue and decide who is speaking:

a) two people looking for a job
b) a company president and a human resources director
c) a web designer and a vice-president of marketing

Wendy: So where do we stand with the open positions right now?

Jean: I've got offers out to a web designer and a VP of Marketing.

Other than that, we're still looking for an office manager and an
accounts receivable person.

Wendy: Did Jerry accept our CFO offer?

Jean: Oh, I forgot to mention that he called. He wants to discuss the

terms with you.

Wendy: He wants to squeeze more money out of us, I guess.

Jean: Maybe not. I'm guessing he wants to talk about perks. Like
equity ownership and stuff.

Wendy: Okay. I'll give him a call. Anything else?

Jean: We need to talk about the employee benefits program. We have

to sign up for a health insurance plan for everyone. I've been
doing a lot of research, and it seems OMHP is our best bet.

Wendy: What do the premiums look like?

Jean: Not too bad. We'll pay 80%, and the employee pays 20%. If I
can get your signature, then I can go ahead and set up a

40
 meeting explaining all the terms in greater detail.

Wendy: Fine. Let's schedule it for after lunch.

2.2.10. Read and act out the following dialogue:

A: So you’re a journalist. That must be an exciting job.

B: It is, at times. It’s certainly better than being a teacher!

A: Oh, really?

B: Yeah. I used to be a teacher, but I hated it! The worst thing about
teaching is correcting homework. That’s why I quit.

A: I guess you travel a lot now and meet lots of interesting people.

B: Yes, that’s one of the best things about my job.

A: Sounds great. I wish I had a job like that.

B: Where do you work?

A: In an office. It’s kind of boring. I’m stuck inside all day, and I have to
work long hours.

B: Oh? What do you do?

A: I’m a vice-president.

2.2.11. Read and compare what three people say about their jobs.

Mary works in Spain. She has a full-time job but her day is in two
parts. The office opens between 8.00 a.m. and 1.00 p.m. Then it opens again
at 5.00 p.m. and closes at 7.00 p.m. It's about half an hour from the house
to her office. It's a very long day, and she works on Saturdays too. She gets
paid monthly. The salary is quite good and sometimes she gets a bonus. Her
holiday is three weeks a year and she can take them when she wants".

41
 Paula is a student, but she has a part-time evening job as a receptionist
in a nightclub in Buenos Aires. "Our customers are usually tourists - they
come at about 9.00 p.m. to see the tango show. I come to work at 8.00
every night of the week. The show starts at 10.00 p.m. and finishes a little
after midnight. ! like this job. I meet people and I use my languages. I get
home by car at about 1.00 a.m. I get paid only for the days I actually work. I
don’t have time for social life"

Tom works in a finance department of a large company. There are a lot of

benefits. If the company makes a profit, all the employees get a bonus. There also
a profit share, but that’s only for managers. I have a company car and I travel
abroad quite a lot- always business class and on expenses, of course. We also get
a pension and private health insurance. The company pays for its staff to go on
training courses to develop their professional skills. I get a lot of satisfaction from
it.

2.2.12. Answer the questions.

1. What are good and bad sides of their jobs?

2. What people work on Saturdays, full?
3. What people meet different people every day?
4. Who leaves work in the middle of working day?
5. Who works only in the daytime?
6. Who is satisfied with his/her job?
7. What working hours do you have (or would you like to have)?
8. Is flexi-time common in most companies in your count

2.2.13. Write a synonym for each of these phrases:

1. sack someone = …………… someone

2. out of work = ……………

3. leave a company = ……………

4. be given a better position in a company = be ……………

5. future possibilities in a job = ……………

42
6. stop working (often at 60 or 65) = ……………

7. workers in a company = ……………

8. take control of something (e.g. a company) = ……………

2.2.14. Replace the underlined phrases with correct forms of words

and expressions you’ve learned.

Fred had already (1) refused two job offers when he went for (2) a
discussion to see if he was suitable for the job. They looked at his driving
license and contacted (3) previous employers Fred had mentioned in his
application. A few days later, the supermarket (4) asked him if he would
like the job and Fred (5) said yes.

Harry didn’t hear anything for six weeks, so phoned the company.
They told him that they have received a lot of (6) requests for the job. After
looking at the (7) life stories of the (8) people asking for the job and
looking at (9) what exams they had passed during their education, the
company (10) had chosen six people to interview, done tests on their
personality and intelligence and they had then given someone the job.

2.2.15.Complete the table with the appropriate verbs.

Noun Verb

application apply for

dismissal
increase
interview
offer
promotion
resignation
rejection
reprimand

43
 rise
retirement
shortlist

2.2.16. Now use the verbs from the exercise above to fill the blanks in
this passage.

Colin was eighteen. He had left school at sixteen and done two
years' training in catering. There were quite a few jobs being advertised in
the newspaper, and he decided to (a)__________ three of them. One of his
applications was (b)__________, but the two other companies wrote back
to say that he had been (c)__________, along with two other candidates.
He was (d)__________ by the owner and manager of one of the
companies. They asked him some tricky questions
and he didn't think he did too well, but he felt that the interview for the
other job
went well. He was very surprised, then, that he was (e)__________ both
jobs. He accepted the one with the higher salary, of course!

Colin got on fine at first. After only three months, his salary was
(f)__________ by ten per cent, and after six months he was
(g)__________ to Head Chef. But then things started to go wrong. He
didn't get on with the new manager and
sometimes didn't accept the menus that she suggested. After a while, she
called him
into her office and (h)__________ him for disobeying her orders. She
warned him that if his attitude continued he would be (i)__________ . In
the end Colin felt so unhappy at work that he decided to leave his job. He
(j)__________ on 30 June and left at the end of July, just in time to
take a summer holiday.

2.2.17. Look at the charts below. Put the nouns from previous exercises
and from the box below in the appropriate places in the stories about
Angela, Ben and Sheila.

44
part-time job temporary job contract pension job description
job centre redundancy Curriculum Vitae (CV) unemployment
benefit (dole)

ANGELA

1. Angela prepared a summary of her qualifications and

experience.

2. She saw an ad in the newspaper and wrote a letter to

the Personnel Department.

3. She received a letter saying that she and a few others

had been selected to meet managers on a certain day.

4. With the letter there was a list of things that the job
involved.

5. Angela attended a formal meeting at which some

managers asked questions about her experience,
qualifications, etc.

6. She received a letter telling her that she had got the job.

7. There was also a formal document, telling her about

working hours, holidays, salary, etc. She had to sign this.

45
 BEN

1. Ben applied for a job. He got a letter back saying that he

hadn't got the job.

2. After trying several times, he went to an office where

they help people to find jobs.

3. They took all his details. Later they phoned him and
offered him a job just for a few weeks.

4. After this job, he got another, but it only involved

working for part of the day.

5. Ben got to the age of 65, the age when employees stop
working.

6. Now he gets money monthly during his old age from the
government and from his employers.

SHEILA

1. Sheila got on very well in her first job, and after a while
she got a higher salary.

2. She did so well that after a year, she was given a new job
with more responsibility.

46
3. After a while, the quality of her work was not good
enough, and she was often late. She had to see the boss,
who told her she was not satisfied.

4. Sheila's work continued to be unsatisfactory. After another

warning she was told that she had to leave.

5. Sheila got another job, but she didn't like the work and
decided that she wanted to leave.

6. Sheila got a third job, but after a few weeks the company
went bankrupt and her job came to an end.

7. After several weeks without a job, she registered at a

government office. They paid her a small amount of
money every week.

2.2.18. Match the following words with their definitions.

1. to be bought a) to lose your job because the company wants to reduce

out the number of employees

2. to be laid off b) to make more modern

3. competitive c) too old, antiquated

4. dedicated d) to be purchased, taken over by another company

5. to downsize e) very loyal; working hard for a person, company or

idea.

6. to get rid of f) to re-educate someone for a job, train again

47
7. outdated g) worthy of competition, liking competition

8. to retrain h) to form into a smooth shape which can easily move

through air or water to improve the performance of
something to simplify a process

9. to streamline i) to reduce the size of a company, to reduce the number

of employees

10. to update j) the latest information or news

11.an update k) to throw away, remove, eliminate something or

someone

2.2.19. Fill in the gaps in the dialogue using the words given.

competitive dedicated downsize was laid off update

get rid of outdated retrain streamline was bought out

Barbara: Did you hear Lars lost his job?

Tim: Really, he has been working for that advertising agency for almost
five years.

He was such a ______________ employee — I can't believe he was

fired!

Barbara: He wasn't fired, he ______________. Terra Advertising

______________ by some internet marketing firm from the East Coast.

Tim: That's terrible! Why didn't the new company keep him? I'm sure they
could use someone with his skills.

Barbara: Lars said the new company needs to ______________.

Tim: Why?

Barbara: They need to reduce the number of employees they have if they
want to remain ______________.

48
Tim: Why did they ______________ Lars? He's great at what he does.

Barbara: They hired a specialist to come in and help ______________ the

company. Lars is creative and very respected in the advertising industry,
but his skills have become ______________. He can't use a computer and
he doesn't know anything about the internet. He is no help to an internet
marketing firm.

Tim: He needs to go back to school and ______________. The career

center downtown offers free classes to people who need to
______________ their skills and training.

Barbara: Why don't you suggest that to him?

2.2.20. Carla used to work for an Italian magazine publishing

company. She talks about how she lost her job. Choose the correct
form of the words in brackets to complete the text.

Edizione Fenice is a big magazine publishing company, and a very

nice company to work for. I was director of a magazine called Casa e
Giardino.

Then, Fenice was bought out by an international publishing group.

We had to have regular performance (1) ............... (review / reviews /
reviewer) with one of the new managers. After a few months they started
laying staff (2) ............... (off /on / out). Our own journalists were put on
temporary (3) ............... (contracts /contractual / contracting) or replaced by
(4) ............... (freelancer / freelancers / freelanced).

Then they started (5) ............... (laid / lying / laying) off more senior
people like me. The new owners said they wanted to make the company (6)
............... (flat / flatter / flatten) and (7) ............... (lean / leant / leaner). So I
was made (8) ............... (redundant / redundancies / redundancy). They
offered to help me to find another job with (9) ............... (outplacement /
outplaced / outplacing) advice, but I refused.

49
 2.3. Hunting a job

2.3.1. Questionnaire

What sort of intelligence have you got?

Give yourself marks from 1 to 5 for each of the following mental abilities:
1-very bad, 2-poor, 3-average, 4-good, 5-very good.

□ mathematical ability □ quick thinking

□ artistic ability □ ability to analyze problems
□ memory □ logical thinking
□ imagination □ ability to deal with large
□ sense of humor numbers of facts
□ decisiveness □ ability to learn new things
□ planning ability □ practical common sense

2.3.2. Discussion:

Which of these abilities do you think are the most important in the
profession you have chosen? Do you wish you had a better brain?
Which abilities would you like to improve?

e.g. I wish I had more artistic ability. I wish I could remember names. I
wish I were better at making decisions.

Key Vocabulary

flexible гнучкий
bilingual двомовний
literate грамотний
persuasive переконливий
numerate що розбирається в математиці
decisive рішучий
firm стійкий, сталий, непохитний
to earn a living заробляти на життя
to see smb’s viewpoint розуміти точку зору

50
 to adapt to circumstances пристосовуватися до обставин
to deal with figures мати справу з цифрами
to make/take decisions приймати рішення
to solve вирішувати, розв'язувати;
a solution рішення, розв'язання
to work overtime працювати наднормові години
to attend a meeting відвідувати збори
training навчання
profit share частка доходу
expenses витрати
pension пенсія
private health insurance страхування здоров'я
travel allowance виплати за відрядження
subsidized childcare субсидії для догляду за дітьми
promotion просування по службі
responsibility відповідальність
doing something worthwhile виконання чогось, вартого уваги
benefits and rewards вигоди і нагороди
to file 1) підшивати (папери)
2) подавати (документ)
3) прийняти замовлення

Word spot. Study the collocations with the word pay.

pay – плата, виплата, як винагорода за працю; оклад, заробітна

плата;

on full pay — на повній ставці

on half pay — на половині ставки

basic pay – основна зарплата

incentive pay – заохочувальна оплата

retrospective pay –плата за попередні періоди (різниця між

виплаченою та підвищеною зарплатою)

51
 severance pay – вихідна виплата (компенсація співробітнику, з
яким припинено трудові відносини

sick pay – лікарняні

paternity pay – допомога батьку по догляду за дитиною

pay equity справедливість, рівність в оплаті праці для

представників всіх категорій громадян

overtime – оплата позаурочної роботи

hazard pay – доплата за ризик

longevity pay – надбавка за вислугу років

make-up pay – компенсаційна плата через виробничу травму

vacation pay – відпускні

holiday pay – плата за работу в свята чи вихідні

merit pay – премія

payroll/pay-sheet – платіжна відомість

allowance – надбавка до зарплати за знання іноземної мови чи за

роботу в несприятливих умовах; виплати за транспортні
витрати, відрядження, на придбання спецодягу, тощо.

Describing jobs

2.3.3. Complete the sentences with an adjective. What other adjectives

describing jobs do you know?

Boring, busy, difficult, creative, interesting, stressful

1. If we have too much work and not enough time, it can be

quite_______.

52
 2. In my job, I use my imagination and ideas a lot, so the work is
_______ .
3. I do the same thing every day – my job is ________ .
4. There is so much to do at work that I’m always __________ .
5. Sometimes my job is ______, but I would get bored if it was too
easy.
6. My job is very _______ because I’m always learning new things.

2.3.4. The adjectives below describe applicants’ abilities. Find the

appropriate definition and use them in the sentences of your own.

a) flexible e) pragmatic
b) bilingual f) persuasive
c) logical g) numerate
d) computer-literate h) decisive

1. find practical solutions __________

2. deal with figures __________
3. think clearly __________
4. speak two languages __________
5. adapt to changing circumstances __________
6. make firm decisions __________
7. deal with IT problems __________
8. make others see your viewpoint __________

e.g. If you are pragmatic, you can find practical solutions.

2.3.5 Read what the three people say about their jobs. Match the
words in italics from the text with their corresponding definitions:

 the people you work with

 the number of hours in the week you spend doing your job

53
 the money you receive every month for the work you’ve done
 the things you do, usually with other people, outside work
 the time you have for eating in the middle of the working day
 the time you spend at work after your normal working hours
 a system where you can choose when to start and finish work
 the usual order and way that you regularly do things

I work in a factory. My working hours are 8.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m., Monday to
Friday. I have a one-hour lunch break at 12.30. The routine is the same every
day. My job is very boring but the pay is quite good. My colleagues and I don’t
really talk to each other, but I have a lot of friends outside work. My job is just
a way to earn money.

Anna, 18
I’m a computer programmer. I work a 40-hour week. We have flexible
hours so I can start and finish when I want. If we are very busy then I work
overtime – I get paid extra for this. There are always problems to solve.
This can be difficult, but it can also be quite creative. I earn a good salary,
but my job doesn’t rule my life. I like to do different things in my free time.

Tony, 23

I’m a doctor in a large hospital. I work very long hours – 60 or 70 hours a week
– often in the evenings and at weekends. The work is really interesting but it
can also be quite stressful. I love my job and my colleagues are also my friends.
I don’t have time for a social life. When I get home, I’m too tired to do anything
except have dinner and watch TV.

Erica, 25

54
 2.3.6. Answer the questions:

1. What good and bad sides of their jobs do Anna, Tony and Erica
mention?

2. What are normal working hours for most office jobs in our country?

3. Can you name three jobs that get very high and very low salaries in our
country?

4. Is flexi-time common in most companies in our country?

5. What jobs often involve shifts? Is it really necessary?

2.3.7. Look at the list of things that motivate people and divide them
into two columns: benefits (extra things you get from your employer) and
rewards (things that make you feel good about the job).

1. training 9. travel allowance

2. profit share 10. subsidized childcare
3. expenses 11. job satisfaction
4. pension 12. promotion
5. company car 13. responsibility
6. business class travel 14. gym membership
7. private health insurance 15. doing something worthwhile
8. bonus

Daily duties / routines

2.3.8. How many of these statements would you like to do in your

future job (or are true for you if you have got a job)?

o I’ll have to attend a lot of meetings and go to conferences.

o I’ll visit/see/meet quite a lot of clients and advise them.
o I’ll check/inspect/examine goods.

55
 o I’ll do a lot of general paperwork (file reports, write memos,
answer letters).
o I’ll work at a computer a lot of time.
o I’ll make and answer a lot of phone calls and send faxes to
customers.
o I’ll show people around my workplace.
o I’ll have to write regular reports.
o I’ll arrange meetings for the boss.

2.3.9. Read the quote from an accountant talking about her job and
choose the things that motivate her:

“I work in the finance department of a large company. There are a lot

of benefits. For example, if the company makes a profit, all the
employees get a bonus. There’s also a profit share, but that’s only for
managers. I have a company car and I also travel abroad quite a lot –
always business class and on expenses, of course. We also get a
pension and private health insurance. The company pays for its staff
to go on training courses to develop their professional skills. And we
get free membership of the local gym. There are also rewards: it’s
hard work, but I get a lot of satisfaction from it. People recognize it if
you do a good job, so there are good prospects for promotion.”

2.3.10. Divide the phrases in the box into the three categories below
and then explain your opinions:

 I would like a job like this

 I wouldn’t mind doing a job like this
 I wouldn’t want a job like this

56
 You have to be physically fit.

You have to be good with money.

You need good people skills.

You have to be very well-organised.

You have to be very creative.

You have to work long hours.

It’s very secure.

It’s well-paid.

It’s badly-paid.

It’s stressful.

It’s very competitive.

It’s challenging.

There’s a lot of responsibility.

There are lots of opportunities to travel.

2.3.11. Write an informal letter to one of your friends describing your

plans for the future using as many words and phrases from this unit as
possible.

2.3.12. Read the text and match the words in bold to the corresponding
Ukrainian equivalents below:

Hunting a Job and Recruitment

The process of finding people for particular jobs is recruitment or

hiring (AmE). Someone who has been recruited is a recruit (a hire). The
company or organization employs (hires) him/her. A company may

57
recruit employees directly or use employment agencies. Nowadays some
agencies use the practice of headhunting when outside specialists called
headhunters persuade people for very important jobs to leave their
organizations they work for. Many organizations and companies hire
candidates who come recommended by current employees.

Nearly everyone, soon or later, finds himself searching for a job. Most
candidates usually hunt a job themselves: advertisements about
vacancies on the page "Employment" in a newspaper or on "Jobs" site in the
Internet, parents' or friends' advice etc. If a person finds out appropriate
information, he applies for the job. At the beginning, he sends his typed
or printed CV or resume with the information about his education,
background and work experience.

This paper usually accompanies a letter of application or a cover

letter explaining why he wants the job and why he is the right person for this
position. The cover letter serves as an introduction and guide to the resume,
but after you've sent these papers you shouldn't just sit by the phone waiting
for an answer. Don't forget that companies receive hundreds of e-mails,
resumes, so an applicant should call a company. Receiving these papers, the
personnel department of the company analyses them: the backgrounds of
the applicant, his job experience and educational qualifications.

The most interesting candidates for the job are invited to have a group
or one-to-one interview. The atmosphere of an interview may vary from
the informal to the formal and interviewers may take a friendly, neutral or
even hostile approach. Different interviewers use different techniques and
the only rule that applicants should be aware of may be "Expect the
unexpected and be yourself".

Some companies and organisations ask the candidates to do written

psychometric tests to assess their intelligence and personality. After this,
the head of the personnel department can contact previous employers or
teachers mentioned in candidate's application. If the references are OK, the
person is asked to come for the detailed interview. Finally, the interviewer
offers the job to the candidate, and if he accepts it, the company hires him.

58
набір біографічні дані

посада рекомендація

вакансія роботодавець

оголошення пошук роботи

звертатися за роботою автобіографія

заява супровідний лист

претендент відділ кадрів

наймати на роботу технічні прийоми

кандидат “полювання” на професіоналів

досвід службовець, працівник

2.3.13. Use the words from the text above to complete the table. Make
up sentences with these words.

action process Person

recruitment a recruit
to employ an employee an employer
to apply application
an interviewee an interviewer
invitation an invitee
to advise an advisor
to hunt a hunter

2.3.14. Match the parts to make phrases:

term letter
curriculum experience
cover vitae

59
marital of probation
personnel department
hunting status
job opening
work a job

The career ladder

2.3.15. Group these words and expressions under the 5 headings:

job seeker, bonus, confident, applicant, advertisement, qualifications,

shortlist, enthusiastic, company car, ambitious, diploma, pension plan,
interview, health insurance, interviewee, independent, degree, candidate,
job offer, training course, recruitment, position, vacancy, advertisement,
application, experience, background, reference, term of probation,
curriculum vitae, cover letter.

people looking education

for a job

Applying for a job

Fringe benefits

personal qualities stages in

recruiting

60
2.3.16. Match the verbs with the nouns:

1. earn a) overtime
2. work b) meetings
3. pay c) a shop
4. go to d) clients
5. deal with e) $400
6. run f) income tax

2.3.17. Make up a story about someone’s career using the phrases

below in a logical order:

o to apply for a job

o to get a job as a trainee
o to give a lot of training
o to do (=to go on) a training course
o to get a good pay rise
o to be promoted (to be given a higher position)
o to be in charge of the department with a few other employees
under my authority
o to want a fresh challenge
o to be keen to work abroad
o to resign from (=to quit) the company
o to look for a new job with a bigger company
o to manage to find an exciting job
o to make some friends in the new company
o to start to dislike the constant moving around

2.3.18. Translate the following expressions into Ukrainian and think of

the situations in which you might use them:

I’m definitely а team player/people-oriented/ а morning person/

to get involved

to be unrelated to sth

61
 to gain experience in

equipment rental

to be flexible and versatile

essential

to collaborate on а project

strengths and weaknesses / advantages and drawbacks

it can be frustrating

to pull one’s own weight

to prevent sb from moving ahead

2.3.19. Simulate a conversation using the questions below as the plan:

Student A: You are having an informal conversation with the

representative of a foreign company. Ask him about his job.

Student B. You are a representative of a foreign company. Answer the

questions about your job inventing as many details as you wish.

What’s your job? What daily duties does your job involve? (What do
you do in your job?) What are your main responsibilities?(= What are
you in charge of?)

How many weeks’ holiday do you have? (=How much holiday do you
get?)

What are your working hours? Do you do/work any overtime?

Have you been promoted since you started working here?

Do you expect to have a pay rise?

How do you feel about your future prospects at your work?

Are you happy in the job or do you feel it is time for a fresh challenge
somewhere else? Why do you need to go on training course?

62
 2.4. CV and job interview

Strong Resumes Speak for Themselves

2.4.1. Read the following tip sheet to help your resume steer clear of
the recycling bin.

Bad Good

Grammatical or spelling errors Absolutely no errors in spelling,

grammar or punctuation! Don’t
rely on computer-based editing.
“There” and “their” can be used
incorrectly, but they are spelled
correctly. Spell check will not catch
this!

Repeated use of the phrase, Begin your statements with “action

“responsible for…” verbs” that convey what you did,
e.g., initiated, collaborated with,
analyzed, etc.

Lists of job duties as opposed to A resume is a marketing tool, not

accomplishments an employment application.
Employers hire candidates who
have a record of accomplishments
elsewhere. The employer makes the
connection that past achievements
will lead to future achievements.

Meaningless “objective” statements Cover letters or e-mail messages

are the best way to target your
resume to the specific employer.
Most “objective statements” are
too general to be worth the lines of
type.

Poor presentation, e.g. small font, Choose at least 11-point font, 1-

63
small margins, poor print quality inch margins, and use a reliable
ink-jet or laser printer. Paper
quality is not an issue with e-mail;
use high quality white or off-white
paper for mailing.

2.4.2. Your friend who studies landscape architecture at National

University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine is looking
for a part-time job. She sees these advertisements in the local
newspaper.

Read the advertisements and find out which job would be more
suitable for her. Is it part-time? Which days would she have to work?

Assistant in Garden Design

Scottish Inn

Salary according to age/experience

Working Saturdays/Sundays, 16 hours per week.

______________________________________

We are seeking a dependable, friendly and capable person

to work weekends in our garden in the countryside. The
successful candidate will have excellent personal and
creative skills and experience in gardening and design.

________________________________________

Interviews will be arranged for suitable applicants.

Telephone Linda at Scottish Inn on 044 3828033 or e-mail

your CV to: linda@scottishinn.com.ua

64
 BELMONT Village

Belmont Village is hiring entrepreneurial

professionals for world-class projects in our
countryside area.

We are currently recruiting for experienced

landscape architecture exteriors candidates to fill
positions in Vorzel, Koncha Zaspa and Bilychi:

Project architects, project managers, space

planners, exterior designers, administrative
project coordinators, accounting

We offer a competitive compensation and

benefits package, including incentive bonuses,
profit sharing and employee stock ownership.

Email: lory@belmontvillage.com

Fax:044-449-5820

No phone calls, please.

2.4.3. Your friend decides to send her CV and wants you to help her
write it. Discuss which topics she should include:

– her contact details (address, phone number, etc.)

– her work experience
– the name of her secondary school
– her education and qualifications
– her date of birth
– her hobbies and interests
– whether or not she can drive
– a profile of her skills and achievements
– what kind of clothes she likes
– what languages she speaks

65
 – what makes her suitable for the job

2.4.4. Read the CV and tick the topics above which are included.

Flat 30, 7 Lomonosov street

Kyiv 02190

Tel: (home) 5653540 (mob)0675002649

e-mail:natzar@eserve.com.ua

Profile final year student in Landscape Architecture and design

at National Agricultural University

Knowledge of all aspects of park and garden

architecture (design, planting, tree surgery,
management)

Proven ability to work under pressure as a member of a

team, excellent personal skills.

Experience Five-month work placement with agrofirms working on

design and management for two large gardens and
recreation zone.

Completed study comparing English classical and

Oriental styles in parks as part of degree course.

Gained valuable practical experience during university

vacations working in farms in Denmark and UK.

Qualifications Agricultural college graduate, Zhytomyr.

BA Degree Landscape Architecture, National

Agricultural University (to be completed June2010).

Languages Ukrainian (mother tongue), Russian (fluent in speech

and writing), English (fluent in speech), and German
(good in speech and writing).

66
Personal details Ukrainian nationality (non-EU citizen – work permit
required).

Aged 20. Single. Non-smoker. Full clean driving

licence.

2.4.5. Find words or phrases in the CV above which mean the

following:

 she has shown that she can do something

 the ability to get on well with people
 time spent getting work experience while you are a student
 someone who has completed their course at college or university
 it will be finished
 first language
 quite good
 someone who doesn’t smoke

Covering letter

2.4.6. Put the jumbled up sentences in the correct order:

□ I am interested in any secretarial positions you have, especially in

Denmark or Sweden.
□ I will be available to start work from the middle of May.
□ I look forward to hearing from you soon.
□ Yours faithfully,
□ I enclose my CV as requested.
□ I am a qualified and experienced PA, and am bilingual in English
and German.
□ I also speak French fluently.
□ I am writing in reply to your advertisement for temporary summer
positions, which appeared in the Kiev Post on 21st February.
□ Dear Sir or Madam,

67
 □ However I am willing to consider any kind of work.
□ Nora O’Brian

2.4.7. Look at the Top Tips for Job Interviews and complete the
sentences using the words in the box:

experience long-term goals promotion prospects qualifications

references strengths weaknesses

Top Tips for Job Interviews

1. Make a list of your __________ – it’s important to talk about what

you are good at.
2. Make a list of your __________ – interviewers sometimes ask what
you are not good at.
3. Prepare to talk about your past __________ – you can talk about
things you have done which relate to this job.
4. Make sure you know what relevant ___________ you have –
certificates, diplomas and degrees are important.
5. Think of two past employers to write you good __________ – the
interviewers will need to know about what past employers thought
of your work.
6. Show that you are interested in __________ – it’s impressive to
show interest in getting better jobs in the company in the future.
7. Be clear about your __________ – interviewers sometimes ask what
your five-year plan is.

The Job Interview

2.4.8. There are some very important rules to consider when taking a
job interview. The job interview in English requires a very specific
kind of vocabulary. It also requires good tense usage as you need to

68
make a clear distinction between past and present responsibilities.
Here is an overview of the appropriate tenses to use:

Tense Example Sentence Explanation

I collect data from all

Use the present simple to describe
of our branches and
Present your daily responsibilities. This is the
analyze the
Simple most common tense to use when
information on a
speaking about your current position.
weekly basis.

Use the past simple to describe your

I developed an in- daily responsibilities in a former
Past Simple house database for the position. This is the most common
personnel department. tense to use when speaking about past
jobs.

Use the present continuous to speak

about current projects that are
Currently, I am
Present happening at that moment in time.
designing a new layout
Continuous These projects are limited in time and
for our local branch.
should not be confused with daily
responsibilities.

Use the present perfect to generally

describe projects or accomplishments
that you have made up to the present
Present I've researched over
moment in time. Remember not to
Perfect 300 cases until now.
include specific past time references
which should be used with the past
simple.

Present I’ve been working on Use the present perfect continuous to

Perfect this project for three emphasize the continuity, to describe
Continuous months. duration of an activity

I will be the manager Use the future simple to discuss your

Future
of a medium sized plans for the future. This tense is only

69
Simple retail outlet. used when the interviewer asks you
what you plan to do in the future.

2.4.9. Read the list of questions asked during the job interview and
divide them into two columns:

What the interviewer asked: _________________________________

What the interviewee asked: _________________________________

1. What qualifications do I need for the job?

2. What experience have you got with this type of work?
3. Do you offer a training programme?
4. Is there a uniform?
5. Can you work under pressure?
6. What are your strengths and weaknesses?
7. What type of work will be involved?
8. What is the salary scale?
9. What are your long-term goals?
10. Why do you want to work here?
11. Are there any promotion prospects?
12. What would you do if there was a problem?
13. When does the job start?
14. What are the responsibilities of the work?
15. Who will I work with?
16. Do you like office life?
17. Are you interested in the job?

2.4.10. Report these questions using different ways of starting the

reported question.

e.g. He asked me…

70
He/I wanted to know…

He wondered whether…

I was interested in…

2.4.11. The following phrases describe the process of recruiting new

employees. Find the corresponding Ukrainian equivalents below.
Make up a story using as many of them as possible.

1. to advertise the position

2. to complete an application form/ a personality test
3. to complete a probation period
4. to contain details of one’s education and work experience
5. to conduct an interview
6. to select the most suitable candidates
7. to prepare a short list of applicants
8. to offer a wealth of exciting career opportunities
9. to acquire(=gain) some professional experience
10. to be accepted
11. to reject

□ бути прийнятим;
□ підготувати остаточний список кандидатів;
□ відмовити;
□ запропонувати безліч цікавих можливостей для кар’єри
□ подати оголошення про вакансію на посаду;
□ вміщувати подробиці про освіту та стаж роботи;
□ проводити співбесіду;
□ відібрати найбільш підходящих кандидатів;
□ заповнити заяву-анкету;
□ пройти випробувальний термін;
□ набути досвіду;

71
2.4.12. Read the general guidelines a personnel manager gives about
what is most important at a job interview. Then mark true or false
statements according to the text:

Work Experience

Work experience is by far the most important part of any job interview in
an English speaking country. It is true that education is also important,
however, most employers are more impressed by extensive work
experience than by university degrees. Employers want to know exactly
what you did and how well you accomplished your tasks. This is the part
of the interview during which you can make the best impression. It's
important to give full, detailed answers. Be confident, and emphasize your
accomplishments in past positions.

Qualifications

Qualifications include any education from high school through university,

as well as any special training you may have had (such as computer
courses). Make sure to mention your English studies. This is very
important as English is not your first language and the employer may be
concerned about this fact. Assure the employer that you are continuing to
improve your English skills by any courses you may be taking, or by
saying that you study a certain number of hours a week to improve your
skills.

Talking about Responsibilities

Most importantly, you will need to demonstrate your qualifications and

skills which are directly applicable to the job you are applying for. If past
job skills were not exactly the same as what you will need on the new job,
make sure to detail how they are similar to job skills you will need for the
new position.

2.4.13. True or false?

72
□ Education is by far the most important part of any job interview in an
English speaking country.
□ Most employers are more impressed by extensive work experience than
by university degree.
□ Employers are more interested in how well you accomplished your
tasks than in what college you graduated from.
□ Qualifications include the English course you have .
□ It’s less important to mention the number of hours you spend to
improve your English skills than skills directly applicable to the job.
□ If past job skills were not exactly the same as what you will need on the
new job, don’t speak about them.

2.4.13. Check whether you understand the meaning of these words and
expressions:

I’m definitely a team player not to pull one’s own weight

people-oriented
to prevent sb from moving ahead
to get involved
to check / to update the schedule
to be unrelated to sth
last-minute things
to gain experience in
on a number of occasions
equipment rental
to take over for sb
to be flexible/ versatile/ essential
overwhelming
to collaborate on a project
the minor details
strengths and weaknesses
to verify the quantity
advantages and drawbacks
to sort out problems
it can be frustrating

73
2.4.14. Do you agree with the following statements?

1. Character and intelligence are the most important qualities for an

interviewee.

2. The candidate’s appearance is one of the main factors that influence the
interviewer’s decision.

3. Good manners can also have some bearing on the decision.

4. It’s important to have a fairly good knowledge of the company.

5. A candidate is expected to know something about the company, e.g.

what it does, or what he is going to do.

6. The candidate has to agree with everything.

7. The interviewer draws the candidate out to see how good he is at

expressing himself.

2.4.15. Do you think the interviewer might ask these questions? At

what stage?

o Haven’t I kept you waiting long?

o Did you have any trouble finding our office?
o Is this your permanent address?
o Are you a commuter?
o How do you reckon you speak your German?
o Which of the options that you took at university was the most
interesting?
o How ambitious are you?
o What about your plans for the future? What are your long-term
career goals?
o What would you say has been your greatest achievement so far?
o What do you know about our company?
o Do you know who you’re going to report to in this position?
o What sort of projects did you work on during your previous
employment?
o Are you a team player?

74
 o Have you ever been in a situation in which you lost your temper?
o How do you deal with difficult or awkward people?
o How would you assess your general state of health?
o Can you tell me about any other hobbies you have?
o What do you dislike doing?
o I can assume that you would like to work full-time with us, wouldn’t
you?
o Are there any questions that you’d like to ask?

2.4.16. Role-playing exercise.

Some companies are no longer satisfied with traditional job interviews.

Instead, they evaluate candidates by putting them through psychological
tests, role-play, simulated decision-making exercises, brainteasers
(головоломки).
You are a Human Resources specialist and are conducting a white-
collar testing to select a new employee. From the following words
choose those qualities which you would base your decision on. Add
some more ideas of your own if you need.

□ flexible □ independent
□ creative □ resourceful
□ entrepreneurial □ motivated
□ competent □ reliable
□ knowledgeable □ trustworthy
□ willing □ hardworking
□ enthusiastic □ cooperative
□ well-presented □ broadminded
□ energetic □ determined
□ good natured □ imaginative
□ people-oriented □ cheerful
□ articulate □ self-confident
□ ambitious □ shy
□ sociable

75
2.4.17. Read the article and answer the questions that follow.

How to select the best candidates - and avoid the worst

By Adrian Furnham

Investing thousands of pounds in the recruitment and training of each

new graduate recruit may be just the beginning. Choosing the wrong
candidate may leave an organisation paying for years to come.

Few companies will have escaped all of the following failures:

people who panic at the first sign of stress; those with long, impressive
qualifications who seem incapable of learning; hypochondriacs whose
absentee record becomes astonishing; and the unstable person later
discovered to be a thief or worse.

Less dramatic, but just as much a problem, is the person who simply
does not come up to expectations, who does not quite deliver; who never
becomes a high-flyer or even a steady performer; the employee with a fine
future behind them.

The first point to bear in mind at the recruitment stage is that people
don't change. Intelligence levels decline modestly, but change little over
their working life. The same is true of abilities, such as learning languages
and handling numbers.

Most people like to think that personality can change, particularly the more
negative features such as anxiety, low esteem, impulsiveness or a lack of
emotional warmth. But data collected over 50 years gives a clear message:
still stable after all these years. Extroverts become slightly less extroverted;
the acutely shy appear a little less so, but the fundamentals remain much
the same. Personal crises can affect the way we cope with things: we might
take up or drop drink, drugs, religion or relaxation techniques, which can
have pretty dramatic effects. Skills can be improved, and new ones
introduced, but at rather different rates. People can be groomed for a job.
Just as politicians are carefully repackaged through dress, hairstyle and
speech specialists, so people can be sent on training courses, diplomas or
experimental weekends. But there is a cost to all this which may be more

76
than the price of the course. Better to select for what you actually see rather
than attempt to change it.

From the Financial Times

1. What types of failures do companies experience, according to the article?

2. What does a fine future behind them (line 31) mean?

3. What advice does the article give to managers?

2.4.18. Complete the article about recruitment on the Internet with

sentences a-e below.

A But as the test leads to a final interview, lying like this is simply a
waste of everyone's time.

B Their computer test asks candidates questions like: “Why did you
leave your last job?” and then it responds to the answer.

C One student says that it enables graduates to see lots of different

options without having to send off for application forms, which can take a
long time.

D One way of doing this is by using selection tests on the Internet

which will identify unsuitable applicants.

How employers can gain net benefits

When it comes to recruiting graduates, clever firms are not just

interested in how to attract the best candidates, but also in how to keep
them. 1 … These tests can be used right up to the interview to make sure
that only the best candidates get through to this stage. Human Resources
experts think that with the increase in Internet use, recruitment using
computer testing is a growing and inevitable trend.

In the States, Macy's department store takes on hundreds of extra

staff at peak season. It already selects the best candidates through
computer testing. 2 … It also finds out how candidates might react in
certain situations. The test is then marked by the software, and if the

77
candidate is successful, his / her computer gets in touch with the right
person at Macy's to arrange a personal interview.

However, there are some drawbacks. For example, an applicant who

has no personal skills could get a friend to do the test. 3 … .

Like the employers, students too can see the benefits of using
recruitment methods available on the Internet. 4 … . Nevertheless, many
still feel that it is important to go to traditional recruitment fairs. Here
they can actually meet people who have been through the recruitment
process and have managed to get jobs with their chosen companies.

2.4.19. Study these words and expressions in the text and choose the
correct definition.

1. recruiting graduates

a) teaching students how to do b) employing people who have just

something left a university

2. an inevitable trend

a) an unattractive fashion b) something that is sure to happen

3. send off for

a) ask for something to be sent b) dismiss somebody

by post

4. at peak season

a) when regular staff are on b) the busiest time of year

holiday

5. drawbacks

a) disadvantages b) extra expenses

78
2.4.20. Write short answers to these questions about the text.

1. What are the aims of intelligent organizations when it comes to

recruiting graduates?

2. How can computers help with recruitment?

3. What basic problem exists with computer recruitment tests?

4. What advantage do traditional recruitment fairs have over computer

recruitment method?

2.4.21. Read the following text and tell your friend, who is going to
have an interview, how to behave.

Don’t Fail!

• Be a good listener. From the word go let your interviewer know

that you're listening attentively by nodding, using facial expressions that
make you look interested, picking up on key words they've used and asking
them to expand on subjects that genuinely interest you. Never interrupt
your interviewer and don't let his words go right over your head.

• Be honest. If you don't understand a question, don't go red in the

face but simply ask for an explanation. If you're faced with something you
really are unable to deal with, be truthful about it — honesty is more likely
to impress than pretending to have the answer to everything.

• Be consistent. Many interviewers ask the same things in different

ways as a means of checking you out. Listen to yourself as well as to them
and don't say anything that goes against your principles. If you feel
you've

made a mistake, put things right by saying, "going back to what I said
earlier about...what I really meant was..."

• Avoid the temptation to talk too much. If there are awkward si-
lences when you've finished saying what you want, don't fill them with
nervous chatter. Some interviewers use silence to see how you'll react. Pass

79
the lead back to them by pleasantly saying: "Does that answer your
question?" or go through the main points again — don't inundate the
interviewer with information they don't need.

• Be aware of your body language. Maintaining eye contact with the

interviewer is essential, but don't overdo it — take your cues from the
interviewer. It goes without saying that leaning forward makes you
appear attentive and enthusiastic — being slumped conveys boredom or
laziness.

• Be positive. Even if your last job was the pits, if asked for your
reasons for leaving, don't let a negative word pass your lips — no good will
come out of it. Instead, say: "I genuinely enjoyed my last job, but I'm eager
to move onto a different challenge and use the skills I've gained". Then, go
on and impress them even more by stating how those skills match the job
you're after.

• If you're not asked about something that you feel is important,

don't let the opportunity go by and raise the subject yourself. This is your
one chance to sell yourself, so don't waste the opportunity.

If you follow these tips you can't go wrong, the interview will come up to
your expectations and your dream of getting a new job will come true!

Vocabulary

from the word go — з самого початку

don't let his words go right over your head — не пропускайте його слів
мимо вух

don't go red in the face — не червонійте

goes against your principles — протирічить вашим принципам

go through the main points — повторіть головні пункти

inundate — затопляти; тут надавати велику кількість

it goes without saying that — саме по собі зрозуміло

80
slumped — згорблений

go on — продовжуйте

don't let the opportunity go by — не втрачайте можливості

you can't go wrong — не помилитесь

81
 Test. Jobs and careers

Task 1. Fill in the gaps in the text with suitable words from the box
below:

Suitable, references, advertise, CVs, interview, offer, shortlist,

applicants, vacancy, Personnel Department

A person who works in the … 1… is explaining how they select

candidates in her company. If there is a … 2… , I usually advertise it in-
house first of all, and if I don’t find any …3… candidates, then we …4…
the job in the newspapers. We ask …5… to send in their …6…, and we
invite some of the candidates to an …7… . After that, we draw up a …8…
and ask some of the applicants back for a second interview. We choose the
best candidate, and then I check his or her …9…, and if everything’s OK,
we …10… the applicant the job.’

Task 2. Put the remarks in the correct order to make a dialogue:

a) That’s not a bad idea. You’ve already got a university degree,

haven’t you?
b) I had an appraisal with the Personnel manager the other day, and…
c) That sounds like an absolute waste of time to me. What you need to
do is an MBA at an institution like Insead, so that you end up with a
decent qualification.
d) Yes, and I’m doing an evening course in accounting, but that only
takes up about an hour a week.
e) Oh, really? How did it go?
f) Fine. We were talking about qualifications and career development,
and she suggested I should consider doing a course in Business
Administration.

Task 3. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box:

boss, valuable, graduated, specialize, engineering,

to set up, company, job

82
 –How long have you been in …?

–About ten years. Just after I …, I went to work for a small company in
my native town.

–So you haven’t always been your own …?

–No – I worked there for about three years, but then the … got into
trouble and closed down. I had to find a new …, and decided … a
business of my own. Now we have thirty employees and … in building
of green houses, and it’s those projects that are the most … to us.

Task 4. Complete these questions from a job interview.

1. Could you tell me exactly why you __________ from OQP?

2. Was that before or after you __________ Quality Manager?

3. After the factory closed, was it difficult to__________?

4. Have you __________ jobs in other companies in the area?

5. Would you be available to __________ next week?

6. How would you feel if we __________ as a product manager?

Task 5. Now correct these sentences from a biography. The words in

bold have been mixed up.

1. Aisha's resume was impressive; she was dismissed without even

attending a first interview,

2. At the second interview, Aisha did so well that she was made
redundant on the spot.

3. A few years later she wrote her first novel while she was unemployed;
it sold only 400 copies.

4. Aisha was an unconventional journalist who preferred to work at night;

after arriving four hours late for a meeting she was hired.

83
 5. When the editor in her next job refused to publish a controversial
article she had written, Aisha immediately offered to retire but the editor
refused to let her.

6. However, when the newspaper was taken over by a larger competitor,

Aisha was shortlisted.

7. After difficult times while she was on sabbatical, she was finally able
to live in comfort when her sixth novel became a best-seller.

8. She was 74 when she finally decided to resign from writing novels.

Task 6. Choose the correct word underlined in each sentence:

a) Mrs. Grant is a good employee/employer and pays her staff well.

b) A person you work with is your college/colleague.
c) Excuse me, but are you the over/owner of this bike?
d) I want to borrow some money, so I’m seeing the bank boss/manager.
e) A person who works in an office is an officer/office worker.
f) My father gets a wage/salary of $15,000 a year.
g) I am a full-time/part-time teacher — I only work twelve hours a week.
h) The head teacher thanked the staff/crew for working so hard.

Task 7. Use words and word combinations to fill in the blanks. The
first letter of each missing word is given:
1. I would get bored if I had a n….….- ……- ……..

2. I can clock in any time between eight and ten and clock out between four
and six; I work f……-…...

3. He’s not here this evening, he’s working nights; you see, he does s……
…...

4. I stopped working in the hamburger restaurant. It was just a d……-……

job.

5. There is a lot of u…… nowadays so it’s getting more and more difficult
to get the kind of j…… you really want.

84
6. You have to decide what is more important to you — how much you
earn or j…… s…….

7. Do you want to work with your hands (called m…… work) or do you
prefer to work in an office (called clerical work)?

8. I think I work very hard and I’d like to get a p……

Task 8. This text about the recruitment process has not been
completed. Fill in each gap with the words and expressions in the box.

a) affirmative recruitment m) equal opportunities

b) applicants n) experience
c) appointments o) externally
d) benefits p) institutional agency
e) description q) increments
f) disabilities r) internally
g) discrimination s) job centres
h) qualifications t) journals
i) recruitment agency u) leave
j) rewards v) personal qualities
k) situations vacant w) private recruitment agency
l) vacancy

When a company or organisation has a 1.___________ for a new

member of staff, it usually advertises the post. It does this 2.___________
(for example, in the company magazine or on a company notice board) or
3.____________, either in the 4.____________or 5.____________section
of a newspaper, in specialist trade 6.____________or through a
7.____________which helps people to find employment. There are two
main types of agency. The first of these is the 8.____________usually
found in a school or university. These work closely with employers to let
potential employees know about the jobs that are on offer (also included in
this category are 9.____________, which are provided by the state, and
which can be found in most main towns in Britain and other countries). The
second is the 10.____________, which are independent companies, and

85
employers have to pay these agencies for each employee they successfully
provide.

A job advertisement has to give an accurate 11.____________of the

job and what it requires from the 12.____________(the people who are
interested in the post). These requirements might include
13.____________(academic, vocational and professional), work
14.____________in similar lines of work, and certain
15.____________(for example, it might say that you need to be practical,
professional and have a sense of humour). The advertisement will also
specify what 16.____________(basic salary, commission, regular
17.____________, etc) and 18.____________(paid 19.____________, free
medical insurance, company car, etc) the company can offer in return. The
advertisement must be careful it does not break employment laws
concerning sex and racial 20.____________: some companies emphasise in
their job advertisements that they are 21.____________employers (or
22.____________employers in the USA), which means that they will
employ people regardless of their sex, skin colour, religion,
23.____________, etc.

Task 9. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian:

1. On occasions like these, employees are always nervous about their

chances of being asked a question they cannot answer.

2. It’s good to have you on our staff.

3. I’m on day shift this week.

4. The bad management of the company directors has caused the problems
in the company.

5. I think I have a good working relationship with most of my colleagues.

6. He is on a very good salary now.

7. After a lot of part-time jobs he’s finally got a full-time job.

8. We’ve come to a dead end in our efforts to reach an agreement.

86
9. The night shift arrives at 6 o’clock.

10. This work is very interesting and what is more it’s well-paid.

11. There are good chances of promotion in this firm.

12. The workers have demanded a wage rise.

13. The reorganization may lead to staff reduction.

14. Employees in large multinationals have excellent career opportunities if

they are willing to travel.

15. Sales representative are not motivated and staff turnover is very high.

Task 10. Translate the following sentences into English:

1. Нещодавно він отримав підвищення і дуже цим гордиться.

2. Я б хотів поєднати задоволення від роботи і високу зарплатню.

3. Він працює повний робочий день.

4. Робота з людьми не може бути монотонною.

5. Всі наші працівники вільно говорять англійською.

6. Як правило, сезонна робота не дуже цікава і творча.

7. Вона працює за гнучким графіком і завжди має багато вільного

часу.

8. Я не люблю нудної канцелярської роботи.

Task 11. Answer the following questions:

1. What will you do if you are short listed?

2. What does it mean “to be self-employed”?

3. Is it good or bad to have “a dead end job”?

87
4. If you pay money to your workers are you an employer or an employee?

5. Would you like to be promoted?

6. What documents you have to prepare if you apply for a position?

7. What does your boss do if he is not pleased with your work?

8. What does it mean “to be unemployed”?

9. What do people usually do if they are 60?

10. You don’t like your work. What can you do?

88
 Language review
Basic sentence structures
Types of questions

General question Are they learning English? Do you use the

Internet regularly?

Alternative question Are they learning British English or

American English? Do you spend more
time doing exercise or playing computer
games?

Special question What are they learning? What language are

they learning? What do you do in your job?

Question to the Who is learning English? What language is

subject spoken there?

Tag-question They are learning English, aren’t they?

They never come late, do they?

General questions

1. Give short answers. Pay attention to the auxiliary verb.

1. Is your friend sitting in the front or in the back row?

2. Are you living with your parents at the moment?
3. Are you doing anything special tonight?
4. Do you enjoy learning foreign languages?
5. Do you worry about making mistakes?
6. Have you written down any new words into your copybook?
7. Did your friends come to see you last weekend?
8. Can you drive?
9. Do you find it easy to learn to drive?
10. Have you been living in Kiev for a long time?
11. Will you ask the way if you get lost in a foreign country?

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 12. Did you go traveling last summer?

1. Add the correct verb (main or auxiliary) to the following

questions?

1. How things with you?

2. What your full name and address?
2. How your flight?
3. When you get here?
4. You have a good journey to work this morning?
5. Where you staying while you’re here?
6. You got any special reason for learning English?
7. You speak any other languages?
8. How your job going?
9. You got any brothers or sisters?
10. You have a nice holiday?
11. This your first visit to New York?
12. How all your family?
13. What sort of music you like?
14. How long you been working here?
15. You ever been to Kiev?
16. How far it from your home to work?
17. What you think of living in Ukraine?
18. You good at driving?
19. What you prefer doing at weekends?

Special questions

3. Add the correct question-word to the following questions.

1. _______ did you go to London with?

2. _______ of these books is your favourite?
3. _______ is my place?
4. _______ has taken my scissors?
5. _______ is wrong with the photocopier?
6. _______ have you been writing this monograph.

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 7. _______ did he come home the day before yesterday?
8. _______ far do you live from your work?

4. Work in pairs. Ask questions for more information.

A
I found a job. I got a letter. They graduated from the university. I learned
new words. I met somebody. The lecture began. He lived there. I had a
good holiday.

B
She always meets her friends. He never learns new words. She often
receives letters. The university offers training. The book consists of several
parts. She sometimes visits her relatives. He usually studies. She seldom
works on Fridays.

C
They are writing essays. He is reading a magazine. I am working
overtime.They are starting to learn a foreign language. She is watching a
new programme. We are living in the hostel. My husband is repairing
something. She is doing a degree at university.

How …? vs What …like?

We use how? to ask about things that change – moods,

health, work.
e.g. ‘How does she seem today?’ ‘Much better now.’

We use what … like? to ask about things that don’t change

– people’s character and appearance.
e.g. What does your sister look like?’ ‘Short, dark and
cheerful-looking.

5. Make questions with how or what…like.

1. (your flat?) – ‘Small but very comfortable.’

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 2. (your mom?) – ‘Fine, thanks.’
3. (work going?) – ‘Not very well at the moment.’
4. (business?) – ‘Terrible.’
5. (Jessica’s boyfriend?) – ‘Not very nice.’

Note the way the question word what is used in the following sentences:

What time does the film start?

What sort of music do you like?
What size are your shoes?/What size shoes do you wear?
What colour are her eyes?/What colour eyes has she got?
What make is your car?/What make of car did you get?
What ever does she see in him? (expresses surprise)

6. Complete the questions with a suitable expression.

1. ____________ jeans do you wear?

2. ____________ is her hair?
3. ____________ books do you read?
4. ____________ is your laptop?
5. ____________ is the concert?
6. ____________ does the train leave?
7. ____________ food do you prefer?
8. ____________ are your gloves?
9. ____________ car is the best?
10. ____________ are you going to do? (surprise)

7. Use the words to make your questions.

1. ………… old are her children? — Seven and ten.

2. ………… is Peter's birthday? — In April, I think.
3. ………… much is the shirt? — It's twenty pounds.
4. ………… is an orange juice? — It's fifty pence.
5. ………… is your name? — Carol.
6. ………… is Susan's party? — On Friday.

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 7. ………… are the potatoes? — One pound.
8. ………… is your best friend? — It's Paul.
9. ………… colour is your new bike? — It's blue.
10. ………… are you? — I'm okay.
11. ………… are my shoes? — Under the bed.
12. ………… is your mother? — She's in the garden.
13. ………… is the time? — It's ten o'clock.
14. ………… is in your schoolbag? — Many books.
15. ………… is your hamster? — In the living room.

8. Write questions and answers as shown in the example.

e. g.: Mel Gibson / where / from /is?

Where is Mel Gibson from?

1. are / you / how old?

2. where / from / your brother / is?
3. you / how / are?
4. is / what / father / your?
5. who is his favorite musician?
6. what / is / favorite movie / her?
7. is / your / who / English teacher?
8. are / their / what / names?
9. mother / your / how / is?
10. here / why / you / are?

8. You didn’t hear the question, ask your group mate.

e. g.: Kate is at home. — Where is Kate?

1. Cairo is in Egypt.
2. The students are in class today.
3. The post office is on Main Street.
4. The bus stop is over there.
5. The train station is on Grand Avenue.
6. Sue and Ken are at the zoo today.

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 7. My parents are in the village.
8. The book is on the table.
9. My pets are in the aquarium.
10. My grandfather is at the hospital.
11. My brother and sister are at the library.
12. Paris is in France.
13. His books are on the shelf.
14. I am in the kitchen.
15. The frog is on the log.

9. Make up questions according to the example.

e. g.:
(his name) What is his name? Pl.

1. (your name) Andrew.

________________________?
2. (married or single) I’m married.
___________________?
3. (British) No, I’m not.
___________________________?
4. (where / from) From Australia.
_______________________?
5. (how /old) I’m 26.
__________________________?
6. (a student) No, I’m a
__________________________? teacher.
7. (your wife a teacher) No, she is a
__________________? lawyer.
8. (where / from) She is Italian.
_______________________?
9. (her name) Anna.
__________________________?
10. (how old) She’s 26 too.
__________________________?

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10. Translate these sentences from Ukrainian into English.

1. Де твоя кімната?
2. Якого кольору його ручка?
3. Як вас звати?
4. З якої ви країни?
5. Скільки тобі років?
6. Хто ви за національністю?
7. Яка ваша улюблена книжка?
8. Де він?
9. Хто твій улюблений кіноактор?
10. Звідки твої батьки?

Tag Questions

When using tag questions, watch for 4 points:

What tense is the verb?
What kind of verb is it? (to be/other verbs)
Is the sentence affirmative or negative?
Does the pronoun need to be changed?
You go to work by bus, don't you? They escaped immediately, didn't they?
She comes here every day, doesn't she?
"If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research,
would it?" (Albert Einstein)

"There's nothing more exhilarating than pointing out the shortcomings of

others, is there?" (Randal Graves)

Note:
1. In the present tense, if the subject is 'I', the auxiliary changes to 'are' or
'aren't'.
I'm sitting next to you, aren't I?
2. With 'let's', the tag question is 'shall we'.
Let's go to the beach, shall we?
3. With an imperative, the tag question is 'will you'.
Close the window, will you?

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4. We use a positive tag question after a sentence containing a negative
word such as never, nobody.
Nobody lives in this house, do they?
You've never liked me, have you?
5. When the subject is nobody, somebody, everybody, no one, someone,
or everyone, we use 'they' in the tag question.
Nobody asked for me, did they?
6. If the main verb in the sentence is 'have' (not an auxiliary verb), it is
more common to use 'do' in the question tag.
You have a Ferrari, don't you? Tag questions have many uses,
don’t they?
7. With used to, we use 'didn't' in the tag question.
You used to work here, didn't you?

There are many other ways of achieving the same (or very similar) result:
“Don’t you think?”, “Right?”, “OK?”, “huh?”, “hey”, “eh”.
In certain parts of the U.S., Canada, and England, “isn’t it?” is shortened
to “innit?” and used as an all-purpose tag question, even where the verb
doesn’t seem to match.
“This shirt costs a lot of money, innit?”

Tag questions are usually used to confirm or check information that we

think is true or to check information that we aren't sure is true. Sometimes
we just use them for effect, when we are trying to be sarcastic, or to make a
strong point.
With rising intonation, tag question sounds like a real question:

You don't know where my wallet is, do you?

But if the intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't
require a real answer. In this case tag questions are used mainly as a tool to
keep conversations going, to involve other participants. You’re only
inviting listener to agree with you:
It's a beautiful view, isn't it?

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Tag questions that expect a response are looking for a positive response: an
agreement with the speaker’s original statement. They say: “I believe such-
and-such. Do you agree?” It would be unexpected for a listener to shout out
“Not really!”
One recent research on female friendship has shown that tag questions are
primarily used by females. For example in respond to some news a man
might say: “That is ridiculous”, …while a woman might say: “That is
ridiculous, isn’t it?

We can use a negative sentence + positive tag to ask for things or

information, or to ask somebody to do something. The voice goes up at the
end of the tag in sentences like these:
“You haven’t got a pen, have you?” - “Yes, here you are!”
“You couldn’t do me a favour, could you?” – “It depends what it
is”

1. Choose the correct tag to finish the sentences.

1. Teresa is an accountant,___?
a) aren't she? b) doesn't she? c) isn't she? d) she isn't?
2. I am a good worker,___?
a) I am? b) do I? c) amn't I? d) aren't I?
3. Peter is a grandfather,___?
a) he isn't? b) isn't he? c) he is? d) doesn't he?
4. Kate is a doctor, ___?
a) she is? b) is she? c) doesn't she? d) isn't she?
5. John and Alice are students, ___?
a) aren't they? b) are they? c) isn't he? d) isn't they?
6. Mario is at work right now, ___?
a) aren't they? b) isn't he? c) is he? d) isn't she?
7. I'm here, ___?
a) am I not? b) am not I? c) amn't I? d) aren't you?
8. You and I are busy right now, ___?
a) aren't I? b) aren't we? c) we aren't? d) aren't you?

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9. It's windy today, ___?
a) am I? b) aren't they? c) isn't it? d) isn't he?
10. I am ready for the next exercise, ___?
a) isn't it? b) don't I? c) aren't you? d) aren't I?

2.Complete these tag questions:

1. We are happy to be studying English, …

2. I bought you popcorn at the movies last week, …
3. He hasn’t quitted smoking, …
4. George was a very bad student, …
5. The weather is nice today, …
6. That ugly car isn’t yours, …
7. You won’t do that again, …
8. Hillary loves to bake, …
9. We will win the race, …
10. Jack and Jill went up the hill, …

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 2. Negative structures
Negative questions

We often use negative questions

a) to confirm that something has happened, is true, etc. The meaning
is similar to ‘It’s true that …, isn’t it?’
e.g. Didn’t you go and see helen yesterday? How is she?
b) to make expressions of opinion less direct
e.g. Wouldn’t it be better to switch the light on?
c) in polite invitations
e.g. Won’t you come in? Wouldn’t you like something to drink?
d) to check that something has not happened, is not true, etc.
e.g. Don’t you feel well? Oh, dear, Can’t they come this evening?
e) to express astonishment that something has not happened.
e.g. Don’t you everlisten to what I say?
Can’t you read? It says ‘closed’.

1. Use negative questions to confirm the following ideas.

1. I think you went to the USA last week. –Didn’t you go …?

2. I think you speak Italian.
3. I believe you studied at Harvard.
4. Perhaps this is your key.
5. I think your boyfriend is a manager.
6. I thought you were going to come with us.
7. I think you are making a mistake,
8. Perhaps it would be better to stop now.
9. You’ll be on holiday next week, won’t you?

2. Add Yes or No to the answers (‘Yes’ – suggests an affirmative verb,

and ‘No’ suggests a negative verb.)

1 ‘Aren’t you ready?’ ‘Yes, I am.’

2 ‘Don’t you like this?’ ‘_______ I don’t.’
3 ‘Can’t you stop?’ ‘_________ I can’t.’
4 ‘Isn’t this cute?’ ‘_________ it is.’

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 5 ‘Haven’t you paid?’ ‘________ I have.’
6 ‘Wasn’t she at home?’ ‘_________ she was.’
7 ‘Aren’t you happy?’ ‘__________ I’m not.’
8 ‘Didn’t you get my e-mail?’ ‘_______ I didn’t.’

3. Ask negative questions as in the example.

e. g.: — Bob was playing badminton at 10 o'clock. (Have classes)

— Wasn't he having classes at that time?

1. My husband was fishing on Sunday. (work in the garden)

2. Ann's brother was watching a concert on TV. (a football match)
3. I was washing up after the dinner. (see your guests off)
4. The auditors were revising our accounts for the last decade. (check
your reports)
5. During the party Jane was sitting all the time. (dance)
6. While we were having lunch mother was doing the room. (eat with
you)
7. He caught cold when he was walking in the rain without a raincoat.
(wear a raincoat)

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 3. Introductory “It”

1. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the verbs used

with introductory ‘It’.

1. It was nice talking to you.

2. It is expected that agreement will be reached by that date.
3. It is not known who was behind the deal.
4. It is important that you are honest.
5. It is certain he will be there.
6. It looks likely that David has played his last game for the club.
7. It would look pretty silly to turn the proposal down.
8. It seemed reasonable to hope that the conflict would soon be over.
9. On my very first day, the boss made it absolutely clear what I should
do.
10. She didn’t feel it necessary to tell them the details.
11. I would consider it a favour if you would invite me again next
weekend.
12. The pilot called it a miracle that no one was killed.

2. Match up the two halves of each sentence.

1 It appears increasingly A… to get doctors to work in country

likely … hospitals.
2 It became clear … B… that a UN force will be sent there.
3 It is difficult … C… meeting you.
4 It was lovely … D… seeing him suffer like this.
5 It was kind of you … E… to take the trouble to write.
6 It is terrible … F… that the plane had crashed.
7 It seems doubtful … G… was responsible for the failure.
8 It is not known who … H… whether the government would
support the plan.

3. Make these statements less direct or definite by rewriting them using

the verb given in brackets with the pattern ‘It be V-ed that’.
1. The drug can be used to prevent a heart attack. (think)

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 2. He only had a few weeks until he planned to retire after 41 years.
(reveal)
3. A new town square with surrounding shopping should be developed
on the site. (propose)
4. About three million dollars’ worth of property has been destroyed.
(say)
5. The negotiation will be successful. (hope)
6. By the year 2050 one out of four persons will be over 65. (expect)

4. Rewrite these sentences to form sentences showing whose opinion or

viewpoint is being expressed, starting with the words provided.

1. It is extraordinary that they should use a hospital as a fortress.

We consider …
2. It is admirable that she wants to be independent. I think …
3. It is unwise to spend large amounts of money on a reconstruction.
He believed …
4. At first it was difficult to communicate. At first I found ….
5. It is my duty to make sure they are given the proper atmosphere to
succeed. I consider …
6. It seemed very strange when she said, ‘I don’t have to answer your
question.’ We thought …
7. It is likely that the tax officers’ visit caught everyone by surprise.
The spokesman thought …
8. It is not necessary to hold direct talks with the NLD.
The government does not believe …

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 Unit 3

TIED TO TECHNOLOGY

3.1 Theory: What is technology?

3.1.1. Discuss the following questions.

 How do you feel about new technology?
 How has it helped you organize your time?
 How has it made you waste more of your time?

Key vocabulary

satellites
saws and hammers
to solve problems
to involve
fast-paced
challenging
to come up with
technologically literate
to change through time

3.1.2. Read the text, then decide if the statements after the text are true
or false. Correct the false ones.

What Is Technology?
You live in a «high-tech» world. Tech is short for technology. Is
technology robots, satellites, lasers, and computers? Or is it tools such as
saws and hammers? All of these are products of technology, but technology
is a lot more! Technology is a combination of people like you, your ideas,
and the tools you will use to solve problems. It involves both thinking and
doing. Technology is fast-paced, exciting, challenging, and fun! As you
learn about technology you will be:

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  using knowledge from science, math, and other subjects to solve
problems.
 designing, inventing, and making things using your creative ideas.
 building things such as products, houses, bridges, and devices that
people have created to make life easier.
You can see that technology has many different definitions. Most
definitions agree that technology is the use of knowledge, tools, and
resources to help people. You will probably come up with your own
definition of technology after working with it for a while.
Because technology deals with people and the environment, you
need to know how technology affects you. A person who understands the
effects of technology is technologically literate. If you are technologically
literate, you will be able to make decisions about your future and
technology based on facts. As a technologically literate person, you will be
able TO:
 see how technology has changed through time.
 think through a problem and come up with an answer.
 decide whether a technology is good or bad for people or for the
environment.
• understand the newest uses of technology.
• use the tools of technology to solve problems.
The effects of technology are not always good for society or for the
environment. Some advancement in technology has caused environmental
problems such as acid rain. Other technologies are being developed to help
solve those problems. Let's find out more about technology.
Technology is changing faster and faster all the time. As the
population grows, more people are adding more new ideas and inventing
more new tools. When these people combine their ideas, we have even
more new machines and tools. Over 90 percent of all technologies we have
today were invented in the last 25 or 30 years. That means that technology
is causing lots of change very fast.
The early 1900s started a period of very rapid growth in technology.
Recent history is divided into ages that describe the technology of each
period just as prehistoric times are described by the materials people used.
Some of the recent ages include theAir Age, the Atomic Age, the Jet Age,
the Space Age, and the Information Age. The ages overlap and build on

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each other. As technology has changed, so have the ways people live. In
earlier times, people lived in an agricultural society where they needed
tools to live off the land. Then, during the industrial period many machines
were invented that changed the ways in which products were made. Many
people moved away from farms and worked in factories. Today we are in
an Information Age, where skills such as finding and using information are
important.

1. Technology includes not only advanced devices and processes.

2. Products of technology are knowledge and ideas.
3. Technology is a combination of science, math and other subjects.
4. Technology affects people and the environment.
5. If you understand how technology changes people and
theenvironment, are able to find an answer to a technical problemyou
are considered technologically literate.
6. All technological discoveries and inventions are good for people.
7. You do not need to be creative to achieve good results intechnology.
9. The new inventions could produce more expensive things.
10. Today skills of finding and using information are not significant as
they used to be.

3.1.3. Find the words in the text that can help to characterize the
concept of technological progress:

a) components of technical progress;

b) verbs that can help to describe the process of technical decision
making and its implementation in real life.

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3.1.4. Answer the following questions.
1. The population of the Earth has been growing all the time, hasn't it?
2. What is the correlation between the population growth
andtechnology development?
3. What are the integral parts of technology?
4. In what way does technology change people's life?
5. How can you define technology?

3.1.5. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Ми використовуємо досягнення техніки, щоб зробити життя
2. легшим та приємнішим.
3. Для розвитку техніки потрібні інформація, інструменти і
ресурси.
4. Люди, їх ідеї і творчість - важливі складові технічних досягнень.
5. Якщо ви технічно грамотний, то розумієте, як новітні технології
можуть впливати на наше життя.
6. Не всі сучасні досягнення техніки підходять для навколишнього
середовища та людей.
7. Щоб прийняти правильне рішення, ми повинні мати всю
необхідну інформацію і ґрунтуватися на фактах.
8. Технічний прогрес - складова частина розвитку людства.
9. Технологія має справу з людьми та навколишнім середовищем,
10. тому ти повинен знати, як вона впливає на тебе.
11. Весь час технологія змінюється все швидше і швидше.
12. Коли почала розвиватися технологія?

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 13. Ми живемо в епоху, найважливішим надбанням якої є
інформаційні технології.

3.1.6. Summarize the main idea of the text in 5-7 sentences.

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 3.2 Modern technology

Think of things you can do on a smartphone. Compare ideas with

other students. Who has the most ideas?

3.2.1. Match the words 1-5 with definitions a-e.

1) app 2) browser 3) icon 4) text message 5) username

a) a name you need to type (with a password) to start using something

b) a written message that you send from one phone to another
c) a computer program that you use to read information on the Internet
d) a small picture on a computer/phone screen that you click on to open
a program or an app
e) a small computer program that you can download onto a mobile
phone or other device

3.2.2. Cross out the wrong verb in each group. Think of five things
you’ve recently done using these phrases. Tell your partner.

1. Turn off / send /delete an email

2. Download / press / share a video
3. Install / share / upload some photos
4. Install / download / press a new app
5. Turn off / turn on / delete a phone
6. Upload / press/ click on a button or icon
7. Connect to / send / browse the Internet
8. Type / change /turn on a password

3.2.3. Match the phrasal verbs to their meanings.

hack into cause an alarm to ring

hook up to connect to a machine
plug in illegally enter a computer system
set off turn a machine on
shut down turn a computer off

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switch on connect a machine to an electricity supply

3.2.4. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the phrasal
verbs from the previous exercise.

1. Make sure you________ the computer before you go to bed.

2. You need to __________ the Play Station ______ the screen, dude.
3. Some idiot ______ a car alarm and it kept me awake all night.
4. After you _____ the computer, a green light will come on.
5. Someone ________ Jan’s computer and stole her credit card
information.
6. The appliance won’t work unless you ________ it _______ , silly!

3.2.5. Complete the text with the correct form of the words.

Too much technology

1 __________ (technology) advancements that are designed to make us
smarter and entertain us are overwhelming many 21st century kids. Access
to technology has been linked to 2 ___________ (improve) in reading
skills, but some 3 ___________ (research) believe that too much
technology can be 4 ___________ (harm).
How does technology become an 5 ___________ (addict)? In the past,
parents only had to be concerned about too much TV 6 __________
(expose). Now kids often have a television, their own computer and a video
game system in their bedroom. Their brains get 7 _________ (stimulate);
when they don’t have these stimulants, they do not know what to do with
themselves. They become anxious, restless, bored and aggressive.
Experts say there is 8 __________ (evident) that too much technology is
actually making the next generation less 9 __________ (intelligence). One
solution is to ensure that kids use their hi-tech toys for only a 10 ________
(limit) period of time each day. No doubt, an unpopular move with kids!

3.2.6. Discuss the questions.

1. What apps have you got on your phone or tablet?
2. Which apps do you like or use most?

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3.2.7. Read the text What’s your favorite app? Answer the questions.

Which app…?
1 is good for music lovers
2 helps you learn about stars
3 keeps you interested because you can keep improving
4 helps busy people organize themselves
5 helps you create and keep photos online
6 helps you make funny photos
7 is useful if you’ve got too many apps on your phone
8 records your fitness information

What’s your favorite apps?

A
I’ve just installed the Things ToDo app. It’s so easy to use – which is really
important when you’ve got lots of things to do and not much time. You just
create a list and then add items to it. Once a week it sends you a list of
everything you’ve done.
B
Have you heard about SkyWatch? It’s great! You just point your phone at
the night sky and it tells you what the stars are. You can also type in the
name of a planet and the program tells you where to look for it.
C
I love Imagegram and I’ve been using it more and more recently. You can
use different effects to make photos look different, like old-fashioned
photos, or with brighter colours. Then you can store them online and share
them with your friends.
D
My favorite game at the moment is Balloon Pop. You select groups of
coloured balloons and pop them. I’ve been playing it on the bus every day,
because I always want to get to the next level – it’s very addictive.
E
Activity Tracker is a great app for running. You just press the start button
when you begin your workout and the app records your speed, distance and
heart rate. After the workout, you can then upload your information to

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social networking websites and compare with your friends. I’ve never
found an app as good as this before.
F
I’ve just download Tunespotter. If you hear a song you like but you don’t
know what it is, you can use this app. It identifies the name of the song and
the singer. And if you like it, you can buy the song really easy. I’ve had it
for a week and I’ve been using it a lot.
G
StopApp is a really useful app and I’ve been recommending it to all my
friends. If too many apps are open on your phone, your phone can be really
slow. This app turns them off, which can make your phone faster.
H
I’ve been using Crazy Faces a lot recently. It’s very silly, but it’s fun. You
just take photos of your friends and then you can change their faces. You
can make them look older or younger, fatter or thinner, you can add beards,
moustaches and glasses. I’ve seen lots of photos where people have put
baby faces on adult bodies and they make me laugh every time.

3.2.8. Discuss the questions.

1. Do you use any apps like the ones in the article? Which ones? How
useful they are?
2. Would you like to use any of the apps in the article? Which ones?
Why?

3.2.9. Speaking.
A. Work with a partner and discuss these questions. Use useful
expressions from the box.

Organizing ideas
One way that technology helps/affects people is…
To begin with, modern technology helps/affects people by…
Another effect/advantage/disadvantage is…
Although modern technology can… it can also…
Moreover, /In addition, modern technology is helpful/beneficial
because…
On the one hand, modern technology can…

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 On the whole, I think…

1. Do you have your own computer? If so what do you use it for?

2. Which household appliance is the most essential in your house?
Why?
3. Which electronic device could you not live without? Why is it so
important to you?
4. Which electronic device would you most like to own? Why?
5. How can modern technology benefit people who live in remote
areas?
6. In what ways can modern technology create problems in families?
7. Do you think people are becoming too reliant on modern
technology? Why? Why not?

B. Work with a partner and take turns discussing each topic below
in one minute. Time each other as you speak.

• the advantages of modern technology in young people’s lives

• the effects of modern technology on people’s relationships
• the positive contribution electronic equipment can make to society
• the dangers of the Internet

C. You are going to find out which of your group mates is most
addicted to technology. Think of six questions to ask about what
people have used recently. Use the topics in the box or your own
ideas.

Apps / mobile phones computer games the Internet

social-networking sites

Use your questionnaire to interview different people in the group. Who has
used the most and the least technology recently? Who in the group do you
think is a technology addict?

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 3.2.10. Read a joke. How do you like it?

A man flying in a hot air balloon

A man flying in a hot air balloon suddenly realizes he’s lost. He reduces
height and spots a man down below. He lowers the balloon further and
shouts to get directions, "Excuse me, can you tell me where I am?" The
man below says: "Yes. You're in a hot air balloon, hovering 30 feet above
this field." "You must work in Information Technology," says the
balloonist. "I do" replies the man. "How did you know?" "Well," says the
balloonist, "everything you have told me is technically correct, but it's of no
use to anyone." The man below replies, "You must work in management."
"I do," replies the balloonist, "But how'd you know?" "Well", says the man,
"you don’t know where you are or where you’re going, but you expect me
to be able to help. You’re in the same position you were before we met, but
now it’s my fault."

3.2.10. Read the text and make a short summary of it.

What is Information Technology

Information Technology (IT) is the application of computers and internet to

store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate information, often in the context of
a business or other enterprise. IT is considered a subset of information and
communications technology (ICT) and has evolved according to the needs.

It is worthwhile noting that the term IT is commonly used as a synonym for

computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other
information distribution technologies such as television and telephones.
Several industries are associated with information technology, including
computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet,
telecom equipment, engineering, healthcare, e-commerce, and computer
services.

Thanks to the continuous development of computers, the original

computing systems became minicomputers and later personal computers
took the lead. Nowadays, mobile phones are dethroning the personal
computer and computing is evolving faster to become disembodied more

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like a cloud, becoming accessible more easily whenever needed.
Information technology has transformed people and companies and has
allowed digital technology to influence society and economy alike. It has,
in this sense, shaped societies and adapted itself to people's needs.

History

If you want a brief history of Information Technology, here is one. Humans

were the first "computers". Then, machines were invented to carry out the
computational tasks. Now these machines have given way to new form of
information technology. Information has become disembodied accessible
from anywhere through cloud technology. Recent advances in IT is the
consequence of the development in computing systems.

Humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating, and communicating

information since the Sumerians in Mesopotamia developed writing in
about 3000 BC, but the term information technology in its modern sense
first appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review;
authors Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that "the new
technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it
information technology (IT)." Their definition consists of three categories:
techniques for processing, the application of statistical and mathematical
methods to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-order thinking
through computer programs.

3.2.11. Choose the correct option.

1 Information technology is changing principally because of: the

changing needs / new technological advances
2 According to the author the first computers were: calculators/
humans
3 Development of information technology is the result of: advances in
computing systems / development of machinery in general
4 Computing systems are taking the form of clouds means: computers
have become smaller / computing power are becoming disembodied.

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 Language practice

Modal verbs

1. Choose the correct completion.

1. Mary can __ to the meeting.

A. comes B. to come C. come
2. Jack should__________ harder.
A. studies B. to study C. study
3. The whole team must _______ together in order to win the game.
A. worked B. to work C. work
4. We ought _______________ before we drop in on Peter and Marcia.
They may be busy.
A. called B. to call C. call
5. Paul can____________ Chinese very well because he studied it for six
years.
A. speaks B. to speak C. speak
6. May I ________ you?
A. can help B. to help C. help
7. The construction crew might _______ the bridge in time for the holiday
traffic.
A. finished B. to finish C. finish
8. We had better _______________ an umbrella when we go out. It looks
like it's going to rain.
A. taken B. to take C. take
9. I couldn't _____________ that book because I didn't take any money
with me.
A. bought B. to buy C. buy
10. The children should _______ "thank you" when you gave them their
gifts.
A. has said B. to have said C. have said
11. Tom could____________ us to help him move.
A. had asked B. to have asked C. have asked
12. I can't find the grocery list. Gail must _________________ it with her
when she went out.
A. has taken B. to have taken C. have taken

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 2. Choose the correct completion according to the meaning.

1. Soldiers B disobey a superior officer.

A. must/have to B. must not C. don't have to
2. To stay alive, people ______ breathe oxygen.
A. must/have to B. must not C. don't have to
3. You ______ finish your work on this project before you go on vacation.
You'll probably lose your job if you don't.
A. must/have to B. must not C. don't have to
4. If you have an aquarium, you _____ give your tropical fish too much
food or they'll die.
A. must/have to B. must not C. don't have to
5. To be a successful mountain climber, you ________ have a great deal of
stamina.
A. must/have to B. must not C. don't have to
6. Thank goodness we _____ eat fish again tonight. Dad didn't catch any
today.
A. must/have to B. must not C. don't have to
7. You ______ exert yourself. You're still not fully recovered from your
surgery.
A. must/have to B. must not C. don't have to
8. My room is a mess, but I ______________ clean it before I go out
tonight. I can do it in the morning.
A. must/have to B. must not C. don't have to
9. We really _____________help Marge move to her new apartment over
the weekend. Not only is it too difficult for one person, but she still has her
arm in a sling from her shoulder sprain a week ago.
A. must/have to B. must not C. don't have to
10. Bill is in the darkroom developing the negatives of the photos he took
on his last trip to Peru. You ______ open the door while he's there because
the light will ruin the pictures.
A. must/have to B. must not C. don't have to

3. Complete the sentences with any appropriate form of have to.

Include any words in parentheses.

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1 . A: (you) do you have to leave so early?
B: I'm afraid I do. I have some work I have to finish before I go to
bed tonight.
2. Last night Jack had to gO to a meeting, (you) Did you have to go to the
meeting last night too?
3. Joan travels to the Soviet Union frequently. Luckily, she speaks Russian,
so she (not) ________________ rely on an interpreter when she's there.
4. I (not)____________________ water the garden later today. Joe has
agreed to do it for me.
5. I ______________________ write three term papers since the beginning
of the semester.
6. Why (Tom)_____________________ leave work early yesterday?
7. I found some milk in the refrigerator, so we (not)
_____________________________ go to the store after all. There is
plenty.
8. (John)__________________ buy a round-trip ticket when he went to
Egypt?
9. Matt is nearsighted. He ______________________ wear glasses ever
since he was ten years old.
10. By the time this week is finished, I______________________ take
eight examinations in five days. The life of a student isn't easy!
11. (you, not) _______________________ return these books to the
library today? Aren't they due?
12. If Jean stays in Brazil much longer, she ______________________
teach English part-time so that she'll have enough money to support herself,
(she)______________ apply for a special work visa? Or can she work part-
time on a student visa?
13. Because it was Emily's birthday yesterday, she
(not)________________________do any of her regular chores, and her
mother let her choose anything she wanted to eat for dinner.
14. When I arrived in Rome last week, I was looking forward to practicing
my Italian. I'm disappointed because I (not)_____________________
speak Italian very much since I got here. Everyone keeps talking to me in
English.

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 4. Give advice to the people in the following situations. Use should,
ought to, or had better. Choose from the suggested completions in
the list, or use your own words.

call home and talk to his family

change clothes before he goes
clean it up right away
find a chemistry major to tutor her
get his roommate a pair of earphones
join some clubs to meet people with similar interests
listen to Tom before he fired him
make her own decisions about her career and go to architecture school
not eat so much
not leave the room; apologize immediately; signal to a waiter for help
stop for gas
take it back sooner

1. Ann would like to make some new friends. - / think she should/ought to
join some clubs to meet people with similar interests.
2. Ellen is having a lot of trouble in her chemistry class. She's failed the
last two tests.
3. You didn't stop for gas, and then you ran out of gas on the highway.
4. Sam and Tim, both teenagers, have messed up the house, and their
parents are coming home soon.
5. You had to pay a fine because your library book was overdue.
6. Ron is wearing jeans. He's expected at a formal reception this evening.
7. Mary's parents expect her to work in the family business, a shoe store,
but she wants to be an architect.
8. Richard's roommate stays up very late studying. While his roommate is
studying, he listens to loud music, and Richard can't get to sleep.
9. Pierre is feeling really homesick these days.
10. You have a stomach ache because you ate too much.
11. Tom didn't show up for work yesterday because he and his friend were
in an auto accident. Torn was okay, but his friend was badly hurt, so Tom

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had to stay with him at the hospital. Tom didn't call his boss to tell him he
wouldn't be at work. When Tom arrived at work today, his boss fired him
immediately, refusing to listen to any of Tom's explanations for missing
work.
12. A man was having dinner in a restaurant with a co-worker. When he
got up, he accidentally bumped the table, spilling a plate of food onto the
woman's lap. He looked at her in horror and left the room.

5. Which of the two completions is the speaker most likely to say?

Choose the best completion.

1. "Look at all the children waiting for the bus. What time is it?" "It
______ be after 3:00. That's when school is out."
A. must B. might
2. "George says that we're going to have a very high inflation rate next
year." "He ______ be right. I think his view is as good as anybody's. I've
heard strong opinions on all sides of that issue."
A. must B. could
3. "Have you heard anything from Ed? Is he still in Africa?"
"He______ be, or he ______ already be on his way home. I'm just not sure.
A. must . . . must B. could . . . could
4. "Is that a famous person over there in the middle of that crowd?" "It
______ be. Everyone's trying to get her autograph."
A. must B. might
5. "Isn't Peter Reeves a banker?"
"Yes. Why don't you talk to him? He ____________________ be able to
help you with your loan."
A. must B. may
6. "Isn't Margaret's daughter over sixteen?"
"She ______ be. I saw her driving a car, and you have to be at least sixteen
to get a driver license."
A. must B. might
7. "Overall, don't you think the possibility of world peace is greater now
than ever before?" "It ______ be. I don't know. Political relationships can
be fragile."
A. must B. may

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8. "The speedometer on my car is broken."
"Do you think you're driving over the speed limit?"
"I don't know. I ______."
A. must be B. might be C. am
9. "You've been on the go all day. Aren't you exhausted?"
"Yes, I ______. I can't remember when I've ever been this worn out."
A. must be B. may be C. am
10. "Have you seen the new movie playing at the Bijou?"
"No, but it ______ sad. Many people leaving the theater seem to have been
crying."
A. must be B. might be C. is
11. "Do you hear that squeak? What is it?"
"I don't know. It ______ a mouse. Isn't that what a mouse sounds like?"
A. must be B. may be C. is
12. "How old do you think Roger is?"
"I just looked at his driver's license. He ___33."
A. must be B. might be C. is

6. Complete the sentences with the appropriate form of the words

in parentheses. Add not if necessary for a sentence to make
sense.

1. A: Where's Ann?
B: I don't know. She (could + visit)___________________________her
aunt and uncle right now. She usually visits them every Friday evening.
2. You (should + watch) ______________________________ the movie
on TV tonight. I highly recommend it. It's a classic.
3. I heard a loud crash in the next room. When I walked in, I found a brick
on the floor, and the window was broken. Someone (must + throw)
__________________________ the brick through the window.
4. Jack is in the employee lounge drinking coffee. He (should + work)
____________________ on his report right now. It's due at 3:00 this
afternoon. He (should + waste)__________________________
______________________ his time in the employee lounge.
5. Do you hear the guitar music? Carla (must + play)
_______________________ her guitar.

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6. A: I need to see Tom. Where is he?
B: In his room. Knock on his door softly. He (might + take)
______________________________________________ a nap.
7. Michael wanted to go to the opera, but he put off buying a ticket, and
now they're all sold.
He (should + buy) ______________________________ his ticket weeks
ago. He (should + wait) ______________________________ until now to
try to get a ticket.
8. Bob was stopped by a police officer last night. He (must + drive)
_______________________________________________ too fast when
she clocked him on her radar. She gave him a speeding ticket.
9. The staff (must +
plan)_____________________________________very well for the
luncheon. There are still about ten people waiting to eat, and there's not
enough food left.
10. A: Where's your bicycle?
B: I don't know. One of my friends (may + borrow)
______________________________it. Gee, I hope it wasn't stolen. Maybe
Sally borrowed it.
A: Sally? She (could + borrow)
_______________________________________ it. She has broken leg.
Why would she want to borrow your bicycle?
11. George didn't do very well on the test because he didn't understand
what he was supposed to do. He (could + listen)
_______________________________________ very carefully when the
teacher gave the directions.
12. A: Joan was really upset when she found out that someone had told
Alan about the surprise birthday party she gave him last night. She thinks
Joe told him.
B: Joe (could + tell) ______________________________ him about it. He
was out of tow until just before the party. He barely got there in time from
the airport.
13. A: Art has two full-time jobs this summer to make some money for
school in the fall. He (must + have) __________________________ very
much time to rest and do other thing

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B: That might explain why no one answered the door when I stopped by his
house a little while ago. He (must +
sleep)___________________________________
14. A: Kathy just bought a new car, and now she's looking for a new
apartment.
B: She (must + make) __________________________ a lot of money in
her new job.

7. Make logical conclusions about these situations. Use must or

must not for your "best guess."

1. The Adams' house is dark and quiet. Their car isn't in the driveway. -
They must not be at home.
2. We had a test in class yesterday. Charles, who rarely studies and
usually fails the tests, got score of 95% this time.
- He must have studied for the test.
3. The man sitting behind us has been talking throughout the movie. He
knows what's going to happen before it happens.
4. Anita is in bed. The lights are out, and I can hear someone snoring.
5. Mrs. Jenkins has lost some of her hearing. Yesterday the children asked
her several times fo some cookies, but she didn't answer.
6. Jeremy's car radio is always set on the classical music station. He also
keeps a supply of classical music tapes in the car.
7. When Jeremy's wife is in the car with him, she always asks him to
change the station or the tape.
8. Diane never seems to have enough money. I tried to call her last night
and got a recording telling me that her phone had been disconnected.
9. Four people had dinner together. Two of them ate wild mushrooms, and
two of them didn't. The two who ate the mushrooms are now critically ill.
10. I heard a loud crash in the next room. I rushed in immediately and
found our antique vase on the floor. It was broken. Five-year-old Bobby
was playing quietly with his toy truck. The cat was leaping frantically from
table to table. The window was open, and the breeze was blowing gently
through the room. I wondered what had happened to the antique vase.

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8. Choose the correct word:
1. I’m not sure where Paul is. He may/must be in the library.
2. She must/might be working. I’m sure of it.
3. Last week he could/was able to arrange a meeting with the Prime
Minister.
4. They mustn’t/needn’t come if they don’t want to.
5. She had to/must be present at the lecture last Monday.
6. I needn’t go/have gone to the cinema, I knew I wouldn’t like that
film and I really didn’t.
7. You mustn’t/shouldn’t drink so much black coffee. (general advice)
8. Could I use your phone? –Of course, you could/can.
9. You mustn’t/needn’t enter this room. It’s forbidden.
10. You must/needn’t save a file before you turn the computer off, or
you will lose it.
11. I’m afraid this is a non-smoking office, so you haven’t got to/can’t
smoke in here.
12. Employees are reminded that they mustn’t/needn’t use the office
phone to make personal calls.
13. You needn’t/mustn’t send that reminder – they called this morning.
14. This tax form must/needn’t be completed and returned to us within
30 days.
15. You mustn’t/don’t have to come to the meeting if you have more
important things to do.
16. This information is highly confidential, so you mustn’t/needn’t
discuss it with anyone.
17. As you are from the EU, you mustn’t/don’t have to have a visa to go
to France.
18. Drivers wishing to hire a car must/aren’t allowed to be over 21 and
have a full driving license.
19. University teachers have/don’t have to be graduates, but they
have/don’t have to be qualified teachers.
20. We’ve still got plenty of food. You must/mustn’t/needn’t buy any
more yet.
21. I’ve got a very important meeting this afternoon and I
mustn’t/needn’t be late.

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22. Our food products are selling really well. But we must/ mustn’t/
needn’t make sure we keep our market share.
23. Good, we all seem to agree, and must/mustn’t/needn’t discuss the
matter any further.
24. An interpreter came with us to a meeting with some Japanese clients,
but we didn’t need to hire/needn’t have hired her because they all
spoke excellent English.
25. The negotiation in Hamburg went very well, so we didn’t need to
spend/needn’t have spent the whole week there and we came back a
day early.
26. You needn't have said/say that. She was very upset by your remarks.
27. He couldn't/wasn't able fix the computer so he called a repairman.
28. I'm not usually very good at tennis, but yesterday I could/was able to
beat my brother.
29. You needn't/mustn't worry about it any more. I'll take care of that.
30. We had/were to start yesterday (this was the plan), but the flight was
cancelled because of the fog, so we are still here.

9. Choose the correct completion.

1. Al painted his bedroom black. It looks dark and dreary. He ______ a
different color.
A. had to choose C. must have chosen
B. should have chosen D. could have been choosing
2. Tom is sitting at his desk. He's reading his chemistry text because he
has a test tomorrow.He______ .
A. could study C. will study
B. should be studying D. must be studying
3. When Mr. Lee was younger, he ____ work in the garden for hours,
but now he has totake frequent rests because he has emphysema.
A. has got to B. can C. should be able to D. could
4. Whenever my parents went out in the evening, I____ the job of
taking care of my younger brother.
A. would get B. should get C. must have gotten
D. had better get
5. Yesterday I___ to a furniture store. I bought a new lamp there.

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 A. could go B. went C. could have gone
D. ought to have gone
6. Tom wasn't at the party last night. He must not___ a ride. I
know he wanted to come, but he didn't have a ride.
A. be able to have gotten C. have been able to get
B. to have been able to get D. be able to get
7. Robert has a new car. He___ it for a very good price. He paid 30
percent less than the regular retail cost.
A. could buy B. had to buy C. was supposed to buy
D. was able to buy
8. "Did you enjoy the picnic?" - "It was okay, but I'd rather__ to a
movie."
A. go B. be going C. have gone D. went
9. "Why are you so sure that Ann didn't commit the crime she's been
accused of committing?"
"She_____ that crime because I was with her, and we were out of
town that day."
A. may not have committed C. committed
B. wasn't supposed to commit D. couldn't have committed
10. "Since we have to be there in a hurry, we______ take a taxi." - "I
agree."
A. had better B. may C. have been used to D. are able to
11. "It_____ rain this evening. Why don't you take an umbrella?"
"That's a good idea. May I borrow yours?"
A. had better B. could be C. must D. might
12. "_____ you hand me that pair of scissors, please?" -
"Certainly."
A. May B. Shall С Will D. Should
13. Larry drove all night to get here for his sister's wedding. He______
exhausted by the time he arrived.
A. ought to be C. must have been
B. could be D. will have been
14. "What are you doing here now? You______ be here for
another three hours."
"I know. We got an early start, and it took less time than we
expected. I hope you don't mind."

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 A. couldn't C. had better not
B. might not D. aren't supposed to
15. "_____ taking me downtown on your way to work this
morning?" - "Not at all."
A. Can you C. Would you mind
B. Why don't you D. Could you please
16. "I locked myself out of my apartment. I didn't know what to do."
"You________ your roommate."
A. could have called C. would have called
B. may have called D. must have called
17. "You haven't eaten anything since yesterday afternoon. You______
be really hungry!" - "I am."
A. might B. will C. can D. must
"How long have you been married?"
18. "We______have been married for twenty-three years on our next
anniversary."
A. must B. should C. will D. could
19. "I_____ there at 6 P.M. for the meeting, but my car won't start.
Could you please give me a lift in your car?" - "Sure. Are you ready
to go now?"
A. will be B. may be C. supposed to be D. have got to be
20. "I left a cookie on the table, but now it's gone. What happened to it?"
"I don't know. One of the children_______ it,"
A. may have eaten B. could eat C. had to eat
D. should have eaten

10. Choose the most suitable words underlined.

1. That can't have been/shouldn't have been Nick that you saw.
2. You had to give/might have given me a hand!
3. I caught a later train because I had to see/must have seen a client.
4. I suppose Bill should have lost/might have lost his way.
5. I didn't refuse the cake, as it must have been/would have been rude.
6. I don't know who rang, but it could have been/must have been Jim.
7. It was odd that you should have bought/would have bought the same
8. I asked them to leave but they couldn't/wouldn't go.

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9. It's a pity you didn't ask because I could help/could have helped you.
10. It's your own fault, you can't have/shouldn't have gone to bed so late.

11. Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase.

1. Don't worry that Carol is late, she_____ missed the train.
2. I begged David to accept some money, but he_____hear of it.
3. That was a lucky escape! You______been killed!
4. It was supposed to be a secret! You______told her!
5. I spent last week at the beach because I didn't______go to school.
6. The plane is late. It_______landed by now.
7. You______met my brother. I haven't got one!
8. There is only one solution. The butler______done it.
9. It was lovely. We_______a better holiday.
10. So it was you who set off the fire alarm for a joke! I______known!

12. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals,

and so that the meaning stay the same.
1. It wasn't very nice of you not to invite me to your party!
MIGHT
2. Thank you very much for buying me flowers!
SHOULDN'T
3. It wouldn't have been right to let you do all the work on your own.
COULDN'T
4. I don't believe that you have lost your keys again!
CAN'T
5. Mary was a talented violinist at the age of ten.
PLAY
6. I’m sure that’s Marion.
WILL
7. Jims keeps giving me presents.
WILL
8. It makes no difference if we call it off.
MAY
9. Don’t bother lying to me.
HAVE

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 10. Although it’s summer, the temperature is more like winter.
MAY
11. You should leave before Jack gets back.
HAD
12. That’s not typical of Helen’s behavior.
WOULDN’T
13. It would be impossible to tell Sally the truth.
POSSIBLY

13. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the modal auxiliary,

and so that the meaning stay the same.
1. It's just not possible for the cat to have opened the fridge!
2. George knew how to ride a bicycle when he was five.
3. I wanted to go to the party, but it was snowing hard.
4. It would have been possible for Helen to give us a lift.
5. It's possible that the last person to leave didn't lock the door.
6. School uniform wasn't compulsory at my school.
7. Our worrying so much was a waste of time.

Test A: Modals and phrasal models.

Directions: Choose the correct completion.

Example: Peter C rather sleep on a mattress than on the floor.

A. shall B. could C. would D. must

1. Al painted his bedroom black. It looks dark and dreary. He

___________________ a different color.
A. had to choose C. must have chosen
B. should have chosen D. could have been choosing

2. Tom is sitting at his desk. He's reading his chemistry text because he has
a test tomorrow. He_______
A. could study C. will study
B. should be studying D. must be studying

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3. When Mr. Lee was younger, he_________________work in the garden
for hours, but now he has to take frequent rests because he has emphysema.
A. has got to B. can C. should be able to D. could

4. Whenever my parents went out in the evening, I ______________ the

job of taking care of my younger brother.
A. would get C. must have gotten
B. should get D. had better get

5. Yesterday I ____ to a furniture store. I bought a new lamp there.

A. could go C. could have gone
B. went D. ought to have gone

6. Tom wasn't at the party last night. He must not ____ a ride. I know he
wanted to come, but he didn't have a ride.
A. be able to have gotten C. have been able to get
B. to have been able to get D. be able to get

7. Robert has a new car. He___________________ it for a very good price.

He paid 30 percent less than the regular retail cost.
A. could buy C. was supposed to buy
B. had to buy D. was able to buy

8. "Did you enjoy the picnic?" "It was okay, but I'd rather ____to a movie.
A. go B. be going C. have gone D. went

9. "Why are you so sure that Ann didn't commit the crime she's been
accused of committing?" "She ______ that crime because I was with her,
and we were out of town that day."
A. may not have committed C. committed
B. wasn't supposed to commit D. couldn't have committed

10. "Since we have to be there in a hurry, we_____________ take a taxi.""I

agree."
A. had better C. have been used to
B. may D. are able to

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11. "It ______ rain this evening. Why don't you take an umbrella?"
"That's a good idea. May I borrow yours?"
A. had better B. could be C. must D. might

12. "______ you hand me that pair of scissors, please?" "Certainly."

A. May B. Shall C. Will D. Should

13. Larry drove all night to get here for his sister's wedding. He
______________ exhausted by the time he arrived.
A. ought to be C. must have been
B. could be D. will have been

14. "What are you doing here now? You___________________be here for
another three hours.
"I know. We got an early start, and it took less time than we expected. I
hope you don't mind."
A. couldn't C. had better not
B. might not D. aren't supposed to

15. "______ taking me downtown on your way to work this morning?"

"Not at all."
A. Can you C. Would you mind
B. Why don't you D. Could you please

16. "I locked myself out of my apartment. I didn't know what to do." "You
______ your roommate."
A. could have called C. would have called
B. may have called D. must have called

17. "You haven't eaten anything since yesterday afternoon. You

___________ be really hungry!" "I am."
A. might B. will C. can D. must

18. "How long have you been married?"

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"We ______ have been married for twenty-three years on our next
anniversary."
A. must B. should C. will D. could

19. "I ______ there at 6 P.M. for the meeting, but my car won't start. Could
you please give me a lift in your car?" "Sure. Are you ready to go now?"
A. will be B. may be C. supposed to be D. have got
to be

20. "I left a cookie on the table, but now it's gone. What happened to it?" "I
don't know. One of the children ______ it."
A. may have eaten C. had to eat
B. could eat D. should have eaten

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Test B: Modals and phrasal modals.
Directions: Choose the correct completion.

Example: Peter C rather sleep on a mattress than on the floor.

A. shall B. could C. would D. must

1. "My boss is always looking over my shoulder whenever I do anything."

"That ______ bother you."
"But it does."
A. shouldn't B. might not C. may not D. won't

2. "This movie is boring and too violent." "I agree. ______ leave?"
A. Will we B. Why don't we C. Must we D. Would
we

3. "Chris, you ______ the fish in the refrigerator before it spoils."

"You're right. I didn't know it was still in the shopping bag."
A. had better put C. would rather put
B. had to put D. may put

4. "What does Mr. Griffin do for a living?" "Nothing. He's very rich. He
______ work for a living."
A. must not C. doesn't have to
B. shouldn't D. hadn't better

5. "Why are you so late?"

"I ______ my aunt to the airport. The traffic was terrible!"
A. could take C. should take
B. must have taken D. had to take

6. "I heard that Laura was offered a job at a top computer firm in
Chicago." "Oh? That's wonderful! She ______ very pleased."
A. is supposed to be C. must be
B. might be D. is

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7. "My boss expects me to work this weekend." "You shouldn't ______
work on weekends."
A. must B. be going to C. ought to D. have to

8. "They towed my car away from the executive parking lot yesterday."
"You ______ have parked there."
A. may not B. should not C. must not D. might not

9. "Are you going to have a big birthday party for your father?" "Not this
year, but next year. He ______ 50 years old then."
A. should be B. must be C. will be D. has to be

10. "I need some help with this table. ______you lift the other end,
please?"
"Sure, just a second."
A. May B. Should C. Could D. Shall

11. "How did you get my telephone number? It's not listed in the phone
book, so you have found it in the directory."
"I got it from your mother."
A. may not B. won't C. might not D. couldn't

12. "Is that volcano dormant or active?" "Active. According to the experts,
it___________________ erupt again in the very near future."
A. would B. may be C. could D. had better

13. "Last year I____________________ this fine print in these contracts,

but now I can't." You'd better go to the eye doctor."
A. could read C. should have read
B. must have read D. had to read

14. "Is littering against the law?"

"Yes. There's a law that says that you__________________ throw trash on
the streets."
A. don't have to C. couldn't
B. must not D. might not

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15. "Do you want to go to the seashore for vacation?
"I think I'd rather ______ to the mountains."
A. to go B. going C. go D. have gone

16. "Barbara just told me that she can't go to the meeting tonight."
"She ______ go! We need her there for the financial report."
A. has got to B. has gotten to C. have to D. must be

17. "______ letting me use your bicycle for a little while?"

"Not at all."
A. Please to C. Will you
B. Would you mind D. Could you please

18. "We ______be here. That sign says No TRESPASSING."

"It's too late now. We're already here."
A. couldn't C. might not
B. don't have to D. aren't supposed to

19. "Harry's new jacket doesn't seem to fit him very well." "He ______ it
on before he bought it."
A. must have tried C. should have tried
B. was able to try D. may have tried

20. "Do you like to play tennis?"

"Yes. When I worked at the embassy, I __ meet a friend at five every
afternoon for a game."
A. would B. should C. had better D. would
rather

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 Unit 4
Computers

4.1. Short history and types of computers

4.1.1. Discuss the following questions.

• Have you got a computer? What kind is it?
• How often do you use it? What do you use it for?
• What are the main components and features of your computer
system?

Key vocabulary

an amazing achievement of mankind

to operate
to be constructed by
in daily use
to penetrate into
a programming language
automatic electronic devices
continuously variable quantities
angular position
voltages
to be capable of solving ordinary differential equations
to be well suited for use in engineering
to implement real- time simulated model
to rearrange binary digits
electric –power distribution
to be stored within its memory
a complex network of electronic circuits
to operate switches
to magnetize tiny metal cores
to be translated into characters, numbers, and symbols
intelligible
to offer greater precision
the former and the latter

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control capability
inputting information
outputting information
to provide a means for

4.1.2. Read the text, then do the following tasks.

What is a computer?

The computer is no doubt the most amazing achievement of

mankind. It is a data storage system created by man. The word computer
comes from a Latin word which means “to count”.
The first programmed computer which operated successfully was build
in 1939 by H.H. Aiken, professor of Harward University.
In our country the first electronic digital computer MACM was
constructed by the Ukrainian Academician S.A. Lebedev in 1950.
Nowadays hundreds of computers are in daily use. They penetrate
almost into all spheres of our modern society.
Men use languages in order to communicate with each other. When
the man wishes to communicate with the computer he uses in the same way
“languages ” such as BASIC, PASCAL, ALGOL & others. BASIC is
considered to be one of the easiest programming languages to learn.

Computers are automatic electronic devices that solve problems by

processing data according to a prescribed sequence of instructions. Such
devices are of three general types: analog, digital, and hybrid. They differ
from one another in terms of operating principle, equipment design, and
application.

The analog computer operates on data represented by continuously

variable quantities, such as angular position or voltages, and provides a
physical analogy of the mathematical problem to be solved. Capable of
solving ordinary differential equations, it is well suited for use in
engineering, particularly for implementing real- time simulated models of

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processes and equipment Another common application is the analysis of
networks, such as those for electric –power distribution.

The digital computer works with data in discrete form – in the form
expressed directly as the digits of the binary code. It counts, lists,
compares, and rearranges these binary digits, or bits, of data in accordance
with very detailed program instructions stored within its memory. The
results of these arithmetic and logic operations are translated into
characters, numbers, and symbols that can be understood by the human
operator or into signals intelligible to a machine controlled by the
computer.

The hybrid computer combines the characteristics and advantages of

analog and digital systems; it offers greater precision than the former and
more control capability than the latter. Equipped with special conversion
devices, it utilizes both analog and discrete representation of data. In recent
years hybrid systems have been used in studies of nuclear power plants,
guided- missile systems, and spacecraft.

Computer is a machine with a complex network of electronic circuits

that operate switches or magnetize tiny metal cores. The machine is capable
of storing & manipulating numbers, letters. The basic idea of the computer
is that we can make the machine do what we want by inputting signals that
turn certain switches on & turn others off, or that magnetize or do not
magnetize the cores. The basic job of computers is the processing of
information. For this reason, computers can be defined as devices which
accept information in the form of instructions called a program &
characters called data, perform mathematical or logical operations on the
information, & then supply results of these operations. The program which
tells the computers what to do & the data, which provide the information
needed to solve the problem are kept inside the computer in a place called
memory. Some of the most common methods of inputting information are
to use punched cards, magnetic tape, discs & terminals. The computer’ s
input reads the information into the computer.

For outputting information, two common devices used are a printer

which prints the new information on paper, or a display screen which
shows the results on a TV like screen.

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 To use a computer to solve problems we must have a computer
system, i. e. a collection of components that work together to process data.
A computer system combines hardware elements & software elements.
Hardware elements may be defined as the mechanical devices in the
system, the machinery & the electronics that perform physical functions.

The hardware inside the machine express arithmetical & logical

operations. The software elements are the programs written for the system
that perform logical & mathematical preparations provide a means for you
to control the system.

4.1.3. Match the English words and phrases with their Ukrainian
equivalents.

to be in daily use з точки зору, що стосується

to be considered to be спроможний
an operating principle моделі, які імітують реальний час
to penetrate into бінарний код
application кутова позиція
to process data система збереження даних
capable of проникати в
to be suited for бути в щоденному користуванні
real-time simulated models згідно з
binary digits, orbits вважати
angular position застосування
binary code підходити до
to offer precision перфорована картка
data storage system встановлена (прийнята)
послідовність інструкцій
in accordance with бінарні цифри, або біти
guided-missile system пропонувати точність
punched card система керування ракетою
a prescribed sequence of instructions працювати з
amazing achievement принцип дії
in terms of обробляти дані
to operate on дивовижне досягнення

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4.1.4. Complete the sentences with the words and phrases from the
text.

1. The computer is _______ _______ the most ________ ________ of

mankind.

2. Nowadays hundreds of computers are _____ _____ _____they

_________ almost into all spheres of our modern society.

3. Computers _________ almost _________ all spheres of our modern

society.

4. BASIC is _______ _______ _________ one of the easiest programming

languages to learn.

5. Computers are automatic electronic devices that ______ ______ ______

by processing data ______ ______a prescribed __________ of instructions.

6. The analog computer _________ _______ data represented by

continuously variable quantities.

7. ________ ________ living ordinary differential equations, analog

computers are well ________ ______ use in engineering, particularly for
implementing ______ ______ ______ of processes and equipment.

8. Another common __________ of analog computers is the analysis of

networks such as those for electric – power distribution.

9. The digital computer works with data in discrete form –in the form
expressed directly as the digits of the _________ _________.

10. The hybrid computer combines the characteristics and advantages of

analog and digital systems; it ________ greater _________ than the forms
and more control capability than the latter.

4.1.5. Find in the text terms the definitions of which are given below.

• Very probably
• Smith done successfully, with effort a skill
• To work, be in action, have an effect; manage

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 • To make a way into;
• To find the answer to
• To put it through the system in order to obtain the required
information
• Succession, connected line of events, ideas

4.1.6. Are the following sentences True or False? Correct the false
ones.

1. Computers are automatic electronic devices that solve problems by

getting data.
2. Computers differ from one another in terms of operating principle,
equipment design, and application.
3. The analog computer operates represented by continuously invariable
quantities.
4. The analog computer is well suited for use in studies of nuclear –
power plants.
5. The digital computer works with data in discrete form.
6. The hybrid computer offers more precision than the digital computer
and little control capability than the latter.
7. Computer is a data storage system created by man.
8. The machine is capable of storing and manipulating numbers, letters.
9. The software elements may be defined as the mechanical devices in the
system, the machinery and the electronics that perform physical
functions.
10. The software elements are the programs written for the system that
logical and mathematical operations.

4.1.7. Answer the questions.

1. What is a computer?
2. What does the word “computer” come from?
3. When was the first programmed computer built?
4. When and by whom was the first electronic digital computer
constructed in Ukraine?

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 5. How many types of computers are there?
6. How does the analog computer operate on?
7. What does the digital computer work with?
8. What is the hybrid computer?
9. What is a computer system?

4.1.8. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Без сумніву, комп’ютер є найдивовижнішим досягненням

людства.
2. Комп’ютер – це система збереження даних, створених людиною.
3. Зараз сотні комп’ютерів використовуються щоденно.
4. Комп’ютери проникають майже в усі сфери нашого сучасного
суспільства.
5. Вважається, що ВАSIC є однією з найлегших для вивчення
програмних мов.
6. Комп’ютери – це автоматичні електронні прилади, які вирішують
проблеми, обробляючи дані згідно з прийнятою, встановленою
послідовністю інструкцій.
7. Існує три види комп’ютерів : аналогові, цифрові та гібридні.
8. Вони відрізняються один від одного з точки зору принципу дії,
дизайну обладнання та застосування.
9. Спроможний вирішити прості диференційні рівняння,
аналоговий комп’ютер добре підходить до застосування в
інженерній техніці.
10. Цифровий комп’ютер працює з даними в дискретній формі -
тобто у формі, яка безпосередньо виражається як цифри бінарного
коду.

4.1.9. Match the words on the left with their collocations on the
right:

1. enter a) an option
2. select b) a file
3. visit c) a message
4. browse d) a chat room

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 5. be connected e) the web address
6. access f) to the Internet
7. compose g) online
8. attach h) the web
9. go i) a website

4.1.10. Choose the correct collocation:

a) It’s a good idea to keep a hard / fast copy of all important

documents.
b) Be very careful not to select / delete your work.
c) Do you do a lot of computer / online shopping?
d) We don’t crash / receive as much spam as we used to.
e) It’s an easy website to navigate / to reinstall.
f) It’s very important for websites to be maintained / hacked into.
g) Students spend hours every evening accessed / connected to the
Internet.

4.1.12. Think of a word or phrase which mean the following:

1 enabling mobile phones to predict the word being entered in a text

message from the first few letters

2 to illegally go into other people’s computer system

3 ‘the e-mail will bounce’ means the e-mail will …

4 a list of choices which appears on a computer screen

5 to put your name into a computer so that you can start using it

6 to move across/down/up a web page or other document on a

computer screen

7 to show a detailed and clear picture of something on the

screen

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4.1.13. Computer quiz

1. What may you have to do with your computer program if your

computer crashes?
2. What must you do regularly so you don’t lose the document you are
working on?
3. What must you be careful not to do accidentally?
4. What should you check if you\re not able to access a web page you
want to look at?
5. What is Google?
6. If you don’t put the right address on an e-mail, what will happen?
7. How do you reply to an e-mail that you have received?
8. If you want to get a picture from the Internet and save it to your own
computer, what do you have to do?
9. If you want to send a message you have received on to someone
else, what do you do?
10. If you want to e-mail a document to someone, what do you normally
do?
11. If you want to work on a document at home, where will you e-mail
the document?
12. What feature on a mobile phone allows you to text someone more
rapidly?

4.1.14. Match the answers to the quiz questions above:

a) Hit ‘reply’, compose your message and then press ‘send’.
b) Predictive text
c) Send an attachment / send it as an attachment
d) Re-install the programs
e) Delete or erase a file
f) Download the picture
g) To your home address
h) Save / back up your work
i) Forward the message
j) That you have put in the correct address
k) A search engine
l) The e-mail will bounce.

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4.1.15. Match the equivalents:

1. spam a. to get rid of

2. to navigate b. unwanted advertisements
3. to delete c. to establish
4. pop-up ads d. junk e-mails
5. to set up e. to find your way round

Some advantages and disadvantages of computers today

4.1.16. Divide the following statements into two groups:

advantages of computers disadvantages of computers

1. On the web you can access information on any subject you want
to.
2. As well as getting useful e-mails, you also receive a lot of spam.
3. Good web design is making it easier to navigate websites.
4. Computer criminals are getting better at hacking into other
people’s computers.
5. People are maintaining their web pages better, so information is
kept up-to-date.
6. Computers still crash and you have to waste time re-installing
your programs.
7. Broadband connections are widely available now. This makes
online shopping much easier.
8. Whenever you need to do something really important at work, the
computers seem to be down.
9. It is very easy to accidentally delete or erase a file.
10. Being able to hold records on computer makes it much easier for
businesses to keep track of customers and of orders.

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4.1.15. Choose the correct option:

1. To illegally go into other people’s computer files

a) to navigate b) to hack c) to crash

2. ‘The e-mail will bounce’ means the e-mail will …

a) come back b) be downloaded c) be deleted

3. I was very upset when I realized that someone had hacked …… his
computer.
a) off b) on c) into d) out

4. For security reasons, always log ….... when you leave your computer
unattended for any period of time.
a) on b) in c) out d) up

5. My secretary is very quick at keying …… data.

a) onto b) on c) into d) in

6. The ability to zoom ……. is particularly useful when you are working
on detailed diagrams or line graphs.
a) out b) in c) up d) on

7 Do you think you could let me have a …….. of that screen? I don’t have
the time to write down all the details.

a) printout b) copy c) keyboard

8 Please could you help me ……. Internet access on my new computer?

a) tune in b) pick up c) set up

9 If you want to create a template, go ……. Word and open the File menu.
a) onto b) in c) into

10 If a computer stops working normally, you can say it has ……. .

a) cut off b) seized up c) wiped out

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 4.2. Living in an information age

4.2.1. Read the article below and make a list of key phrases for the
short summary. Then work with a partner. Retell the text in turns
using the key phrases from the list you have made before.

You live in an information age. You've already learned how fast the
knowledge base is growing. You also know it is impossible for any one
person to know everything. An educated person isn't necessarily someone
who knows everything. An educated person knows where to find the
information he or she needs!

A computer can be used to access (find) information on many topics.

You can access information in several ways. Personal computers can be
interfaced, or attached to, a CD-ROM (compact disk-read only memory)
drive. An entire electronic encyclopedia, for example, can be accessed
through a compact disk (CD). A compact disk can hold 1,300 times as
much information as a floppy disk. Besides that, it accesses information in
a matter of seconds. If you needed information on crash testing of cars, by
the time you pulled the encyclopedia from the shelf, the computer would
have that information for you. In addition, the computer lists cross-
references that allow you to tie the information with other subjects.
Sometimes not all the information is available on CDs but many electronic
encyclopedias also include a bibliography (list of resources) so you can
explore further.
Another way to access information from the outside world is by
hooking the computer to a modem and a telephone line. A modem is an
electronic device that lets computers share information. Attaching a modem
to your computer lets you communicate with any other computer that has a
modem. Modem is another acronym. It stands for modulator- demodulator.
Two computers can communicate with each other only if one computer can
decode (understand) the information received from the other computer.
When you receive a file over a modem it is called downloading. When you
send a file over the modem to another computer it is called uploading.
Communications software on each computer sets up a protocol (special
settings) to allow information transfer. One important protocol is how fast

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information is sent on the telephone line. This is called the baud rate. Most
common modems operate from 1,200 to 9,600 baud. The faster the baud
rate, the less time you have to spend using the telephone line. The baud rate
is important because if you're communicating long-distance the cost can
increase quickly!
Using your computer and modem, you can access information stored
in huge mainframe computers. Information services are companies that sell
information to you. Did you ever think about paying for information like
you would for another product such as a hamburger? A rapidly growing use
of computers is for accessing information. Whenever a topic needs to be
researched, an information service can save valuable time. It gives you
bibliographies and abstracts (brief summaries) of articles in magazines as
well as books. Abstracts let you see whether that resource will be useful to
you.

4.2.2. Answer the questions after the text.

1. Should an educated person know everything? What is importantfor

an educated person?
2. In what way can a personal computer be used to accessinformation?
3. Why is bibliography important?
4. What do we call "an abstract"?
5. What do we use a modem for?
6. How can you explain the terms "downloading", "uploading",
"baudrate"?
7. What is the baud rate of modern modems?

4.2.3. Give the Ukrainian equivalents to the following words.

a) knowledge base, information age, compact disc drive, crash testing,

telephone line, communications software, information transfer,
mainframe computers, information services, cross references;
b) to access information, to interface a computer, to tie theinformation
with other subjects, to hook the computer to a modem,to share information,
to decode information, to receive information,to communicate long-
distance, to store information, to save time;

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c) ROM (read only memory), CD (compact disc), bibliography,
modem,downloading, uploading, baud rate, abstract.

4.2.4. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Комп'ютери - важливий інструмент для вирішення технічних

проблем.
2. Комп'ютери часто використовуються для пошуку та організації
інформації, проведення розрахунків, письма, малювання та
розв'язання інших завдань.
3. Перші комп'ютери були більш громіздкими й дорогими, ніж
сучасні.
4. Закодована інформація, що керує комп'ютером, має назву
«програмне забезпечення».
5. Іноді комп'ютери використовуються як потужні електронні
друкарські машинки.
6. Спеціальні комп'ютерні програми використовуються, щоб
проектувати нові технічні пристрої.
7. Використовуючи комп'ютерну графіку, ми можемо створювати
сучасну рекламну продукцію.
8. Майбутні комп'ютери будуть більш швидкодіючими та менш
дорогими.
9. Для того щоб працювати з текстовою інформацією, ми
використовуємо спеціально розроблений текстовий процесор.
10. Використання автоматичного проектування - одна з
найнеобхідніших умов розвитку виробництва сьогодні.

4.2.5. Match the words (1-9) with their definitions (a-i).

1) software a) the brain of the computer

2) peripherals b) physical parts that make up a
computer system
3) main memory c) programs which can be used on a
particular computer system
4) hard drive d) the information which is presented to
the computer

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 5) hardware e) results produced by a computer
6) input f) input devices attached to the cpu
7) ports g) section that holds programs and data
while they are executed or processed
8) output h) magnetic device used to store
information
9) central processing unit i) sockets into which an external device
(CPU) may be connected

4.2.6. Answer the questions.

1. What kind of computer do you have?

2. Do you know the technical specifications of you computer?
3. Would you like to upgrade your computer? If so, what kind of
computer would you like to get?
4. Which peripherals do you use most often? Why?
5. Do you use computer networks? If so, how do you connect to the
networks you use?

4.2.7. Work with a partner.

Student A: Imagine you have a problem with your computer. Student B

knows a few things about computers and will try to help you fix the
problem. Explain what the problem is and ask for help in fixing it.

Student B: Give Student A help and try to fix his/her computer.

4.2.8. Read the textabout information technology. Use a dictionary if

necessary.
Information technology
Computing, fast and slow

IBM is not about to go down, but life in the cloud will be tough

SOME ingredients are missing: the ping-pong table, cheap furniture, and
inappropriate T-shirts. But otherwise this could be a shared workspace for

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internet startups: people sit around long tables and in front of large screens;
others lounge on bright orange couches; the walls are full of sticky notes
saying things like "I'm happy" or "be yourself' – the products of a brain-
storming session.
However, this office in a building in central London belongs to IBM, an
information-technology giant long known for its buttoned-down culture
and blue business suits. The new "interactive experience lab" is one of four,
soon to be ten, such places where teams of employees from IBM and its
customers jointly think up new online services and apps. Such projects, the
firm hopes, will help it grow again.
IBM'srevenue has declined, year-on-year, for ten straight quarters. Its recent
third-quarter figures were particularly disappointing: sales were $22.4
billion and earnings per share $3.68, both well below analysts'
expectations. One reason was that IBM had decided to pile on the bad news:
it also scrapped its long-held goal of reaching earnings per share of $20 for
2015. When the firm reports fourth-quarter earnings on January 20th,
analysts expect the numbers to look better, since global demand for IT
appears to have strengthened.
It will take more than a quarter to get IBM back on track, however. The
company is not about to go belly up, as it seemed about to in the early
1990s after corporate IT buyers had shifted from mainframes to more
distributed forms of computing, such as PCs and servers. But the industry
is going through another wrenching change, which is in some waymore
challenging: instead of owning computers, businesses are increasingly
renting computing services in the cloud. Not just the technology is on the
move, but everything around it.
To understand the depth of this shift, consider mainframe computers.
These, combined with related software and services still generate 24% of
IBM'srevenues and 35% of its profits, according to Toni Sacconaghi of
Sanford C. Bernstein, a research outfit. Mainframes are a prime example of
what consultants call "systems of record". Banks, for instance, use them to
manage customer accounts. But to keep the mainframe relevant, on January
13th IBM launched a new model, which is more of a "system of
engagement". One machine can process 30,000 transactions a second, and
analyse and encrypt data in an instant. Such features come in handyin the

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age of the cloud and its corollary, mobile computing: people increasingly
do their banking and many other things on smartphones.
As corporate IT opens up to the outside world, the way in which it is
developed, sold and used is changing too. Power is flowing from hardware
engineers to software developers, the best of whom are in great demand. It
is no longer mostly chief information officers (CIOs) who hold businesses'
purse strings; by 2017 chief marketing officers will spend more on IT than
their CIOs, reckons Gartner, a market-research firm. Customers are no
longer willing just to buy the latest technology; they want to pay for
specific results, for instance for sales increases achieved by using analytics
software.
All this means that longer-established hardware firms such as IBM, HP,
Oracle and SAP must rethink how they do business. They will have to offer
a working environment that attracts younger people (such as IBM'sdesign
studios in London and elsewhere), develop new products together with
their customers and become nimbler to keep up with more focused startups,
says Ralf Dreischmeier of the Boston Consulting Group.
IBM had a late start mainly because it concentrated for far too long on its
financial goals. Rather than getting ready for the new world, the firm
continued to cut costs, buy back shares and shed lower-margin business,
such as low-end servers and chipmaking. Things began to change in 2013
when it acquired SoftLayer, a cloud-computing provider. Last year it
teamed up with two "new-tech" firms, Apple and Twitter, to develop
mobile business apps and mine social-media data, IBM has also started to
tweak its organisation. Earlier this month it created separate units for its
fastest-growing businesses, such as data analytics, to make them more
focused, the better to compete with upstart rivals.
Will these changes be enough? Steven Milunovich of UBS, a bank, thinks it
will be another three to four years before IBM'snew businesses, such as its
cloud offerings, bring in more money than old ones, such as IT services. But
he is optimistic that IBM will make it through this transition intact. And the
firm's longer-term bets, such as Watson, an artificial-intelligence computer
system, could still turn into something big. It continues to pump money
into research: last year, for the 22nd year in a row, it was America's largest
recipient of patents.

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Other analysts imagine a more pessimistic scenario: IBM is increasingly
held back by its legacy business; it becomes less profitable because cloud
services offer lower margins than the more customised IT services IBM is
used to providing; and it steadily loses customers to newcomers, such as
Amazon's cloud-computing arm.
If this starts to look like it is happening, pressure will mount for Ginni
Rometty, IBM'sboss, to take more radical action. It is unlikely that the firm
will break itself up, as its rival HP has decided to do: IBM's businesses feed
too much on each other. But it could be forced to separate its old from its
new businesses more clearly. Many of its clients are going for "two-speed
IT", in which they separate their faster-moving and more innovative IT
needs (data-crunching, say) from more basic services (payroll processing,
for instance). To keep them, IBM may need to do the same.

4.2.9. Find the corresponding Ukrainian equivalents to the English

words and phrases underlined in the text above.

4.2.10. Work with a partner. Retell the text in turns using the key
phrases from the list you have made before.

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 Language practice

Passive

1. Complete the sentences with the words in parentheses. Some of

the sentences are active and some are passive. Use any
appropriate tense.

1 . You (notify) will be notified by my secretary next week.

2. Last night I (remember, not) didn’t remember to lock my front
door.
3. At the present time, the oldest house in town (restore)
_______________________________ by the Historical Society. When the
restoration is finished, the house is sure to be a popular tourist attraction.
4. A: What a beautiful old wooden chest!
B: It (build) ______________________by my grandfather over fifty years
ago.
5. At one time, the entire world (rule) _____________________ by
dinosaurs. Some dinosaurs (walk)________________on their hind legs
and (stand)_________________________as tall as palm trees.
6. Disneyland is a world famous amusement park in Southern California. It
(visit) ________ _________________by more than ten million people
every year.
7. Many of us take water for granted in our daily lives, but people who live
in the desert (use, not) _________________water carelessly. To them, each
drop is precious.
8. I (agree, not) ______________________with people who say space
exploration is a waste of money. What do you think?
9. Do you really think that we (invade)
______________________________ by creatures from outer space in the
near future?
10. Most insects (live) _____________ for less than a year. The common
housefly (live) _________________ from 19 to 30 days.
11. (you, accept, already)
___________________________________________by this university
when you heard about the other scholarship?

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12.1 got into a taxi quickly because I (follow)
___________________________ by two strange men. As soon as I got into
the taxi, I (feel)__________________ a little safer.
13. The impact of the earthquake yesterday (feel) ____ by people who lived
hundreds of kilometers from the epicenter.
14. When Alex was only ten, his father (die)
15. Mark (influence) ____________________ a lot by his friends, isn't he?
He should be more independent and think for himself.
16. A few days ago, my car (steal) _________ by one of the teenagers in
my neighborhood. He (catch) ____________ by the police a few blocks
from my house. He just wanted to take it for a drive, but now he's in a lot of
trouble.

2. Complete the sentences with the appropriate forms of the verbs

in the list. Use each verb only once. Some of the sentences are
active and some are passive.

distinguish v'obtain scrub vaccinate

eat participate stop win
establish reply teach
kill revise trade

1. A driver's license can be obtained from the Licensing Bureau at

the corner of Pine Street and 5th Avenue.
2. Sam Smith was awarded the prize, but it should have
______________________ by Jennifer Watson. Her drawing was much
better than his in my opinion.
3. Surgeons must _________________ their hands thoroughly with
disinfectant soap and hot water before they enter the operating room.
4. A parrot can__________________________to say words. I know a
parrot that can say, "Me want food." Her grammar isn't very good, but she
often manages to get something to eat.
5. What are you talking about? You can't have ________________ against
the common cold. Small pox, maybe — but not the common cold.

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6. When Mr. Brown said "How do you do?" you should have ______by
saying "How do you do?" I know that's not an answer to a question, but
that's the way people talk when they greet each other.
7. I shouldn't have _________________________by the police. I'm sure I
wasn't speeding, but I got a ticket anyway.
8. Maria's composition was quite good, but it still had
to_____________________Her introduction didn't clearly state her thesis,
and some of the ideas she presented weren't supported by specifics.
9. If you don't want to work tonight, you ought to
_____________________ work shifts with Emily. She can work for you
tonight, and you can work for her tomorrow night. The boss doesn't mind
as long as someone is there to serve the food.
10. The games are open to anyone who wants to join in. Everyone can
__________________ in them. You don't have to sign up first. We
welcome all players.
11. A university may _________________________ in outer space before
long. Ideas for such a university are presently in the planning stage.
12. Your body needs lots of vitamins and minerals. You should
________________ more salads and less junk food in the future.
13. A bald eagle can _____________________________from other large
birds by its white head and white tail.
14. Some ranchers still believe that bald eagles must
____________________ to protect their livestock. Research has shown,
however, that eagles do little if any damage to a rancher's stock. Today
eagles are a protected species. The sight of a bald eagle soaring over water
and trees fills one with awe and wonder at the beauty of nature.

3. Complete the sentences with the verbs in the list. Use the SIMPLE
PRESENT. Use each verb only once.

bury cover sexcite insure

close crack exhaust pollute
confuse dress finish stick

1. The children are excited about going to the circus. They're

looking forward to seeing the elephants, the clowns, and the acrobats.

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2. Three of the children have the measles. Their bodies
_______________________ with red spots. They also have fevers.
3. A: What happened to this mirror? It______________________
B: So it is. Someone must have dropped it.
4. The kids_______________________________ from playing soccer all
afternoon. They should rest for a while now.
5._________________________you _______________________ with that
novel yet? I'd like to borrow it to read over the weekend.
6. A: I heard that a burglar broke into your house and stole all of your
jewelry!
B: Yes, and I feel terrible about it. Some of it was my grandmother's and
can't be replaced.
But at least all of it __________________________, and I'll be reimbursed
for its value.
It's still not the same as having the jewelry, though.
7. You shouldn't eat any of the fish from that river. The river
__________________________with chemical wastes from the factory
upstream.
8. A: I'm going over to the theater to get tickets for the next concert.
B: The ticket booth ______________________ until 6:00 P.M. You'll have
to go there after six to get the tickets.
9. What's wrong with this drawer? I can't pull it open.
It______________________
10. George __________________________in his best suit today because
he has an important interview this afternoon.
11. Douglas gave me one set of directions to their house, and Ann gave me
a different set of directions. Needless to say, I _____________ very
______________I hope we don't get lost on the way.
12. I know the scissors are somewhere on this desk. I think they
_____________________ somewhere under these piles of papers.

4. Complete the sentences with the appropriate prepositions.

1 . This apartment comes furnished with only a stove and

refrigerator.
2. My uncle is known ___________________ his generosity.

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3. Alice is dressed ______________________ her warmest clothes today.
4. For the holiday meal, the bowls on the table were filled
___________________ specially prepared foods.
5. People who have been exposed ___________________________ heavy
doses of radiation may be more susceptible to certain diseases.
6. By the end of the long trip, the floor of the car was cluttered
_____________________ junk.
7. Mr. Bellamy is discriminated ________________ _ because of his age.
When he applies for a job, he gets turned down as soon as they learn he is
61 years old.
8. The boss is so convinced ________________________ Jean's ability
that he's paying her more money than he paid the previous employee.
9. Victor is blessed _____________________ a good sense of humor,
which has helped him get out of some very difficult situations.
10. A: Are you disappointed ___________________ the color of this
room? We could repaint it.
B: I think I'm satisfied _______________________ it the way it is. What
do you think?
11 . George Washington, the first president of the United States, is
remembered _________________his strong leadership during the
Revolutionary War.
12. Zoology is more closely related ________________________ biology
than it is to botany.
13. I'm annoyed ________________________ my boss. He scheduled a
meeting for an hour beginning at ten o'clock, the same time I was planning
to see a client.
14. As soon as you are done ________________________ the dictionary,
I'd like to use it.
15. Last month, little Billy was bitten by a dog. Now he's scared
_______________________ every dog he sees.
16. Carol is engaged ________________________ Larry. Their marriage
is planned for May 3.
17. A: Why are you so upset __________________________ the children?
B: They didn't call me when they missed their school bus, and I got very
worried _______________________ them.

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18. Each speaker was limited _____________________________ three
minutes.
19. Olga is exhausted. She's tired ___________________________
working 19 straight hours at her computer, but she can't go home until the
crisis is over.
20. I'm tired ______________________________ living in a small
apartment. I'd like to live in a house, or at least a larger apartment.

5. Complete the sentences by using an appropriate form of get and

the PAST PARTICIPLE of the verbs in the list.

accept dress embarrass invite

catch elect fire mug
cheat electrocute hit ruin

1. I shouldn't have parked my car near the construction site. It got hit
by falling rocks. Now it's covered with dents and scratches.
2. Tom has applied to three top universities. Since he's an excellent
student, I'm sure he'll _________________________by at least one of
them. If he doesn't, there are other good schools he can attend.
3. Alex thought he had gotten a good deal when he bought a diamond ring
from some guy on the street, but the "stone" turned out to be glass and was
practically worthless. Alex_________________________.
4. A: I can't believe Paul ____________________________from his job. I
thought he was doing well.
B: He was, but then he had a major disagreement with his boss, and
tempers were flying. I hope he gets his job back.
5. A: Let's take the subway.
B: Not me! The last time I was on the subway,
I_________________________A man knocked me down and stole my
wallet.
6. A: Did you _________________________to the Saunders' dinner party
tonight?
B: Yes, but I can't go.
7. A: You're all out of breath!

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B: I was late getting home and had to _______________________ quickly.
Then I ran all the way over here.
A: Well, that explains why your collar is up and your tie is crooked.
8. The animal was running through the woods when it suddenly
________________in the hunter's trap.
9. It was a close election. The new president _________________by a
very small margin.
10. What are you doing?!! Don't let the cord to your electric hair dryer fall
into the sink. You'll ______________________________!
11. We managed to save some of the furniture, but many of our things
_________________________________________ when the floodwaters
poured into our house.
12. During the school play, little Annie
______________________________ when she couldn't remember the lines
she was supposed to say.

6. Complete the sentences with the words in parentheses.

1 . Only coffee and dessert (serve) were served at the reception

yesterday.
2. Kim wants very badly to make the Olympic team next year. She (train)
has been training hard for the last two years.
3. I've looked in my purse, on the dresser, in my coat pocket, and on all of
the tables in the house, but I can't find my keys anywhere. They (lose)
_______________________.
4. Some people in my country don't take politics seriously. In a recent
parliamentary election, a cartoon character named Donald Duck (receive)
_________________________ 291 votes.
5. According to present company policy, bonuses for the most sales (give)
______________________ to the staff at the end of July every year.
6. According to our Constitution, everyone is equal. But in truth, some
minorities (discriminate) _____________________________ against in
our country. In the last 20 years, new laws (enact) _______________ to
help ensure equality in housing and job opportunities.
7. Mark is a genius. By the time he graduated, he (offer)
________________________ jobs by a dozen computer companies.

159
8. When I (finish)_________________________ my work, I'm going to
take a walk.
9. After the test papers (return) ____________ to the students in class
tomorrow, the students (give)____________ their next assignment.
10. The Olympic Games began in 776 B.C. in Olympia, a small town in
Greece. At that time, only Greeks (allow) __________________________
to compete in them.
11. I (fool, not) __________________________ when Linda told us she'd
won a million dollars at the racetrack. I knew she was only kidding.
12. There are certain (establish) ___________________ procedures that
must (follow) _________________ in conducting a scientific experiment.
13. Due to his abrasive, (irritate)______________________ manner, Mr.
Morrow has difficulty getting along with his co-workers. He
(replace)________________________ by Mr. Han next month as the
coordinator of the production plans.
14. When Jake put a coin in the (vend) _________________ machine for a
can of soda pop, nothing came out. So in a fit of temper, he (kick)
_________________ it hard. Suddenly, it (fall) ______________ over,
right on top of Jake, who (injure, seriously) _________________ Jake
(end)__________________ up in the hospital for three weeks, and today he
(wear, still) ____________________a cast on his arm. I bet that's the last
time he ever kicks a (vend) ____________________________machine.

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TEST A: The passive.
Directions: Choose the correct answer.

Example: Ms. Haugen _D__ at the Ajax Company.

A. is employing B. employed C. employing D. is
employed

1. I still can't believe it! My bicycle ____ last night.

A. was stolen B. was stealing C. stolen D.
stole
2. The current constitutional problem is ___________________ by the top
legal minds in the country.
A. studying B. being studying C. being studied
D. been studied
3. Something funny ________________ in class yesterday.
A. happened B. was happened C. happens D. is
happened
4. The child's arm was swollen because he________________ by a bee.
A. stung B. had stung C. had been stung D. had
being stung
5. Today, many serious childhood diseases____________________ by
early immunization.
A. are preventing B. can prevent C. prevent D. can
be prevented
6. I ______ with you on that subject.
A. am agree B. am agreed C. agreeing D. agree
7. Many U.S. automobiles ______________________ in Detroit,
Michigan.
A. manufacture B. have manufactured
C. are manufactured D. are manufacturing
8. Let's go ahead and do it now. Nothing _________________by waiting.
A. accomplishes C. has accomplished
B. accomplished D. will be accomplished
9. "When ______?"
:
'In 1928."
A. penicillin was discovered C. was penicillin discovered

161
B. did penicillin discovered D. did penicillin discover
10. In recent years, the government has imposed pollution controls on
automobile manufacturers. Both domestic and imported automobiles must
______ anti-pollution devices.
A. equip with C. equip by
B. be equipped with D. be equipped by
11. A shortage of water is a problem in many parts of the world. In some
areas, water ____from the ground faster than nature can replenish the
supply.
A. is being taken B. has been taking C. is taking D. has
taken
12. Vitamin C ______ by the human body. It gets into the blood stream
quickly.
A. absorbs easily C. is easily absorbed
B. is easily absorbing D. absorbed easily
13. "When can I have my car back?"
"I think it'll ______ late this afternoon."
A. finish B. be finished C. have finished D. be finish
14. I didn't think my interview went very well, but I guess it must have.
Despite all my anxiety, I ______ for the job I wanted. I'm really going to
work hard to justify their confidence.
A. was hiring B. hired C. got hiring D. got hired
15. My country ______ the pursuit of world peace.
A. is dedicating to C. is dedicating by
B. is dedicated to D. is dedicated by
16. About 15,000 years ago, northern Wisconsin ______ under ice a mile
deep.
A. buried B. was burying C. was buried D. had
buried
17. Ed was new on the job, but he quickly fit himself into the ______
routine of the office.
A. established B. establishing C. establishes D.
establish
18. The Mayan Indians ______ an accurate and sophisticated calendar
more than seven centuries ago.

162
A. were developed B. developed C. are developed D. have
been developed
19. George is ______ Lisa.
A. marry with B. marry to C. married with D. married
to
20. The rescuers ______ for their bravery and fortitude in locating the lost
mountain climbers.
A. were praised B. praised C. were praising D.
praising

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TEST B: The passive.
Directions: Choose the correct answer.

Example: Ms. Haugen D at the Ajax Company.

A. is employing B. employed C. employing D. is
employed

1. "Can't we do something about the situation?" "Something ______ right

now."
A. is doing B. is done C. is being done D. has been
doing
2. "Are you interested in scuba diving?" "Very. Undersea life is_______"
A. fascinated B. fascinating C. being fascinating D. being
fascinated
3. The university ______by private funds as well as by tuition income and
grants.
A. is supported B. supports C. is supporting D. has
supported
4. My car made strange noises, sputtered to a stop, and then wouldn't start
again. Fortunately, the mechanic at my garage ______ the source of the
problem.
A, was discover C. was discovered
B. discovered D. has been discovered
5. "Ms. Jones, please type those letters before noon." "They've already
______, sir. They're on your desk."
A. typed B. been typed C. being typed D. been
being typed
6. "Has the committee made its decision yet?" "Not yet. They are still
______ the proposal."
A. considering C. being considered
B. been considered D. considered
7. In some rural areas of the United States, health care ______ by only a
small number of doctors, nurses, and other health professionals. It's often
more than they can handle.
A. is providing C. provides
B. is being provided D. provided

164
8. "How did that window ______?"
"I don't know."
A. get broken B. broke C. got broken D. broken
9. Renoir is one of the most popular French impressionist painters. His
paintings ______ masterpieces all over the world.
A. had considered C. are considered
B. are considering D. consider
10. As the fairy tale goes, the prince ______ into a frog by an evil
magician, and only a kiss from a beautiful princess could restore him to his
original state.
A. turned C. was turned
B. was turning D. had been turning
11. When I woke up and looked outside, the landscape had changed. The
ground had been lightly ______ with a dusting of snow during the night.
A. covering B. cover C. covers D. covered
12. We can't even walk in this storm. Let's wait in the hallway where we'll
be __________________ the strong winds until things quiet down.
A. protected from B. protected by C. protecting from D.
protecting by
13. "_______________ about the eight o'clock flight to Chicago?"
"Not yet."
A. Has been an announcement made C. Has an announcement been
made
B. Has an announcement made D. Has been made an
announcement
14. Last night a tornado swept through Rockville. It ______ everything in
its path.
A. destroyed C. was being destroyed
B. was destroyed D. had been destroyed
15. Be sure to wash these vegetables thoroughly. A lot of pesticide residue
______ on unwashed produce.
A. can find B. can found C. can be found D. can be
finding
16. The building of the bridge had been delayed for three years because of
political problems on both sides of the river. Finally, it ______ because the

165
public demanded action, and now many hours of driving have been saved
for daily commuters.
A. was constructed C. constructed
B. gets constructed D. has constructed
17. On Friday afternoon before a three-day holiday weekend, the
highways___________________ people on their way out of the city.
A. are crowding by C. are crowded with
B. are being crowd with D. crowd by
18. Fortunately, the hospital's new air-conditioning system ____ when the
first heat wave of the summer arrived.
A. had installed C. had been installed
B. installed D. had been installing
19. It's hard to believe that my application for a scholarship
_____________. I was sure I'd get it. I don't know now if I'll go to school
next year.
A. was denied B. denied C. was denying D. has
denied
20. The man died because medical help was not summoned. A doctor
should ______ immediately.
A. have called B. been called C. called D. have
been called

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 Unit 5
COMMUNICATION
E-COMMERCE

5.1. Discuss the following questions.

• What forms of written and spoken communication do you like using?
Why?
• What problems can people have with the different forms of
communication?
• How do you think those problems can be solved?
• What irritates you most about these forms of communication?
e-mail
mobile phone
conference calling
voicemail
BlackBerry
web presentation
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of using e-mail?

5.2. Read the article.

Virtual teams and communication by email

Many companies employ teams who work together across borders

and time zones. They are called virtual teams because they communicate
almost entirely by email.
Modern technology makes communication very simple and fast - but
there can be problems. There is a big risk of misunderstanding. With team
members speaking different languages and belonging to different cultures,
small problems can become big problems.
When people work together in a virtual team, they have to know and
trust each other. It's important to build a relationship. When joining a
virtual team, people usually write an email to the others to introduce
themselves. They tell their colleagues about their job, work experience,
interests. In the email one should not just focus on work, but make
conversation - ask about the weather or mention something that is going on

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at the moment. It is vital to explain things clearly to make sure there is no
chance of misunderstanding. If there is a need to write something negative,
it is essential to be careful and use polite phrases. A written message can
sometimes seem very strong to the other person.
When you often write to the same colleagues, you usually develop an
informal, friendly style. But if you write to people in business that you
don't know well, you need to be more formal.

5.3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using emails to

communicate with colleagues in other countries? Complete the chart:

Advantages Disadvantages
Communication is simple and fast Risk of misunderstanding
Small problems become big
problems

5.4. Which of the following are most important when writing an email
to a new contact or a colleague in another country?
• tell them about yourself
• only write about work
• keep your message very brief
• if there is a problem, explain it carefully
• use polite phrases

5.5. Read two examples of an email form a designer to his overseas

colleagues about the text for a new webpage. Which one follows the
accepted business practice:
1
Hi!
Thanks very much for sending the text. It looks very interesting.
Unfortunately, we’re having some problems with it. It is a little bit long.

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 In our experience, the users are not very happy to read more than 60 to
70 words. We think it may be better to cut the text. What do you think?
Best regards
Tony
2
We’re having problems with your text – it’s too long.
You need to cut it.
Tony

5.6. Put the words in the spaces.

attach browse field inboxes

open send size

You can send almost any file as an attachment. 1_______________

through the folders on your computeruntil you find the file you want to
attach. Click on "2____________". The file will appear in the attachments
3____________. Then click "4____________", and wait while the file
uploads. Addmore files if you wish. When you have finished adding files,
click "5_______________".
Some email 6_______________ will only receive attachments up to a
certain 7_______________ with one email, for example 10MB. If you need
to send a lot of very big attachments, it's sometimes necessary to spread
them over a number of separate emails.

5.7. Read the email. Are the statements after it True or False?

Hi Tony
Thanks for sending through that a/w so quickly. Just one problem – I
couldn't open theattachment. I'm not sure why. My inbox is virtually
empty, so there's plenty of room, and theattachment limit is 20MB, so
there's no problem there. Perhaps there was a glitch somewhere.
Anyway, rather than trying to figure out what went wrong, could you just
send it again?

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Did we discuss file format? I don't know much about TIFFs, JPEGs etc, but
I meant to tell you that ifyou have any queries on this, you could get in
touch with Steve, our designer. His email address
issteve@stevegreendesign.co.uk.
One other thing. When you resend me the a/w, could you cc it to Angela?
I've asked her to have aquick look at it before we put it in the brochure.
I'm looking forward very much to seeing those pics – fingers crossed that
they'll come through OKthis time. However, if I still can't download them,
I'll ask you to put them on a disk and mail them.
All the best
Jenny

1. Jenny didn't receive the a/w because her inbox is too small.
2. The attached files came to less than 20MB in total.
3. Jenny has resolved a technical problem, and the attachment will
come through without anyproblems next time.
4. Tony will have to resend the a/w.
5. Jenny is a graphic design expert.
6. Tony is also going to put the files onto a disk and mail them.
7. Angela has already seen the a/w.
8. The style is too informal – business emails should always be more
formal than this.

5.8. Find words and expressions in the email which mean the same as
the phrases below.

1. artwork _____________________________________
2. a small technical problem _______________________
3. type of file ___________________________________
4. questions about this ____________________________
5. send again ___________________________________
6. email a copy to _______________________________
7. communicate with ____________________________
8. with luck…__________________________________

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5.9. Read the answer to the previous email. Are the statements after it
True or False?

Dear Jenny
As requested, I'm attaching the a/w files again.
The technical problems you've been experiencing may be due to your email
provider. I have to say,I've never heard of Whoopydudu.com. You might be
better off switching to one of the big names,such as Gmail or Yahoo.
Regarding file formats, TIFFs should be OK. If necessary, your designer
will be able to reformatthem very easily, but in my experience most
designers have no problem working with TIFFs.
As the file sizes are quite large, and I understand that Angela only has a
dial-up connection, I'vesent her low-res versions to look at. I hope that will
be OK. They should be clear enough.
I'm just about to go on holiday, so if you need me to send these files on
disk, please let me knowby Friday afternoon. I probably won't get the
opportunity to check my email while I'm away, but ifanything arises that
won't keep, my assistant Trevor may be able to deal with it.
Best regards
Tony

5.10. Find words and expressions in the email which mean the same as
the phrases below.

1. as you asked ________________________________________________

2. famous companies ___________________________________________
3. change the type of file ________________________________________
4. I think, but I may be wrong… __________________________________
5. Low image resolution ________________________________________
6. on Friday afternoon or before___________________________________
7. comes up __________________________________________________
8. that's urgent ________________________________________________

5.11. Writing
A colleague from another country has sent you a sample page for a new
website design. You want to make the following comment about it:
- problem with design

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- colours too dark – to find new ones?
- the text is difficult to read
Write an email making the comment friendlier and polite.

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 Language practice

Reported speech

1. Complete the sentences by changing the quoted speech to

reported speech. Use formal sequence of tenses as appropriate.
(Pay attention to whether the reporting verb is past or present.)

1. I asked Martha, "Are you planning to enter law school?"

I asked Martha if /where she was planning to enter law school.
2. Ed just asked me, "What time does the movie begin?"
Ed wants to know what time the movie begins
3. Fred asked, "Can we still get tickets for the concert?"
Fred asked if / whether we could still get tickets for the concert.
4. Thomas said to us, "How can I help you?"
Thomas wants to know how he can help us.
5. Eva asked, "Can you help me, John?"
Eva asked John ______________________________________her.
6. Charles said, "When will the final decision be made?"
Charles wanted to know ______________________
7. Frank asked Elizabeth, "Where have you been all afternoon?"
Frank asked Elizabeth _______________________________ all afternoon.
8. Bill just said, "What is Kim's native language?"
Bill wants to know _______________________
9. Yesterday Ron said to Bob, "What's the problem?"
Ron asked Bob ___________________________
10. / asked myself, "Am I doing the right thing?" I wondered
___________________________ the right thing.
11. All of the farmers are asking, "When is this terrible drought going to
end?"
All of the farmers are wondering ________________________________
to end.
12. George asked me, "What time do I have to be at the laboratory in the
morning?"
George asked me _____________________________ to be at the
laboratory in the morning.
13. Beth asked, "Who should I give this message to?"

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Beth asked
me__________________________________________________________
___
14. Our tour guide said, "We'll be having around 7:00 in the morning."
Our tour guide told us ___________________________ around 7:00 in the
morning.
15. Nancy asked, "Why didn't you call me?" Nancy wanted to know
__________________________ her.

2. Write these sentences as reported questions. Change you to I, etc.

where necessary.

1. Do you like Marlon Brando?” she asked.

2. “Are you enjoying yourself?” he asked.
3. “Does your father work here?” she asked.
4. “Do you live near your family?” he asked.
5. “Are you a foreigner?” she asked.
6. “Have you met Danny before?” he asked.
7. “Are you hungry?” she asked.
8. “Did you borrow my dictionary?” he asked.
9. “Have you finished your exams?” she asked.
10. “Did you invite Judy and Pat?” he asked.
11. “Does your brother live in London?” she asked.
12. “Do you know who broke the window?” he asked.
13. “Did they tell you when they were leaving?” she asked.
14. “Did you lend them your camera?” he asked.
15. “Have you hurt yourself?” she asked.

3. Write these sentences in indirect speech, using wanted to know

and the words given. Make all necessary changes.

1. “Which book did you take?” (he)

He wanted to know which book I had taken.
2. “Are you wearing your overcoat?” (she)
3. “Did you telephone your mother?” (he)

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4. “Is the box made of cardboard?” (she)
5. “How much did it cost?” (he)
6. “Are you seeing the director tomorrow?” (she)
7. “What are you doing?” (he)
8. “How far do I have to walk?” (she)
9. “Have you had anything to eat?” (he)
10. “Are you in a hurry?” (she)
11. “When does the performance start?” (he)
12. “Do you like having holidays abroad?” (he)
13. “Did you see the accident?” (she)
14. “Which school did you go to?” (he)
15. “When did you start learning Spanish?” (she)

4. Put one suitable word in each space.

1. Helen asked me .......... I ………. going to school or not.

2. David asked his mother ............... she ................ be coming home.
3. Peter asked us ................we................. ever been to Hungary.
4. Costas asked me ............... I ............... many photographs.
5. Maria asked a policeman ............... the museum was.
6. Dora asked her sister ................ she ................ fed their dog.

5. Report these Yes/No questions.

1. “Are you hungry?” She asked us ___________________________.

2.“Are you enjoying yourself?” He wanted to know ______________.
3. “Do you always go to church on Sunday?” He wondered ________.
4. “Have you seen John recently?” She asked me_________________.
5. “Has Debbie been working here long?” He wanted to know ______.
6. “Did you study hard for the exam?” She wondered _____________.
7. “Will Ted and Alice be at the party?” She asked us _____________.
8. “Will you be coming to the concert or not?” He wanted to know __.
9. “You like Italian food, don't you?” She asked me _____________.
10. “You don't like Italian food, do you?” She wanted to know ______.

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 6. Translate the sentences into English.

1. Анна запитала, чи потрібна мені ручка.

2. Том поцікавився, чи я голодний.
3. Девід запитав, чи зможу я прийти на вечірку.
4. Сем запитав, чи я коли-небудь зустрічав цю жінку.
5. Саллі поцікавилась, чи може вона чимось допомогти.
6. Цікаво, чи знає Джим, що він робить.
7. Марія поцікавилась, чи правильне те, що вона написала.
8. Він запитав, чи я думав про це.
9. Вона поцікавилась, що я про це думаю.
10. Сью запитала, чи піду я на вечірку.

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Test. Choose the correct answer.
1. John said, ”I’m sorry to disturb you, Ann”.
i. John told that he was sorry to disturb Ann.
ii. John told Ann he was sorry to disturb her.
iii. John said to Ann he had been sorry to disturb her.
2. He said, “Where is Jill going?”
i. He asked where was Jill going.
ii. He asked where Jill went.
iii. He asked where Jill was going.
3. Sally said, “I would like to buy it”
i. Sally said that she would like to buy it.
ii. Sally said she would have liked to buy it.
iii. Sally said that she liked to buy it.
4. “If I had any instructions, I would know what to do, “ said Mag
i. Mag said if she had had any instructions she would’ve
known what to do.
ii. Mag said if she had any instructions she knew what to
do.
iii. Mag said that if she had any instructions she would
know what to do.
5. Rob asked, “Bobby, do you know “Old Barn? It’s on the Shrewsbury
Road.”
i. Rob asked Bobby if he knew “Old Barn” that was on the
Shrewsbury Road.
ii. Rob asked Bobby did he know “Old Barn” ; it was on the
Shrewsbury Road.
iii. Rob asked bobby where “Old Barn” was.
6. I knew that Mercury _____the closest planet to the sun, but I didn’t
feel like answering
the question.
i. was ii. is iii. had been
7. Mike hoped that his friend _____him with his car.
i. would help ii. will help iii.helped
8. We didn’t know the score, but we were sure their team_____ the
game.
i. has lost ii. had lost iii. lost
9. “Don’t swim too far, dear, “ asked Dad.
i. Dad asked her not to swim too far.
ii. Dad asked her don’t swim too far.
iii. Dad asked her if she wouldn’t swim too far.
10. Ann’s sister did nothing except complain,” remarked Tim.

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 i. Tim remarked that Ann’s sister had done nothing except
complain.
ii. Tim remarked that Ann’s sister did nothing except
complain.
iii. Tim remarked Ann’s sister had done nothing except
complain.
11. Yesterday Tom heard that his aunt _____ for five days.
i. was ill ii. has been ill iii. had been ill
12. The children were afraid of making noise. Mom ____.
i. was sleeping ii.slept iii. had been sleeping
13. He gave all his money to me because he _______ me.
i. would trust ii. trusted iii. had trusted
14. Shop assistant: “Would you wait half an hour, please?
Customer : “All right”
i. The shop assistant asked whether the customer would wait
half an hour. The customer said that it was all right.
ii. The shop assistant asked if the customer would wait half an
hour. The customer agreed to wait.
iii. The shop assistant asked whether the customer would wait
half an hour. The customer said it would be all right.
15. Mrs. Smith told Mr. Smith , “Don’t wear your best trousers in the
garden.”
i. Mrs. Smith told Mr. Smith not to wear his best trousers in the
garden.
ii. Mrs. Smith said to Mr. Smith that he didn’t wear his best
trousers in the garden.
iii. Mrs. Smith told Mr. Smith not to have worn his best trousers
in the garden.
16. We were told Andrey ________ to enter the college.
i. is going ii. went iii. was going
17. The police found that Bob _________in London’s suburbs at that
time.
i. had been living ii. lives iii. lived
18. The doctor asked, ”How do you feel?”
i. The doctor asked how did I feel.
ii. The doctor asked how I felt.
iii. The doctor asked how I had felt.
19. “Will you be free tomorrow?” Colin asked Richard.
i. Richard asked would Colin be free the next day.
ii. Colin asked Richard if he would be free the following
day.

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 iii. Colin asked if Richard will be free tomorrow.
20. “Don’t open the door or answer the phone,” said her parents.
i. Her parents said to her not to open the door or answer
the phone.
ii. Her parents told her not to open the door or answer the
phone.
iii. Her parents told her neither to open the door or answer
the phone.
21. “Why hasn’t he locked the car door?” the policeman said.
i. The policeman asked why he hadn’t locked the car
door.
ii. The policeman asked why hadn’t he locked the car
door.
iii. The policeman asked why he didn’t lock the car door.
22. The students said, ”We wish our exams were over”
i. The students said they wished their exams had been
over.
ii. The students said that they wished their exams have
been over.
iii. The students said they wished their exams were over.
23. My parents decided that we ______my birthday on Saturday.
i. would celebrate ii. shall celebrate iii. celebrated
24. The student wasn’t able to do the translation because he ______
some special terms.
i. hadn’t known ii. didn’t know iii. doesn’t know
25. Ann hasn’t been informed that the lecture ____________on Friday.
i. hasn’t taken place ii. wouldn’t take place iii.
won’t take place
26. Tom said, “Jerry has been my best friend since our childhood.
i. Tom told Jerry that he had been his best friend since
their childhood.
ii. Tom said that Jerry has been my best friend since our
childhood.
iii. Tom said that Jerry had been his best friend since their
childhood.
27. “Where is the nearest bus stop?” the old man addressed the
policeman.
i. The old man asked where was the nearest bus stop.
ii. The old man asked the policeman where the nearest bus
stop was.

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 iii. The old man told the policeman where the nearest bus
stop was.
28. The lecturer said to us, “Be quiet, please”.
i. The lecturer asked us be quiet.
ii. The lecturer told us to be quiet.
iii. The lecturer said to us to be quiet.
29. “Could you show me these jeans, please?” said the boy.
i. The boy said to show him those jeans.
ii. The boy asked to show him those jeans.
iii. The boy asked if the salesgirl could show him these
jeans.
30. “If I were you, I’d stop smoking,” Jeff said.
i. Jeff said that if he were him he would have stopped
smoking.
ii. Jeff said that if he had been him he would stop smoking.
iii. Jeff advised him to stop smoking.

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 Unit 6
6.1. INFORMATION

6.1.1. Discuss the following questions.

• How is the office of the 1950s different from today's workplace?
• What do you imagine the office of the future will be like?
• Do you expect technology to make your life easier or harder?

6.1.2. Read the article TheIT Fallacy. Decide which statement a-c best
summarizes the writer's overall argument.

a Technology helps people save time.

b Technology makes people work harder.
c Technology is a waste of money.

The IT Fallacy

In recent years, three forces - downsizing, globalization, and the need for
speed - have combined to change the work environment. What used to be a
comfortably busy routine has become a non-stop workshop in which most
people feel they can never stop to take a breather.
The result of downsizing is a mad dash to cram more work into fewer
people. If six people are doing the work that ten used to do, and at the same
time are expected to meet or exceed previous budget and productivity
targets, something has to give. To this pressure-cooker environment in which
everyone is supposed to 'do more with less', we can add the globalization
trend that has swept through corporate boardrooms. To the extent that
global competitors have a lower cost structure - which many do because
their labour costs are so much lower- US and European firms have yet
another reason to keep budgets and headcounts lower. The final ingredient
in this mix is fierce competition, which has resulted in the pressure to do
everything faster.
One way that corporateleaders justify the quest for efficiency and
speed is to point to the multibillion-dollar investments that have been made
in lT equipment and services. The new PCs and corporate networks are

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supposed to boost productivity and profits, and will, in fact, allow their
companies to do more with less.'
This is true. But another truth hasbecome buried under the technology sales
pitches. Achieving those gains will happen only after a significant initial
investment in training and 'systemintegration'to make sure that all the
pieces connect well with each other,
Pouring thousands of PCs and miles of cables into a corporation is a great
way to waste money unless the systems and processes that technology is
meant to automate are overhauled. Unfortunately, this has all become
somewhat irrelevant. The expectation is that more technology means more
speed and more output per employee - and when those results don't always
magically occur, the only way to produce them is to require people to work
longer hours.
Oddly, the same thing happens even when the technology delivers as
promised. Consider the case of presentation software such as Microsoft's
PowerPoint, which has become a standard office tool. Before PowerPoint,
a graphics presentation would have to be created by a graphic artist. With
PowerPoint and its software cousins, just about anyone can sit down at a PC
and, without much training or practice, produce an on-screen presentation
ofa slick set of slides, handouts or transparencies that look fully
professional.
On one hand, this software actually is a productivity tool - it takes
onlyhours to do what might have taken days previously, and the result is
just asgood, if not better. But it doesn't stop there. Now everyone sees how
easy it is to use these programs, they are used more and more.Thus, a senior
managerwho wouldn't have considered asking an analyst to spend a couple
of days working up a slide presentation using Stone Age technology, doesn't
hesitate to direct the same analyst to prepare that presentation using the
desktop PCand PowerPoint. The goal is for this analyst to save time by using
the software;the likely outcome is that he or she spends more time on
presentations and has less time available for other aspects of the job.
If you're starting to think that instead of working on a plan to cope
withpressure, tight deadlines, and non-stop work, it's time to polish up your
resumeand look elsewhere, I'm afraid I have some bad news. The grass
really isn'tmuch greener anywhere else - or at least, not a whole lot greener.

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6.1.3. Read paragraphs 1-4. Choose the correct summary a-d for each
paragraph.

a) How several factors have combined to make the workplace more

pressurized.
b) Poorly planned IT systems generate more not less work.
c) Managers see investment in information technologies as a
productivity solution.
d) Working conditions have become uncomfortable in recent times.

6.1.4. Read paragraphs 5-7. Write a sentence to summarize each

paragraph.

6.1.5. Discuss with a partner.

'Information is too valuable to be left to IT departments. In today's business
world, every manager should be a computer specialist.' To what extent do
you agree?

6.1.6. Explain the difference between each pair of computing terms.

1. a server and a PC
2. a laptop and a palmtop
3. a suite and an application
4. a patch and a plug-in
5. a virus and a bug
6. a crash and a hard-disk failure
7. the Internet and an intranet
8. a workgroup and a workstation

6.1.7. George Skopelitis is in charge of IT user support at First

Northeast Bank. He's having a very busy time at the moment. Choose
the correct verbs to complete the email he sent to his boss.

Maurice,
As you know, our IT resources are more and more stretched as we try to cope
with an ageing system. We desperately need to (1) advance/upgrade/promote
the operating system: software applications are (2) crashing/ collapsing/falling
more and more frequently, and the server (3) fell down/went

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down/droppeddown three times last week. There have also been several cases
where important documents have been (4) rubbed out/blanked/ deleted. Of
course, I have (5) inserted/installed/placed patches and (6)
uploaded/downloaded/unzipped new drivers wherever possible, but we can't
go on like this. What's more, there's no time for new projects like (7) setting
up/fixing up/putting up mobile Internet connections so that our sales teams can
(3) register/note/ enter data on the system when they're on the road. We really
need investment now!

6.1.8. Use the correct verbs from the previous exercise to complete these
sentences.

1. Most PCs come complete with an office package, but sometimes you
have to ________________ it yourself'.
2. On average, when a company's IT system _________________ it
takes ten days to fix everything.
3. IT users lack imagination. When asked to __________ a password,
the most common choice is 'password'.
4. There are several programs which can rescue your data if you
accidentally ____________ files.
5. An incorrect memory address is the most common reason why PCs
________ .
6. It only takes minutes to ____________ a Webmail account that you
can access from anywhere in the world.
7. One of the few remaining advantages of desktops is that it's easier to
_________ components.
8. Research suggests that people who _________ illegal mp3s are also
big spenders on legal music sites.

6.1.9. Complete the notes with the missing words.

Back in informed know ring loop touch an update

1. give Ebony Brooks a ________about backup

2. give Maurice __________on appointments application
3. get in ___________with Martha re laptops
4. get ___________to Lincoln Thigpen - presentation slides

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 5. keep Camilla Ramsey in the _________on solutions to database
problems
6. let Maurice __________about Marketing's Internet connection
7. keep Marvin__________re sound card driver
8. fill Cara Bickerson ___________on voice recognition

6.1.10. Replace the expressions in bold with expressions for giving

information from previous task.

1. Can I give you an answer later this morning? I'm in a meeting at the
moment.
2. I'd appreciate it if you could include me in the group of people you
inform.
3. We don't have a firm date for the meeting yet. We'll tell you as soon
as we do.
4. While I'm away in the Far East, I'd like you to give me regular
progress reports by email.
5. Before the meeting starts, can you just give me some details on what
was said last time?
6. I just can't manage to contact her - I've tried everything: phone, fax,
email, snail mail, even
7. pigeon!
8. When you get back from your holiday, I'll report on what's been
happening.
9. Could you contact me by telephone please? My email server's down
at the moment.

6.2. Collecting data

IT makes it easy to store huge amounts of information on computer

databases. Companies collect data about people all the time. They conduct
research into customers’ buying habits so that they can improve their
marketing. Organisations collect data for surveillance purposes: to help
stop criminal activity and increase security.

6.2.1. Discusse wih a partner.

• Why do companies collect data?

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 • What kind of data do they collect?
e.g. Companies collect market research data to improve their marketing.

6.2.2. Read about three people who have to collect and manage data in
their work. Match the people with what they do:

Amy searches for information on the Internet

Bob stores records in a database
Carla writes market research reports

Amy: Hello. I'm Amy. I work in the sales department and I manage
customer data. I keep records of customers. We have a file for each
customer with their name, address and order details. But I also store
details about their buying habits. What are their likes and dislikes? How
often do they order and so on. And I enter all this in the customer
database. We use the information when we want to send special offers
to different groups of customers.
Bob: I'm Bob and my job is to research the market. I try to answer three
questions. One: how many consumers are there in the market? Two:
who are they? And three: what do they want? We collect a lot of data
about the people who browse our website. But we also use surveys and
other methods. I write reports to help the marketing team develop their
strategy.
Carla: My name is Carla. I work as a buyer. I always try to find the best
products at the best price. Of course we have our regular suppliers. But I
also search for new products, new suppliers and special offers on the
internet. I use different search engines and I update our files with the
new information.

6.2.3. Answer the questions.

1. Why is it useful to collect information about customers' buying

habits?

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 2. What are the three questions Bob has to answer in his work? Who
uses Bob's reports?
3. What is Carla's job and what does she try to do? Does Carla always
use the same suppliers?

6.2.4. Complete the sentences with these words.

browse enters keeps manages uses updates

1 Amy _________customer data and ___ records of customers.

2 She ________ data in the customer database.
3 Bob collects data about people who ___ the company website.
4 Carla _______ search engines to find new products and suppliers.
5 She ________ the files with new information.

6.2.5. Companies can now collect detailed information about us. Which
of these things are you happy about? Are they necessary?

1 Other people can read your emails.

2 Mobile phone companies can monitor your calls.
3 Video cameras in the street film you.
4 Companies collect details of your shopping habits.
5 Airlines can check your personal records before you fly.

6.2.6. Read the article ‘No hiding place’ and choose the sentence which
best summarizes the main idea.

1 New technology is helping to find internet criminals.

2 It is difficult to store a lot of data.
3 Modern life is not very private.

No hiding place

The protection of privacy will be a huge problem for the internet society

A cookie is a small file that a company can send to your computer when
you visit the company's website. It tells them a lot about your browsing

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habits. Using the web without them is nearly impossible. Doubleclick, an
advertising company, has agreements with over 11,000 websites and
maintains cookies on 100 million users to get information about them for
marketing.
Offline, the story is the same. When you turn on a mobile phone, the phone
company can monitor calls and also record the location of the phone. We
use more and more electronic systems for tickets, and for access to
buildings. It is becoming common for employers to monitor employees'
telephone calls, voicemail, email and computer use.
The use of video surveillance cameras is also growing. Britain has about 1.5
million cameras in public places (for example, airports, shopping malls
andpublic buildings). The average Briton is recorded by CCTVcameras 300
times a day. With digital cameras we can collect, store and analyse millions
of images.
And this is only the beginning. Engineers are now developing cameras
that can “see” through clothing, walls or cars. Satellites can recognise
objects only one metre across. We can attach tracking chips to products or
people.
New technology offers substantial benefits - more security against
terrorists and criminals, higher productivity at work, a wider selection of
products, more convenience. We are ready to give more personal
information because we want the benefits.
But all this monitoring generates a mountain of data about us. Surveillance
is everywhere in our society, often without our knowledge. Most people
hate the idea but they don't know how to stop it.

Glossary

CCTVcameras – closed circuit television cameras – police and security

staff can watch the film and follow people’s movements

tracking chips – microchips that use radio signals to find the exact location
of someone or something

6.2.7. Answer the following questions.

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 1 How do companies collect information about people who visit
websites?
2 How can organisations find out where we go?
3 What are some of the new developments in surveillance technology?
4 What four advantages of surveillance technology are mentioned?
5 What do most people think about having so much surveillance?

6.2.8. Speaking
Who do you think benefits most from surveillance? Governments,
companies or individuals? What are the dangers of too much
surveillance?

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 Langusge practice
Conditionals and wish sentences

1. Choose the correct completion.

1. If I could speak Spanish, I ____D___ next year studying in Mexico.

A. will spend C. had spent
B. would have spent D. would spend
2. It would have been a much more serious accident__________________
fast at the time.
A. was she driving C. she had driven
B. had she been driving D. if she drove
3. "Can I borrow your car for this evening?
"Sure, but Nora's using it right now. If she _______________ it back in
time, you're welcome to borrow it."
A. brought B. would bring C. will bring D. brings
:
4. I didn't get home until well after midnight last night. Otherwise, I
___________ your call.
A. returned B. had returned C. would return D. would
have returned
5. If energy ___________ inexpensive and unlimited, many things in the
world would be different.
A. is B. will be C. were D. would be
6. We _______the game if we'd had a few more minutes.
A. could have won C. had won
B. won D. will win
7. I_______William with me if Ijiad known you and he didn't get along
with each other.
A. hadn't brought C. wouldn't have brought
B. didn't bring D. won't bring
8. The lecturer last night didn't know what he was talking about, but if Dr.
Mason I would have listened carefully.
A. lectured C. was lecturing
B. had been lecturing D. would lecture

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9. If you ____________ to my advice in the first place, you wouldn't be in
this mess right now.
A. listen B. will listen C. had listened D. listened
10. _______________ interested in that subject, I would try to learn more
about it.
A. If I am B. Should I C. I was D. Were I
11. If l _______________ the same problems you had as a child, I might
not have succeeded in life as well as you have.
A. have B. would have C. had had D. should have
12.I ____________ you sooner had someone told me you were in the
hospital.
A. would have visited C. had visited
B. visited . D. visit
13. ______________ more help, I could call my neighbor.
A. Needed B. Should I need C. I have needed D. I should
need
14. ____________ then what I know today, I would have saved myself a
lot of time and trouble over the years.
A. If I know B. If l would know C. Did I know D.
Had I known
15. Do you think there would be less conflict in the world if all people
_______________ the same language?
A. speak B. will speak C. spoke D. had
spoken
16. If you can give me one good reason for your acting like this,
__________ this incident again.
A. I don't mention C.I never mention
B. I will never mention D. will I never mention
17.I didn't know you were asleep. Otherwise, I ___________ so much
noise when I came in.
A. didn't make C. won't make
B. wouldn't have made D. don't make
18. Unless you ___________________ all of my questions, I can't do
anything to help you.
A. answered B. answer C. would answer D. are
answering

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19. Had you told me that this was going to happen, I
_____________________ it.
A. would never have believed C. hadn't believed
B. don't believe D. can't believe
20. If Jake _____________to go on the trip, would you have gone?
A. doesn't agree B. didn't agree C. hadn't agreed D.
wouldn't agree

2. Complete the sentences with the words in parentheses.

1. I'm broke, but I (have) _________________________________plenty

of money now if I (spend, not) ______________so much yesterday.
2. That child had a narrow escape. She (hit)
__________________________by a car if her mother (pull, not)
________________________ her out of the street.
3. A: Why were you late for the meeting?
B: Well, I (be)__________________________there on time, but I had a
flat tire on the way.
4. A: Did you know that Bob got 100% on the test?
B: Really? That surprises me. If I didn't know better, I (think)
___________________he cheated.
5. A: How did you do on the test?
B: Not so well. I (do) __________________________much better, but I
misread the directions for the last section.
6. A: Do you really mean it?
B: Of course! I (say, not) _______________________it unless I
(mean)_________________it.
7. A: When did Mark graduate?
B: He didn't.
A: Oh?
B: He had to quit school because of some trouble at home. Otherwise, he
(graduate) ___________________________________last June.
8. A: I hear Dorothy had an accident. Was it serious?
B: No. Luckily, she wasn't driving fast at the time of the accident. If she
(drive) ______________________________fast, I'm sure it (be)
_______________________a more serious accident.

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9. Tom's hobby is collecting stamps from all over the world. If he (travel)
______________________to a new country, he (spend, always)
______________________time looking for new stamps. That's how he has
acquired such a large collection of valuable stamps.

3. Using the information in parentheses, complete the sentences.

1. Tim acts as if he were shining the boss. (Truth: Tim isn't the boss.)
2. This hole in my shirt looks as if it had gone by a bullet. (Truth:
The hole wasn't made by a bullet.)
3. Barbara looked at me as though
she_____________never_____________me before.
(Truth: She has met me many times before.)
4. They treat their dog as if it____________ a child. (Truth: The dog isn't a
child.)
5. She went right on talking as though
she_____________________________________a word I'd said.
(Truth: She heard everything I said.)
6. You look so depressed. You look as if you ____________________ a
friend in the world.
(Truth: You have many friends.)
7. He looked right through me as if I______________________ . (Truth: I
exist.)
8. Craig bumped the other car and then continued as though nothing
__________________________
(Truth: Something happened.)
9. A: Have Joe and Diane ever met?
B: I don't think so. Why?
A: He came in and started talking to her as if they______________ old
friends.
(Truth: They aren't old friends.)
10. I can hear his voice so clearly that it's as if he______________ here in
this room.
(Truth: He isn't here in this room; he's next door.)

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11. It was so quiet that it seemed as if the earth_________________.
(Truth: The earth didn't stop.)
12. I turned, and there she was. It was as though she___________
(Truth: She didn't appear out of nowhere.)

4. Using the information in parentheses, complete the sentences.

1. (The sun isn't shining.) I wish the sun were shining right
now.
2. (I wanted you to go.) I wish you had gone with us to the concert
last night.
3. (Spiro didn't drive.) I wish Spiro ______________________to work. I'd
ask him for a ride home.
4. (I can't swim.) I wish I___________________ so I would feel safe in a
boat.
5. (I want you to stop fighting.) I wish you
______________________________fighting and try to work things out.
6. (I wanted to win.) I wish we_________ the game last night.
7. (Bill didn't get the promotion.) I wish Bill
___________________________the promotion. He feels bad.
8. (I quit my job.) I wish I_______________ my job until I'd found
another one.
9. (It isn't winter.) I wish it_______________ winter so that I could go
skiing.
10. (I wantAl to sing.) I wish Al _____________________a couple of
songs. He has a good voice.
11. (Natasha can't bring her children.) I wish Natasha__________ her
children with her tomorrow. They would be good company for mine.
12. (No one offered to help.) I wish someone__________________ to
help us find our way when we got lost in the middle of the city.

5. Complete the sentences with the words in parentheses.

1 . Pedro's in trouble with the teacher. Now he wishes he (miss, not)

hadn’t missed class three times this week.

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2. A: It's raining. I wish it (stop) would stop
B: Me too. I wish the sun (shine) were shining so that we could go
swimming,
3. Heinrich doesn't like his job as a house painter. He wishes he (go)
_______________ art school when he was younger. He wishes he (can
paint) ___________ canvasses instead of houses for a living.
4. I wish I (move, not) ___________________________ to this town. I
can't seem to make any friends, and everything is so congested. I wish I
(take) was offered in the small town near here.
5. I know I should quit smoking. I wish you (stop) __________________
nagging me about it.
6. A: Did you get your car back from the garage?
B: Yes, and it still isn't fixed. I wish I (pay, not) ________________ them
in full when I picked up the car. I should have waited to be sure that
everything was all right
7. A: I wish you (hurry) ______________________! We're going to be
late.
B: I wish you (relax)______________________We've got plenty of time.
8. I wish my husband (invite, not) ______________________the
neighbors over for dinner when he talked to them this afternoon. I don't feel
like cooking a big dinner.
9. A: How do you like the new president of our association?
B: Not much. I wish she (elect, not)_______________________________I
never should have voted for her.
A: Oh, really? Then you probably wish I (vote, not)
______________________for her.
If you recall, she won by only one vote. You and I could have changed the
outcome of election if we'd known then what we know now.
10. A: I wish we (buy)________________ everything we wanted all the
time.
B: In that case, you probably wish money
(grow)____________________on trees. We'd plant some in the back yard,
and just go out and pick a little from the branches every morning.
11. A: My thirteen-year-old daughter wishes she (be, not)
_____________so tall and that her hair (be) ________black and straight.

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B: Really? My daughter wishes she (be) ________________________
taller and that her hair (be) ___________- blond and curly.
12. A: I wish most world leaders (meet) ____________________ in the
near future and reach some agreement on environmental issues. I'm worried
the earth is running out of time. B: I wish I (disagree)
______________________with you and (prove) __________________
your fears groundless, but I'm afraid you might be right.
13. A: I can't go to the game with you this afternoon.
B: Really? That's too bad. But I wish you (tell) ______________________
me sooner so that I could have found someone else to go with.
14. A: How long have you been sick?
B: For over a week.
A: I wish you (go) _____________to see a doctor today. You should find
out what's wrong with you.
B: Maybe I'll go tomorrow.

6. Complete the sentences with the words in parentheses.

TOM: What's wrong, Bob? You look awful! You look as if you (1. run)
_____________________ over by a truck!
BOB: Well, you (2. look) ______________________this bad today, too, if
you (3. have) ______________________a day like mine yesterday. My car
slid into a tree because the roads were icy.
TOM: Oh? I was driving on the icy roads yesterday, and I didn't slide into a
tree. What happened? BOB: Well, I suppose if I (4. drive, not)
_______________________________so fast, I (5. slide, not)
__________________________ into the tree.
TOM: Icy roads and speed don't mix. If drivers (6. step)
_____________________ on the gas on ice, they're likely to spin their car
in a circle.
BOB: I know! And not only is my car a mess now, but I didn't have my
driver's license with me, so now I'll have to pay an extra fine when I go to
court next month.
TOM: Why were you driving without your license?
BOB: Well, I lost my wallet a few days ago. It slipped out of my pocket
while I was riding the bus to work.

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TOM: What a tale of woe! If you (7. take not)__________________ that
bus, you (8. lose, not) ___________________ your wallet. If you (9. lose,
not)you _______________ your wallet, (10. have)__________________
your driver's license with you when you hit a tree. If you (11.
have)_____________________ ___your license with you, you (12. have to
pay, not) _________ a big fine when you go to court next week. And of
course, if you (13. drive, not)
________________________________________too fast, you (14. run
into, not) ____________________ a tree, and you (15. be, not)
__________________________ in this mess now. If I (16.
be)____________________________ you, I (17. take)
___________________it easy for a while and just (18. stay)
__________________________ home where you're safe and sound.
BOB: Enough about me! How about you?
TOM: Well, things are really looking up for me. I'm planning to take off for
Florida as soon as I finish my finals. I'm sick of all this cold, rainy weather
we've been having. I (19. stay) ______________________here for vacation
if the weather (20. be, not) ______________so bad. But I need some sun!
BOB: I wish I (21. go) ___________________. with you. How are you
planning on getting there?
TOM: If I have enough money, I (22. fly) _____________________.
Otherwise, I (23. take)__________________ the bus. I wish I (24. drive)
_____________________ ________________my own car there because it
(25. be) _______________________ nice to have it to drive around in once
I get there, but it's such a long trip. I've been looking for a friend to go with
me and share the driving.
BOB: Hey, I have a super idea! Why don't I go with you? I can share the
driving. I'm a great driver!
TOM: Didn't you just get through telling me that you'd wrapped your car
around a tree?

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TEST A: Directions: Choose the correct answer.

Example: If I C you, I would get some rest before the game

tomorrow.
A. am B. could be C. were D. had been
1. When I stopped talking, Sam finished my sentence for me as though
he_______my mind.
A. would read B. had read C. reads D. can read
2. If you_______, I would have brought my friends over to your house this
evening to watch TV, but I didn't want to bother you.
A. had studied C. hadn't been studying
B. studied D. didn't study
3. I wish I_______you some money for your rent, but I'm broke myself.
A. can lend B. would lend C. could lend D. will lend
4. If someone ____________________ into the store, smile and say, "May
I help you?"
A. comes B. came C. would come D. could
come
5. "Are we lost?"
"I think so. I wish we_______a map with us today."
A. were bringing B. brought C. had brought D. would
bring
6. "Here's my phone number." "Thanks. I'll give you a call if I _________
some help tomorrow."
A. will need B. need
C. would need D. needed
7. If I weren't working for an accounting firm, I_______in a bank.
A. work B. will work C. have worked D. would
be working
8. Ed invested a lot of money with a dishonest advisor, and lost nearly all
of it. Now he is having serious financial problems. He_______in this
position if he'd listened to some of his friends.
A. will be B. wouldn't be C. will be D. hadn't
been
9. The world_______a better place if we had known a hundred years ago
what we know today about the earth's environment.

198
A. will be B. was
C. should be D. might be
10. The medicine made me feel dizzy. I felt as though the room_____
around and around.
A. were spinning C. spins
B. will spin D. would be spinning
11. "I'm really sorry about what happened during the meeting. I felt I had
no choice." "It's okay. I'm sure you wouldn't have done it if you_______"
A. should have B. had to C. hadn't had to D. have to
12. _______you, I'd think twice about that decision. It could be a bad
move.
A. If I had been B. Were I C. Should I be D. If I am
13. "Was Pam seriously injured in the automobile accident?"
"She broke her arm. It_______much worse if she hadn't been wearing her
seat belt."
A. will be B. would have been C. was D. were
14. If my candidate had won the election, I ____________________ happy
now.
A. am B. would be C. was D. can be
15. I wish Janet _____________________ to the meeting this afternoon.
A. came B. will come C. can come D. could
come
16. I_______you to the woman I was speaking with, but I couldn't think of
her name.
A. will introduce C. would have introduced
B. would introduce D. couldn't have introduced
17. "What ________________________ today if you hadn't come here this
weekend?"
"I guess I'd be putting in extra hours at my office."
A. are you doing C. will you be doing
B. can you do D. would you be doing
18. Page 12 of the manual that came with the appliance says,
"___________ any problem with the merchandise, contact your local
dealer."
A. Do you have C. Had you
B. Should you have D. You have

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19. Marge walked away from the discussion. Otherwise, she
____________something she would regret later.
A. will say B. said C. might say D. might
have said
20. I would never have encouraged you to go into this field____ it would
be so stressful for you.
I'm sorry it's been so difficult for you.
A. had I known C. should I know
B. and I have known D. but I knew

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TEST B: Conditional sentences. Directions: Choose the correct
answer.

Example: If I C you, I would get some rest before the game

tomorrow.
A. am B. could be C. were D. had been

1. Please keep your voice down in this section of the library. If you____ to
talk loudly, I will have to ask you to leave.
A. continued B. could continue C. will continue D. continue
2. Gloria never seems to get tired. I sure wish I_______her energy.
A. would have B. have C. have had D. had
3. "Why didn't Bill get the promotion he was expecting?"
"He may not be qualified. If he were, he_______that promotion last year."
A. would have been given C. would be given
B. was given D. had been given
4. If I could find Rob's phone number, I __him about the change in plans.
Maybe somebody else will call him.
A. called B. had called C. could call D. will call
5. "How do you like your new apartment?"
"The apartment itself is great, but I wish I
_______________________________used to the constant noise from the
street below."
A. got B. could get
C. had gotten D. am
6. I was very engrossed in that presentation on Australia. The videotapes
were so realistic that it was as though we_______there, driving through the
outback.
A. were B. have been C. are D. will be
7. If I_______following that other car too closely, I would have been able
to stop in time instead of running into it.
A. wasn't B. would have been C. was D. hadn't
been
8. "Why aren't you going mountain climbing with the rest of us next
weekend?" "To be honest with you, I'm lazy. If I weren't, I_______with
you."

201
A. would have gone C. go
B. would go D. will go
9. "Will you see Tom at lunch today? I'd like you to give him a message
for me." "I'm not going to lunch, but if I_______him later, I'll give him
your message."
A. should see B. will see C. would see D. could
see
10. I'm really sleepy today. I wish I__________________ Bob to the
airport late last night.
A. didn't have to take C. hadn't had to take
B. weren't taking D. didn't take
11. Hurry! We've got to leave the house immediately. Otherwise,_____ the
opening ceremony.
A. we'd miss C. we miss
B. we'd have missed D. we're going to miss
12. "Why didn't you tell me you were having so many problems?"
"I_______you, but I figured you had enough to worry about without my
problems, so I said nothing."
A. would tell B. would have told C. would be telling D.
had told
13. A nation's balance of trade is considered unfavorable if it
________________more money on imports than it gains from exports.
A. will spend B. would spend C. can spend D. spends

14. Many people who live near nuclear plants are concerned. _______go
wrong, the impact on the surrounding area could be disastrous.
A. Something would C. Should something
B. Something will D. Does something
15. Had I known the carpenter was going to take three days to show up,
I_______the materials and done the work myself. It would be finished by
now.
A. will get C. might get
B. would have gotten D. will have gotten
16. I wish you _______making that noise. It's bothering me.
A. would stop C. stop
B. are going to stop D. can stop

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17. A huge tree crashed through the bedroom roof and broke my bed and
most of the other furniture. _______in the room, I would have been killed.
A. Should I be C. Would I have been
B. Had I been D. Would I be
18. If everyone _______________________ , how would we control air
traffic? Surely, we'd all be crashing into each: other.
A. can fly B. will fly C. flies D. could fly
19. If the world's tropical forests continue to disappear at their present rate,
many animal species _______extinct.
A. became C. will become
B. would have become D. would become
20. When my lost briefcase was returned with my year-long research
results intact, I felt tremendously relieved. It was as if a huge, heavy weight
_______from my shoulders.
A. had been lifted C. would be lifted
B. is being lifted D. is lifting

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 Unit 7

THE INTERNET

7.1.1. Discuss the following questions.

• How would you define the Internet?

• Make the list of all things you can use the Internet for.
• Do you know when and how the Internet was created?

The Internet

The Internet is without doubt one of the most important inventions in

history. It was started in 1968 by the US government, but at first it was
used mainly by scientists. Science 1990, when the World Wide Web was
created, it has changed the world, and its uses are growing every day.
The Internet is a network (several networks, in fact) of millions of
computers around the world, connected by phone lines, satellite of cable, so
that all the computers on the net can exchange information with each other.
The Internet is not the same thing as the Web. The Internet links
computers, and the World Wide Web is a system which links the
information stored inside these computers.
A company or organization stores its information in electronic
documents on one of the Internet computers, somewhere in the world. This
computer space – the company’s web site – has an address, in the same
way that every telephone has a number. To visit a web site, you simply
enter the address. Your computer is connected to the web site, a document
is downloaded, and a page appears on your computer screen.
When you visit a web site looking for information, some words on
the page may be underlined, showing that there is more information about
the subject in another document. If you click on one of these worlds, the
Web automatically connects your computer to a new document or web site,
even if this is stored thousands of kilometers away. You’re surfing the net.
The main use of the Internet is to find information – for your
schoolwork or job, or just to find out more about your hobbies, sports or
current events. You can also use the Internet to read newspapers and
magazines, play games, plan your holiday or buy things from your favorite

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shop. E-mail makes it possible to send electronic messages anywhere in the
world in seconds, and you can use the Internet to ‘chat’ with people and
make new friends.
Using the Internet offers many advantages. For example, all of the
latest information is available to you, in your home, at any hour of the day
or night. It is much faster and easier to surf the net in search of information
from all over the world than to travel to libraries in dozens of countries.
Finally, on-line shopping makes it possible to search though catalogues to
find exactly what you want at the best price, saving both time and money.
By joining a newsgroup or chat group, you can share your hobbies and
special interests, and perhaps make friends all over the world. Also, e-mail
is popular because it is faster than sending a letter and cheaper than a
telephone conversation.
On the other hand, the Internet has several disadvantages. Firstly,
with so much information available, finding what you want can take you
hours. Multimedia web pages with photographs, music and video are
attractive. However they make downloading slow and boring. What is
more, there is too much advertising instead of real information. As for
Internet friendships, sitting at home in front of a computer making ‘chat
friends’ is not the same as actually meeting people.
In conclusion, the Internet obviously has both good and bad points.
Fortunately, the system is improving all the time, and any problems which
still exist can be solved. Whether we like it or not, the Internet is here to
stay, so we have to make the best possible use of it.

7.1.2. Find the Ukrainians equivalents to the following English phrases.

Without doubt; was used mainly by scientists; was created; the computer
space; the company’s web site; in the same way; to enter the address; a
document is downloaded; a page appears; to look for information; current
events; e-mail; some words may be underlined; to click on the word; to surf
the net; to chat with people; Internet is getting cheaper; to wait for you; the
Internet offers many advantages; the latest information is available to you;
in search of information; on-line shopping makes it possible to search
through catalogues; at the best price; to save both time and money; to share

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interests; to make friends all over the world; multimedia web pages; to
make downloading; too much advertising instead of information; in
conclusion; the system is improving; problems which exist can be solved;
to make the best possible use of it.

7.1.3. Complete these phrases with the suitable prepositions.

1. _________ doubt
2. exchange information ________ each other
3. ________ the world
4. appear ________ the screen
5. __________ the page
6. information ________ smth
7. to click ______ smth
8. waiting _______ sb.
9. stored ______ a computer
10. find out ________ smth.

7.1.4. Complete the sentences with the words or phrases from the text.

1. The Internet is ________ _______ one of the most important ________

in history.
2. At first, the Internet was used ______ by scientists.
3. The Internet was ________ in 1990.
4. The computer _______ the _______ the company’s ______ ______
_______ has an address, in the same way that every telephone has a
number.
5. To visit a web site, you simply ______ _______ ______.
6. Your computer is connected to the web site, a document is _______, and
a page ________ on your computer screen.
7. When you visit a web site ______ ______ information, some words on
the page may be ___________.
8. If you _________on one of the words, the Web automatically connects
your computer to a new document or web site.
9. E-mail ________ _______ ________ to send electronic messages
anywhere in the world in seconds.

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10. Using the Internet is ________ _______ and easier all the time.
11. All of the latest information is ______ _______ you at any hour of the
day or night.
12. It is much faster and easier to surf the net ______ _____ ______
information from all over the world than to travel to libraries in dozens of
countries.

7.1.5. Find in the text the terms the definitions of which are given
below.

• network of computers around the world;

• to enter a web site address
• certainly
• smth. invented
• cause smth. to exist, make
• come into view, become visible
• search for; try to find
• learn by study, calculation, inquiry
• draw a line under; emphasize
• have a talk
• smth. useful or helpful
• keep for future use
• make known to people; public announcement
• in place of; as an alternative to or substitute for
• lastly
• make or become better; make good use of
• have being; be real
• put together, unite

7.1.6. Are the following sentences True or false? Correct the false ones.

1. The Internet was started in 1968 by the US government? but at first it

was used mainly by doctors.
2. The Internet is a network of millions of computers around the world,
connected by phone lines, satellite or cable.
3. The Internet is the same thing as the Web.

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 4. A company or organization stores its information in electronic
documents on one of the Internet computers, somewhere in the
world.
5. The World Wide Web is a system which connects all the computers
in the world.
6. To visit a web site, you simply enter the address.
7. The Internet offers only advantages to its users.
8. The main use of the Internet is to find information for your
schoolwork or job.
9. The latest information is available to you at any time, quickly and
easily.
10. Web pages with photographs, and music, video make downloading
fast and interesting.

7.1.7. Answer the following questions.

1. What is one of the most important inventions in history?

2. What exactly is the Internet?
3. Are the Internet and the Web the same thing?
4. What is a Web site? And how do you visit one?
5. How do you surf the net?
6. What can you use the Internet for?
7. What are the advantages of using the Internet?
8. What disadvantages does the Internet have?
9. Is Internet friendship the same as actually meeting people?

7.1.8. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Без сумніву, Інтернет – один з найважливіших винаходів в

історії.
2. Інтернет – це мережа (в дійсності декілька мереж) мільйонів
комп’ютерів у всьому світі, з’єднаних телефонними лініями,
супутником або кабелем, таким чином, щоб усі комп’ютери
мережі могли обмінюватися інформацією один з одним.
3. Всесвітній Web – це система, яка поєднує інформацію, що
зберігається у комп’ютерах.

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 4. Щоб зайти на Web-сайт, необхідно просто зайти на адресу.
5. Коли ви заходите на веб-сайт, шукаючи інформацію, кілька слів
на сторінці можуть бути підкреслені, це показує, що є більше
інформації по темі в інших документах.
6. Користування Інтернетом надає багато переваг.
7. Набагато швидше і легше зайти у комп’ютер у пошуках
інформації з усього світу, ніж іти до бібліотеки.
8. З іншого боку, Інтернет має кілька недоліків.
9. Сторінки веб-сайтів, присвячені засобам масової інформації,
роблять копіювання повільним і нудним.
10. Інтернет очевидно має як хороші, так і погані сторони.

7.1.9. Choose the best word from each pair.

What's the difference between

the Web and the Internet?

Some people think that the internet and the Web are the same thing, but in
fact they are different. The internet (often called simply "the net") is a
global 1 network / net of interconnected computers. These computers
communicate with each other 2 over / through existing telecommunications
networks – principally, the telephone system. The Word Wide Web
(usually known as just "the Web") is the billions of web pages that are
stored on large computers called web 3 servers / services. To 4 see / access
the web, you need a computer and a modem. You then connect over your
telephone line to an internet service 5 port / provider (ISP), which sends
your request to view a particular web page to the correct web server.
Websites are not the only service available on the internet. It is also used
for many other functions, including sending and receiving email, and
connecting to newsgroups and 6 discussion / talking groups. You could say
that the internet is a system of roads, and web pages and emails are types of
traffic that travel on those roads.

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7.1.10. Match the browser toolbar button with the function.

1. Back a. Shows a list of the websites you have

visited recently
b. Forward b. Opens the media bar, accessing internet
radio, music, video etc.
c. Stop c. Displays the page you were on before.
d. Refresh / Reload d. Shows the latest version of the page.
e. Home e. Opens the search panel.
f. Search f. Displays the page you were on before
using the Back button.
g. Favorites / Bookmarks g. Displays the page you have set as your
home page.
h. Media h. Prints the current page.
i. History i. Stops a page from downloading.
j. Mail j. Displays the web addresses you have
chosen as your favorites.
k. Print k. Shows email options.

Quiz

7.1.11. Do you know the answers to these technical questions about

browsers? Answer true or false for each one.

1. All browsers (Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox etc) have exactly the
same functions.
2. Cookies are data sent by an internet server to a browser. They identify
the user, and track the user's access to the server.
3. You can get your browser to delete the cookies it has stored. (In Internet
Explorer go to Tools, then to Internet Options, then to Delete Cookies.)
4. Pages you have viewed are stored in the Temporary Internet Files folder.
These cannot be deleted.
5. You can tell your browser how long to store web addresses in the
History.
6. You can set your browser to block pop-up windows.

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7. All pop-ups are advertisements.
8. You can add extra toolbars to your browser window, for example a
toolbar from Google.

7.2. What is an intranet?

7.2.1. You are going to read an interview with an IT expert in

which she explains what an intranet is. Match the
interviewer’s questions to her answers.

1. Who supplies the content for the intranet?

2. What is an intranet?
3. How has the intranet's role developed since it began?
4. What are the biggest challenges in managing the intranet?
5. How many staff regularly use the intranet?
6. What are the most popular parts of the intranet?
7. What are the main security issues for the intranet?

Interviewer:____________________________
Jennifer: An intranet is an area where people in acompany can share
information of all sorts, and it can be accessed by everybody within a
company, however large that company is.
Int:___________________________________
Jen: It's very difficult to say because we don't actually see where the
people who are using it come from, but from the number of hits we can
average that at least 50 per cent of the company use it all the time.
Int:___________________________________
Jen: I would say generally the most important bits that get used most of the
time are the what's new section, maybe the special offers, definitely the
staff directory and of course useful links giving access to all sorts of things
outside the company.
Int:___________________________________
Jen: The biggest challenge is trying to keep the information current and
trying not to overload the site with too much information. As our intranet
has contributors from all over the different areas of the company, we don't

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want people to duplicate information, so we have to keep our eye on what
goes on, so that we can continually weed out anything that's unnecessary.
Int:___________________________________
Jen: Well, it won't be possible for anybody outside a company to actually
access an intranet site. However, of course there is always the possibility of
people downloading information and emailing it to people, so we do have
to make sure we don't put really sensitive information about our company
on the intranet. Also, we don't put photographs of people there unless they
give us their permission as there is a slight risk of someone actually picking
up a photograph and using it for some purpose. These are very, very minor
risks but we do take them into consideration.
Int:___________________________________
Jen: For our intranet site, we have content supplied by everyone within the
company. Anyone can ask if they can have something on the intranet. We
just have to edit it like we would a newspaper and try to keep certain
things, some certain criteria, in our minds.
Int:___________________________________
Jen: It's grown enormously. To begin with, intranet sites just used to give
people very minor information, but it's rather like a magazine now and
because people use it a lot, more information can go onto it, and people
will want to access it more frequently, so it does just grow and grow.

7.2.2. Discuss with a partner.

• What are the advantages or a company to have its own intranet?

A company’s website

Bob is describing a report about his company’s website. Read it out,

pay attention to the numbers.

Bob: OK. Here is our weekly statistics report for our website. As you can
see here, we had a total of 4,542 hits this week. That's very good -a lot
more than we usually have. The average time for each session is 1.5
minutes. That's quite normal. And the average number of pages that people
view in a session is 2.7. Again, nothing unusual there. The most popular
page is the products page, with 2,430 hits. We expect this of course. Most
people want to know about products. Then there's the offers page with

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1,395 hits. We had a number of good deals on offer this week, and lots of
people were interested in those! Now let's see the breakdown of traffic by
continent. Most people who visit our website are from North America -
that's 57%. The Americans are usually top of the list, but this percentage
isn't as high as last week. Then it's Europe with 31 %... and after that...

7.3. Dealing with numbers

7.3.1. Learn the following examples to speak about numbers and

make calculations:

4,007 four thousand and seven (AmE four thousand seven)

139 a hundred (and) thirty-nine
5,139 five thousand one hundred (and) thirty-nine (NOTa hundred)
1,000 a thousand
1,700 one thousand seven hundred
We spent hundreds of thousands of dollars on travel last year.
a potential market of 1bn people (billion)
an increase of between 5 and 6 per cent
20-30% from twentyto thirty per cent
0.07 naught point naught seven (AmE zero point zero seven)
0.45 naught point four five
1.425 one point four two five
83.6 eighty-three-point six
1/6 a (one) sixth
¾ three quarters
+ and orplus;
– minus;
= is, are orequals
2 x 4 - two times four (two fours) Last year indexes increased threefold.
150 x 25 =…a hundred and fifty multiplied by twenty five equals…
300:6 = … three hundred divided by six equals…
25% of customers – Only one out of four (one in four) customers preferred
the new line.

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1:7 a ratio of one to seven
a ten pound note,
a sixty dollar check,
a three hour flight,
a two hundred thousand dollar loan

7.3.2. Sandra Ravell is giving advice on how to manage data and

answer the questions. Read the text and complete the notes
with the missing words.

Sandra Ravell
Lots of people have to manage large amounts of information. You may be a
manager, a secretary, or a student. When you have information that you
may want to use in the future, you have to store it where you can find it
again.
The first step is to decide how to structure your filing system. Ask yourself:
What are the main categories of information that I deal with? Then divide
them into sub-categories.
The second step is to create files for each kind of material. Give each file a
name. Ask yourself: Is this name helpful when I want that file again?
The third step is to arrange your files for easy access. Ask yourself: Which
files do I use often? Which are important? Put these files at the front of the
filing area. Or on a computer, create a short-cut to those files.
Finally, keep your filing system up-to-date. Delete or throw away old
material. File new information immediately in the right place. And review
your system often. Ask yourself: Does this system work for me? Can I
organise it better?
Finding information takes time. A good filing system can save you a lot of
time.

7.3.3. Answer the questions.

1. She names three kinds of people who need to manage large amounts
of information. Who are they?
2. Why is it important to manage information well?

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7.3.4. Complete the notes with the missing words:

Step 1: Decide how to 1 _______ your filing system

- What are the main 2______ of information that you deal with?
- What sub- 3_______ ?
Step 2: Create 4 _______ for each kind of material
- Give your files helpful names

Step 3: Arrange your files for easy5 _______

- Create a short-cut to files that you use often
- Keep most important files at the 6 ______of the filing area
Keep your filing system7___________
- File new information as soon as you get it
- 8______ or throw away old material
- 9_ ________ your system often: does it work for you?

7.3.5. Read and act out the dialogue.

A Thanks for agreeing to help with my research.

B That's OK. What do you need to know?
A Well, first, about how many people are online, worldwide?
B Worldwide? It's difficult to say exactly. But we think it's about 600
million.
A Did you say 600 million? That's a lot!
B Yes. It's difficult to be precise because it's increasing all the time.
A Right. So how many of those are in Europe?
B About 30 per cent.
A Sorry - can I just check? Thirteen per cent?
B No, not thirTEEN, THIRty per cent.
A Thirty per cent. Hmm. So that's about 200 million.
B Just under 200 million, yes. The number I've got here is 190.91 million.
A What a number! Can you repeat it, please?
B A hundred and ninety point nine one million.
A OK. And how much time does each person spend browsing the web?
B The average time is over 25 hours.
A Do you mean 25 hours a week?

215
B No, no - 25 hours a month.
A Right, thanks. I think that's everything ...

7.3.6. Write the precise or approximate numbers.

1 Number of people online worldwide: _____

2 Percentage of people online in Europe: _____
3 Number of people online in Europe: _____
4 Time each person spends browsing: _____

7.3.7. Speaking.

What web browser do you use? Why?

Prepare a report about various web browsers. Compare their

advantages and disadvantages.

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 Language practice

Gerund and infinitive

1. Complete the sentences with prepositions followed by gerunds.

Use the verbs in the given list. Use each verb only once.
sask have make see
break kill open talk
finish lock practice wash

1. Instead of asking for help on each arithmetic problem, you should

use your book and try to figure out the answers yourself.
2. I look forward ______________________ you next time I'm in town.
I'll be sure to let you know ahead of time so that we can plan to get
together.
3. Alice told us that she was tired _____________________
4. The four-year-old was blamed _____________________ the dishes
every night, the glass candy dish.
5. Because of the bomb scare, no one was allowed in the building. People
were prevented ______________________ the front door by a guard who
was stationed there.
6. You should listen to other people instead ______________________
about yourself all the time.
7. What do you feel___________________ for dinner? Does chicken and
rice sound good?
8. Frank is an environmentalist who believes animals should be protected
from hunters. He objects ______________________ wild animals for
sport.
9. Please don't argue ______________________ your homework. Just do
it.
10. Marie is responsible ______________________ all the doors and
windows and ______________________ sure all the lights are turned off
before she leaves work in the evening.
11. Mario spent all month preparing for the tennis match, but in spite for
many hours each day, he lost the match to Ivan.

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 2. Make sentences using the given verbs.

Examples: enjoy + watch ->• Do you enjoy watching old movies on

television?
mind + have to be ->• / don't mind having to be in class at 8:00 A.M.
put off + pack ->• Dan usually puts off packing his suitcase until the very
last minute.

1. enjoy + take
2. avoid + eat
3. go + jog
4. finish + do
5. suggest + change
6. consider + go + swim
7. stop + cry
8. discuss + go + shop
9. mention + have to go
10. delay + put
11. mind + take
12. keep + ask
13. quit + worry about
14. postpone + take

*COMPARE:
Used + to + -ing means "accustomed to doing something."
Mary is used to living in a cold climate. = Mary is accustomed to living in
a cold climate. Used + to + simple form (infinitive) expresses habitual past
activities.
Jack used to live in Chicago. = Jack lived in Chicago in the past, but now
he doesn't.

3. Combine the given ideas into one sentence.

1. play soccer . . . spend ... all yesterday afternoon ... we -* We spent all
yesterday afternoon playing soccer.

218
2. a really good time ... all of us ... have . . . play soccer in the park . . .
yesterday
3. find . . . have trouble . . . Omar . . . my house . . . last night
4. my bicycle . . . my mother . . . try to steal . . . catch . . . some
neighborhood kids . . . yesterday
5. at the window . . . stand . . . when the boss walked into the office ... all
of the employees . . . watch the parade on the street below
6. my father always said, "... read novels . . . your time . . . from other
kinds of books . . . when you could be learning something worthwhile . . .
don't waste"
7. when Mrs. Smith checked on the children last night . . . play a game . . .
find . . . instead of sleeping . . . them . . . she
8. Susan . . . find . . . when I opened the door ... I ... on her bed . . . cry ...
lie

4. Select the correct answer for each sentence.

1. Whenever we met, Jack avoided B at me.

A. to look B. looking
2. Most people enjoy _________________________ to different parts of
the world.
A. to travel B. traveling
3. Marjorie needs ________________________ another job. Her present
company is going out of business.
A. to find B. finding
4. May I change the TV channel, or do you want ____________________
more of this program?
A. to watch B. watching
5. Joan is considering _______her major from pre-med studies to
psychology.
A. to change B. changing
6. Although Joe slammed on his brakes, he couldn't avoid___________ the
small dog that suddenly darted out in front of his car.
A. to hit B. hitting
7. I hope _______my autobiography before I die. Do you think anyone
would read it?

219
A. to write B. writing
8. Joyce thanked us for_______them to dinner and said that they wanted to
have us over for dinner next week.
A. to invite B. inviting
9. If you delay ________________________ your bills, you will only incur
more and more interest charges.
A. to pay B. paying
10. My lawyer advised me not _______anything further about the accident.
A. to say B. saying
11. A procrastinator is one who habitually postpones _______things —
especially tasks that are unpleasant.
A. to do B. doing
12. You should plan _______at the stadium early or you won't be able to
get good seats.
A. to arrive B. arriving
13. My mom asked me _______up some eggs at the supermarket on my
way home from work.
A. to pick B. picking
14. Nobody has offered _______the house next door, so I think they're
going to lower the price. |
A. to buy B. buying
15. The highway patrol advises _______the old route through the city
because the interstate highway is under major repairs.
A. to take B. taking
16. Would you mind _______that apple for me? My arthritis is acting up
in my right hand.
A. to peel B. peeling
17. Stop _______me! I'll get everything finished before I go to bed.
A. to nag B. nagging
18. When the university suggested _______the tuition again, the student
senate protested vigorously.
A. to raise B. raising
19. Are we permitted _______guests to the ceremony? I'd like to invite my
friend to join us.
A. to bring B. bringing

220
20. The city council agreed _______the architect's proposed design for a
new parking garage. \
A. to accept B. accepting

5. Restate the given sentences. Choose the most appropriate

reporting verb in parentheses. Make it active or passive as
appropriate. Include an infinitive in the completion and any
other necessary words.

1 . The teacher said to Jim, "Would you give your book to Mary, please?"
(ask, tell, order)
-> The teacher ask Jim to give his book to Mary.
2. The sign said, "No parking in this area. Violators will be towed away."
(invite, warn, force)
-> Drivers were warned not to park in the area.
3. Before Bobby went to bed, his father said, "Don't forget to brush your
teeth." (invite, allow, remind)
-> Before Bobby went to bed, his father _ his teeth.
4. Under the law, drivers and all passengers must wear seat belts while in a
moving vehicle. (encourage, require, permit)
-> Drivers and passengers ______________________ seat belts while in a
moving vehicle.
5. When I asked the nurse about my skin rash, she said, "You should
consult a dermatologist." (ask, permit, advise)
-> The nurse ___________________________________ a dermatologist.
6. The fire chief said, "Everyone must leave the building immediately."
(order, remind, allow)
-> Everyone ___________________________________ the building
immediately.
7. The instructor said to the students, "You will have exactly one hour to
complete the exam." (order, expect, warn)
-> The students ___________________________________ the exam in
one hour.
8. Because he forgot last year, I told my husband several times that he
should buy some flowers for his mother on Mother's Day. (remind, require,
allow)

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-> I ___________________________________ some flowers for his
mother on Mother's Day.
9. My garage mechanic said, "You should get a tune-up every 5,000
miles." (ask, order, advise) -> My garage
mechanic ___________________________________ a tune-up every
5,000 miles.
10. The factory manager said to the employees, "Do not come late. If you
do, you will lose your jobs." (ask, warn, encourage)
-> The employees ___________________________________ late.
11. The sign on the side door says, "Do not enter," so we have to use a
different door. (ask, permit, force)
-> Nobody ___________________________________ the side door.
12. The little girl said to her father, "Daddy, I really like this tricycle. Can
we buy it?" (require, ask, advise)
-> The little girl ___________________________________ the tricycle for
her.
13. We often told our grandfather, "Your experiences as a sailor in the
navy were fascinating. You should write a book about them." (remind,
encourage, require)
-> We ___________________________________ a book about his
experiences in the navy.
14. The judge said to the defendant, "You must not shout in the courtroom
again." (ask, order, encourage)
-> The defendant_________________________________ in the
courtroom again.

6. Choose the best answer or answers. In some cases, BOTH answers

are correct.

1. John was trying B the door with the wrong key.

A. unlocking B. to unlock
2. The audience began A, B before the curtains closed.
A. clapping B. to clap
3. The soccer teams continued__________________ even though it began
to snow.
A. playing B. to play

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4. We like__________________________ outside when the weather is
warm and sunny.
A. eating B. to eat
5. We began___________________ to the news when we heard the
Olympics mentioned.
A. listening B. to listen
6. I was just beginning _______asleep when the phone rang.
A. falling B. to fall
7. I really hate________________________________ late for
appointments.
A. being B. to be
8. The cake was starting _______when I took it out of the oven.
A. burning B. to burn
9. She's so impatient! She can't stand _______________________ in line
for anything.
A. waiting B. to wait
10. I prefer______________________ my bicycle to work because the
automobile traffic is too heavy.
A. riding B. to ride
11. Lillian prefers ___________________________ to taking the bus.
A. walking B. to walk
12. Tim prefers ____________________ than to jog for exercise.
A. walking B. to walk
13. The baby loves ____________________________in the car.
A. riding B. to ride
14. Near the end of the performance, the audience began
_____________________ their feet on the floor.
A. stamping B. to stamp
15. The audience began to clap and___________________ their feet on
the floor.
A. stamping B. (to) stamp
16. The audience began clapping and_______________________ their
feet on the floor.
A. stamping B. (to) stamp
17. My son sometimes forgets_______________ the stove when he is
finished cooking.

223
A. turning off B. to turn off
18. Alex will never forget _______his first helicopter ride.
A. taking B. to take
19. Would you please remember____________________ away all the
tapes when you're finished listening to them?
A. putting B. to put
20. I remember __________________________________ them away
when I finished with them last night.
A. putting B. to put
21. I remember __________________________ Bolivia for the first time.
It's a beautiful country.
A. visiting B. to visit
22. What am I going to do? I forgot ____________________________ my
calculus text, and I need it for the review today.
A. bringing B. to bring
23. My boss regrets _______________________ his secretary now that she
is gone.
A. firing B. to fire
24. The letter said, "I regret _______you that your application has been
denied."
A. informing B. to inform
25. I haven't been able to get in touch with Shannon. I tried _______her.
Then I tried _______her a letter. I tried _______a message with her brother
when I talked to him.
Nothing worked.
A. calling . . . writing . . . leaving
B. to call ... to write ... to leave
26. I always try_________________ my bills on time, but sometimes I'm a
little late..
A. paying B. to pay

7. Complete the sentences with the correct form, gerund or

infinitive, using the words in parentheses.

1. The store offered to refund the money I paid for the book I returned,
(refund)

224
2. Don't pretend to be what you aren't, (be)
3. I persuaded my brother-in-law not _________________ that old car.
(buy)
4. Annie denied _________________ the brick through the window,
(throw)
5. My father expects me _________________ high marks in school, (get)
6. According to the sign on the restaurant door, all diners are required
_________________ shirts and shoes, (wear)
7. We are planning _________________ several historical sites in
Moscow, (visit)
8. There appears______________ no way to change our reservation for the
play at this late date, (be)
9. For some strange reason, I keep______________________ today is
Saturday, (think)
10. All of the members agreed_____________________ the emergency
meeting, (attend)
11. I've arranged _______________work early tomorrow, (leave)
12. Even though Anna had never cut anyone's hair before, she readily
consented _________________ her husband's hair, (cut)
13. Mary decided _________________ her friend's critical remarks,
(ignore)
14. My roommate says I have a terrible voice, so I
stopped_______________ in the shower, (sing)
15. Did the doctor mention__________________________ any foods in
particular? (avoid)
16. The cashier always remembers _____ the money in her cash register
each day before she leaves work, (count)
17. Let's hurry! We must finish _________________________________
the office before 3:00 today, (paint)
18. The student with the highest average deserves _________________ an
"A." (get)
19. I appreciate your _________________ for my dinner. I'll buy next
time, (pay)
20. The physically handicapped child struggled _________________ up
with the other children
on the playground, but she couldn't, (keep)

225
21. Janice misses _________________ walks with her father in the
evening now that she has moved away from home, (take)
22. The customs official demanded_____________________________
what was inside the gift-wrapped box. (know)
23. We've discussed _____________to New York in the fall, but I'm
worried about our children having to adjust to a new school system and
new friends, (move)
24. Children shouldn't be allowed _________________ violent programs
on TV. (watch)
25. In a fit of anger, I ordered my neighbor_________________ his mule
off my property, (keep)

8. Complete the sentences with the correct form, gerund or

infinitive, using the words in parentheses.

1. The doctor was forced to operate immediately to save the patient's life,
(operate)
2. The newspaper hired Bill _______________________________
pictures of the championship match between the two boxers, (shoot)
3. Most passengers dislike _________________________to sit in small,
uncomfortable seats on transoceanic flights, (have)
4. I choose ______________________________ to Stanford University for
my undergraduate studies, (go)
5. I must drive more carefully. I can't risk _________________ another
speeding ticket, (get)
6. All of the members agreed_________________________ the
emergency meeting, (attend)
7. Jack promised __________ to the meeting, (come)
8. The sign warns you not________ right on a red light, (turn)
9. Did Dick mean _______. Sue about the surprise party, or did it slip out
accidentally? (tell)
10. You must keep _________________________ on the computer until
you understand how to use all of the programs, (practice)
11. Our class volunteered ____________________________ the
classroom during the maintenance workers' strike, (clean)

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12. When you get through _________________________________ the
newspaper, I could use your help in the kitchen, (read)
13. I think we should delay ____________________________ these
reports to the main office, (send)
14. The judge demanded ________________ the original document, not
the photocopy, (see)
15. After hearing the weather report, I advise you not _________________
skiing this afternoon, (go)
16. George is interested in________________ an art class, (take)
17. I was furious. I threatened never_______________________________
to him again, (speak)
18. My parents appreciated ________the thank-you note you sent them,
(receive)
19. The committee is planning_____________________ next Friday,
(meet)
20. If I don't leave on the 15th, I will miss _______________________
home in time for my mother's
birthday party, (get)
21. I know you're anxious to get out of here and get back home, but you
should seriously consider ________________ in the hospital a few more
days, (stay)
22. Alex refused _________________ for his rude behavior, (apologize)
23. When I was in the army, I had to swear_________________ my senior
officers' orders, (obey)
24. I don't recall_________________ your dictionary anywhere in the
apartment. Maybe you left it in the classroom, (see)
25. Mrs. Lind required the
children_____________________________________ off their muddy
boots before they came into the house, (take)

9. Choose the correct answer(s).

1. Instead of buying a new pair of shoes, I had my old ones __C__
A. repair B. to repair C. repaired
2. I helped my daughter A, B her homework.
A. finish B. to finish C. finished

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3. I made my son ___________________________ the windows before he
could go outside to play with his friends.
A. wash B. to wash C. washed
4. Maria had her landlord_______ the broken window before winter.
A. fix B. to fix C. fixed
5. To please my daughter, I had her old bicycle_______bright red.
A. paint B. to paint C. painted
6. Sam was reluctant, but we finally got him_______his guitar for us.
A. play B. to play C. played
7. When I had to make an emergency phone call, the secretary let me
_________________ her phone.
A. use B. to use C. used
8. Jack, could you help me_______ a place in the garden to plant some
tomatoes?
A. dig B. to dig C. dug
9. Before we leave, let's have Shelley ______________________ a map for
us so we won't get lost..
A. draw B. to draw C. drawn
10. Are you going to let me_______ that last piece of blueberry pie?
A. eat B. to eat C. eaten

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 Unit 8

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS

8.1.Discuss the following question.

• What do you know about management information systems?

8.1.1. Read the text, use a dictionary if necessary.

Management Information Systems

Management is becoming increasingly important in today’s farming.

Management information systems can play an important role in this
context.
Management implies decision-marking. To make the right decisions,
farm manager should have insight beforehand into the potential impact of
various decisions on the results of the farm. Estimates of these impacts can
be obtained from model calculations. A model is defined as a simplified
representation of a system (e.g. the farm or a part of it), which can be used
to predict the effects of changes in the system. Current developments in
computers and advanced mathematical methods allow the consideration of
more aspects of a decision and more alternative plans in these models.
Computer-based models, therefore, have become promising tools in the
field of farmers’ management support.
Various computer-based models are described in literature. Use of
these models has often ended in general rules of thumb applicable to all
farmers. It is doubtful whether these general rules are indeed valid for all
farmers. The profitability of the given support may be improved when this
general advice can be replaced by recommendations from models that are
tailored to individual farm conditions.
Management can be described as the decision-making process in
which limited resources are allocated to a number of production
alternatives. This allocation of resources should be organized and operated
in such a way that the firm’s goals and objectives are achieved. The
management process can be considered a cyclical process, including three
basic or primary functions: planning, implementation and control. Planning
is the process of selecting a particular strategy or course of action from

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various alternatives. Depending on the planning horizon, strategic (long-
term), tactical (medium-term) and operational (short-term) planning can be
considered. Strategic planning concerns decisions related to the basic from
structure. The strategic plan has its effects in the long term and established
the scope in which tactical planning has to be carried out. Tactical or
medium-term planning (year, season) is involved with obtaining optimal
results within the given or proposed farm structure. Within the framework
set by tactical planning, a more detailed plan can be produced. This
operational or short-term plan (days, weeks) anticipates the actual situation
on the farm. Implementation is the process of acquiring the resources
needed and putting the chosen plan into action. Control involves the
evaluation of performances, in order to determine whether or not they meet
plans, and to decide whether corrective actions to improve performance are
needed. The corrective actions resulting from the control function form the
start of a new management cycle.
Information processing is an important activity for the farm manager,
since it provides the essential information for making the right decisions.
Computers have become an essential part of organizational information
processing because of the power of the technology and the volume of data
to be processed. Furthermore, the ability to automate information
processing has enabled an expansion in the use of formalized information.
The current challenge in information processing is to use the capabilities of
computers to support managerial activities and decision-making. The broad
category of computer systems that realize the collection, maintenance and
use of information for organizational purposes are classified as
management information systems. A management information system is an
integrated, user-machine system for providing information to support
operations, management and decision-making functions in an organization.
The system utilizes computer hardware and software; manual procedures;
models for analysis, planning, and control and decision making; and a
database.
The basic purpose of a management information system is to provide
a way of supplying the decision maker with information for making
decisions. Therefore, the components of a management information system
should have a close relationship with the different steps of the decision-
making process. The decision-making process is commonly described in

230
the following five steps: (1) define the problem or opportunity, (2) identify
alternative courses of action, (3) gather information and analyze each of the
alternative actions, (4) make the decision and take the action, and (5)
accept the consequences and evaluate the outcome.

Vocabulary Notes:
to imply decision-making – містити, натякати на прийняття рішень
to have insight beforehand into – розуміти заздалегідь
to obtain from – одержувати, діставати
model calculations – розрахунок, обчислення моделей (зразків)
simplified representation of a system –спрощене зображення системи
to allow consideration – дає можливість розглядати
to be valid for – бути дійсним, справжнім
to tailor to – пристосовувати
to involve with – мати наслідком, спричиняти, викликати, включати
to anticipate – передбачати
to put the plan into action – втілити план в дію
the evaluation of performance – оцінка виконання
information processing – обробка інформації
to enable – давати змогу, робити придатним, пристосовувати
formalized information – оформлена інформація
the current challenge – актуальна проблема
maintenance of information – збереження інформації
manual procedure – не автоматичні операції
to accept the consequences – приймати наслідки, висновки
to evaluate the outcome – оцінювати результат (наслідок)
estimate – оцінка, кошторис
rule of thumb – кустарний спосіб, приблизний підрахунок
applicable to – придатний до

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8.1.2. Find the Ukrainians equivalents to the following English phrases.

To imply decision-making; to make the right decision; to have insight

beforehand into; potential impact of various decisions on; estimates of the
impact; a simplified representation of a system; to predict the effects of
changes; advanced mathematical methods; to allow the consideration of
more aspects of a decision; computer-based models; promising tools; rule
of thumb; to tailor; to allocate resources; implementation; to improve
performance; the current challenge; to accept the consequences.

8.1.3. Fill in the gaps, using the words and phrases from the text.

1. To make the right decisions, farm managers should _______

_______ _______ into the potential impact of various decisions on
the results of the farm.
2. A model is defined as ________ _______ of a system.
3. Computer-based models, therefore, have become _______ ______ in
the field of farmers, management support.
4. use of these models has often ended in general _______ ________
________ applicable to all farmers.
5. This _________ ________ ________ should be organized and
operated in such a way that the firm’s goals and objectives are
achieved.
6. Tactical or medium-term planning ______ ______ ________
obtaining optimal result within the given or proposed farm structure.
7. Furthermore, the ability to automate information processing ______
______ _________ _________ in the use of formalized information.
8. ________ ________ ________ in information processing is to use
the capabilities of computers to support managerial activities and
__________ ________.
9. Control involves the ________ _________ _________, in order to
determine whether or not they meet plans.
10. Strategic planning _________ decisions ___________ to the basic
farm structure.

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8.1.4. Find in the text the terms the definitions of which are given
below.

• skillful treatment;
• all those concerned in management an enterprise;
• give or make a suggestion (that);
• involve the truth of smth, not definitely stated;
• judgment;
• approximate calculation (of size, cost etc);
• strong impression or effect;
• design or structure of which many copies are made or reproductions;
• say, tell in advance;
• effective because made or done with the correct formalities;
• advantage or good obtained from smth;
• give, put on one side, as a share or for a purpose;
• see what needs doing;
• what is likely to happen and time;
• do what is necessary;
• carry an undertaking, agreement, promise into effect;
• connected series of actions, changes;
• that which follows or is brought about as the result or effect of smth;

8.1.5. Find the English equivalents to the following Ukrainians phrases.

Розрахунок моделей; оцінювання впливу; спрощене зображення

системи; прогнозувати наслідки змін; багатообіцяюче знаряддя;
правила приблизного підрахунку (кустарного способу); втілення;
передбачати; розміщення ресурсів; обробка інформації; втілити план у
дію; використовувати програму комп’ютерного забезпечення;
визнавати наслідки; оцінювати результат; придатний до...; дає
можливість розглядати; оцінка виконання.

8.1.6. Are the following sentences True or false? Correct the false ones.
1. The management process includes three basic or primary functions:
planning, implementation and control.

233
 2. Implementation is the process of selecting a particular strategy or
course of action from various alternatives.
3. Control involves the evaluation of performances.
4. The current challenge in information processing is to provide the
information for making the right decisions.
5. Strategic planning concerns decisions related to the basic farm
structure.
6. Computers have become an essential part of organizational
information processing because of the power of the technology and
the volume of data to be processed.
7. A management information system is an integrated system for
supporting operational management decisions.
8. The basic purpose of a management information system is to use
capabilities of computers.
9. The system utilizes computers hardware and software.
10. The components of a management information system shouldn’t
have a close relationship with the different steps of the decision –
marking process.

8.1.7. Answer the following questions.

1.What does management imply?

2.What should farm managers have to make the right decision?
3.How is model defined?
4.How can management process be considered?
5.What is planning?
6.What does control involve?
7.What is information processing?
8.How are the broad categories of computer systems classified?
9.What is a management information system?
10.What is the basic purpose of a management information system?

8.1.8. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Для того щоб прийняти правильне рішення, менеджерам
сільського господарства потрібно розуміти заздалегідь
потенційний влив різних рішень на результати ферми.

234
 2. Модель визначається як спрощене зображення системи, яка
може бути використана для прогнозування наслідків змін у
системі.
3. Розподіл ресурсів потрібно організовувати і керувати ними
таким чином, щоб досягти цілей фірми.
4. Планування – це процес вибору певної стратегії або циклу дій із
різних альтернатив.
5. Використання – це процес здобуття необхідних ресурсів і
реалізація обраного плану.
6. Контроль включає оцінку виконань для того щоб визначити чи
задовольняють вони плани, і щоб вирішити, чи необхідні
виправні дії для покращення виконання.
7. Обробка інформації – це важлива діяльність для менеджера
сільського господарства, оскільки вона забезпечує вагому
інформацію для прийняття правильних рішень.
8. Актуальність проблеми в обробці інформації – це використання
можливостей комп’ютерів для вирішення організаторської
діяльності і прийняття рішень.
9. Широка категорія комп’ютерних систем, яка включає збір,
збереження і використання інформації для організаційних цілей
класифікуються як інформаційні системи в менеджменті.

8.1.9. Work in groups. Discuss the following questions.

1. What is management?
2. Computerized support of management.
3. Basic concepts of management and management information
systems.
4. Information processing.

235
 8.2. Case study
8.2.1. Read the following information.

A British company, Systemax, manufactures and sells laboratory

equipment to three main regions: Europe, North America and Asia Pacific.
Systemax is entering a new export market in Mexico. Sales in Mexico are
small at the moment, but the company expects a big increase in the next
two years and hopes to expand further into South America during the next
five years. Systemax has two export managers for the main regions:
George Johnstone, North America; Linda McCade, Europe.
Now someone has to take responsibility for exports to Mexico. Is it
better to give extra responsibility to George Johnstone or to Linda
McCade? Or perhaps the company needs to find a third export manager?
The extra responsibility means travelling to Mexico (and in future, to
countries in South America) several times a year and building good
relationships with customers there. Mexico has a border with the US and,
in terms of geography, could be part of the North America region. But its
culture is very different from the US culture. It is in many ways more
similar to the culture of Spain.

You are the Systemax directors and have to decide. Consider:

What abilities and experience do George and Linda have?

How much time does each have for extra responsibilities?
Are they ready to increase the amount of travel abroad?

Info about George Johnstone Info about Linda McCade

An excellent salesman. Has good An excellent manager. Very good at
relations with the customers in the planning and organizing her work.
US and Canada. Single, 32 years Speaks Spanish. Experience of
old. Keen to expand his area of Spanish-speaking cultures. Good
responsibility. Travels a lot on relationships with Spanish
business. Mexico easy because customers. Travels a lot on
close to US. Doesn’t speak Spanish business. Mexico would mean
and no experience in Spanish- longer flights. Married, 29 years
speaking cultures. old. Hopes to start a family in two

236
 to three years.

8.2.2. Discuss the information and decide if it is a good idea to give

extra responsibility to either George or Linda. Or you may decide to
look for a third export manager.

8.2.3. Write an email to either George Johnstone or Linda McCade,

offering him/her the job and explaining why. Use these words in your
email:

I'mwriting to tellyou that we would like to offeryou the job of ...

Wethink you are the right person for this job because ...

8.2.4. Listen to Alistair Cross, a director of Systemax. She explains the

company’s decision regarding responsibility for exports to Mexico.

Audioscript

George Johnstone is an excellent export manager and a very good

salesman. But he doesn't have experience of Mexico. When you start to do
business in a new region, it's very important to understand the culture. If
you make mistakes, you can lose a customer. Linda has a lot of experience
of doing business in Spain, and she knows something of South American
cultures. She also speaks excellent Spanish. So we think that Linda is the
best person to take responsibility for exports to Mexico. We know that she
may not want to stay in the job for more than two or three years, so we are
also looking for a new person to join the sales team - someone who speaks
good Spanish and has a lot of experience of doing business in Latin
America. Then if Linda wants to stop travelling, we will have someone
who can take this role.

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 Language practice
Infinitive conctructions
1. Translate into English, using the for-to-infinitive Construction
where possible.

2. Перше, що ми повинні зробити — це замовити квитки.

3. Питання було занадто неочікуваним, щоб я міг відповісти на
нього негайно.
4. Я підкреслила ці пропозиції для того, щоб ви могли
проаналізували їх.
5. Він попросив принести папір і ручку.
6. Цей текст достатньо легкий, щоб ви змогли зрозуміти його зміст
без словника.
7. Мені хотілося б, щоб ти поступив до університету.
8. Йому нічого не залишалося робити, як негайно виїхати в
Донецьк.
9. Зробити це повинен був лише він.
10. Було б нерозумно, якщо б він зараз поїхав з міста.
11. Найкраще, що ви можете зробити в цій ситуації, - це особисто
вибачитись і запропонувати якось виправити становище.

2. Translate into English, using the infinitive.

1. Нічого не зробиш, прийдеться іти пішки.

2. Вірші важко перекладати.
3. Я завтра їду, а так багато ще треба встигнути зробити.
4. Кому писати протокол?
5. Доповідь почнеться рівно о п'ятій, неодмінно приходьте вчасно.
6. Вже пізно телефонувати. Єдине, що нам залишається зробити,
— це надіслати повідомлення.
7. Не йдіть. Мені треба вам дещо сказати.
8. Перестаньте сперечатися – цим нічого не досягнеш.
9. Деяким людям важко вгодити.
10. Він дуже розумна людина, але з ним важко мати справу.

238
3. Join the sentences using Complex Object with the Infinitive or
Participle.

1. Mary opened the window and smiled happily. I saw __________

2. The secretary was typing a report. We watched ____________
3. The girl smiled. I noticed ______________
4. The man was trying to unlock the suitcase. We observed ______
5. Ann said something in English. I heard ___________________
6. The tourists stopped near the museum. We saw ______________
7. Somebody touched my shoulder. I felt _____________________
8. The women were planting trees and bushes. I watched ________
9. She left the room. I did not notice ___________________
10. The boy picked something up from the ground. I saw ________
11. The speaker was describing the situation in some European
countries. We heard __________________

4. Translate into Ukrainian paying attention to the form of the

Infinitive.

1. Nature has many secrets to be discovered yet.

2. To be instructed by such a good specialist was a great advantage.
3. I am awfully glad to have met you.
4. Martha was very sorry to have forgotten to attend the meeting.
5. He is very absent-minded, but he doesn’t like to be reminded of his
duties.
6. Jane remembered to have been told a lot about this man.
7. I am glad to be talking to you today about our achievements.
8. Which is more pleasant: to give or to be given presents?
9. Sorry to have placed you in such an awkward situation.
10. Carol was awfully astonished to have been offered this position.
11. They are very likely to have taken part in that project.
12. He is certain to get the letter tomorrow.

5. Translate into Ukrainian paying attention to the use of Complex

Subject with different types of Infinitive.

239
1. She seemed to have been waiting for a long time.
2. I happened to have left my office early that day.
3. He didn’t appear to be surprised at this news.
4. They seem to be waiting for you downstairs.
5. The film is sure to have been a great success.
6. The delegation is reported to have arrived in Kyiv.
7. She is known to be interested in chemistry.
8. He seems to be enjoying the party.
9. I am likely to solve the problem.
10. She appears to have been teaching here for five years.

6. Insert ‘to’ where necessary before the infinitive in brackets.

1. She can … (sing) quite well.

2. He will be able … (speak) English fluently very soon.
3. He made her … (repeat) the message.
4. May I … (use) your phone?
5. You needn’t … (ask) for permission; you can …(use) it whenever
you like.
6. If you want … (get) there before dark you should … (start) at once.
7. I couldn’t … (remember) his address.
8. Would you like … (go) now or shall we … (wait) till the end?
9. How dare you … (open) my letters?
10. They used … (buy) three newspapers a day.
11. Will you help me … (move) the bookcase?
12. He made us … (wait) for hours.
13. He was seen … (leave) the house.
14. He must … (send) them a telegram.
15. Where would you like … (have) lunch?
16. You can … (lead) a horse to water but you can’t … (make) him
…(drink).
17. You seem … (know) this area very well. –Yes, I used … (live) here.
18. We don’t … (want) anybody … (know) that we are here.
19. Let me … (help) you with your work.
20. She asked me … (read) the letter carefully and … (write) an answer.
21. We had better … (stop) … (rest) a little.

240
 22. I don’t know what … (do).

7. Translate into English.

1. Мені шкода, що я пропустив цю цікаву лекцію.

2. Вона щаслива що відвідала концерт відомого італійського
музиканта.
3. Я задоволена тим, що була запрошена на цю вкрай важливу
зустріч.
4. Він попросив, щоб йому показали дорогу до актового залу.
5. Я був вдячний, що мені дали кімнату з чудовим видом на старе
місто.
6. Вони дуже задоволені, що нарешті підписали угоду.
7. Наші колеги пишаються тим, що виграли цей тендер.
8. Мені шкода, що я не застав вас вдома.
9. Я рада, що надала вам всю необхідну інфрмацію.
10. Вона, очевидно, запізнилась на поїзд.
11. Кажуть, що вони зараз живуть в Парижі.
12. Відомо, що ви вивчали кілька іноземних мов одночасно. Це
важко?
13. Очевидно, ви забули про нашу попередню домовленість.
14. Сталося так, що ми зустрілися у Львові.
15. Кажуть, що вона живе в цьому місті понад 20 років.

8. Translate into English using Complex Object where possible.

A.
1. Вони хочуть, щоб ми прийшли до них сьогодні.
2. Вона хоче, щоб її запросили на семінар.
3. Він не любить, коли йому заважають відвідувачі.
4. Я ніколи не чув, як він говорить французькою.
5. Вона побачила, що таксі зупинилось біля дверей.
6. Де ви хочете, щоб я чекав вас?
7. Вона любить, коли до неї звертаються офіційно.
8. Я чув, як вона запитала його про зарплату.
9. Я сподіваюсь, що мене запросять туди.
10. Чи ви вважаєте, що він талановитий вчений?

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B.
1. Вони не сподівались, що їм запропонують цю роботу.
2. Ніхто не бачив, як він повернувся?
3. Що примушує вас так думати?
4. Мені подобається робити людей щасливими.
5. До побачення, ми раді були вас зустріти.
6. Мені незручно, що я турбую вас.
7. Я радий, що мене послали на цю виставку.
8. Вчитися наполегливо - завдання кожного.
9. Ми взяли таксі, щоб прибути на станцію вчасно.
10. Вона не хоче, щоб її там побачили.

9. Choose the necessary form of the Infinitive.

1. I hate __________ (to bother/to be bothered) you, but the students are
still waiting ___________(to give/to be given) books for their work.
2. He seized every opportunity ___________(to appear/to have
appeared) in public: he was so anxious ___________ (to talk/to have
talked/to be talked) about.
3. Is there anything else __________ (to tell/to have told/to be told) her?
I believe she deserves ___________ (to know/to be known/to be
knowing) the state of her business.
4. He began writing books not because he wanted ___________ (to
earn/to have earned/to be earned) a living. He wanted ___________
(to read/to be reading/to be read) and not __________ (to forget/to be
forgotten/to have forgotten).
5. I consider myself lucky _________ (to have been/to be) to that famous
exhibition and ___________(to see/to be seeing/to have seen) so many
wonderful machines.
6. He seems ____________ (to know/to be knowing/to have been
knowing) French very well: he is said _________ (to spend/to be
spending/to have spent) his youth in Paris.
7. The woman pretended ___________ (to read/to have read/to be
reading) and__________ (not to hear/not to have heard/not to be
hearing) the bell.

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8. You seem ____________ (to look/to have looked/to be looking/to
have been looking) for trouble.
9. It seemed ____________ (to snow/to have snowed/to have been
snowing/to have been snowed) heavily since early morning: the
ground was covered with a deep layer of snow.
10. They seemed ___________ (to quarrel/to be quarreled/to be
quarrelling): I could hear angry voices from behind the door.
11. They are supposed ____________ (to work/to be working/to have
been worked/to have been working) at the problem for the last two
months.

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 Unit 9

INNOVATION MANAGEMENT

9.1.1. Read the key vocabulary and the examples of their use.
Translate the example sentences into Ukrainian.

Key vocabulary;
 innovate запроваджувати нове; вносити зміни
to start to use new ideas, methods, or inventions.
The company has successfully innovated new products and services.
Syn: improve, make more efficient, streamline, invent, begin to apply

 innovation - інновація, нововведення, новаторство

1) [countable] a new idea, method, invention, Syn: novelty
Recent daring innovations in computer technology
Innovations in information technology have completely transformed the
way we work.
2) [uncountable] the introduction of new ideas or methods
We need to encourage innovation if our business is to remain competitive.
A lot of people feel bewildered by the speed of technological innovation.

 innovator - новатор; раціоналізатор

someone who introduces changes and new ideas
Since innovators are the first to adopt, their tolerance for creativity is the
highest, and their attitude toward accepting new products is the most
favorable.

Synonyms:
innovative (completely new and showing a lot of imagination):
an attractive website with an innovative design
new: an entirely new theory of time and space
brand new (completely new, especially not yet used): a brand new
computer.
How can he afford to buy himself a brand new car?
recent (made a short time ago): recent research into gene

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the latest: the latest model of a plane
For the latest information visit out website…
modern (different from earlier things because of using new methods,
equipment or design): modern farming methods;
A lot of progress has been made with the use of modern technology.
original (unusual):
Her management style is completely original.
fresh: We need a fresh approach to the problem.
We hire young people with fresh ideas.
novel (new and different in a surprising and unusual way, a suggestion,
experience):
The team has come up with a novel way of designing the office.
It was a novel experience for us.
revolutionary (completely new in a way that has a very big effect):
revolutionary discoveries – відкриття, що викликають переворот в
науці;
The new breast cancer drug is a revolutionary breakthrough.
new-fangled (used about smth that is new and modern but which you
disapprove of) модерновий:
She hates all this newfangled technology.

9.1.2. Read the article, use a dictionary if necessary.

Traditionally, a company's new ideas and products come from its

research and development (R&D) department. The initial idea for a car will
be turned into a series of prototypes and tested. In software development,
the final 'prototype' is the beta version, which is beta-tested.
Pharmaceuticals go through a series of trials.
Different industries have different lead-times, the time between
conception and product launch; a new drug might take 10 or 15 years to
develop. In consumer goods, market research will be a key part of the
development process, with focus groups: small groups representing cross-
sections of consumers talking about their reactions to proposed designs,
and wider consumer surveys. Consumer products are test-marketed or
trialled, and feedback gathered.

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 Innovative products that are entirely new are bought by a small
group of pioneers, often technically savvy enthusiasts. The other groups
successively to take up a successful innovation are the early adopters, the
early majority, the late majority and, bringing up the rear, the laggards.
(For example, mobile phone uptake is now so great in advanced economies
that the people buying one now for the first time are the laggards.)
How to develop innovation and creativity in large, bureaucratic
companies? Company leaders talk about corporate venturing and
intrapreneurship, where employees are encouraged to develop
entrepreneurial activities within the organisation. Companies may set up
skunk works, often a small group of people outside the usual structures, to
work on innovations: development of the PC at IBM is the most famous
example. Another problem that organisations have to overcome is the not-
invented-here syndrome, where managers not initially involved in an
innovation may resist its development.
Entirely new innovations are perhaps more easily developed by
entrepreneurs in start-up companies, but here the problem is finance; how
to get the venture capital to develop the product, manufacture it on an
industrial scale and market it.

9.1.3. Answer the following questions:

1. What is a lead time? What does it depend on?
2. How are innovative products introduced to the consumers?
3. How do companies encourage innovation and creativity?

9.1.4. Discuss with a partner:

Would you prefer to work for a company where there is constant
innovation, whether in terms of products or working methods, or one with a
more stable environment?

*skunk works - "кабинет скунса" маленький, часто изолированный

исследовательский отдел какого-л. предприятия, функционирующий
полусамостоятельно, практически без контроля начальства.

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e.g. Although the skunk works was tiny, it was the department responsible
for developing most of the company's best-known and most-respected
software products.

9.1.5. Read the text. Do the tasks that follow.

What Is Innovation?

Innovation is the creation of new ideas or devices or different

approaches to doing something. Innovation happens in many ways. Most
innovations are a result of creative thinking. Sometimes valuable
innovations happen by accident. Some examples of innovations include
Teflon (a nonstick surface), safety glass for car windshields, and even the
process for making breakfast cereals like corn flakes! In those cases,
inventors were looking for something else and accidentally came up with a
different idea or product. At other times innovation happens because people
or companies work toward a goal using a combination of skill, creativity,
and knowledge. Because innovation makes you think about «new» things,
it is usually tied closely to change.

Change is happening all around us all the time. People who are
innovators are excited about making changes. In business, change might be
a different way to make the same product, or it could be an entirely new
product. Trends, or current needs that people have, also determine what
changes companies will make in their products. Many companies have
R&D (research and development) departments whose job is to find out
what people want now and what they will want in the future. By studying
trends, R&D departments can provide the products you want to make your
life better. Why do engineers need to continually make changes?

One reason is that what worked for us yesterday might not work for
us today. That's where innovation and creativity are important. Sometimes
we simply want different things such as new car styles, different exercise
equipment, or new foods. At other times we need change for a specific
rertson. For example, today we don't know what to do with our nuclear
waste products. Up to now, we haven't found a way to store the materials
safely for long periods of time. // someone like you could think of an

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innovative way to use or recycle the materials, it would really benefit our
society.

It's easy to see how some innovations have made our lives easier.
You've probably seen old movies where people had to crank the engine to
get a car started. Thanks to innovation, all you have to do today is turn the
key. Maybe some day all you'll do is talk to the car's computer!

Many innovative ideas go unnoticed by most people. For example,

today many parts of cars are made of plastics to reduce weight and to
prevent rusting. Many of your clothes are made of new kinds of plastics
that don't feel or look any different from the materials that were used
before. In the aerospace industry, adhesives (glues) are used instead of
rivets to hold airplane wings together.

Other innovative ideas, such as the development of laser, had to wait

until people found a practical way to make and use them. Innovation needs
some knowledge combined.wTith creativity. There are lots of people out
there with knowledge, but they don't know how to use it creatively. Being
innovative means you can do something new with your knowledge and
experience. It also means you can recognize when something happens
accidentally, even if you're not exactly sure what it is!

9.1.6. Are the following sentences true or false? Correct the false ones.

1. Most innovations happen accidentally, like Teflon or corn flakes.

2. Most innovations make our life harder.
3. To become an inventor you must be excited about making changes.
4. Being innovative means you can do something new with your
knowledge and experience.
5. If you could think of an innovative way to use nuclear waste
products, there might be less environmental problems.
6. Not a single innovation goes unnoticed.
7. Innovations need a combination of knowledge and creativity.
8. Innovations are important when we want some new things or
processes for a specific reason.
9. Engineers need to continually make changes.

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10. Companies must know what people want now and what they will want
in future.

9.1.7. Answer the questions:

1. What do we call an innovation?

2. How do innovations appear?
3. What are the main reasons for innovations?
4. Can every person come up with a new idea or design, or do you
need special characteristics to produce innovations?
5. Can you give some examples of innovations?

9.1.8. Read the text. Do the tasks that follow.

Getting a Patent

A patent is a special government license that protects your idea or

invention. When you patent your invention, anyone who wants to use your
idea must get your permission or pay you. Anyone can patent an invention,
but getting a patent takes time and money. You must first prove your
invention is new or the first of its kind. This means going back through the
thousands of patents filed at the Patent Office to be sure no one else has an
existing patent for the same invention. Then you have to provide written
plans and sketches that show how your invention works. Often you have to
make a prototype, or model. The government keeps these plans on file
while your patent is current.

There are five types of patents that you can apply for:
1. Design patent: A drawing and protection of the general appearance and
how an invention looks to the eye. An example of a design patent might be
the outside package for an invention.
2. Structure patent: A mechanical patent that shows how the idea works, its
history, and detailed plans.
3. Process/method/system patent: Protects the way a group of materials or
parts work together. These usually have specific drawings and flowcharts.

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4. Combination of materials patent: Descriptions of materials and how they
are mixed and used.
5. Living cell patent: Covers new developments in biotechnology
and biochemistry.
Every patented product will have a patent number on it. If you see
the words «patent applied for» or «patentpending» on a product, it means
the inventor has applied for a patent. Sometimes companies will start
making a product before they have their patent. Because there are so many
inventions all the time, it is important to protect inventions with a patent.
You can imagine how disappointed you would be if you spent a great deal
of time and money on an invention idea only to find out someone else
already had a patent on a similar project. Getting a patent is an important
protection step for anyone with an invention.

9.1.9. Find in the text sentences which contain the modal verbs.
Explain the meaning of the modals, tanslate these sentences
into Ukrainian.

9.1.10. Read the text. Do the tasks that follow.

Designing Products for People

Have you ever tried on gloves and found the medium size was too
big and the small size was too small? Have you ever wondered how
designers decided on what a «medium» size is? Technology can make our
lives more comfortable through ergonomics. Ergonomics is the study of
how the human body relates to things around it. It is also called «human
engineering». Places where you live, work, and play are safer, easier for
you to use. and more comfortable if they are designed based on the actual
human body size.

The actual measurements of your height, width, weight, reach (arms

extended), and so on are recorded in books as anthropometric information
or data. Designers and engineers use the size information to determine the

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dimensions of products such as clothing, furniture, sporting goods, car
interiors, and even spacesuits. When designers made the chair you are
sitting in, they used the anthropometric data from many people and found a
size that would be comfortable for 90 percent of the people. Five percent of
the people will probably be too large and another five percent will be too
small for that particular chair. Because there is such a wide range in sizes
of people, it is difficult to make one product that everyone would find
comfortable. Is your chair really comfortable? Does it fit you? Not all
products are made with ergonomics or anthropometry in mind. Simple
everyday things like water faucets and door knobs can sometimes be hard
to figure out because they weren't designed with people in mind. Many
times they were designed just for looks. In the past, tradition rather than
people's needs was also responsible for the way some things were designed.
For instance, maybe the reason most automobile engines are located in the
front of a car is that the engine replaced the horse. The horse, of course,
was in front of the wagon.

You might think that designing products around people is just for
appearance and isn't very important. That isn't so. Part of ergonomic design
is to make products safe for you to use.

9.1.11. Explain the following things:

ergonomics, human engineering, anthropometric data, ergonomic design.

9.1.12. Answer the following questions:

1. What do we call the branch of technology which helps to make

our life easier, more comfortable and safe?
2. What information is used to determine the dimensions of
products and what do we call it?
3. Do you think it's impossible to combine comfort, safety and
good looks in product design?
4. Can you give some positive examples of product design?
5. Can you give some negative examples of product design?

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9.1.13. Put the words into the correct order to make questions.
1) the, require, or, technology, energy, existing, new, resources, does,
less, natural, than, technology, more, an, or?
2) not, it, the, biodegradable, will, for example, damage, environment,
by, being?
3) to, it, use, is, easier?
4) save, does, time, it?
5) special, to, does, require, use, training, it?
6) put, does, people, out of, it, work?
7) a, this, need, technology, for, is there, real?
8) technology, is, safe, the?
9) an, of, appropriate, is, use, this, technology?

9.1.14. Analyse any invention or innovation using these questions

9.1.15. Translate the following questions into English.

1. Людина не може стати винахідником, якщо вона не вміє творчо

мислити.
2. Можливо, ми зможемо вирішити цю проблему в найближчому
майбутньому.
3. Ми повинні більше уваги приділяти виріпіенню проблем, які
можуть спричинити забруднення навколишнього середовища.
4. Компанії повинні надавати перевагу екологічно чистій
продукції.
5. Іноді нам доводиться вибирати між красою та зручністю, але
цього не повинно бути. Ми повинні поєднувати те й інше.
6. Немає необхідності жертвувати красою заради комфорту.
7. Не могли б ви мені пояснити, що таке „ергономіка"?

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 9.1.16. Read the text about patents and trademarks and their use in
business and do the exercises that follow.

Patents

Patent offices for each country house millions of patents. In the

United Kingdom there are over two million British patents and all this
information is available to the public. Each publication, because of the
legal requirement that details of patents be disclosed, is a valuable source
of technological knowledge. Indeed, the information provision activities of
the Patent Office have increased in their function. For example, scientists
working in a particular field will often search patent databases to see how
the problems they face have been tackled in the past. They will also use
previous patents to identify how their current area of work fits in with those
areas of science and technology that have been developed and patented
previously. Very often patents can provide a valuable source of inspiration.

In addition, many firms also use the patent publication register to

find out what their competitors are doing. For example, a search of the
world-wide patent databases may reveal that your major competitor has
filed a series of patents in an area of technology that you had not
considered previously. Armed with prior knowledge of the industry and the
technology it may be possible to uncover the research direction in which
your competitor is heading, or even the type of product line that it is
considering developing.

All this industrial intelligence can help research teams and

companies to develop and modify their own strategy or to pursue a
different approach to a problem.

According to Professor William Haseltine, the rush for patents did

not hamper AIDS research. In the 1980s he worked for a team that
deciphered the DNA of the HIV virus, worked out the sequences of its
genes, and discovered some of the proteins those genes made. His name is
on more than a dozen patents on the AIDS virus, but the patents are held by
the cancer institute he then worked for at the Harvard Medical School. He
makes a very strong case in favour of the patent system for fostering

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innovation. Indeed, he thinks the patents speeded up the assault on the virus
itself.

Trademarks

Trademarks have particular importance to the world of business. For

many companies, especially in the less technology-intensive industries
where the use of patents is limited, trademarks offer one of the few
methods of differentiating a company’s products. The example of Coca-
Cola is a case in point. Trademarks are closely associated with business
image, goodwill and reputation. Indeed, many trademarks have become
synonymous with particular products: Mars and chocolate confectionery,
Hoover and vacuum cleaners and Nestle and coffee. The public rely on
many trademarks as indicating quality, value for money and origin of
goods. Significant changes have been made to trademark law in the United
Kingdom. The Trade Marks Act (1994) replaced the Trade Marks Act
(1938), which was widely recognised as being out of touch with business
practices today. The United Kingdom now complies with the EC directive
on the approximation of the laws of member states relating to trademarks
and ratified the Madrid Convention for the international registration of
trademarks. The law relating to trademarks is complex indeed. For
example, what is a trademark? Bainbridge (1996) offers a comprehensive
review of law surrounding intellectual property. The following section
offers a brief introduction to some of the key considerations for product
and business managers.

The Trade Marks Act (1994, section 1(1)) defines a trademark as

being any sign capable of being represented graphically which is capable of
distinguishing goods or services of one undertaking from those of other
undertakings.

This can include, for example, Apple Computers, the Apple logo and
acintosh all of which are registered trademarks. Some of the first
trademarks were used by gold - and silversmiths to mark their own work.
The first registered trademark, No. 1, was issued to Bass in 1890 for their
red triangle mark for pale ale.

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 There are certain restrictions and principles with the use of
trademarks. In particular, a trademark should:

 satisfy the requirements of section 1(1);

 be distinctive;
 not be deceptive; and
 not cause confusion with previous trademarks.

9.1.17. Match the following words and phrases.

1. legal requirement a) юридична вимога

2. valuable source b) вивчати бази даних
3. information provision activities c) стикатися з проблемою
4. to search databases d) вирішувати
5. to face the problem e) корисне джерело
6. to tackle f) розкрити напрям дослідження
7. to uncover the research direction g) змінювати стратегію
8. to modify the strategy h) діяльність, яка забезпечує
9. to poster innovation інформацією
10. to rely on i) просувати інновацію
11. value for money j) довіряти
12. to be and of touch k) співвідношення «ціна – якість»
l) бути відірваним

9.1.18. Complete the sentences with the words from the text.

1. Scientists working in a particular field will often _______

________ databases to see how the problems they face have been tackled
in the past.

2. They will also use previous patents to ________ how their current
________ of work fits in with those areas of science and technology that
have been developed and patented previously.

3. In addition, many firms also use the patent _______ _______ to

find out what their competitors are doing.

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 4. The public ______ _____ many trademarks as indicating quality,
value for money and origin of goods.

5. There are certain ________ and principles with the use of

trademarks.

9.1.20. Write true (T), false (F) or not given (NG) according to the
information in the text.

1. Indeed, the information provision activities of the Patent Office have

increased in their function.
2. In the United Kingdom there are over 2 million British patents and all
this information is not available to the public.
3. Very often patents can provide a valuable source of inspiration.

4. For many companies, especially in technology-intensive industries

where the use of patents is limited, trademarks offer one of the few
methods of differentiating a company’s products.

5. Some of the first trademarks were used by gold - and silversmiths to

mark their own work.

9.1.21. Answer the following questions.

1. How many patents are there in the UK?

2. Why do many firms use the patent publication registers?
3. What may a search of the world – wide patent databases reveal?
4. What is a trademark?
5. What does a trademark offer for many companies?
6. Why do the public rely on many trademarks?
7. What are restrictions and principles with the use of trademarks?

9.1.22. Choose the key words from the previous three texts on the
topic “Innovation: why, what and how”, make a plan and prepare a
report.

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 Language practice

Adverb clauses

1. Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. After Marco C his degree, he plans to seek employment in an

engineering firm.
A. will finish C. finishes
B. will have finished D. is finishing
2. By the time Colette leaves work today, she _______the budget report.
A. will finish B. has finished C. will have finished D.
finishes
3. When my aunt __________________ into the airport tomorrow, I'll be at
work, so I can't pick her up.
A. will get B. got C. will have gotten D. gets
4. Natasha heard a small "meow" and looked down to discover a kitten at
her feet. When she saw it, she_______
A. was smiling B. had smiled C. smiled D. smiles
5. Ahmed has trouble keeping a job. By the time Ahmed was thirty, he
_______eight different jobs.
A. had B. was having C. had had D. had
been having
6. Maria waits until her husband Al ______________ to work before she
calls her friends on the phone.
A. will go B. went
C. will have gone D. goes
7. I went to an opera at Lincoln Center the last time I_____ to New York
City.
A. go B. went C. had gone D. have gone
8. When the police arrived, the building was empty. The thieves
__________________ and escaped through an unlocked window.
A. will have entered C. have entered
B. had entered D. entered
9. It seems that whenever I try to take some quiet time for myself, the
phone________________.
A. has been ringing C. rings

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B. is ringing D. has rung
10. I'll invite the Thompsons to the potluck the next time I ____them.
A. see B. will see
C. will have seen D. have seen
11. I ______hard to help support my family ever since I was a child.
A. worked B. work C, am working D. have
worked
12. A small animal ran across the path in front of me as I_____ through the
woods.
A. was walking B. had walked C. am walking D. had
been walking

2. Complete the sentences with even though or because.

1. I put on my raincoat even though it was a bright, sunny day.

2. I put on my raincoat because it was raining.
3. ________________ Sue is a good student, she received a scholarship.
4 _________________Ann is a good student, she didn't receive a
scholarship.
5. ________________it was raining, we went for a walk.
6. ________________ it was raining, we didn't go for a walk.
7. This letter was delivered ________________it didn't have enough
postage.
8. That letter was returned to the sender ________________it didn't have
enough postage.
9. I'm going horseback riding with Judy this afternoon
________________I'm afraid of horses.
10. I'm going horseback riding with Judy this afternoon
________________I enjoy it.
11. ________________you've made it clear that you don't want any help, I
have to at least offer to help you.
12. I knew that I should get some sleep, but I just couldn't put my book
down __________________ I was really enjoying it.
13. __________________ Tom didn't know how to dance, he wanted to
go to the school dance _______________ he felt lonely sitting at home and
staring blankly at the TV while all of his friends were having fun together.

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14. My hair stylist subscribes to three different fashion magazines
_________________ she's not interested in clothes. She subscribes to them
_________________________ her customers like them.

3. Complete the sentences, using the given information.

1 . Tom is going to go to the horse races no matter what. He doesn't care if

his wife approves. In other words, Tom is going to go to the horse races
even if his wife doesn’t He's going to go whether his wife approves
or not.
2. Fatima is determined to buy an expensive car. It doesn't matter to her if
she can't afford it. In other words, Fatima is going to buy an expensive car
whether she ___________________ it or not. She's going to buy one even
if she _______________________it.
3. William wears his raincoat every day. He wears it when it's raining. He
wears it when it's not raining. In other words, William wears his raincoat
whether it ________________________ or not. He wears it even if
it_______________________________
4. Some students don't understand what the teacher is saying, but still they
smile and nod. In other words, even if they
______________________________what the teacher is saying, they smile
and nod. They smile and nod whether they
______________________________ what the teacher is saying or not.

4. Complete the sentences by using in case. Decide if it goes in the

first blank or in the second blank. Add necessary punctuation and
capitalization.

PART I.
1. In case you need to get in touch with me5 I'll be in my office until
late this evening.
2. W we'll be at the Swan Hotel in case you need to call us.
3. Mary is willing to work with you on your design project.
_________________you find that you need help with it
________________she'll be back in town next Monday and can meet with
you then.

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4 _________________ my boss has to stay near a phone all weekend
_________________ the company wants him to go to London to close the
deal they've been working on all month.
5. _________________ I'm not back in time to make
dinner_________________ I put the phone number for carry-out Chinese
food on the refrigerator. You can call and order the food for yourself.

PART II. Complete the sentences using in the event that.

6. In the event that Janet is late for work again tomorrow, she will
be fired.
7. Are you sure you're taking enough money with you?
________________________you'd better take a credit card with you
________________________you run out of cash.
8. The political situation is getting more unstable and dangerous.
______________________ my family plans to leave the country
________________________there is civil war.
9. Just to be on the safe side, ________________________I always take a
change of clothes in my carry-on bag ________________________the
airline loses my luggage.
10. Ann is one of five people nominated for an award to be given at the
banquet this evening. ________________________ she has already
prepared an acceptance speech __________ ______________________
she wins it tonight.

5. Choose the correct answer.

1. I'll give you a hand B you need it, but I hope I don't hurt my back.
A. unless B. if
2. I can't buy a car _________________ I save enough money.
A. unless B. only if
3. Our kids are allowed to watch television after dinner ________________
they have finished their homework. Homework must come first.
A. unless B. only if
4. There can be peace in the world _________________________ all
nations sincerely lend their energy to that effort.

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A. unless B. only if
5. I'm afraid the battery is dead. ________________ I buy a new one, the
car won't start.
A. Unless B. If
6. Let's plan on an old-fashioned sit-down dinner with the whole family at
the table at once. I'll prepare a really special dinner_______you all promise
to be home on time this evening.
A. unless B. only if

6. Choose the correct words in italics so that the sentences make

sense.

1. I'll pass the course only if I (pass) don't pass the final examination.
2. I'm going to go, not going to go to the park unless the weather is nice.
3. I'm going to the park unless it rains, doesn't rain.
4. Tom doesn't like to work. He'll get a job unless, only if he has to.
5. I always eat, never eat breakfast unless I get up late and don't have
enough time.
6. I always finish my homework even if, only if I'm sleepy and want to go
to bed.
7. You will, won't learn to play the violin well unless you practice every
day.
8. Even if the president calls, wake, don't wake me up. I don't want to talk
to anyone. I want to sleep.
9. Jack is going to come to the game with us today if, unless his boss gives
him the afternoon off.
10. Borrow, Don't borrow money from your friends unless you absolutely
must.

7. Change the position of the adverb clause to the front of the sentence.
Make any necessary changes in the verb of the main clause.

1. I can finish this work on time only if you help me.

- Only if you help me can I finish this work on time,
2. I can finish this work on time if you help me.
- If you help me, I can finish this work on time.

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3. I will go only if I am invited.
4. I will go if I am invited.
5. I eat only if I am hungry.
6. I usually eat some fruit if I am hungry during the morning.
7. You will be considered for that job only if you know both Arabic and
Spanish.
8. John goes to the market only if the refrigerator is empty.
9. I will tell you the truth about what happened only if you promise not to
get angry.
10. I won't marry you if you can't learn to communicate your feelings.

8. Choose the best completion.

1. Alice will tutor you in math _______you promise to do everything she

says.
A. unless B. only if C. whereas D. even
though
2. Oscar won't pass his math course _______he gets a tutor.
A. because B. in the event that C. unless D. only if
3. Most people you meet will be polite to you _______you are polite to
them.
A. in case B. only if C. unless D. if
4. I'm glad that my mother made me take piano lessons when I was a
child__________ I hated it at the time. Now, I play the piano every day.
A. even though B. because C. unless D. if
5. Chicken eggs will not hatch_______they are kept at the proper
temperature.
A. because B. unless C. only if D. even
though
6. You'd better take your raincoat with you _________________ ____the
weather changes. It could rain before you get home again.
A. now that B. even if C. in case D. only if
7. Ms. Jackson was assigned the fifth-grade science class _______she has
the best qualifications among the available faculty.
A. although B. whereas C. if D. since

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8. My sister can fall asleep under any conditions, but I can't get to sleep
_______the light is off and the room is perfectly quiet.
A. if B. unless C. in case D. now that
9. The majority will of the people rules in a democracy, _______in a
dictatorship, power is in the hands of a single person.
A. because B. even though C. while D. unless
10. The cheapest way to get from an airport to a hotel is to take an airport
bus, but I'm not sure if River City has one. _______there is no airport bus,
you can always take a taxi.
A. Unless B. Now that C. In the event that D. Even
though
11. _______my country has a new democractic government, the people at
last have more freedom.
A. Even though B. Even if C. In the event that D. Now that
12. Parents love and support their children _______the children misbehave
or do foolish things.
A. even if B. since C. if D. only if

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 Unit 10

MAKING A PRESENTATION

10.1.1. Vocabulary and Phrases

Overviews
After you give your opening statement, you should give a brief overview of
your presentation. This includes what your presentation is about, how long
you will take and how you are going to handle questions.
For example, a presentation to sales staff could start like this:
"Welcome / "Hello everyone."

Opening statement
"As you all know, this company is losing its market share. But we are being
asked to increase sales by 20 – 25%. How can we possibly increase sales in
a shrinking market?"

Overview
"Today I am going to talk to you about how we can do this. My
presentation will be in three parts. Firstly I am going to look at the market
and the background. Then I am going to talk to you about our new products
and how they fit in. Finally, I'm going to examine some selling strategies
that will help us increase our sales by 20%. The presentation will probably
take around 20 minutes. There will be time for questions at the end of my
talk."

Useful language for overviews:

"My presentation is in three parts."
"My presentation is divided into three main sections."
"Firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally…"
"I'm going to…/take a look at… /talk about… /examine…/tell you
something about the background…/give you some facts and figures…/fill
you in on the history of…/concentrate on…/limit myself to the question
of…

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"Please feel free to interrupt me if you have questions."
"There will be time for questions at the end of the presentation."
"I'd be grateful if you could ask your questions after the presentation."

The main body of the presentation

During your presentation, it’s a good idea to remind your audience

occasionally of the benefit of what you are saying.
"As I said at the beginning…"
"This, of course, will help you (to achieve the 20% increase)."
"As you remember, we are concerned with…"
"This ties in with my original statement…"
"This relates directly to the question I put to you before…"

Keeping your audience with you

Remember that what you are saying is new to your audience. You are clear
about the structure of your talk, but let your audience know when you are
moving on to a new point. You can do this by saying something like
"right", or "OK". You can also use some of the following expressions:
"I'd now like to move on to…"
"I'd like to turn to…"
"That's all I have to say about…"
"Now I'd like to look at…"
"This leads me to my next point…"
If you are using index cards, putting the link on the cards will help you
remember to keep the audience with you. In addition, by glancing at your
index cards you will be pausing – this will also help your audience to
realise that you are moving on to something new.

Language for using visuals

It's important to introduce your visual to the audience. You can use the
following phrases:
"This graph shows you…"
"Take a look at this…"

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"If you look at this, you will see…"
"I'd like you to look at this…"
"This chart illustrates the figures…"
"This graph gives you a break down of…"
Give your audience enough time to absorb the information on the visual.
Pause to allow them to look at the information and then explain why the
visual is important:
"As you can see…"
"This clearly shows …"
"From this, we can understand how / why…"
"This area of the chart is interesting…"

Summarising

At the end of your presentation, you should summarise your talk and
remind the audience of what you have told them:
"That brings me to the end of my presentation. I've talked about…"
"Well, that's about it for now. We've covered…"
"So, that was our marketing strategy. In brief, we…"
"To summarise, I…"

Relate the end of your presentation to your opening statement:

"So I hope that you're a little clearer on how we can achieve sales growth
of 20%."
"To return to the original question, we can achieve…"
"So just to round the talk off, I want to go back to the beginning when I
asked you…"
"I hope that my presentation today will help you with what I said at the
beginning…"

Handling questions

Thank the audience for their attention and invite questions.

"Thank you for listening – and now if there are any questions, I would be
pleased to answer them."

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"That brings me to the end of my presentation. Thank you for your
attention. I'd be glad to answer any questions you might have."
It’s useful to re-word the question, as you can check that you have
understood the question and you can give yourself some time to think of an
answer. By asking the question again you also make sure that other people
in the audience understand the question.
"Thank you. So you would like further clarification on our strategy?"
"That's an interesting question. How are we going to get voluntary
redundancy?"
"Thank you for asking. What is our plan for next year?"
After you have answered your question, check that the person who asked
you is happy with the answer.
"Does this answer your question?"
"Do you follow what I am saying?"
"I hope this explains the situation for you."
"I hope this was what you wanted to hear!"
If you don't know the answer to a question, say you don't know. It's better
to admit to not knowing something than to guess and maybe get it wrong.
You can say something like:
"That's an interesting question. I don't actually know off the top of my
head, but I'll try to get back to you later with an answer."
"I'm afraid I'm unable to answer that at the moment. Perhaps I can get back
to you later."
"Good question. I really don't know! What do you think?"
"That's a very good question. However, we don't have any figures on that,
so I can't give you an accurate answer."
"Unfortunately, I'm not the best person to answer that."

What can you say if things go wrong?

You think you've lost your audience? Rephrase what you have said:
"Let me just say that in another way."
"Perhaps I can rephrase that."
"Put another way, this means…"
"What I mean to say is…"
Can't remember the word?

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If it's a difficult word for you – one that you often forget, or one that you
have difficulty pronouncing – you should write it on your index card. Pause
briefly, look down at your index card and say the word.

Using your voice

Don't speak in a flat monotone – this will bore your audience. By varying
your speed and tone, you will be able to keep your audience's attention.
Practise emphasising key words and pause in the right places – usually in
between ideas in a sentence. For example "The first strategy involves
getting to know our market (pause) and finding out what they want. (pause)
Customer surveys (pause) as well as staff training (pause) will help us do
this."
Don't forget – if you speak too fast you will lose your audience!

Plan a perfect presentation in English

10.1.2. Read the information below and highlight the essential

ideas to make a perfect presentation.
At some time or other, most of us will have to give a presentation. The idea
of speaking in public can be frightening enough if you're a native English
speaker, but it's even more so if English is your second language. These
eight tips will help you plan a perfect presentation.

1. Know your audience

To give an effective presentation, you need to know something about your

audience. How good is their English? How much do they know about the
subject of your talk? Why will they be interested in listening to you? It’s a
good idea to find out who is attending your presentation so that you can
make the information relevant and interesting to them. For example, a
presentation on your company’s financial results to financial analysts will
focus on results, reasons and analysis. A presentation on new auditing
software will focus on the benefits and features of the software.
Also ask yourself what you want to achieve from your presentation. Sales
presentations are different from information-giving presentations, for

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example. It’s always a good idea to work out what you want your audience
to think or do at the end of your talk, as this will help you focus on the
language and content of your presentation.

2. Use a strong opening statement or question to interest your audience

The first minute of your presentation is crucial. In this time you should
interest your audience and give them a reason to listen to you. What you
say in the first minute depends on your audience and their interests, but it
must mean something important to them. Perhaps it is a problem that you
know how to solve, or a fact or statistic that they need to know.

3. Don’t forget the physical details

You’ll need to make sure the room is big enough for the number of people
attending, and that you have all the equipment you need. Find out when
you are giving your presentation – your audience may be less attentive if
it’s right before lunch or at the end of the week and you’ll need to make
especially sure that the presentation is interesting if it’s at a difficult time.

4. Plan the content of your presentation

Planning helps you focus on your presentation goals, and minimises the
chances of anything going wrong.
If you know who you are talking to and why you are talking to them, you
can put yourself in your audience's position. You can decide what
information to include and how to order it.
Aim to speak for no longer than 30 minutes, and leave time for questions
and answers at the end. Remember that it’s difficult to absorb lots of new
information, so don’t aim to include too much.
Many presentations are divided into five areas:
a) The introduction (Get someone else to introduce you to the audience.
This gives you credibility as a speaker and means that you don't have to
waste time telling people who you are and why you are there)
b) The overview
c) The main body of the presentation

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d) Your summary
e) A question and answer session
Make brief notes about all the points you want to make in your presentation
and make a plan. Organise your presentation into main points and
supporting evidence.
During the presentation, remember that it is a good idea to refer back to
your opening statement and remind your audience why they are listening to
you.

5. Use index cards

Put your points on individual index cards to help you during the
presentation. If you put the key words onto cards (1 card for 1 key word or
point) you can refer to them at any time if you forget where you are in the
presentation.
Use your index cards for any words that you might find difficult to
remember, or words that are difficult to pronounce.
You can also use the index cards to write the links between points, such as:
“this brings me to…”
“now I’d like to move on to..”
“Right…”

6. Keep visuals simple

Don't put too much information in visuals and only use them to illustrate
information that would otherwise take too long to explain.
Simple graphic visuals such as pie charts and bar graphs work better than
visuals with lots of labelling or words. Use colour and different fonts to
help information stand out.

7. Practice makes perfect!

Practise your presentation as often as you can using your index cards. By
practising, you will know how long it will take, and where the difficult
areas are in your talk. The more you practise, the more confident you will
feel!

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8. Prepare questions and answers

You're likely to have questions at the end of your presentation, so try to

think of some in advance, as well as possible answers. The more you
prepare these, the better you'll feel able to deal with them.

10.2. Structuring your presentation

The classical model

Greeting  Introduce yourself  Introduce your talk  Outline

talk  Present main part divided into points  Invite questions 
Conclude talk  Summarize main points

First impressions count, so let the audience see your best qualities. Try to
be:
Organized – make the plan of your talk ‘transparent’;
Human – make some reference to the immediate situation, and relax;
Fluent – learn this part perfectly;
Brief – the audience have come for the information

Taking questions in presentations

The question and answer session is an important but unpredictable part of

most presentations. Before answering the question, comment on it. This
signals your attitude to the audience and gives you a few seconds of
thinking time.

10.2.1. Decide whether you agree or disagree with the following

statements. Make comments.

1. The question and answer session is an opportunity, not a threat.

2. If there are no questions, it means that you have made a perfect
presentation.
3. When answering a question, keep it brief.
4. It is better to answer questions during the presentation rather than
waiting till the end

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 5. Never admit that you don’t know the answer to a question. Bluff if
necessary!
6. Questions clarify what you are saying. Thank people for asking
them.
7. Don’t lie. If you don’t know the answer, offer to find out, or ask
somebody in the audience if they can answer it.

10.2.3. Read the script of a presentation by Lydia Jones, a cabin crew

trainer at A–Z Airlines.

Hello, and welcome. My name’s Lydia Jones. I’m in charge of training at

A–Z Airlines. I’m very happy that all of you have joined our team. The
purpose of my talk today is to explain A–Z Airlines’ approach to
teambuilding. I hope by the end of my presentation, you’ll understand the
importance of teamwork on the job. As I’m sure you’re all aware, one of
the most important professional skills cabin crew have is the ability to work
as a team. There are four key elements to teamwork: leadership, knowledge
and skills, working systems, and relationships.
First, leadership. Every team needs a leader. Especially when things are
happening quickly, someone needs to be decisive and to organise work
efficiently. This doesn’t mean the leader is ruthless or authoritarian. A good
leader is also a good listener, motivator, mediator and friend.
Moving on to the second element of teamwork ... this is what you bring to
work with you every day: your knowledge and skills. You’ve all been hired
to work at A–Z Airlines because you’ve shown that you already have some
of the knowledge and skills that you’ll need for the job. As you continue
your training and all through your career, you’ll continue to gain
knowledge and skills that’ll make you a better team member every time
you come to work.
OK, now I’ll talk about working systems. You could describe working
systems as rules, but they aren’t rules that stop you doing something,
they’re rules that allow you to work efficiently. Working in an airplane, we
do certain jobs the same way every time. This means that everyone knows
exactly how the job is done, and it also means that we’re doing the job in
the safest possible way.

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Right, now turning to relationships. What does this mean? Well, teamwork
in a way is all about relationships. What we all have to remember is that the
team is there to do a job safely and efficiently. Everyone is trying their
best. Sometimes people make mistakes. What we have to remember is that
the job of the team is what we have to concentrate on. It’s important to
think about what you’re doing but you also have to think about what the
entire team is doing and you have to have constant, open communication
with your team-mates. So that’s what we mean by relationships.
OK, does anyone have any questions so far?

10.2.4. Choose the best answer, a, b or c, for each question.

1 What is the topic of Lydia’s presentation?

a) the company’s benefits package
b) on-the-job teamwork
c) the basic training offered by the airline

2 Who is she speaking to?

a) a group of new employees
b) the team responsible for training new employees
c) a group of experienced managers

3 How many key elements are there to teamwork?

a) three b) four c) five

4 What does Lydia say every team needs?

a) clear rules
b) well-defined roles for team members
c) a leader

5 Which skill does she say is important for a team leader?

a) to be authoritarian
b) to be ruthless when it’s necessary
c) to be decisive

6 What does she say about knowledge and skills?

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a) That the new employees already have some knowledge and skills.
b) That knowledge and skill can only be developed on the job.
c) That employees become fully trained in the first year of work.

7 What does she say about rules?

a) The airline’s rules are designed to stop bad or dangerous behaviour.
b) Everyone must follow the rules or they risk being sacked.
c) Rules create an efficient working environment.

8 Which of these benefits of having clear rules does she mention?

a) Rules help reinforce the role of the team leader.
b) Following rules contributes to safety.
c) Rules help reduce serious communication problems.

9 What does she say about mistakes?

a) The job of the team is to reduce mistakes.
b) Mistakes happen.
c) It’s important for people to take responsibility for their mistakes.

10 What does Lydia say is important about relationships among team

members?
a) Open communication is essential.
b) A little friendly competition can be helpful.
c) The only practical way to do the job is to concentrate on your own work.

10.3. Stating the purpose of your presentation

10.3.1. Complete the sentences using the words given. Combining

the sentences with the number 1 will give you a complete
introduction. Then do the same with those numbered 2, etc.

OK, let’s get started. Good morning, everyone. Thanks for coming. I’m ….
This morning I’m going to be:
showing talking taking reporting telling
1. ……… to you about the videophone project.
2. ……… you about the collapse of the housing market in the early 90s.

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3. ……… you how to deal with late payers.
4. ……… a look at the recent boom in virtual reality software companies.
5. ……… on the results of the market study we carried out in Austria.

... so, I’ll begin by:

making outlining bringing giving filling
1. ……… you in on the background to the project.
2. ……… a few observations about the events leading up to that collapse.
3. ……… company policy on bad debt.
4. ……… you an overview of the history of VR.
5. ……… you up-to-date on the latest findings of the study.

…and then I’ll go on to:

put discuss make highlight talk
1. ……… what I see as the main advantage of the new system.
2. ……… the situation into some kind of perspective.
3. ……… you through our basic debt management procedure.
4. ……… detailed recommendations regarding out own R&D.
5. ……… in more depth the implications of the data in the files in front of
you.

Signposting

In a good presentation, what you say – the content – is much important than
anything else. But a clear structure helps. When you move on to your next
point or change direction, tell the audience. You can do this easily and
effectively using ‘signposts’ to guide the audience through your
presentation.

To move on To go back To summarize

To expand To recap To turn to
To digress To conclude To elaborate on

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 10.3.2. Choose one of the ‘signpost’ expressions from the box above
for the following situations:

When you want to:

– make your next point To move on
– change direction _________
– refer to an earlier point _________
– repeat the main points _________
– give a wider perspective _________
– do a deeper analysis _________
– give the basics _________
– depart from your plan _________
– finish your talk _________

10.3.4. Prepare a two-minute talk on one of the following topics:

– the economy of your home town;
– the company you work for;
– an exciting business idea;
– a subject of your own choice.

When preparing your talk choose from the list of linking sentences below.
It is not complete, and will not suit the style of every speaker. Explore the
full range, and, in the light of the subject of your talk, choose the ones that
fit in best.

10.4. Useful language

Introduce your talk

I’d like to say a few words to you today about …
I’d like to explain to you today the operation of …
Outline talk
I aim to talk to you for about 15 minutes.
I shall take about 15 minutes of your time.
This will take about half an hour.
Present main part divided into points
I’ve divided my talk into five main parts.

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The subject can be looked at under five main headings.
During my talk I’ll be looking at five main areas.
If you have any questions, please feel free to interrupt.
If you have any questions, I’ll be glad to try to answer them at the
end of my talk.
Introduce your first point
To start with, then, I’d like to consider …
First of all, I’d like to look at …
Finish a point
Those are the main points on …
That’s all I have to say about …
So that, then, is …
Now we’ve looked at / dealt with …
Start a new point
Now let’s turn to / move on to …
I’d like now to consider / examine …
Next we come to …
Turning now to …
The next point I’d like to make is …
Refer to what you have said
As I said at the beginning …
I told you a few moments ago that …
In the first part of my talk, I said …
As I mentioned earlier …
Refer to what you will say
I’ll come to that later …
I’ll return to this point in a few minutes.
… and I’ll talk about this in the next part of my presentation.
… I’ll comment on this in my conclusion.
Summarize
So now I’d just like to summarize the main points.
In brief, we have looked at …
Conclude
That’s all I have to say for now.
I think that covers most of the points.
That concludes my talk.

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 Thank you for your attention.
Invite questions
And now, if you have any questions, I’ll be glad to try to answer
them.
Does anyone have any questions?
Any questions?

10.5. Tips for making presentations

Appearance
Be careful about how you are dressed. This can play an important part in
the overall effect. Think about the level of formality required; in some
cultures, it is not well thought of to loosen your tie or to take off your
jacket, even if it is quite hot.
Visual aids
Make your visual aids as professional-looking as possible.
Be obsessive about equipment and possible back-ups: if a particular
audience requires a particular approach, for example with PowerPoint
slides, it will probably be difficult to improvise anything that is satisfactory
if the slides do not work. If you do not have a back-up computer and
projector, bring the slides also in the form of overhead transparencies.
Check you have everything you need before leaving to give the
presentation. If you have spent hours developing slides and these are
necessary for your presentation, it is probably not a good idea to leave them
in your hotel room.
Timing
Do not run over the allotted time. The question and answer session is often
where this happens, so allow plenty of time for it. In a large room, repeat
the questioner's question, so that everyone can hear it. Answer the question
as politely as possible, but if you think the answer is not of much interest to
the rest of the audience (do not say this of course), tell the questioner that
you can discuss it with them afterwards, one to one. Make it clear when the
presentation is over by saying 'Thank you very much' or 'Thank you for
listening' in a final sort of way, otherwise things can drag on and people
start leaving the room not knowing if it is over or not.

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 10.5.1. Match the advice to presenters (1-10) to the comments a)-j)
that members of the audience make to each other after
attending a particular presentation. What is your opinion?

1. Tell a joke at the beginning to relax the atmosphere.

2. Speak more slowly than you normally do.
3. Smile a lot.
4. Involve the audience.
5. Invite questions during the presentation.
6. Always keep to your plan.
7. Move around during your presentation.
8. Use gestures to emphasize important points.
9. Read out your presentation from a script.
10. Stand up when giving your presentation.

a) He shouldn't have read aloud like that – it’s so monotonous.

b) He shouldn't try to be a stand-up comic.
c) He was speaking to us as if we were idiots - couldn't be speak at
normal speed?
d) People asked so many questions he didn't have time to finish. And
some of the questions were irrelevant!
e) It doesn't look natural when Anglo-Saxons start using their hands a lot
- they should leave that to the Latins.
f) He was looking very happy all the time, but I couldn't understand
why.
g) He would have been more comfortable sitting down.
h) I got nervous when he asked people to come on to the stage - I thought
he was going to ask me!
i) He stuck to his plan even when it was clear that the audience already
knew 90 percent of what he was saying – it was so boring!
j) He was prowling around on stage like a wild animal.

10.5.2. Read the following tips and fill in the gaps with an appropriate
word or phrase from the box:

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 rehearse, address, briefly, handouts, fall on deaf ears, persuade,
solemn, eye contact, make your case

 Know your audience and match what you say to their needs. If
your presentation doesn't appeal to your audience, it will (1) …
.
 Know your material thoroughly. Practice and (2) … your
presentation with friends, in front of a mirror, and with
colleagues.
 Make sure that your physical appearance is appropriate to the
occasion, and the tone you use is well chosen. If your topic is
serious, be (3) ….
 It's always a good idea to begin your presentation with an ice-
breaker.
 Speak slowly and clearly, and remember to (4) … everyone in
the audience - even the person the farthest away from you.
 Speak with conviction. Believe what you are saying and you
will (5) … your audience.
 Do not read from notes. Referring to notes is fine, but do so
only (6) ….
 Maintain (7) … with your audience. It will help them feel as if
they are participating in your presentation.
 Provide audience members with (8) … of the most important
materials so they can keep your most important take always in
mind.
 Know when to stop. You need to (9) …, but continuing for too
long will only ensure that the audience forgets what you have
said.

10.5.3. Find in the recommendations above the words that mean:

a) people watching a presentation of some kind _______

b) completely, entirely _______
c) in the right place, in good taste _______
d) a short story or joke to put everyone at ease before you begin ______

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 e) belief ________
f) sheets of paper with information presented ________

10.5.4. Match the phrases with their definitions:

1. to appeal to someone A to look someone in the eyes

2. to fall on deaf ears B to speak to someone
3. to rehearse C to not be heard
4. to address someone D to convince someone
5. to persuade E to speak to someone's interests
6. to refer to notes F to look at your notes while speaking
7. to maintain eye contact G to practice, repeat a number of times
8. to make your case H to state information relating to your
position

10.5.6. Read the text.

Survival Tactics

Don’t worry if memory lapses throw you.

What if you forget what you’re going to say next? There are several things
you can say: “Let me summarize what we’ve covered so far,” or “Would
anyone like to comment on my last point?” Audiences like interactivity.
Refer to a handout, or go on to the next slide, even if it is out of context.
These actions gain you some time to remember. The main thing is not to
get rattled. If you maintain your composure, the audience may not even be
aware that you lost your place.

Make a decision to do your best and then let go of your concerns.

Visualize and anticipate a successful outcome. Laurence Olivier, a brilliant
British actor, remarked:” There’s a trick I’ve used on occasion and I find it
works; try it. Go to the theatre early on the first night and get made up well
in advance of the curtain. Then walk onto the stage and imagine that the
curtain is already up and that you are facing the audience. Look out at them
and shout, “You are about to see the greatest performance of your entire
theatre-going lives. And I will be giving it. You lucky people!” Tell that

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once or twice. Then go back to your dressing room and relax, and you’ll
find when the curtain does go up, you’ll have the necessary confidence.”

Make the audience your partner.

Fear can come from feeling separate from others. The audience wants you
to succeed. They want you to be good; audiences don’t come to hear a bad
presentation. If you’re comfortable, they will be comfortable. Direct your
energy into becoming involved with your audience. Work toward
generating thoughts and pictures in their minds. Make an emotional
connection. If you have problems during your presentation, don’t panic.
Pause. Sort out the problem and continue.

10.5.7. Pair work. The questioner asks about a company using the
prompts below. The presenter answers the questions using appropriate
comments.
1. the reasons for their success
2. the company logo
3. profit figures last year.
4. the founders of the company
5. location, the headquarters

Useful language

Commenting on questions

A question I’m often asked is, ”Where do you see the company in five
years?”
That’s a very good question.
I’m glad you raised that point.
So, in other words you are asking …
I understand your position but I can assure you we’ve our homework.
To be honest, I think that raises a different issue.
I think I’ve covered that in Point 2, but let me just recap.
I’m afraid I don’t have the figures with me. Can I get back to you on
that?

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 10. 6. Attending a conference

10.6.1. Give full and extensive answers to the questions and respond to
the statements.

1. You were at a conference yesterday, weren’t you?

2. How many people were there?
3. Did they come from all over the country?
4. Did you meet any of your acquaintances there?
5. How many of your fellow students read the papers?
6. Whose papers did you find of particular interest?
7. Did any other papers leave an impression on you?
8. Did you read a paper of your own?
9. What was your paper about?
10. When did you write your paper and send it to the Organizing
Committee?
11. How much time did it take you to write it?
12. What was the aim of you research presented at the conference?

10.6.2. Summarize the ideas about the conference you have attended
recently.
Use the phrases below:

The discussion centered on two themes.

On the first theme,” ”, among others, the following reports were made:
The reports made on the second theme, “ “ included “ “ by … .
These reports evoked extensive discussion during which various
viewpoints were expressed on …
This exchange of views proved very useful.
The conference heard two reports delivered by postgraduates.
Papers were read by …
Great interest was evoked by the papers …

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 Language practice
Connecting ideas

1. Because vs. because of.

Complete the sentences with either because or because of.

1. We delayed our trip because of the bad weather.

2. Sue's eyes were red because she had been crying.
3. The water in most rivers is unsafe to drink _________________
pollution.
4. The water in most rivers is unsafe to drink _________________ it is
polluted.
5. Some people think Harry succeeded in business ________________ his
charming personality rather than his business skills.
6. You can't enter this secured area _________________ you don't have an
official permit.
7. My lecture notes were incomplete ________________________ the
instructor talked too fast
8. It's unsafe to travel in that country ____________________. . the
ongoing civil war.

2. Because vs. therefore

Complete the sentences with either because or therefore.

1 . Matt didn't go to work yesterday because he didn't feel well.

2. Matt didn't feel well. Therefore he didn't go to work yesterday.
3. Sharon hid her feelings from everyone. ________________________ ,
no one suspected the deep emotional pain she was suffering.
4. No one ever knows what's going on inside of Sharon
______________________ she hides her feelings behind a mask of smiles.
5. ______________________ young Joseph was an inquisitive student, he
was always liked by his teachers.
6. The television broadcast was interrupted in the middle of the eighth
inning; ______________________ , most of the audience missed the
conclusion of the baseball game.

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 3. Such... that and so... that.
Combine the sentences by using so ... that or such ... that.

1. We took a walk. It was a nice day.

- It was such a nice day that we took a walk.
2. The weather was hot. You could fry an egg on the sidewalk.
3. I couldn't understand her. She talked too fast.
4. It was an expensive car. We couldn't afford to buy it.
5. I don't feel like going to class. We're having beautiful weather.
6. Grandpa held me tightly when he hugged me. I couldn't breathe for a
moment.
7. There were few people at the meeting. It was canceled.
8. The classroom has comfortable chairs. The students find it easy to fall
asleep.
9. Ted couldn't get to sleep last night. He was worried about the exam.
10. Jerry got angry. He put his fist through the wall.
11. I have many problems. I can use all the help you can give me.
12. The tornado struck with great force. It lifted automobiles off the
ground.
13. I can't figure out what this sentence says. His handwriting is illegible.
14. David has too many girlfriends. He can't remember all of their names.
15. Too many people came to the meeting. There were not enough seats for
everyone.

4. Cause and effect.

Choose the correct completion.

Example: B I was tired, I went to bed.

A. Because of B. Since C. For D. Due to

1. The workers have gone on strike. _______, all production has ceased.
A. Because B. So that C. Now that D. Therefore
2. A small fish needs camouflage to hide itself _______its enemies cannot
find it.
A. so that B. because C. therefore D. due to

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3. Our apartment building has had two robberies in the last month,____ I'm
going to put an extra lock on the door and install a telephone in my
bedroom.
A. now that B. so that C. so D. since
4. The Chippewas are Native North Americans. Their language is one of
the most complex in the world,_______it contains more than 6,000 verb
forms.
A. consequently B. so C. so that D. for
5. _______the bad grease stain on the carpet, we had to rearrange the
furniture before the company arrived.
A. Because B. Now that C. For D. Because
of
6. The price of airline tickets has gone down recently. ______________
the tickets cost less, more people are flying than before.
A. Consequently B. Because of C. Because D. For
7. Let's ask our teacher how to solve this problem _______we can't agree
on the answer.
A. since B. because of C. consequently D. so
8. The fire raged out of control. It got _________________________ . bad
that more firefighters had to be called in.
A. such B. therefore
C. so D. so that
9. Dolphins are sometimes caught and killed in commercial fishing
nets_______ they often swim in schools with other fish, such as tuna.
A. due to B. because C. so D. therefore
10. We can finally afford to trade in the old car for a new one
______________________ I've gotten the raise I've been waiting for.
A. so that B. consequently C. now that D. so
11. Two of the factories in our small town have closed. _____.,
unemployment is high.
A. Consequently B. Because C. So that D. For
12. _______I had nothing for lunch but an apple, I ate dinner early.
A. For B. Since C. Due to D. Therefore
13. I needed to finish the marathon race _______I could prove that I had
the strength and stamina to do it. I didn't care whether I won or not.
A. because of B. so that C. for D. therefore

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14. The Eskimo* way of life changed dramatically during the 1800s the
introduction of firearms and the influx of large numbers of European
whalers and fur traders.
A. because B. for C. due to D. so
15. During extremely hot weather, elephants require both mud and water to
keep their skin cool _______they have no sweat glands.
A. and B. because of C. so D. due to the
fact that

5. Despite/in spite of vs. even though/although.

Choose the correct completions.

1. a. Even though, Despite her doctor warned her, Carol has continued to
smoke nearly three packs of cigarettes a day.
b. Even though, Despite her doctor's warnings, Carol has continued to
smoke nearly three packs of cigarettes a day.
c. Even though, Despite the warnings her doctor gave her, Carol continues
to smoke.
d. Even though, Despite the fact that her doctor warned her of dangers to
her health, Carol continues to smoke.
e. Even though, Despite she has been warned about the dangers of
smoking by her doctor, Carol continues to smoke.
*Eskimos are people who live in the Arctic regions of northern Alaska,
northern Canada, and Greenland. **Also possible: Annie told the truth;
however, no one believed her.
2. a. Although, In spite of an approaching storm, the two climbers
continued their trek up mountain.
b. Although, In spite of a storm was approaching, the two climbers
continued their trek
c. Although, In spite of there was an approaching storm, the two climbers
continued uj mountain.
d. Although, In spite of the storm that was approaching the mountain area,
the two clin continued their trek.
e. Although, In spite of the fact that a storm was approaching the mountain
area, the tv climbers continued their trek.

287
3. a. Although, Despite his many hours of practice, George failed his
driving test for the third
b. Although, Despite he had practiced for many hours, George failed his
driving test for third time.
c. Although, Despite practicing for many hours, George failed his driving
test again.
d. Although, Despite his mother and father spent hours with him in the car
trying to tea him how to drive, George failed his driving test repeatedly.
e. Although, Despite his mother and father's efforts to teach him how to
drive, George f his driving test.
4. a. Even though, In spite of repeated crop failures due to drought, the
villagers are refusi to leave their traditional homeland for resettlement in
other areas.
b. Even though, In spite of their crops have failed repeatedly due to
drought, the villagei are refusing to leave their traditional homeland for
resettlement in other areas.
c. The villagers refuse to leave even though, in spite of the drought.
d. The villagers refuse to leave even though, in spite of the drought
seriously threatens their food supply.
e. The villagers refuse to leave even though, in spite of the threat to their
food supply because of the continued drought.
f. The villagers refuse to leave even though, in spite of the threat to their
food supply is serious because of the continued drought.
g. The villagers refuse to leave even though, in spite of their food supply
is threatened, h. The villagers refuse to leave even though, in spite of their
threatened food supply.

6. Cause and effect; showing contrast.

Show the relationship between the ideas by adding any of the following
expressions, as appropriate. There may be more than one possible
completion.

because because of while/whereas on the other hand

since due to nevertheless in spite of
now that even though however despite
therefore although

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1. It was still hot in the room even through/although I had turned on
the air conditioner.
2. Several people in the crowd became ill and fainted due to .because of
the extreme heat.
3. The gardener trimmed the branches on the cherry tree
__________________________I asked him not to.
4. The meat of the puffer fish can cause paralysis or even death if it is
improperly prepared. __________________________, it remains a
delicacy in Japan for brave diners.
5. __________________________everyone disagreed with him, Brian
went ahead with his original plan for the company.
6. The first mention of the game of chess appears in an Indian text written
almost 1500 years ago. __________________________its ancient
beginnings, it remains one of the most widely played games in the world
today.
7. Alice heard a siren and saw the flashing lights of a police car in her rear-
view mirror. __________________________, she quickly pulled over to
the side of the road and stopped.
8. Most adults carry around certain attitudes and prejudices about the
world around them. Most children,__________________________, enter
new situations without such preconceived notions.
9. They often have to close all of the ski areas in the
mountains_________________________ severe weather conditions and
avalanche danger.
10. __________________________paper was first developed by the
ancient Chinese, its English name comes from the word papyrus, the name
of an Egyptian water plant.
11. The supervisor must know what everyone in the department is
doing_________________ all responsibility for error will fall on her
shoulders.
12. __________________________aspirin is relatively safe for most
adults, it should be administered very carefully to children, if at all. It can
be dangerous to children's health.

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13. The peanut is used today to make everything from cosmetics to
explosives __________________________the pioneering scientific work
of George Washington Carver in the 1910s and 1920s.
14. In ancient China, yellow was considered to be an imperial
color.________________________, only the emperor was allowed to wear
it. No one else could have yellow clothing of any kind.
15. __________________________the abacus had been in use in Asia
since ancient times, many in the Western world credited 19-year-old Blaise
Pascal, a Frenchman, with inventing the first calculating machine in 1642.
16. __________________________she thought she heard the telephone
ringing, Marge turned the TV down—only to discover it had been a
telephone on the show she was watching.

7. Using otherwise.
Make two sentences. Show the relationship between them by using
otherwise. In the first sentence, use a modal auxiliary or phrasal modal:
should, had better, have to, must, etc.

1. If you don't eat less and get more exercise, you won't lose weight.
- You should (had better/have to/must) eat less and get more exercise.
Otherwise,you won't lose weight.
2. The children can watch TV tonight only if they finish all of their chores.
- The children have to (had better I should/must) finish all of their chores.
Otherwise, they cannot watch TV tonight.
3. Unless you speak up now, the boss will go ahead without knowing that
you don't agree.
4. If you don't stop at the store on your way home from work, we won't
have anything to eat for dinner tonight.
5. Unless you think it through very carefully, you won't come up with the
right answer.
6. If we don't catch any fish this morning, we're going to have beans for
dinner again.
7. It's going to be very difficult to finish on time if you don't get someone
to help you.
8. Maria is probably going to lose her job unless she finds a way to
convince the boss that the error was unavoidable.

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TESTA: Connecting ideas.
Directions: Choose the best completion.

1. I have to eat breakfast in the morning, ____________, I get grouchy and

hungry before my lunch break.
A. Consequently B. And C. Otherwise D. However
2. My mouth is burning! This is _________________ spicy food that I
don't think I can finish it.
A. such B. so C. very D. too
3. I couldn't use the pay phone,____ I didn't have any coins with me.
A. yet B. despite C. for D. even
though
4. Bats are fascinating______have many interesting and amazing qualities.
A. animals. Therefore, they C. animals. They
B. animals, they D. animals. Because they
5. I need to find an apartment before I can move. ____________________
I can find one in the next week or so, I will move to Chicago the first of
next month.
A. If B. Even if C. Whether D. Only
if
6. Sam and I would love to meet you at a restaurant tonight, but
___________________________ we can do that can find a babysitter.
A. if B. unless C. only if D. even if
7. ______want to take a train trip across western Canada, but my traveling
companion wants to fly to Mexico City for our vacation.
A. Although I B. Even if I C. I D.
Despite I
8. Timmy doesn't do well in school____ his inability to concentrate on any
one thing for longer than a minute or two.
A. as B. because of
C. because D. therefore
9. Tony spent_________________ money buying movie tickets that he
didn't have enough left to buy a soft drink or candy bar.
A. such B. a lot of C. too much D. so much
10. You should learn how to change a tire on your car_____ you can handle
an emergency situation if necessary.

291
A. so that B. if C. for that D. therefore
11. Cars have become much more complicated. ______________,
mechanics need more training than in the past.
A. Because B. Therefore C. So that D. For
12. Not wanting to be late my first day of class,________________ to
school after I missed my bus.
A. so I ran B. because I ran C. I ran D. therefore, I
ran
13. It was raining _____________ I couldn't go outside.
A. because B. so hard that C. so that D. too
hard that
14. The Northern Hemisphere has mostly westerly winds______________
the rotation of the earth toward the east.
A. due to B. because C. therefore D. so
15. Emily is motivated to study, _______she knows that a good education
can improve her life.
A. therefore B. because of C. because D. so
16. Sonia broke her leg in two places, ____, she had to wear a cast and use
crutches for three months.
A. Nevertheless B. Consequently C. For that D. Because
17. Carol showed up for the meeting ____________ I asked her not to be
there.
A. even though B. despite
C. because of D. because
18. Peter works hard at everything he does. His brother,___ , seldom puts
out much effort.
A. on the other hand C. even though
B. otherwise D. consequently
19. The road will remain safe_______the flood washes out the bridge.
A. as long as B. unless C. if D. since
20. _______I can't make the presentation myself, I've asked my assistant to
be prepared to doit for me.
A. For B. In the event that C. Only if D. On the
other hand
21. I have to go to the meeting _______I want to or not.
A. because B. whether C. even though D. only if

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22. I asked Angela to run the office while I'm gone _______I know I can
depend on her.
A. unless B. since C. Although D. so that
23. I think I did okay in my speech last night ____I'd had almost no sleep
for 24 hours.
A. in spite of B. unless
C. so that D. despite the fact that
24. I talked to Anna throughout the evening,____ nothing I said changed
her opinion.
A. yet B. and C. otherwise D. so
that
25. After getting home from elementary school,_______.
A. our house buzzes with the children's many activities
B. the dog greets the children at the front door with wagging tail
C. the children have an hour to play before they begin their homework
D. the school bus drops the children at the corner near their house

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TEST B: Connecting ideas.
Directions: Choose the best completion.

1. _______the extremely bad weather in the mountains, my friends decided

not to cancel their trip across the mountain pass.
A. Because of B. In spite of C. Even if D. Even
though
2. Even though a duck lives on water, it stays dry ____ the oil on its
feathers, which prevents water from reaching its skin.
A. because of B. since C. because D. for
3. Alex cannot express himself clearly and correctly in writing. He will
never advance in his job _______he improves his language skills.
A. otherwise B. if C. only if D. unless
4. _______there was no electricity, I was able to read because I had a
candle.
A. Unless B. Even though C. Even D. Only if
5. A fire must have a readily available supply of oxygen. ____, it will stop
burning.
A. Consequently B. Therefore C. Otherwise D. However

6. I studied Spanish for four years in high school. ____________ I had

trouble talking with people when I was traveling in Spain.
A. Therefore C. Otherwise
B. On the other hand D. Nonetheless
7. I'm sorry you've decided not to go with us on the river trip, but
_____________________ you change your mind, there will still be enough
room on the boat for you.
A. even C. in the event that
B. nevertheless D. although
8. I like to keep the windows open at night no matter how cold it gets. My
wife, prefers a warm bedroom with all windows tightly shut.
A. nevertheless C. on the other hand
B. consequently D. whereas
9. You must lend me the money for the trip.___ , I won't be able to go.
A. Consequently B. Nevertheless C. Otherwise D.
Although

294
10. I don't understand why, but my neighbor Mr. Morrow doesn't seem to
like me. He never smiles at me or speaks to me _______the many efforts I
have made to be friendly and neighborly.
A. because of B. in spite of C. for D. so
11. _______the salary meets my expectations, I will accept the job offer.
A. Due to B. Even if C. If D. Unless
12. Camels have either one hump or two humps. The Arabian camel has
one hump. The Bactrian camel,_______, has two humps.
A. nevertheless B. however C. therefore D. otherwise
13. Ms. Moore, the school counselor, has had years of experience dealing
with student problems. _______, she is sometimes confronted by a
problem that she cannot handle by herself.
A. Therefore B. Nevertheless C. Otherwise D. On the other hand
14. Right now all the seats on that flight are taken, sir. _______there is a
cancelation, I will cal you.
A. In the event that C. Unless
B. Nevertheless D. Even if
15. A newborn baby can neither walk nor crawl. A newborn
antelope,_______, can run within minutes of birth.
A. however B. nevertheless C. otherwise D. even
though
16. Jason has become _______famous that he now ignores his old friends.
He shouldn't do thai
A. such B. so C. so much D. too
17. Joan worked in a vineyard last summer _______money for school
expenses.
A. because to earn C. for she earned
B. so she earns D. so that she could earn
18. Watching the children fly their kites in the park,_______
A. suddenly a gust of wind blew my hat off my head
B. one of the kites got stuck in a tree
C. I thought of the times long ago when I did the same thing
D. it looked like a lot of fun
19. I guess I'm a soft touch. I just lent Jan some money for lunch
_______she never paid me back my last loan.
A. even though B. unless C. or else D. only if

295
20. Hundreds of species of Hawaiian flowers have become extinct or rare
_______extensive land development and the grazing of wild goats.
A. now that B. due to C. because D. for
21. It looks like they're going to succeed _______their present difficulties.
A. despite B. because of C. even though D. yet
22. The professor told me that I was doing well,_______ my final grade
was awful.
A. so B. therefore C. in spite of D. yet
23. _______Beth has a new car, she no longer takes the commuter train to
work. She drives to work every day.
A. Now that B. While C. Although D. In case
24. Our village had _______money available for education that the schools
had to close.
A. so little B. such little C. so much D. such
much
25. I hadn't understood his _______asked him to repeat what he'd said.
A. directions. I C. directions, I
B. directions because I D. directions. However, I

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 READER

1. Read the text about the development of mobile networks. Use a

dictionary if necessary. Then do the tasks that follow.

Your phone on steroids

5G networks: Proposed new networks promise ultra high-speed

connections for mobile users

NEW MOBILE networks come along once every decade or so.

Starting around 1980, the first generation of cellular phones relied on
analogue technology. When the second generation arrived in 1991, wireless
networks began to go digital. By 2001, the third generation dumped circuit-
switching, which uses direct connections, for more efficient packet-
switching, which moves data around in blocks. Around 2010, fourth-
generation networks embraced if (internet protocol) technology
wholeheartedly, providing mobile devices with broadband access to the
internet. Given past experience, the next generation is due in 2020.

Mobile-phone companies are now discussing what to include in their

proposed fifth-generation (5G) networks. There is a feeling of urgency as
heavyweights from outside the traditional phone business, such as Google
and Facebook, are moving into this area. One thing 5G networks must do is
meet the growing demand for ubiquitous and instantaneous connectivity.
That requires future networks to have a "latency" (ie, response time) of no
more than a few milliseconds. The speed at which two devices can begin to
communicate with one another over today's 4G networks is about 50
milliseconds, and around 500 milliseconds for the still widely used 3G
services.

Another requirement is a data rate of at least one gigabit per second

(lGbps) to start with, and multiple gigabits thereafter. Today's 4G networks,
based on a standard called long-term evolution (lte) technology, can
manage 10-100 megabit per second (mbps), depending on conditions. Most
mobile carriers are still rolling out their lte services; only a few have started

297
to install the latest lte-advanced equipment (true 4G as opposed to the half-
baked versions some have been marketing as the real thing). The peak bit
rate of lte-advanced is claimed to be lGbps. In the real world, however, it is
more like 250 mbps. Given the tenfold improvement between generations
in the past, an average 5G download speed of lGbps seems realistic-with
the chance of up to lOGbps as the technology ripens. This is likely to
increase even further the diversity of mobile devices on offer.

Two are better than one

Two technical features-carrier aggregation and mimo (multiple

input/multiple output) antennae-are responsible for giving lte-advanced its
big boost over earlier 4g iterations. Neither technique is particularly new,
but both are expected to play a central role in helping 5g fulfil its promise.

First, carrier aggregation. This is a way of boosting download speeds by

plucking signals from a number of local base stations, instead of simply the
most powerful one in the vicinity. These different channels-often with
different frequencies—are combined into what is effectively a single fat
pipe capable of delivering data at a far higher rate than would otherwise be
possible.

Given the global shortage of radio spectrum, most telecoms firms

have snapped up frequencies wherever they can. As a result, few of their
chunks of spectrum are contiguous. Fortunately, carrier aggregation also
allows mobile operators to patch together their disparate blocks of
spectrum. This is going to be even more important when 5G arrives around
2020 in a still more crowded wireless world.

Much the same goes for mimo. This works by transmitting two or
more data streams via two or more antennae, and having the receiving
antennae process all the incoming signals instead of just the strongest one.
Today's mimo devices tend to have three or four antennae on both the
transmitting and the receiving ends. But what if each end had tens of
antennae or even hundreds? That would translate into a significant increase
in download speed, and a far more efficient use of the available radio
spectrum.

298
 Which spectrum that will be, though, has still to be decided. Today's
wireless devices operate in the crowded 700MHz to 2.6ghz part of the
radio-frequency compass. It is not as though once 5G hits the airwaves
chunks of spectrum used today by 4G and even 3G networks will suddenly
become vacant. Mobile carriers will still have to continue their older ser-
vices for the millions of subscribers who do not immediately upgrade to the
latest devices-and may not do so for years to come.

The obvious answer is for 5G to migrate from today's very-high

frequencies (vhf) to either the super-high (shf) band between 3ghz and
30GHZ, or even to the extremely high (exf) one at 30-300GHZ. Current
occupants of these rarefied frequencies (also known as "millimetre waves"
because of the wavelength) include satellite television, microwave relay
links, air-traffic control radar, radio astronomy and amateur radio.

In most regions of the world, a chunk of spectrum around 6oghz has

been designated for use by the public without a licence. With their latest
standard (802.11ad), the Wi-Fi community plans to exploit this band for
streaming ultra-high-definition video around the home. In typical
configurations, it should beam more than 6 Gbps over modest distances. At
least in the laboratory, Nokia, a Finnish networking firm, has achieved
speeds of 115 Gbps using such frequencies.

As always, there are drawbacks. One is that such extreme fre-

quencies are easily blocked by walls and even people moving around. They
also get absorbed by the atmosphere, although the absorption effect only
becomes significant at distances greater than 100 metres or so. By going to
70GHz and above, atmospheric absorption disappears, but rain can still
cause the signal to fade.

All of which suggests that 5g will need base stations closer to users
than current cellular towers. As it so happens, that is already a trend. So far,
microcells-no bigger than a Wi-Fi modem-have been used mainly inside
buildings to overcome poor reception. To handle 5 g's needs, hundreds of
them will be required to fill the gaps between existing base stations. With
the tiny antenna boxes attached to lampposts and the sides of buildings, few
people will ever notice them, let alone object to their presence-as is so
often the case when new cellular towers are planned. So it is not just faster

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networking speeds that are promised, but less angst over the towers that
phones connect to.

The text is adapted fromThe Economist January 3rd 2015

2. Match English words and phrases with the corresponding Ukrainian

ones:

1 wireless networks a бездротові мережі

bповсюдне і миттєве підключення
2 ubiquitous and instantaneous
cширокосмуговий доступ до
connectivity
інтернету
3 broadband access to the inter- dтехнологія довгострокової
net еволюції
eвраховуючи десятикратне
4 long-term evolution (lte)
покращення
technology fпокоління
1 given the tenfold improvement gсукупність носіїв особливостей
2 generations hрізні частоти
7 features-carrier aggregation iв безпосередній близькості
jчастки спектру
8 different frequencies k ефективне використання
9 in the vicinity

10 chunks of spectrum

11 an efficient use

3. Give the Ukrainian equivalents to the following English words and

phrases:

• to rely on analogue technology

• to meet the growing demand for
• to communicate with one another

300
• to roll out their lte services
• to install the latest lte-advanced equipment
• to boost download speed
• to increase even further the diversity of mobile devices on offer
• to pluck signals from a number of local base stations
• to deliver data at a far higher rate
• to snap up frequencies
• to be contiguous
• to patch together the disparate blocks of spectrum
• to transmit data streams via antennae
• to translate into a significant increase
• to immediately upgrade to the latest devices
• to migrate from
• to overcome poor reception
• to handle needs
• to fill the gaps

4. True or false? Write T or F after these statements. If they are

false, say why.
1. The first generation of cellular phones relied on digital technology.
2. One thing 5G networks must do is meet the growing demand for
ubiquitous and instantaneous connectivity.
3. A technical feature-carrier aggregation is responsible for giving LTE
advanced its big boost over 4G iterations.
4. In most regions of the world, a chunk of spectrum around 60GHZ
has been designated for the use by public without a licence.
5. The absorption effect only becomes significant at distances greater
than 50 metres.

301
1. Read the text and find out what benefits cloud computing promises
its users.

The sky’s limit

Shifting computer power to the cloud brings many benefits – but don’t
ignore the risks

Electricity was once generated where it was used; now it comes from the
grid. So it is with computing power, once the province of mainframes and
personal computers, and now moving into the “cloud” – networks of data
centres that use the internet to supply all kinds of services, from e-mail and
social networks to data storage and analysis.

The rise of cloud computing is rapid, inexorable and causing huge upheaval
in the tech industry. The old guard is suffering: this week’s $67 billion
merger between Dell and EMC, makers of computers and storage devices
respectively, was a marriage forced by the rise of the cloud. Disruptive
newcomers are blooming: if Amazon’s cloud-computing unit were a stand-
alone public company, it would probably be worth almost as much as Dell
and EMC combined.

The gains for customers have been equally dramatic. Compared with older
IT systems, cloud computing is often much cheaper. It adds tremendous
flexibility: firms that need more computing capacity no longer have to
spend weeks adding new servers and installing software. In the cloud they
can get hold of it in minutes. Their applications can be updated continually,
rather than just every few months. Individual users can reach their e-mails,
files and photos from any device. And cloud services also tend to be more
secure, since providers know better than their customers how to protect
their computing systems against hackers.

But cloud computing makes one perennial problem worse. In the old IT
world, once a firm or a consumer had decided on an operating system or
database, it was difficult and costly to switch to another. In the cloud this
“lock in” is even worse. Cloud providers go to great lengths to make it easy

302
to upload data. They accumulate huge amounts of complex information,
which cannot easily be moved to an alternative provider.

Cloud firms also create a world of interconnected services, software and

devices, which is convenient but only for as long as you don’t venture
outside their universe. Being locked in to a provider is risky. Firms can
start to tighten the screws by increasing prices. If a cloud provider goes
bust, its customers may have trouble retrieving their data.

These risks have already triggered a debate about whether the cloud needs
stricter regulations. Some European politicians want to force cloud
providers to ensure that data can be moved between them. That is too
heavy-handed, not least because rigid rules will inhibit innovation in what
is still a young industry. The history of computing suggests that common
standards may well emerge naturally in response to customers’ demands –
just as in personal computers, where it is now much easier to use the same
files on different systems.

Be quick, be nimbus

In the meantime, a few commonsense measures can reduce the risk of lock-
in. Firms that use more than one cloud provider to host their data are less
vulnerable. So are those that keep their most important information in their
own data centres – General Electric jealously guards its most valuable data,
Walmart has a phalanx of its own developers so that it can move its data
from cloud to cloud. Consumers can take precautions, too. Some services
are better than others at enabling users to move data between providers
(Google does well on this score). Cloud computing promises its users many
benefits, but don’t mistake it for some sort of digital heaven.

Vocabulary
grid - енергетична система
inexorable [ɪ'neks(ə)rəbl] - невблаганний, непохитний, непохитний
upheaval [ʌp'hiːv(ə)l] - підйом emotional upheaval - емоційний підйом
disruptive [dɪs'rʌptɪv] - руйнівний, спустошливий; порушує,
подарований (про діяльності, що приносить шкоду) пробивний
perennial [p(ə)'renɪəl] - триваючий круглий рік, вічний, нев'янучий

303
perennial problem - споконвічна, постійна, вічна проблема
go bust - розоритися, прогоріти; ≈ вилетіти в трубу
retrieve [rɪ'triːv] - відшукати, повернути собі; взяти назад
heavy-handed [ˌhevɪ'hændɪd] - незграбний; незграбний, неповороткий,
жорстокий, гнітючий, обтяжливий, важкий, гнітючий, великоваговий
(про стиль і т.п.)
not least = in particular; notably
nimbus ['nɪmbəs] - німб, ореол; сяйво
vulnerable ['vʌln(ə)rəbl] - уразливий; ранимий
phalanx ['fælæŋ(k)s] - фаланга, безліч, маса, група
heaven ['hev(ə)n] - Небеса, Царство Небесне, рай, блаженство

2. Read the article. Do the tasks that follow.

What does cloud computing mean?

Cloud computing means storing and accessing data and programs over the
Internet instead of your computer's hard drive. It involves computing over a
network, where a program or application may run on many connected
computers at the same time. For some, cloud computing is a metaphor for
the Internet. It typically uses connected hardware machines called servers.
Individual users can use the server's processing power to run an
application, store data, or perform any other computing task. Thus, instead
of using a personal computer every-time to run the application, the
individual can now run the application from anywhere in the world. For
businesses, cloud computing is an ideal way to reduce expenses. For
example, companies may buy services in the cloud. That is to say, instead
of installing applications on every single computer in the company, cloud
computing would allow workers to log into a Web-based service (a cloud)
which hosts all the programs individual users would need for their job.
Everything would run on remote machines and local computers task would
rely just on connecting to those machines. While cloud computing could
change the entire computer industry, there are still some concerns about the
security of the data stored on the remote machines. It is true that it promises
to offload many tasks. However, this technology raises a fundamental
question. Is it safe to store one's data on someone else's computer? The

304
cloud service provider needs to establish clear and relevant policies that
describe how the data of each cloud user will be accessed and used. Cloud
service users should also be able to encrypt data that is processed or stored
within the cloud to prevent unauthorized access.

3. Are the following sentences True or False? Correct the False ones.

1 In cloud computing data is stored locally.

2 Cloud computing offers an economical model for businesses.
3 Cloud computing technology add workload on local machines.
4 This technology offers a perfect solution for businesses without any
concerns.

4. Complete the text with the words in the box.

a) ease, b) habits, c) home, d) cultural, e) depth, f) offending, g)

backgrounds, h) interact, i) spread, j) overseas

If you’ve ever traveled abroad, you may have felt out of your ______ (16)
when you first arrived. The people around you may have looked, spoken,
and acted in a very different way than in your _____ (17) country. Some
people take days or even weeks to get over the initial ______ (18) shock.
Others seem to quickly adapt to this new situation. They talk to the locals
with ____ (19), even if they don’t fully understand everything around them.
This ability to _____ (20) well with people from different cultures or _____
(21) is called intercultural competence. With the ______ (22) of
globalization, this has become more important for businesses and
organizations that are growing into ______ (23) markets. Companies that
fail to understand the beliefs, language, and _____ (24) of people in other
countries may end up embarrassing themselves or unintentionally _______
(25) their customers.

305
 6. Complete the text with the words in the box.

a) handle; b) goal; c) separated; d) willingness; e) competent; f)

sensitive; g) trying; h) challenging; i) taking; j) patient

Intercultural competence is vital for an international company’s employees

to work together. Employees on a team are often _____ (16) not only by
vast distances but also different cultural beliefs. For this reason, every
employee on the team needs to be interculturally _____ (17) in order to
successfully achieve a common _____ (18). Everyone needs to be ______
(19) towards different communication and work styles. For example, some
employees in certain cultures can _____ (20) direct criticism better than
others. Employees from some cultural backgrounds will feel more
comfortable _____ (21) the initiative when unexpected problems occur.
Others would be more likely to consult a manager before ____ (22) to solve
these issues by themselves. Managers might find it ______ (23) to make a
team from different cultures work well together. It takes a _____ (24) and
skilled person to do this job. As a result, international companies tend to
promote those who show an ability and _____ (25) to be open-minded
towards employees from other cultures.

306
1. Read the textabout passwords. Use a dictionary if necessary. Then
do the tasks that follow.

Passé words

Cyber-security: Technology is finally making strides in reducing

the need to remember lots of complicated p@s$w0rd$

PASSWORDS are the bane of a life enveloped by information

technology. And they are proliferating wildly as more and more devices
and online services demand them. But passwords are easily lost, forgotten
and stolen. Though cheerful reports of the password's imminent demise
have been made before (perhaps most famously in 2004 by Bill Gates when
he was the boss of Microsoft), all have turned out to be premature.
However, new ways are emerging to remove, or at least reduce, the reliance
on tapping out awkward combinations of numbers, letters and symbols.

The idea is to make greater use of a process called multi-factor

authentication. The password is, as security folk put it, "something you
know". It can be made more robust by being paired with "something you
have", which could be a device or app which receives or generates a unique
code, known as a token, with a short period of validity. Such gadgets are
already widely available in online banking for users to generate a code
when accessing their account. A code can also be texted to a user's mobile
phone when logging into their e-mail on a computer.
The token (which might be exchanged wirelessly between, say, a
phone and a payment terminal) could be paired with "something you are",
such as an analysis of a user's voice, his iris or a fingerprint. As more
smartphones and computers now come with biometric systems which can
take such measurements, it is becoming easier to link the something-you-
have with the something-you-are, thus leaving the password out of the
process.
To enable the wireless transfer of a security token, devices are
being fitted with near-field communication (nfc) chips. As these chips use
less power than Bluetooth, nfc works over a shorter range: just a few
centimetres. Devices need to be close or touching to communicate, which is

307
ideal for contactless smartphone payments, such as Google Wallet and
Apple Pay. During the transaction the user can confirm his identity by
holding a finger over the phone's fingerprint reader.
Other sensors in the phone can be enlisted to help confirm identity
during mobile payments. One idea is to tap into a phone's gps system, a bit
like the way banks use location data to spot payments and cash withdrawals
being made in places that fall outside a customer's typical spending
behaviour. And a profile can be built up of the phone itself to ensure it is
the device it purports to be and not one that has been cloned.

A consortium of firms called the Fast Identity Online Alliance

(FIDO) is looking at various approaches to strengthen multi-factor
authentication. It has built a roster of impressive members, including hard-
ware firms such as Lenovo, Samsung and arm, which makes many of the
chips used in mobile devices; payments firms PayPal, Visa and
MasterCard; and e-commerce giants such as Alibaba.
FIDO has two approaches, one of which offers the ability to do
away with passwords altogether. Both rely on public-key cryptography,
which is a bit of applied mathematics that already underpins a lot of the
web's security infrastructure. This form of encryption creates two inter-
twined cryptographic keys - vast strings of numbers - one public and safe to
share and one that is private.

WHO GOES THERE?

Any person or website in possession of the public key can verify

that a digital signature has come from someone in possession of the private
key, but cannot guess what that key is. Similarly, using only the public key,
a person or service can encrypt a document in a way that only the possessor
of the private key, which is associated to a specific device, can use.
The idea is that a device would, on request, create a pair of keys,
public and private. It would pass the public key to, for example, an online
retailer, which then associates the key with a user's account. On the next
login, the identity check works both ways: a faked version of the retailer's
website will not have the public key the FIDO software is looking for, so
the user would be alerted that something is amiss. And the retailer can

308
check that the login has been performed by the holder of the associated
private key.
Permitting access to FIDO via a device's built-in security features,
such as a fingerprint reader or other biometric scan, adds the something-
you-are to the FIDO key's something-you-have. So a password is no longer
required. Nevertheless, security people are cautious, so provision is being
made for an optional pin number if needed, but as an auxiliary measure.
FIDO's other standard, Universal 2nd-Factor Authentication (U2F),
demotes the password rather than replaces it. U2Fwould be incorporated
into a small physical token, like a dongle which could be plugged into a
computer's usb socket or linked to it with nfc. Yubico, a Californian
company, already makes versions of these. On sites that support it, only a
simple pin might be needed as a first step to entry. While that pin might be
guessed or disclosed, security is beefed up by a second step of tapping a
button on the device, or tapping it against a smartphone, to trigger
cryptographic keys.
This sort of thing has been tried before, but unseating the password
only to replace it with devices, apps and other procedures risksmaking
things just as troublesome. And FIDO is not the only dog barking up the
tree of safer solutions. Yahoo recently introduced another way to avoid
remembering passwords: American users can now set their accounts so that
when they go to log in a one-time on-demand password is texted to their
phone.

Some passwords and pins may not, then, disappear completely.

They might still be required on occasions to, say, update a person's account
details. But multi-factor authentication will at least help deter hackers and
thieves from breaking into phones, computers and other devices by making
that more difficult, says Markus Jakobsson, an American researcher who
studies how computer systems are used. Having to get hold of – or trying to
clone – a piece of hardware and copying someone's fingerprints are
complications that should keep most users safer.

from The Economist Technology Quarterly May 30th 2015

309
2. Match English words and phrases with the corresponding Ukrainian
ones:

1 bane of a life a) передчасний

2 cheerful reports веселі звіти
3 imminent demise b) отрутажиття
4 premature c) залежністьвід
5 reliance on d) неминучий кінець
6 robust e) маркердоступу
7 iris f) складний,щовимагаєзусиль
8 a security token g) райдужнаоболонка(ока)
9 intertwined cryptographic h) електронний ключ
keys i) переплетенішифрувальніключі
10 a dongle

3.GivetheUkrainianequivalentstothefollowingEnglishwordsandphrases

• tobepairedwith
• toproliferatewildly
• togenerate a code
• to access an account
• to work over a shorter range
• to confirm the identity
• to spot payments and cash withdrawals
• it purports to be
• to look at various approaches
• to strengthen multi-factor authentication
• to underpin a lot of the web's security infrastructure
• to be in possession of the private key
• to be alerted that something is amiss
• to deter hackers and thieves from breaking into phones

310
4. True or false? Write T or F after these statements. If they are false,
say why.

1. Any person or website in possession of the public key can verify that
a digital signature has come from someone in possession of the
private key, and can guess what that key is.
2. The idea is that a device would create a pair of keys, public and
private.
3. Permitting access to FIDO via a fingerprint reader adds the
something-you-are to the FIDO key's something-you-have.
4. U2F demotes the password rather than replaces it.
5. Security people are certain that any pin number is not needed.
6. Some passwords and pins may not disappear completely.

5. Answer the questions:

1. Why are passwords called the bane of a life enveloped by
information technology?
2. What does multi-factor authentication mean?
3. What do FIDO’s approaches rely on?
4. On what occasions might passwords be still required?

311
 1. Read the text about emotional-analytics software. Use a dictionary
if necessary. Then do the tasks that follow.

Consumer electronics and privacy

Your phone says: "Cheer up!"

Software that senses how you are feeling is being pitched to gadget-makers
ON January 6th hordes will converge on a vast conference centre in
Las Vegas for the start of the International Consumer Electronics Show. At
the annual shindig, tech firms will show off their latest and greatest gizmos,
from smart cars to smartphones and fancy TVs. The gadgets will provoke
plenty of emotions among the 160,000 or so visitors. But the devices
themselves won't be able to tell what those people are feeling.
Beyond Verbal would like to change that. The Israeli startup is one
of several firms working in the field of "emotions analytics". Its software is
designed to deduce someone's emotional state from a brief sample of his
voice captured by microphone. Rather than focusing on the words used, the
software analyses such things as the loudness and pitch of the speech, and
then runs the results through an algorithm to match them with patterns from
its database.
Beyond Verbal has gathered hundreds of thousands of voice
samples in more than 40 languages and has developed a smartphone app,
Moodies, that lets people try its technology. But for now, it and other
companies in the field, such as Nemesysco, have focused their commercial
efforts on narrow areas such as market research and security rather than
mass-market consumer electronics.
Yuval Mor, Beyond Verbal's chief executive, thinks that
emotional-analytics software could be useful in things such as phones,
fitness gadgets and cars. For instance, a vehicle that senses a driver is in a
heightened emotional state, perhaps because he has been drinking, could
flash up a warning before he takes to the road.
There are a couple of snags with all this. Some experts in the voice-
recognition field are sceptical that the technology touted is reliable enough
for mass deployment. Then there is the thorny issue of privacy. People are

312
bound to be repelled by the prospect of companies and devices tracking
their emotions.
Mr Mor acknowledges such concerns, but argues that "the upside
of the technology can more than compensate for the downside." Yet there
are already signs of resistance to emotion-tracking software. The
Samaritans, a British suicide-prevention group, recently disabled a free web
app it had promoted that alerted people whenever someone they were
following on Twitter used a phrase such as "hate myself", which suggested
the writer was in a fragile emotional state. Critics had argued that the app
could also be used by crooks and others to prey on vulnerable people.
In the wrong hands, the technology being developed by Beyond
Verbal and its rivals could also be exploited for nefarious ends. Privacy
activists and lawyers should keep a close eye on it.
from The Economist January 3rd 2015

2. Match English words and phrases with the corresponding Ukrainian

ones:

1 the annual shindig крихкий, ламкий

2 pitch of the speech делікатне питання
3 a couple of snags щорічна галаслива вечірка
4 thorny issue поборникконфіденційності
5 mass deployment кілька перешкод
6 a crook шахрай
7 fragile масоверозгортання
8 privacy activist висота тону мовлення

3. Give the Ukrainian equivalents to the following English words and

phrases:

• to converge
• to show off the latest and greatest gizmos
• to deduce someone's emotional state
• to be in a heightened emotional state
• to flash up a warning

313
 • to tout the technology
• to be bound
• to be repelled
• to disable a web app
• to alert people
• to prey on vulnerable people
• to be exploited for nefarious ends
• to keep a close eye on

4. True or false? Write T or F after these statements. If they are false,

say why.

1. At the annual shindig, tech firms will show off their latest and
greatest gizmos.
2. The emotional-analytics software focuses on the analysis of the
words used.
3. The emotional-analytics software could be useless in cars.
4. There are signs of resistance to emotion-tracking software.
5. The app could be used by crooks and others to prey on vulnerable
people.

5. Answer the questions:

1. According to chief executive of Beyond Verbal, where could

emotional-analytics software be used?
2. What snags do some experts see in the technology touted?
3. Why should privacy activists and lawyers keep a close eye on the
emotional-analytics software?

314
1. Read the text about online advertising. Use a dictionary if necessary.
Then do the tasks that follow.

Online advertising
Block shock

Internet users are increasingly blocking ads, including on their mobiles

In advertising, an old adage holds, half the money spent is wasted;

the problem is that no one knows which half. This should be less of a
problem in online advertising, since readers' tastes and habits can be
tracked, and ads tailored accordingly. But consumers are increasingly using
software that blocks advertising on the websites they visit. If current trends
continue, the saying in the industry may well become that half the ads
aimed at consumers never reach their screens. This puts at risk online
publishing's dominant business model, in which consumers get content and
services free in return for granting advertisers access to their eyeballs.
By some estimates, more than 200m people worldwide are now
regular users of ad-blocking programs. Eyeo, the maker of Adblock Plus,
the most widely used such software, says it has been downloaded more
than 400m times. Until fairly recently, ads were mostly being blocked on
desktop and laptop computers but now people are installing the software on
their mobile devices, which are expected to account for a growing share of
their time online.
Ad-blocking software used to be fiddly to install, and thus its use
was restricted to a technically adept minority. But now it typically comes in
the form of an add-on to a popular web browser such as Chrome or Firefox,
which can be installed in a few clicks. Websites' use of ever more in-your-
face advertising formats (videos that play automatically, pop-ups that
obscure the text you are trying to read) have driven ever more people to
seek ways to block them. Younger consumers seem especially intolerant of
intrusive ads, and as they get older, overall ad-blocking rates are bound to
rise further, predicts Peter Stabler of Wells Fargo Securities, one of the
authors of a recent report on the phenomenon.

315
 Not many publishers put a figure on their losses from ad-blocking,
but ProSiebenSats, a German media group, has said that in 2014 the
practice cost it €9.2m ($10.4m) – about a fifth of its web
revenues.Publishers with a male, technophile audience are worst hit, says
Sean Blanchfield of PageFair, an Irish startup that helps publishers quantify
and manage ad-blocking. At some online video-game sites more than half
of ads get blocked.
Small wonder that web publishers have started to take action. Some
are switching to subtler means of advertising, such as promotional articles
written in a similar style to the site's editorial content. Others are trying to
educate their audience. Ad-blocking visitors to the website of the
Guardian, a British daily, for example, are greeted with the message: "We
notice that you've got an ad-blocker switched on. Perhaps you'd like to
support the Guardian another way?"
A few are taking a more robust approach. Some sites, such as Hulu,
an online video service, block users who try to block its ads. In Germany
several media groups have sued Eyeo. Its software lets some ads through,
as long as they are not too intrusive, and in the case of the most popular
websites, as long as they pay for the privilege. Some internet firms,
including Google, are said to have cut a deal with Eyeo to have their ads
included on the firm's "whitelist" (Google declined to comment on this).
The plaintiffs in the court cases argued that this is extortion. Eyeo, for its
part, argues that the scheme lets publishers make at least some money, and
that it does need some way of covering the cost of maintaining the
whitelist.
In two cases so far, German courts have sided with Eyeo, and ruled
that its product and its business model are legal because users are informed
about the whitelist before installing the software. But even if other cases go
against it, this is unlikely to stop ad-blocking. Most such software is based
on a shared list of ad-serving computers, maintained by volunteers. So if
the online publishers succeeded in making Eyeo go away, other providers
would take its place.
The online firms had grounds for hope that, as consumers spent
more time on smartphones and tablets, the ad-blocking problem would
fade, since Apple and Google, which provide the operating systems for
most such devices, can control which apps may be installed on them. In

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2013 Google banned ad-blocking apps by Eyeo and other providers,
arguing that they interfered with the workings of other apps.
However, these mobile walled gardens are not impenetrable. One
way in is for users to download an alternative web browser to the one that
came installed with their device, which incorporates ad-blocking features.
One such, UC Browser, already claims 500m users, particularly in China
and India. Last month Eyeo released its first ad-blocking browser, which so
far is available only on devices running Google's Android system.
Since such browsers only block ads on web pages that are viewed
using the browsers, it is hard to claim they are interfering with other apps.
That means they cannot block ads that appear within apps. However, even
this sort of ad may not be immune to being blocked for long. Shine, an
Israeli firm, has developed equipment that would allow mobile-network
operators to block ads of any kind – those to be displayed inside apps as
well as those for web browsers – before they reach subscribers' phones.
Shine says that it is in discussions with a number of wireless carriers, and
that some will start using its product soon. One European operator has
reportedly installed Shine's product in its data centres and plans to turn it on
before the end of the year.

Transatlantic tensions

If mobile ads were blocked by default, this would violate the

principle of network neutrality, which holds that internet providers should
treat all types of traffic equally. In 2013, when Free, a French internet
provider, installed ad-block software on its modems, the government forced
it to make the service optional. But even if it is left to smartphone users to
turn on ad-blocking, the results could be controversial. If lots of mobile
subscribers did switch it on, it would give European carriers what they have
long sought: some way of charging giant American online firms for the
strain those firms put on their mobile networks. Google and Facebook, say,
might have to pay the likes of Deutsche Telekom and Telefonica to get on
to their whitelists.
If that happened, the online firms would surely fight back. If an
operator were, say, to block the ads on Google's search service, Google
could retaliate by trying to stop that operator's subscribers from accessing

317
their Gmail accounts. Such a tit-for-tat is not as far-fetched as it may seem:
Google closed its news-aggregation service in Spain after a new law
required it to pay for using excerpts of publishers' content. If the mobile
firms are not careful, they could start the world's first digital trade war.

From The EconomistJune 6th 2015

2. Find the corresponding Ukrainian equivalents to the English words

and phrases underlined in the text above:

3. Make a summary of the article in ten sentences.

318
1. Read the text about ransomware. Use a dictionary if necessary. Then
do the tasks that follow.

Ransomware

Your money or your data

DICK TURPIN RIDES AGAIN—AS A DIGITAL HIGHWAYMAN

WHEN internal e-mails and unreleased films from Sony were

leaked late last year, it was the origin of the hack (perhaps North Korea)
and the embarrassing details (withering comments on film stars) that made
the news. Less remarked was that the hackers had offered the media giant
the chance to avoid the leak by acquiescing to its demands, which have not
been made public.
Such cyber-hold-ups are on the rise globally and go far beyond big
firms. More typical is the story of an Italian architectural draughtsman who
turned to Digital Forensics Bureau, a computer-security firm in Turin, after
unwittingly downloading "ransomware" – a virus that encrypted all his files
and posted an onscreen message demanding cash to unlock them. Neither
he nor the firm succeeded in cracking it. Faced with losing every file from
his 14-year career, he capitulated, paid up and received a decryption key by
e-mail.
Ransomware is here to stay, says Troels Oerting of Europol's
European Cybercrime Centre. The emergence of bitcoin, a digital
cryptocurrency that can be used anonymously, is a big part of the reason.
Most ransoms must be paid in it, and ransom notes typically explain how to
buy it. Other online options such as PayPal require a credit or debit card, or
a bank account, making them riskier for criminals.
Many of the extortionists are from Russia; its authorities are
uninterested in hunting them down. Their victims are everywhere. In
Australia alone, estimates the Australian Crime Commission, a government
agency, between August and mid-December around 16,000 individuals,
firms and government bodies paid a total of A$8m ($7m) after
downloading ransomware. Not all victims get their data back: some refuse
to pay, and just as 17th-century highwaymen sometimes took first money
and then lives, their digital equivalents can renege on promises to unlock
files.

319
 Ransomware programmers keep ahead of antivirus software by
continually tweaking their code. Last year Europol and the Dutch National
High-Tech Crime Unit warned that ransomware "kits" were available
online, complete with tips on hiding profits from the authorities. And
tricking people into downloading ransomware via an e-mail attachment is
not the only approach. Extortionists often pay associates to post
"malvertising" banner ads that lure traffic to websites that can take control
of visiting computers, says a Parisian security researcher known as
Malekal.

Until recently a victim with some technical skill might have been
able to work around ransomware code, says Paolo Dal Checco of Digital
Forensics Bureau. Now speedy innovation by attackers means victims are
usually outgunned. In June a team led by the FBI seized computers that had
been distributing CryptoLocker, a piece of ransomware. Specialists cracked
it and created DeCryptoLocker, a free decryption service. But Crypto Wall,
an immune version, quickly appeared. In September Nixu Corporation, a
Finnish IT-security firm, found a way to disable particularly fierce
ransomware called TorrentLocker – but within weeks its makers had fixed
the weakness that the firm had spotted.
According to Gregg Housh, an online marketer who is close to
Anonymous, a hackers' collective, the average ransom has fallen from
about $800 in the past few years as extortionists have found the sweet spot
where their victims simply pay up. In October Maria Grazia Mazzolari, an
official in Bussoleno, a small town in northern Italy, paid a €510 ($644)
ransom herself when the authorities balked at using taxes to reward
criminals. Shortly afterwards the sheriff's office in Dickson County,
Tennessee, paid $572 to recover thousands of files. Ransoms have fallen
even further in Paris, says Eric Larcheveque. Most victims who buy bitcoin
at La Maison du Bitcoin, his shop, spend between €160 and €275.

DAYLIGHT ROBBERY

Estimating the profits from any type of cybercrime is tricky. But

even though ransoms are falling, the new Dick Turpins are raking it in. To
collect ill-gotten gains in bit-coin, they must give a bitcoin-account

320
number: anyone can view transactions, though not the holder's identity.
Accounts used by whoever held Bussoleno to ransomracked up $i09,400-
worth of bitcoin in the next eight days.
Ruses used by 17th-century travellers, such as hiding valuables,
hiring guards and picking routes with care, have echoes today. Web-users
should back up files, use antivirus software and firewalls, and avoid
suspicious attachments and sites. But now, as then, the unwary and unlucky
fall victim – and many see no choice but to pay.

from The Economist January 17th 2015

2. Find the corresponding Ukrainian equivalents to the English words

and phrases underlined in the text above.

3. Match the words with the corresponding definitions:

bitcoin - a digital currency in which transactions can be

performed without the need for a central bank
ruse
- the release of captured prisoners or property on
draughtsman
payment of a stipulated price
ransom
- an action intended to mislead, deceive, or trick

- a person who is qualified in mechanical drawing

of machinery, buildings, devices

4. Find in the article the answers to the following questions:

1. What ruses were used by travelers in the 17th-century?
2. What should web-users do not to fall victim of hackers and
extortionists?
5. Make a list of key phrases for the short summary of the article.

321
1. Read the text about securities markets. Use a dictionary if necessary.
Then do the tasks that follow.

New rules for IPOs in America

Open season

A new era begins in America's securities markets

SOMETIMES revolutions have small beginnings. SeedInvest is a
three-year-old company with 20 employees sharing space in a second-tier
building near Wall Street. But it has positioned itself to be at the heart of a
fundamental change in America's capital markets.
On June 19th Title IV of the JOBS (Jump-start Our Business
Startups) Act of 2012 goes into effect. It will change how small companies
raise money. Those seeking $20m-50m will be able to offer their shares to
the public while skipping some ofthe most costly regulatory requirements
that normally involves, including being vetted by state officials, issuing
quarterly reports and listing their shares on an exchange.
In the past, firms that did not meet those requirements could only
raise money from investors with a net worth in excess of $1m or $200,000
in annual income. Ten thousand people who did pass that test have signed
on to SeedInvest's system. With the lifting of the rules on income, any adult
American can now invest in small share offerings, according to Ryan Feit,
SeedInvest's chief executive.

A wide range of companies could benefit. Last year 14% of

conventional initial public offerings were for less than $50m; so far this
year it is 22%, according to Renaissance Capital, a research and fund-man-
agement firm. Such companies can now benefit from crowdfunding, the
raising of capital from a large numbers of investors, each contributing
small amounts. SeedInvest is among a handful of new electronic platforms
that are designed to facilitate the process. In its brief existence, it has
already channelled$25m to 40 firms. Qualifying companies must meet
certain standards, such as having a functional prototype of any planned
product (not just an idea), customers, and reasonable investment terms.
Only 1% of applicants pass the test.

322
 Sam Guzik, a California lawyer, predicts many firms will take
advantage of a "test the waters" provision in the rules allowing them to
float the idea of an offering, discussing it with the media and investors,
before paying to have a formal proposal prepared and reviewed by the
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). In the past, it was feared that
such marketing might allow small investors to be suckered by
unsubstantiated hype. State officials still have concerns on that score. In
2013, as the SEC deliberated over the rules implementing the act, William
Galvin, the secretary of state of Massachusetts, wrote to it to say he was
"dismayed and shocked" that state vetting of public offerings would be
curtailed. Small offerings, he claimed, were particularly vulnerable to risk
and fraud. On May 21st Massachusetts asked a court to block the new
rules, and Montana quickly followed suit.
Are their fears justified? One reason for optimism is the experience
of Kickstarter, a platform used to raise money for projects in exchange for
rewards rather than equity. Kickstarter projects have no disclosure re-
quirements, making it easier to defraud contributors. Nevertheless, after
reviewing more than two years' worth of data, Ethan Mollick of the
University of Pennsylvania concludes that fraud is almost nonexistent at
Kickstarter. The completion rate of projects that receive their desired level
of funding is 86%, suggesting that commitments are largely honoured.
Mr Mollick attributes this lack of fraud to what has become known
as "Linus's Law", after the originator of Linux, a free computer operating
system. He argued that mass vetting would quickly expose any glitches.
One example on Kickstarter was a fraudulent effort to fund jerky made
from Kobe beef. Initially seen as a brilliant idea, it was quickly exposed by
potential users who questioned the use of fatty beef for a stringy product,
and pointed to the scarcity of appropriate livestock.
Crowds, it appears, are attentive to details. A spelling mistake in an
offering document reduces the chances of a Kickstarter funding by 13%.
And 90% of the manufacturing projects that were fully funded have ended
up becoming functioning firms. Platforms offering a financial return might
have a different outcome, of course. But there is no reason to expect that
people hoping to make money would be any less exacting than those giving
it away. from The Economist June 6th 2015

323
2. Find the corresponding Ukrainian equivalents to the English words
and phrases underlined in the text above.

3. Make a list of key phrases for the short summary of the article.

324
1. Read the text about how Internet entrepreneurs get people hooked
on their products. Use a dictionary if necessary. Then do the tasks that
follow.

Getting hooked

CICERO once said that "Nature has planted in our minds an in-
satiable desire to see the truth." These days it would be truer to talk of an
insatiable desire to check our e-mail and Twitter accounts, and to play a
few games of Candy Crush Saga (as a British parliamentarian was recently
caught doing during a committee meeting). It is reckoned that four-fifths of
smartphone owners check their devices within 15 minutes of waking up,
and that the typical user does so 150 times a day.

This time it is not nature but man that has done the planting. Internet
entrepreneurs devote a lot of thought to getting people hooked on their
products. How else can they survive in a world in which hundreds of new
ones are launched every day? And smartphones and tablets have helped
greatly: what could be more habit-forming than devices that are always
evolving, always there and always buzzing with fresh diversions?

"Hooked", a new book by Nir Eyal, a technology writer, gives an

overview of one of the most interesting battles in modern business: the
intense competition to create new digital products that monopolise people's
attention. Peter Drucker, a management guru, once said the aim of a
business is to create a customer. For today's digital firms the aim is to
create an uber-user*: a tapping, scrolling devotee who keeps coming back
for more whenever he has a spare moment. Habit-forming products help
companies squeeze more money or information out of their customers.
Some video-game makers get players hooked and then charge them for
virtual products; often these are just cosmetic changes to how the game
looks, but sometimes players can buy boosts to their in-game powers that
help them win. Google specialises in useful apps, from Gmail to Google
Maps, that gently squeeze data from users, the better to serve them ads.

Such products also offer protection from competition: once you have
incorporated Twitter into your daily routine and devoted time to developing
a following, you will be reluctant to switch to a rival. Although companies

325
must make their products pretty simple to use, so as to persuade people to
take them up, they also need to find mechanisms that encourage them to
invest a lot of time in the product. Getting started on Twitter or Facebook is
simple; but the more you tweet, the better and more popular your Twitter
account becomes, and the more you search for friends and family on
Facebook the more useful it is.

How do these companies turn you into a user? The biggest challenge
is to get their hook into you in the first place: that is, persuade you to install
their app or click on their link rather than choose one of the many
alternatives. The best way to do this is through social pressure: create a
buzz that gets people talking about your product. But it will become habit-
forming only if it satisfies an inner need. People keep visiting Facebook
because they are keen to keep in with their pals. They keep checking
Twitter and their e-mail because they are worried about being out of the
loop if they don't.

The makers of habit-forming products have clearly read the works of

B.F. Skinner, the father of "radical behaviourism", who found that training
subjects by rewarding them in a variable, unpredictable way works best.
That is why the number of monsters one has to vanquish in order to reach
the next level in a game often varies. Faithful Twitter users are rewarded
with more replies to their tweets, and more ego-boosting followers, but not
according to any predictable formula. These variable rewards come in three
forms. The reward of the tribe: people who use Twitter or Pinterest are
rewarded with social validation when their tweets are retweeted or their
pictures are pinned. The reward of the hunt: users quickly scroll through
their feeds in search of the latest gossip or funny cat pictures. And the
reward of self-fulfilment: people are driven to achieve the next level on a
video game, or an empty e-mail inbox.

Should the makers of habit-forming products be praised as inno-

vative entrepreneurs? Or shunned as the immoral equivalents of drug
pushers? Ian Bogost, a designer of video games, describes them as nothing
less than the "cigarette of this century". Paul Graham, a Silicon Valley
investor, worries that humans have not had time to develop societal
"antibodies to addictive new things". Mr Eyal pushes back against such

326
hyperbole. Creating a habit-forming product is in fact very hard. There
have been plenty of digital products, such as Farmville, that were crazes for
a while but went out of fashion. There is an important distinction between a
habit and an addiction: only about 1% of people who regularly play slot
machines, one of the most habit-forming technologies ever created, can
reasonably be described as addicted. The proportion is surely lower for
Twitter and the like. In any case, Mr Eyal notes, unlike smoking and
playing slot machines, some apps help inculcate good habits, such as
dieting or exercising.

That said, it is hard to read "Hooked" without feeling a bit queasy.

Companies are getting at once more sophisticated and more shameless. If
any other business were found to be employing people with the title of
"behaviour designers", they would be seen as exploitative and downright
creepy. The internet is becoming ever more powerful and pervasive. And
every new technological leap makes it easier for behaviour designers to
weave digital technology into consumers' daily habits. As smartphones
become loaded with ever more sensors, and with software that can interpret
their users' emotional states (see earlier article), the scope for manipulating
minds is growing. The world is also on the cusp of a wearable revolution
which will fix Google Glasses to people's skulls and put smart t-shirts onto
their torsos: the irresistible, all-knowing machines will be ever more
ubiquitous. And the trouble with insatiable desires is that the struggle to
sate them leaves everyone as exhausted as they are unfulfilled.

*an uber-user - German über – ‘super’

from The Economist January 3rd 2015

2. Match English words and phrases with the corresponding Ukrainian

ones:

1 plant in minds an in- a) розважливо

satiable desire b) вважається,що
2 It is reckoned that c) інтенсивнаконкуренція
3 intense competition d) новіречі,яківикликаютьпризвичаєння
4 the biggest challenge e) найбільша проблема
f) насаждати в умах ненаситне бажання
5 variable reward g) соціальна валідація,

327
6 social validation h) визнання
i) інноваційниі підприємці
7 innovative j) наркоділки
entrepreneurs k) змінна винагорода
8 drug pushers
9 addictive new things
10 reasonably

3. Give the Ukrainian equivalents to the following English words and

phrases:

• to devote a lot of thought to

• to get people hooked on their products
• to create a habit-forming product
• to buzz with fresh diversions
• to be reluctant
• to switch to a rival
• to install the app
• to click on the link
• to satisfy an inner need
• to monopolise people's attention
• to be driven to achieve
• to persuade
• to be keen to keep in with the pals
• to keep checking Twitter and e-mail
• to be worried about being out of the loop
• to squeeze more money, data or information out of their customers
• to go out of fashion
• to weave digital technology into consumers' daily habits
• to be on the cusp of a wearable revolution
• to leave everyone as exhausted as they are unfulfilled
• to sate the desire

4. True or false? Write T or F after these statements. If they are false,

say why.

328
1. It is reckoned that the typical users check their devices 150 times a
day.
2. Habit-forming products help companies squeeze more money or
information out of their customers.
3. Faithful Twitter users get variable rewards in a lot of forms.
4. Companies create a buzz that gets people talking about their product.
5. The world is on the cusp of a wearable revolution.

329
1. Read the text about solar power. Use a dictionary if necessary. Then
do the tasks that follow.

A charged view

Solar power: Using glass to make electricity out of sunlight could turn
buildings and cars into their own power stations.

WITH so much glass in buildings, cars and the screens of mobile devices, it
is understandable why researchers would like to come up with transparent
solar cells which could generate electricity and top up batteries.
Solar cells work by absorbing the photons in sunlight and converting
them into electrons, which are gathered by electrodes to flow into a circuit.
Most solar cells are opaque to absorb all the light they can to maximize
their efficiency. So, to look out of a window or use the screen of a smart
phone, a layer of solar cells has to let some light through. Yet the more
transparent the cells, the less energy they produce – or at least that is how it
works with traditional solar technology based on semiconducting materials
such as silicon.
An alternative is to make solar cells from substances that absorb light
only at wavelengths which are invisible to the human eye, such as those in
the infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) spectrum. That would allow visible
light to pass through. One company working on this is Ubiquitous Energy,
a spin-off from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 2011. It
is developing solar cells using transparent organic materials that absorb
IRand UV wavelengths.
Taking light from only part of the spectrum would reduce the percentage
of sunlight's energy that can be converted into electricity. Ubiquitous
Energy is hoping, some think optimistically, to exceed 10%. That compares
with 20-25% efficiency for a typical non-transparent solar panel.
Last year a team at Michigan State University led by Richard Lunt,
formerly at MIT, displayed a variation of the approach using extremely
small organic molecules, which Dr Lunt describes as "exceptionally
transparent to the human eye". These molecules absorb specific non-visible
wavelengths of light and then glow at a different IR wavelength. This
glowing light, which is also invisible to the eye, is guided to the edge of the

330
glass where it is converted to electrical energy by thin strips of photovoltaic
cells. The arrangement, known as a transparent luminescent solar
concentrator, allows most of the glass to be kept clear of solar components.
The first version had a power efficiency of only about 1%. But it is early
days and the researchers hope to boost that considerably.
ROLLING IT OUT
It should be possible by using materials that absorb non-visible
wavelengths of light to produce thin-films of solar cells cheaply using
industrial processes that make large rolls, says Rutger Schlatmann, director
of the Competence Centre for Thin-Film and Nanotechnology for
Photovoltaics, a Berlin-based industry research group. But as he points out:
"It is visible light that carries by far most of the energy." That means,
however good they are, transparent solar cells may never rival solar panels
designed to capture the maximum amount of light. Nevertheless, what they
can trap could still be useful.
Semi-transparent solar cells can be used to produce coloured or tinted
glass, which helps when shading is required. Heliatek, a company based in
Dresden, Germany, uses organic materials to make solar-cell films which
are up to 40% transparent. With a solar efficiency of over 7% they can
produce electricity-generating tinted glass in buildings and car sunroofs.
One development that is attracting a lot of interest is the use of a family of
crystalline materials called perovskites, which could allow semi-transparent
solar cells to be made relatively cheaply in large rolls. A group at Brown
University in Providence, Rhode Island, recently reported they had made
ultra-thin films with perovskite crystals that are capable of a solar
efficiency of over 15%.
Oxford Photovoltaics, spun out of the University of Oxford in 2010 to
commercialise thin-film solar cells, reckons perovskites are good for over
20%. The firm calculates that if a 35-storey office block in London was
clad with perovskite cells they could generate almost 60% of the building's
energy consumption. When electricity bills are high or batteries are running
low, every bit of juice counts.
From The Economist Quarterly May 30th 2015

2. Match English words and phrases with the corresponding Ukrainian

ones:

331
1 a layer of solar cells aневидиміхвилі
2 opaque bфотогальванічні елементи
3 invisible wavelengths cкомпанія, що відділилась
4 a spin-off dяскраве світло
5 glowing light eтоноване скло
6 photovoltaic сells fлюкна даху автомобіля
7 tinted glass gмінерал перовскіт
8 car sunroof hшарсонячних батарей
9 perovskite i непрозорий

3. Give the Ukrainian equivalents to the following English words and

phrases:

• to come up with
• to top up batteries
• to maximise the efficiency
• to let some light through
• to exceed
• to display a variation of the approach
• to boost efficiency
• to rival
• to be clad (clothed) with

4. True or false? Write T or F after these statements. If they are false,

say why.

1. The more transparent the cells, the more energy they produce.
2. Traditional solar technology is based on semiconducting
materials such as silicon.
3. Ubiquitous Energy uses transparent organic materials that
absorb IRand UV wavelengths to develop solar cells.
4. Transparent solar cells may exceed solar panels designed to
capture the maximum amount of light.

332
 5. Perovskites allow semi-transparent solar cells to be made
relatively cheaply in large rolls.

5. Answer the questions:

1. How do solar cells work?

2. What is an alternative to traditional solar technology?
3. What does the expression ‘every bit of juice counts’ mean?

Vocabulary notes.

Plug (штепсельная вилка) / socket (патрон; розетка) / cable /wire

(electric / power cable — электрoкабель)

to insert / put a plug into a socket — вставить, воткнуть вилку в розетку

to pull а plug — выдернуть вилку из розетки plug fits into a socket —
вилка соответствует / подходит к розетке When the plug is inserted in
the socket, the lamp can be lighted. — После того как вилка вставлена в
розетку, можно включать лампу.
to pull the plug прекратить поддержку, перекрыть кислород Creditors
have sworn to pull the financial plug. — Кредиторы поклялись
прекратить финансирование.

docking station установочная станция, док-станция, базовый

(компоновочный) блок;
a device used to connect one appliance to another, esp. a portable computer
and a desktop computer, to make use of its external power supply, monitor,
and keyboard, esp. to enable the transfer of data between the machines;
устройствo для подключения к портативному компьютеру
дополнительных плат расширения, полноразмерной клавиатуры,
монитора, накопителей и другого внешнего оборудования

storage device, memory, accumulator, buffer unit, file, bank -

накопитель
disk storage — дисковый накопитель

333
correlate- to have a close similarity, connection or causal relationship with
heuristic hypothesis - a hypothesis that has a very high probability of
being true
on the basis of reasoning and past experience

computational complexity - an area of computer design dealing with the

problems
of algorithms and their ability to solve a given problem

cognitive science - the scientific study of mind or intelligence based on

relevant fields,
including psychology, philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, anthropology,
computer science, and biology

confine - to define boundaries; to limit the extent (of an activity)

computational
1. involving computers
2. that can be computed

computational - 1. involving computers 2. that can be computed

incoherent - confused and inconsistent; illogical

retrievable восстановимый; поправимый, извлекаемый Syn: reparable ,

remediable

334
 Artificial Intelligence

1. Discuss with a partner the following questions:

• How would you define “intelligence”?
• Have you ever thought of computer programs as being
“intelligent”?
• Do you think that computers or machines will ever be as
intelligent as humans?
• Are you afraid of the nightmare scenario in which machines
have control over people, possibly leading to the annihilation
of the human race?

2. Read the interview. Then do the tasks that follow.

Basic questions about AI

Q. What is artificial intelligence?

A. It is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines,
especially intelligent computer programs. It is related to the similar task of
using computers to understand human intelligence, but AI does not have to
confine itself to methods that are biologically observable.

Q. Yes, but what is intelligence?

A. Intelligence is the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in
the world. Varying kinds and degrees of intelligence occur in people, many
animals and some machines.

Q. Isn’t there a solid definition of intelligence that doesn’t depend on

relating it to human intelligence?
A. Not yet. The problem is that we cannot yet characterize in general what
kinds of computational procedures we want to call intelligent. We
understand some of the mechanisms of intelligence and not others.

Q. Is intelligence a single thing so that one can ask a yes or no question

‘Is this machine intelligent or not?’

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A. No. Intelligence involves mechanisms, and AI research has discovered
how to make computers carry out some of them and not others. If doing a
task requires only mechanisms that are well understood today, computer
programs can give very impressive performances on these tasks. Such
programs should be considered somewhat intelligent.

Q. Isn’t AI about simulating human intelligence?

A. Sometimes but not always or even usually. On the one hand, we can
learn something about how to make machines solve problems by observing
other people or just by observing our own methods. On the other hand,
most work in AI involves studying the problems the world presents to
intelligence rather than studying people or animals. AI researchers are free
to use methods that are not observed in people or that involve much more
computing than people can do.

Q. What about IQ? Do computer programs have IQs?

A. No. IQ is based on the rates at which intelligence develops in children. It
is the ratio of the age at which a child normally makes a certain score to the
child’s age. The scale is extended to adults in a suitable way. IQ correlates
well with various measures of success or failure in life, but making
computers that can score high on IQ tests would be weakly correlated with
their usefulness. For example, the ability of a child to repeat back a long
sequence of digits correlates well with other intellectual abilities, perhaps
because it measures how much information the child can compute with at
once. However, digit span is trivial for even extremely limited computers.
However, some of the problems on IQ tests are useful challenges for AI.

Q. What about other comparisons between human and computer

intelligence?
Arthur R. Jensen, a leading researcher in human intelligence, suggests as a
heuristic hypothesis that all normal humans have the same intellectual
mechanisms and that differences in intelligence are related to quantitative
biochemical and physiological conditions. I see them as speed, short term
memory, and the ability to form accurate and retrievable long term
memories. Whether or not Jensen is right about human intelligence, the
situation in AI today is the reverse. Computer programs have plenty of

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speed and memory but their abilities correspond to the intellectual
mechanisms that program designers understand well enough to put in
programs. Some abilities that children normally don’t develop till they are
teenagers may be in, and some abilities possessed by two year olds are still
out. The matter is further complicated by the fact that the cognitive
sciences still have not succeeded in determining exactly what the human
abilities are. Very likely the organization of the intellectual mechanisms for
AI can usefully be different from that in people. Whenever people do better
than computers on some task or computers use a lot of computation to do
as well as people, this demonstrates that the program designers lack
understanding of the intellectual mechanisms required to do the task
efficiently.

Q. When did AI research start?

A. After WW II, a number of people independently started to work on
intelligent machines. The English mathematician Alan Turing may have
been the first. He gave a lecture on it in 1947. He also may have been the
first to decide that AI was best researched by programming computers
rather than by building machines. By the late 1950s, there were many
researchers on AI, and most of them were basing their work on
programming computers.

Q. Does AI aim to put the human mind into the computer?

A. Some researchers say they have that objective, but maybe they are using
the phrase metaphorically. The human mind has a lot of peculiarities, and
I’m not sure anyone is serious about imitating all of them.

Q. What is the Turing test?

A. Alan Turing’s 1950 article Computing Machinery and Intelligence
discussed conditions for considering a machine to be intelligent. He argued
that if the machine could successfully pretend to be human to a
knowledgeable observer then you certainly should consider it intelligent.
This test would satisfy most people but not all philosophers. The observer
could interact with the machine and a human by teletype (to avoid
requiring that the machine imitate the appearance or voice of the person),
and the human would try to persuade the observer that it was human and

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the machine would try to fool the observer. The Turing test is a one-sided
test. A machine that passes the test should certainly be considered
intelligent, but a machine could still be considered intelligent without
knowing enough about humans to imitate a human. Daniel Dennett’s book
Brainchildren [Den98] has an excellent discussion of the Turing test and
the various partial Turing tests that have been implemented, i.e. with
restrictions on the observer’s knowledge of AI and the subject matter of
questioning. It turns out that some people are easily led into believing that a
rather dumb program is intelligent.

Q. Does AI aim at human-level intelligence?

A. Yes. The ultimate effort is to make computer programs that can solve
problems and achieve goals in the world as well as humans. However,
many people involved in particular research areas are much less ambitious.

Q. How far is AI from reaching human-level intelligence? When will it

happen?
A. A few people think that human-level intelligence can be achieved by
writing large numbers of programs of the kind people are now writing and
assembling vast knowledge bases of facts in the languages now used for
expressing knowledge. However, most AI researchers believe that new
fundamental ideas are required, and therefore it cannot be predicted when
human-level intelligence will be achieved.

Q. Are computers the right kind of machine to be made intelligent?

A. Computers can be programmed to simulate any kind of machine. Many
researchers invented non-computer machines, hoping that they would be
intelligent in different ways than the computer programs could be.
However, they usually simulate their invented machines on a computer and
come to doubt that the new machine is worth building. Because many
billions of dollars have been spent in making computers faster and faster,
another kind of machine would have to be very fast to perform better than a
program on a computer simulating the machine.

Q. Are computers fast enough to be intelligent?

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A. Some people think much faster computers are required as well as new
ideas. My own opinion is that the computers of 30 years ago were fast
enough if only we knew how to program them. Of course, quite apart from
the ambitions of AI researchers, computers will keep getting faster.

Q. What about parallel machines?

A. Machines with many processors are much faster than single processors
can be. Parallelism itself presents no advantages, and parallel machines are
somewhat awkward to program. When extreme speed is required, it is
necessary to face this awkwardness.

Q. What about making a child machine that could improve by reading

and by learning from experience?
A. This idea has been proposed many times, starting in the 1940s.
Eventually, it will be made to work. However, AI programs haven’t yet
reached the level of being able to learn much of what a child learns from
physical experience. Nor do present programs understand language well
enough to learn much by reading.

Q. Might an AI system be able to bootstrap itself to higher and higher

level intelligence by thinking about AI?
A. I think yes, but we aren’t yet at a level of AI at which this process can
begin.

Q. What about chess?

A. Alexander Kronrod, a Russian AI researcher, said Chess is the
Drosophila of AI. He was making an analogy with geneticists’ use of that
fruit fly to study inheritance. Playing chess requires certain intellectual
mechanisms and not others. Chess programs now play at grandmaster level,
but they do it with limited intellectual mechanisms compared to those used
by a human chess player, substituting large amounts of computation for
understanding. Once we understand these mechanisms better, we can build
human-level chess programs that do far less computation than do present
programs. Unfortunately, the competitive and commercial aspects of
making computers play chess have taken precedence over using chess as a
scientific domain. It is as if the geneticists after 1910 had organized fruit

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fly races and concentrated their efforts on breeding fruit flies that could win
these races.

Q. What about Go?

A. The Chinese and Japanese game of Go is also a board game in which the
players take turns moving. Go exposes the weakness of our present
understanding of the intellectual mechanisms involved in human game
playing. Go programs are very bad players, in spite of considerable effort
(not as much as for chess). The problem seems to be that a position in Go
has to be divided mentally into a collection of sub-positions which are first
analyzed separately followed by an analysis of their interaction. Humans
use this in chess also, but chess programs consider the position as a whole.
Chess programs compensate for the lack of this intellectual mechanism by
doing thousands or, in the case of Deep Blue, many millions of times as
much computation. Sooner or later, AI research will overcome this
scandalous weakness.

Q. Don’t some people say that AI is a bad idea?

A. The philosopher John Searle says that the idea of a non-biological
machine being intelligent is incoherent. He proposes the Chinese room
argument www-formal. stanford.edu/jmc/chinese.html The philosopher
Hubert Dreyfus says that AI is impossible. The computer scientist Joseph
Weizenbaum says the idea is obscene, anti-human and immoral. Various
people have said that since artificial intelligence hasn’t reached human
level by now, it must be impossible. Still other people are disappointed that
companies they invested in went bankrupt.

3. Answer the following questions:

1. What does human intelligence depend on?
2. What is the main advantage of computers over people and vice versa?
3. What is the main aim of the Turing test?
4. In what ways have researchers tried to build an AI system similar to
human intelligence?

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4. Work with a partner. Prepare a speech on one of these topics.

1. How has AI been depicted in books and films?

2. Is AI an ethical or moral issue?
3. What effect could AI have on religion?
4. Do you think machines with AI could ever be programmed to have
religious consciousness or religious feelings?

Source materials
Artificial Intelligence by Patrick Henry Winston, 2003, Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.

5. Read the end of the interview and then make the summary in 5-8
sentences.

Q. Aren’t computability theory and computational complexity the keys

to AI?
[Note to the layman (непрофесіонал; дилетант, любитель) and beginners
in computer science: These are quite technical branches of mathematical
logic and computer science, and the answer to the question has to be
somewhat technical.]
A. No. These theories are relevant but don’t address the fundamental
problems of AI. In the 1930s mathematical logicians, especially Kurt Gödel
and Alan Turing, established that there did not exist algorithms that were
guaranteed to solve all problems in certain important mathematical
domains. Whether a sentence of first order logic is a theorem is one
example, and whether a polynomial equation in several variables has
integer solutions is another. Humans solve problems in these domains all
the time, and this has been offered as an argument (usually with some
decorations) that computers are intrinsically incapable of doing what
people do. Roger Penrose claims this. However, people can’t guarantee to
solve arbitrary problems in these domains either. See my Review of The
Emperor’s New Mind by Roger Penrose. More essays and reviews
defending AI research are in my book Concepts of Logical AI [McC96a].

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In the 1960s computer scientists, especially Steve Cook and Richard Karp
developed the theory of NP-complete problem domains. Problems in these
domains are solvable, but seem to take time exponential in the size of the
problem. Which sentences of propositional calculus are satisfiable is a
basic example of an NP-complete problem domain. Humans often solve
problems in NP-complete domains in times much shorter than is
guaranteed by the general algorithms, but can’t solve them quickly in
general. What is important for AI is to have algorithms as capable as
people at solving problems. The dentification of subdomains for which
good algorithms exist is important, but a lot of AI problem solvers are not
associated with readily identified subdomains. The theory of the difficulty
of general classes of problems is called computational complexity. So far
this theory hasn’t interacted with AI as much as might have been hoped.
Success in problem solving by humans and by AI programs seems to rely
on properties of problems and problem solving methods that the neither the
complexity researchers nor the AI community have been able to identify
precisely. Algorithmic complexity theory as developed by Solomonoff,
Kolmogorov and Chaitin (independently of one another) is also relevant. It
defines the complexity of a symbolic object as the length of the shortest
program that will generate it. Proving that a candidate program is the
shortest or close to the shortest is an unsolvable problem, but representing
objects by short programs that generate them should sometimes be
illuminating even when you can’t prove that the program is the shortest.

6. Read the article paying attention to the words and phrases in bold.

AI in China

Code red

State-controlled corporations are developing artificial intelligence

(AI). The ingredients would include masses of processing power, lots of
computer-science boffins, a torrent of capital – and abundant data with
which to train machines to recognise and respond to patterns. That
environment might sound like a fair description of America, the current
leader in the field. But in some respects it is truer still of China.

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 The country is rapidly building up its cloud-computing capacity.
For sheer volume of research on AI, if not quality, Chinese academics
surpass their American peers; AI-related patent submissions in China
almost tripled between 2010 and 2014 compared with the previous five
years. Chinese startups are attracting billions in venture capital. Above
all, China has over 700m smartphone users, more than any other country.
They are consuming digital services, using voice assistants, paying for
stuff with a wave of their phones – and all the while generating vast
quantities of data. That gives local firms such as Alibaba, Baidu and
Tencent the opportunity to concoct best-in-class AI systems for everything
from facial recognition to messaging bots. The government in Beijing is
convinced of the potential. On July 20th it outlined a development strategy
designed to make China the world’s leading AI power by 2030.

An AI boom in the world’s most populous place holds out enormous

promise. No other country could generate such a volume of data to enable
machines to learn patterns indicative of rare diseases, for example. The
development of new technologies ought to happen faster, too. Because
typing Chinese characters is fiddly, voice-recognition services are more
popular than in the West; they should improve faster as a result. Systems to
adjust traffic lights automatically in response to footage from roadside
cameras are already being tested. According to the McKinsey Global
Institute, a research are of the consultancy, AI-driven automation could
boost China’s GDP growth by more than a percentage point annually.

Yet the country’s AI plans give cause for concern. One worry is that
the benefits of Chinese breakthroughs will be muted by data
protectionism. A cyber-security law that came into force in June requires
foreign firms to store data they collect on Chinese customers within the
country’s borders; outsiders cannot use Chinese data to offer services to
third parties. It is not hard to imagine tit-for-tat constraints on Chinese
firms. And if data cannot be pooled, the algorithms that run autonomous
cars and other products may not be the most efficient.

A second area of unease is ethics and safety. In America, the

technology giants of Silicon Valley have pledged to work together to
make sure that any AI tools they develop are safe. They will look at

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techniques like “boxing”, in which AI agents are isolated from their
environment so that any wayward behaviour does not have disastrous
effects. All the leading AI researchers in the West are signatories to an
open letter from 2015 calling for a ban on the creation of autonomous
weapons. If it happens at all, the equivalent Chinese discussion about the
limits of ethical AI research is far more opaque.

Chinese AI companies do have incentives to think about some of

these issues: rogue AI would be a problem for the planet wherever it
emerged. There is a self-interested case for the formulation of global
safety standards, for example. But a third concern – that AI will be used
principally to the benefit of China’s government – is a less tractable
problem.

Autocratic intelligence

The new plan is open about AI’s value to the state. It envisages the
use of the technology in everything from guided missiles to predictive
policing. AI techniques are perfect for finding patterns in the massive
amounts of data that Chinese censors must handle in order to maintain a
grip on the citizenry. It is easy to imagine how the same data could boost
the country’s nascent plans to create a “social-credit” system that scores
people for their behaviour. Once perfected, these algorithms would
interest autocratic regimes around the world. China’s tech firms are in no
position to prevent the government in Beijing from taking advantage of
such tools. Baidu, for example, has been appointed to lead a national
laboratory for deep learning. Chinese AI will reflect the influence of the
state.

Western firms and governments are no angels when it comes to data

collection and espionage. But Western companies are at least engaged in
an open debate about the ethical implications of AI; and intelligence
agencies are constrained by democratic institutions. Neither is true of
China. AI is a technology with the potential to change the lives of billions.
If China ends up having most influence over its future, then the state, not
citizens, may be the biggest beneficiary.

The Economist July 29th 2017

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Vocabulary practice

7. Translate the following phrases from the text above. Use the
dictionary if necessary.

state-controlled corporations

masses of processing power

computer-science boffin

a torrent of capital

to train machines to recognise and respond to patterns

in some respects

to rapidly build up its cloud-computing capacity

sheer volume of research on AI

to surpass peers

AI-related patent submissions

to attract billions in venture capital

to consume digital services

to use voice assistants

to pay for stuff with a wave of their phones

to generate vast quantities of data

to concoct best-in-class AI systems

facial recognition

messaging bot

the world’s most populous place

to hold out enormous promise

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 to enable machines to learn patterns indicative of rare diseases

to adjust traffic lights automatically

in response to footage from roadside

to be muted by data protectionism

a cyber-security law

to come into force

within the country’s borders

to offer services to third parties

tit-for-tat constraints

the algorithms that run autonomous cars

an area of unease

to pledge to work together

to have disastrous effects

to be a signatory to an open letter

a ban on the creation of autonomous weapons

wherever it emerged

8. Match the adjectives to their meaning:

1 abundant A small and awkward to do or handle

2 fiddly B wanting to have one's own way
3 wayward C easily controlled or persuaded
4 opaque D existing in plentiful supply
5 rogue E dishonest or unprincipled
6 tractable F hard to understand; unintelligible

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9. Find in the text the answers to the following questions:

1 What ingredients do state-controlled corporations need to obtain to

develop AI?

2 Why is it truer in some respect that China is the world leader in AI area?
Find some facts to prove this statement.

3 Why is an AI boom in China so promising?

4 Are there any causes for concern about AI development in China?

347
 Augmented Reality

1. Discuss the following questions:

• What is AR?
• Virtual reality vs augmented reality: what is the difference?

2. Read the first part of the article. Do the tasks that follow.

The technology is coming. But it will take time for consumers to embrace
AR.

THE history of computers is one of increasing intimacy. At first

users rented time on mainframe machines they did not own. Next came the
“personal computer”. Although PCs were confined to desks, ordinary
people could afford to buy them, and filled them with all manner of
personal information. These days smartphones go everywhere in their
owners’ pockets, serving as everything from a diary to a camera to a voice-
activated personal assistant.
The next step, according to many technologists, is to move the
computer from the pocket to the body itself. The idea is to build a pair of
“smart glasses” that do everything a smartphone can, and more. A
technology called “augmented reality” (AR) would paint computerised
information directly on top of the wearers’ view of the world. Early
versions of the technology already exist. If it can be made to work as its
advocates hope, AR could bring about a new and even more intimate way
to interact with machines. In effect, it would turn reality itself into a
gigantic computer screen.
For the time being, the most popular AR apps are still found on
smartphones. Pokémon Go, a smartphone game that briefly entranced
people in 2016, used a primitive form of the technology. Another popular
application is on Snapchat, a messaging app whose parent firm is gearing
up for an IPO: when teenagers overlay rabbit ears onto the faces of friends
and family, they are using AR.

348
Bunny business
But the technology is advancing rapidly. Several companies already
make fairly simple glasses that can project flat images for their wearers.
They are increasingly popular with warehousing and manufacturing firms,
who can use them to issue instructions to employees while leaving their
hands free. Meanwhile, firms such as Magic Leap, Meta and Microsoft, are
building much more capable headsets that can sense their surroundings and
react to them, projecting convincing, three-dimensional illusions onto the
world. Microsoft is already running trials of its HoloLens headset in
medical schools (giving students virtual cadavers to dissect) and
architectural practices (where several designers can work together on a
digital representation of a building).
Designing a nifty piece of technology, though, is not the same as
ushering in a revolution. Social factors often govern the path to mass
adoption, and for AR, two problems stand out. One is aesthetic. The
HoloLens is an impressive machine, but few would mistake it for a fashion
item. Its alien appearance makes its wearers look more creepy than cool.
One reason the iPhone was so successful was that it was a beautiful piece
of design. Its metal finish and high-quality components, allied with a big
advertising push from Apple, all helped establish it as a desirable consumer
bauble.
The other big problem surrounds consent. The history of one much-
hyped set of smart glasses should give the industry pause. In 2013 Google
launched its “Glass” headsets to a chosen segment of the public. As well as
those who thought the product looked silly, plenty found the glasses
sinister, worrying that their users were covertly filming everyone they came
into contact with. “Glassholes” became social pariahs. Two years later,
Google withdrew Glass from sale.
Both of these problems are solvable. Computers only ever get
smaller. Costs shrink relentlessly, too. It may well be possible one day to
build a capable and affordable AR computer that looks like a pair of
fashionable glasses. Social etiquette also evolves. The Snapchat generation
may not be troubled by the idea of being perpetually on camera.
In the meantime, AR’s first inroads will probably come in the world
of work, where bosses can order their employees to use headsets with little
concern for the finer social niceties, or for how much of a berk they make

349
people look. AR seems likely, in other words, to follow the same path to
popularity as smartphones. The first mobile phones were clunky, brick-
sized devices, mostly used by self-important bankers and a frequent target
of mockery. You would not wear a HoloLens on a night out. Twenty years
from now, though, your children may well be showing off a distant
descendant.

Vocabulary notes:
intimacy - гарне знання предмета
mainframe - a high-speed general-purpose computer, usually with a large
store capacity, велика ЕОМ
confine - обмежувати, to keep or close within bounds; limit; restrict. to be
confined to — бути прикутим до
augment - збільшувати(ся), додавати(ся); посилювати(ся) augmented =
increased or expanded
advocate - прихильник, прибічник
for the time being = for the moment, for the present, (in the) meanwhile, іn
the meantime, temporarily, поки що
to entrance - надмірно захоплювати;
gear up - to prepare for greater efficiency готувати, прискорювати (Is our
industry geared up for these new challenges?)
IPO 1) independent publicly owned company 2) initial public offering,
первинне розміщення акцій на фондовому ринку
overlay – покривати, накладати
running trials - ride test, performance trials, underway trials, ходові
випробування
cadaver - труп Syn: corpse
dissect - розтинати, анатомувати, аналізувати
nifty - елегантний, модний; стильний
usher - проводити, супроводжувати; вводити, оголошувати
alien – чужий
creepy - що викликає жах
allied with – y поєднаннi
bauble - іграшка; дрібниця
consent - give assent or permission, згода; дозвіл
hype - крикливо рекламувати; розхвалювати,

350
hyped up - stimulated or excited by
sinister - злий, поганий, зловісний
covertly - прикрито, приховано; таємно
pariah - a social outcast, парія, вигнанець, ізгой
withdraw - вилучати (// launch)
shrink relentlessly - скорочувати(ся) безжаліснo, невблаганнo
capable - having ability, esp in many different fields; competent, здібний;
здатний; умілий
affordable – доступний
perpetually - безкінечно
inroad – invasion, attack; raid, наскок, навала, вторгнення
niceties - тонкощі, деталі
berk or burk - a stupid person; fool
clunky - ungraceful or unsophisticated, незграбний
mockery - висміювання; глузування
descendant - нащадок

3. Put the following steps of computer history into the right order
according to the text:
a) smartphones serve as a voice-activated PA
b) users rent time on mainframe machines
c) new technologies turn reality itself into a gigantic computer screen
d) personal computer are confined to desks

4. Match the verbs with their definitions:

1. confined a) fill with wonder and delight; enchant

2. interact b) progress, improve
3. show off c) kept within bounds; limited
4. shrink d) become smaller in size
5. advance e) exhibit or display so as to invite
admiration
6. usher f) act in close relation with each other
7. entrance g) cover with an applied decoration
8. overlay h) conduct or introduce

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5. Find in the article the answers to the following question:

1. Where are the most popular AR apps found these days?

2. Where does Microsoft see the market niche for its AR products?
3. What influences the way of a new gadget to mass adoption?
4. What two problems surround AR? Can they be tackled?
5. Why was the Google Glass unsuccessful?
6. Where might AR tools be useful first?

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6. Read the second part of the article. Do the tasks that follow.

SCIENCE fiction both predicts the future and influences the

scientists and technologists who work to bring that future about. Mobile
phones, to take a famous example, are essentially real-life versions of the
hand-held communicators wielded by Captain Kirk and his crewmates in
the original series of “Star Trek”. The clamshell models of the mid-2000s
even take design cues directly from those fictional devices.
If companies ranging from giants like Microsoft and Google to
newcomers like Magic Leap and Meta have their way, the next thing to
leap from fiction to fact will be augmented reality (AR). AR is a sci-fi
staple, from Arnold Schwarzenegger’s heads-up display in the
“Terminator” films to the holographic computer screens that Tom Cruise
slings around as a futuristic policeman in “Minority Report”.
AR is a close cousin to virtual reality (VR). There is, though, a
crucial difference between them: the near-opposite meanings they ascribe
to the term “reality”. VR aims to drop users into a convincing, but artificial,
world. AR, by contrast, supplements the real world by laying useful or
entertaining computer-generated data over it. Such an overlay might be a
map annotated with directions, or a reminder about a meeting, or even a
virtual alien with a ray gun, ripe for blasting. Despite the hype and
prominence given recently to VR, people tend to spend more time in real
realities than computer-generated ones. AR thus has techies licking their
lips in anticipation of a giant new market. Digi-Capital, a firm of merger
and acquisitions advisors in California, reckons that of the $108 billion a
year which it predicts will be spent by 2021 on VR and AR combined, AR
will take three-quarters.

Improving on the world

Like many science-fictional technologies, AR is in fact already
here—just unevenly distributed. An early version was the heads-up
displays that began to be fitted to jet fighters in the 1950s. These projected
information such as compass headings, altitude and banking angles onto
the cockpit canopy. Such displays occasionally turn up in cars, too. But
only now, as computers have shrunk enough and become sufficiently

353
powerful, has it become possible to give people a similar sort of experience
as they go about their daily lives.
Last year, for instance, the world was briefly entranced by an AR
smartphone game called Pokémon Go. Players had to wander the world
collecting virtual monsters that were, thanks to their phones’ cameras,
drawn over a phone’s-eye view of a building’s lobby or a stand of trees.
Apps such as Snapchat, which features image filters that permit users to
take pictures of themselves and others wearing computer-generated rabbit
ears or elaborate virtual make-up, are another example.
There are less frivolous uses, too. Google’s Translate app employs
computer vision, automatic translation and a smartphone’s camera to show
an image of the world that has text, such as items on menus and street
signs, interpreted into any of several dozen languages.
Apps like Snapchat and Translate rely on machine-vision algorithms
to work their magic. Snapchat is designed to detect faces. This works well
enough, but means that the bunny ears can be applied only to heads.
Translate, similarly, looks for text in the world upon which to work its
magic. But smartphone-makers have bigger plans.
At the end of last year Google and Lenovo, a Chinese hardware
manufacturer, unveiled the Phab 2 Pro, the first phone to implement a piece
of Google technology called Tango. The idea is that, by giving the phone
an extra set of sensors, it can detect the shape of the world around it. Using
information from infra-red detectors, a wide-angle lens and a “time-of-
flight” camera (which measures how long pulses of light take to reflect off
the phone’s surroundings) Tango is able to build up a three-dimensional
image of those surroundings. Armed with all this, a Tango-enabled phone
can model a house, an office or any other space, and then use that model as
a canvas upon which to draw things.
To give an idea of what is possible, Google has written apps that
would be impossible on Tango-less phones. “Measure”, for instance,
overlays a virtual tape measure on the phone’s screen. Point it at a door,
and it will tell you how wide and high that portal is. Point it at a bed, and
you get the bed’s dimensions—letting you work out whether it will fit
through the door. Another Tango app is the oddly spelled “Woorld”,
which lets users fill their living rooms with virtual flowers, houses and
rocket ships, all of which will interact appropriately with the scenery. Place

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the rocket behind a television, for instance, and the set will block your view
of it.

7. Match the words with their definitions:

a) wield 1. to work out in detail; develop, create

b) lick one's lips 2. intensive or exaggerated publicity or sales
c) cue promotion
d) hype 3. to provide an addition
e) supplement 4. to handle or use a tool
f) leap 5. to anticipate or recall something with glee or
g) unveil relish
h) elaborate 6. a signal or reminder to do something
7. to jump suddenly, to move or react quickly
8. to make (something secret or concealed)
known or public

8. Find the answers to the following questions:

1. Why does science fiction play an important role for science and
technology?
2. What examples of AR are given in the article?
3. What are AR and VR different in?
4. What reality do people tend to spend more time in?
5. How do AR apps work their magic?
6. What can a Tango-enabled phone do?

9. Translate the sentence paying attention to the word order

(Inversion):

But only now, as computers have shrunk enough and become sufficiently
powerful, has it become possible to give people a similar sort of experience
as they go about their daily lives.

10. Translate the words and phrases in bold.

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11. Read the third part of the article. Do the tasks that follow.

Through a pair of glasses, virtually

The effect Tango gives is impressive, but the technology is still in its
early stages. Building 3D models of the world is computationally
demanding, and quickly drains even the Phab 2 Pro’s beefy battery. The
models themselves quickly use up the phone’s data-storage capacity. And
the touchscreen of a phone is a clumsy way of communicating with the
software. Some enthusiasts of augmented reality therefore think that the
technology will not take off properly until smartphones can be abandoned
in favour of smart spectacles that can superimpose images on whatever
their wearers happen to be looking at.
Such glasses do exist. So far, though, they have made a bigger
impact on the workplace than in the home. Companies such as Ubimax, in
Germany, or Vuzix, in New York, make AR spectacles that include
cameras and sensors, and which use a projector mounted on the frame to
place what looks like a small, two-dimensional screen into one corner of
the wearer’s vision.
Used in warehouses, for instance, that screen—in combination with
technology which tracks workers and parcels—can give an employee
instructions on where to go, the fastest route to get there and what to pick
up when he arrives, all the while leaving both of his hands free to move
boxes around. Ubimax reckons that could bring a 25% improvement in
efficiency. At a conference in London in October, Boeing, a big American
aeroplane-maker, described how it was using AR glasses to give workers in
its factories step-by-step instructions on how to assemble components, as
well as to check that the job had been done properly. The result, said Paul
Davies of Boeing’s research division, is faster work with fewer mistakes.
The one serious attempt to offer individual consumers such
technology did not, though, go well. Like Vuzix’s and Ubimax’s products,
Google’s “Glass”, released in 2013, was a pair of spectacles with a small
projector mounted on one arm. The idea was, in effect, to create a wearable
smartphone that would let its user make calls, read e-mails, see maps and

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use the Glass’s built-in GPS to navigate, all the while leaving his hands
free for other tasks.
The problem was not with the users. Google’s “Glass Explorers”—
those willing to pay $1,500 for early access to the hardware—seemed
happy enough. But, often, those they interacted with were not. Glass
Explorers quickly attracted the nickname “Glassholes” from those annoyed
by their proclivity to glance at e-mails in the middle of a conversation, or
worried that the device let wearers record everything going on around
them. (Some restaurants banned Glass users on privacy grounds.) Google
stopped making Glass early in 2015, although it is working on a new
version aimed at businesses instead of individuals.
Other firms have more limited ambitions, but may do better for that.
RideOn, for instance, is an Israeli outfit founded by three engineers with
experience in designing heads-up displays for aircraft. It will soon start
selling augmented-reality ski goggles. The idea is to turn skiing into a
video game, by showing users routes, letting them time runs, compete with
their friends, shoot footage and the like.
Some companies are building much more capable displays. Instead
of 2D images, they propose to create augmented reality in three
dimensions. In March 2016 Microsoft began making early versions of a
headset called the HoloLens available to software developers around the
world. Unlike the AR glasses produced by Vuzix and Ubimax, or Google’s
Glass, the HoloLens can draw 3D images that appear to exist in the real
world. Users can walk around a virtual motorbike, for instance, to inspect it
from behind, or place virtual ornaments on real tables or shelves.
It is, in other words, like a Tango-enabled smartphone—only much
more capable. The device’s cameras, derived from the Kinect (an accessory
originally developed for Microsoft’s Xbox 360 games console), scan the
world around it. Those cameras generate such a flood of information that
Microsoft has had to design a special chip to process all the incoming data.
Armed with that understanding, and with the ability to track the position of
its user’s head, the machine can tailor its graphics accordingly: making a
virtual motorbike appear to be standing on a real floor, for instance. The
same cameras let the wearer interact with the machine via voice
commands, by making gestures in mid-air, or by tracking precisely where
he is looking.

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 Unlike VR headsets, which must be connected to either a PC or a
smartphone to work, the HoloLens is a self-contained computer that needs
no accessories. Users view the world through a pair of thick, transparent
lenses. A pair of projectors feed light into the top of these lenses. Three
optical waveguides (one each for red, green and blue light—the primary
colours from which others can be created) funnel that light down the lenses
before bending it through 90° and into the user’s eyes.
By overlaying its images onto the real world, the HoloLens headset
turns reality into a computer monitor. A window containing a Skype call
can be placed onto an office wall, disappearing when the user looks away
and returning when he looks back at it. A computerised calendar can be
placed on the desk (or the ceiling, if you prefer). All this information can
be seen without having to cut yourself off completely from the outside
world, as a VR headset would require.
Some of the first demonstrations of the HoloLens involved games. In
one, users blasted aliens that took cover behind their living-room sofas. In a
second, they played with blocks from Minecraft, a sort of virtual Lego, on
their living-room tables. More recent apps have focused on business and
training. One such, developed in collaboration with Case Western Reserve
University, in Cleveland, projects a human body into the room to help with
the teaching of anatomy. A wave of the hands can add muscles to the
skeleton, or bring the heart out of the chest to examine it more closely.

12. Match the words and phrases with their definitions. Give their
Ukrainian equivalents.

a) Drain 1. fix smth firmly

b) Spectacles 2. independent, autonomous
c) Beefy 3. inclination, tendency
d) Superimpose 4. glasses
e) Mount on smth 5. tube or pipe wide at the top and narrow
at the end
f) Mid-air 6. overlay
g) Self-complete 7. highly increase overlay
h) Funnel 8. hide in a shelter
i) Take cover 9. exhaust

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 j) Clumsy 10. ungainly, awkward
k) Take off 11. happened in the air
l) Proclivity 12. powerful

13. Are the following sentences true or false? Correct the false ones.

1. The proper development of AR will take off if smartphones can be

abandoned in favour of spectacles that can superimpose images on
whatever you loke at.
2. Smartglasses have influenced more in the homes.
3. Using AR spectacles in warehouses reduced efficiency as employees
were confused with the instructions.
4. Google’s “Glass”, released in 2013, was a pair of spectacles with a
small projector mounted on one arm.
5. The HoloLens must be connected to the PC and they require a lot of
accessories.
6. The HoloLens’s cameras let the wearer interact with the machine via
voice commands, by making gestures in mid-air, or by tracking
precisely where he is looking.
7. The HoloLens headset turns reality into a computer monitor by creating
new images.

14. Give the examples of current application of smart spectacles.

15. Find all passive constructions in the text. Translate them into
Ukrainian.

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16. Read the forth part of the article. Do the tasks that follow

Augmenting the enterprise

The HoloLens can be used collaboratively, as well. Another demo

has someone being instructed how to repair a light-switch by someone else,
who is employing videoconferencing software in another room to do so.
The guide can see what the HoloLens user sees, and can draw on top of his
field of view—putting circles around objects of interest or highlighting the
correct tool in a box. ThyssenKrupp, a German engineering firm, is
experimenting with giving the devices to its lift repairmen. Should anyone
encounter a particularly difficult job, he can call head office for specialist
advice. Users can also connect to each other and see the same augmented
reality (in true science-fiction style, other users appear as golden,
androgynous, vaguely Art Deco-looking figures).
Aecom, an international firm of architects and engineers, is already
using the HoloLens to help design buildings. Modern building projects can
be very complicated, says John Endicott, one of Aecom’s executive
directors—to the point where even experienced designers have trouble
keeping everything in their heads.
In 2016 the firm designed buildings around the Serpentine art
gallery, in London. Mr Endicott observes that, “the roofs of these things
had very complex geometry. We simply couldn’t check it on a 2D screen,
but the HoloLens let us all review it together.” Trimble, an American
engineering firm, helped Aecom develop the system. “We’re also finding it
has applications in everything from mining to agriculture to facilities
management,” says Aviad Almagor, the director of Trimble’s “mixed
reality” programme. “You can do things like track assets [such as miners,
lorries or equipment] as they move round a 3D model of a mine, in real
time.”
The HoloLens is far from perfect, however. The AR magic happens
in only a small slice of a user’s view (some have likened it to looking in on
the computer-generated world through a letterbox). Though the headset is
light (weighing around 600g) and comfortable, it is bulky and not exactly
fashionable. And using the gesture-tracking system to interact with the
illusions the headset generates can feel clunky and awkward. It is not yet

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on general sale, but when it is (Microsoft has given no firm date) its price
tag—also unknown, though the versions sold to software developers go for
at least $3,000—is likely to make it a business-only proposition.
Microsoft is not the only firm working on advanced AR headsets.
One rival is Meta, in San Mateo, California. Compared with Microsoft this
firm is a tiddler, having raised only $73m in funding so far. But its
engineers promise a much wider field of view than the HoloLens’s.
Microsoft’s product can track a few hand gestures. Meta’s is designed to
keep a constant eye on exactly what a user’s hands are up to, letting him
“handle” virtual objects simply by picking them up and rotating them.
Another potential rival, Osterhout Design Group, in San Francisco,
which makes AR glasses for industrial and medical companies, has
announced two products aimed at individuals. Though less technically
capable than the HoloLens, both are sleeker than their rival. Microsoft’s
best-known competitor in this area, though, is Magic Leap, a firm founded
in Florida in 2010, which has attracted $1.4 billion in investment from
companies such as Google and Ali Baba, China’s biggest online retailer, as
well as plenty of attention for its snazzy promotional videos. It has kept its
technological cards close to its chest—to the point where some sceptics
think that its technology has been oversold. But the demos it has released
show images much clearer and crisper than those Microsoft can manage
with the HoloLens.

Curb your enthusiasm

For all the hype, AR is still at an early stage, especially as a

consumer technology. Forecasts of markets worth squillions by the end of
the decade should be taken with a good deal of salt, especially since virtual
reality, AR’s close and even-more-hyped cousin, has so far proved a bit of
a damp squib. No VR headset-maker has yet released official sales figures,
but the numbers that have trickled out look modest.
In October 2016 Cher Wang, chairwoman of HTC, a Taiwanese
consumer-electronics company, told 87870 News, a Chinese website, that
her firm had sold 140,000 of its Vive headsets since their launch the
previous April. (By way of comparison, Apple sells more than 870,000
iPhones a day.) In November SuperData, a market-research firm in New

361
York, described VR as “the biggest loser” in the American shopping season
around Thanksgiving, and cut its sales forecasts for Sony’s PlayStation VR
headset in 2016 from 2.6m to 750,000. Even among keen techies,
enthusiasm for VR seems limited. A survey by Steam, an online shop that
dominates the market for PC gaming, found that just 0.38% of its
customers owned a VR headset in December, a number unchanged from
the previous month.
If AR is not to go the same way, it will have to be made easier to use.
That probably means consumer versions will be adapted for peoples’
phones. As Tim Merel, Digi-Capital’s boss, points out, phones are a known
quantity that people are comfortable with. They have become, for many,
their default computing device. Their existing app stores offer developers
an easy way to sell software, and their business model—in which the cost
of the hardware is often subsidised by network operators, who recoup this
investment with fees and rental charges as they go along—could help draw
some of the financial sting of the initial outlay a customer must make. On
the other hand, a phone’s screen is small and fiddly, and holding it up every
time you want to use an AR app could become tedious.
Headsets such as the HoloLens offer a way around this problem.
Those currently in development will cost thousands of dollars and look
more than a little silly. For now, that will limit their uptake to companies,
which can afford the hardware and are less worried about the aesthetics.
But the hope is that the mix of sensors and computing power needed to run
AR can be shrunk to the point where, as Mark Zuckerberg, Facebook’s
boss, put it at a show for developers last April: “we’re going to have what
look like normal-looking glasses that can do both virtual and augmented
reality.” Others want to go further still. Samsung and Apple, for instance,
are exploring the idea of AR-enabled contact lenses.
For now, such devices remain far away. Those in the computing
industry like to talk of an “iPhone moment”, when a well-crafted product
launches, almost single-handedly, a new phase of the computing
revolution. But such moments are the culmination of years of research into,
and development of, many different technologies. The iPhone was not the
first smartphone. No self-respecting salaryman of the mid-2000s was
without a BlackBerry, and the basic idea can trace its ancestry back at least
as far as the hand-held personal digital assistants of the 1990s. None of the

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present approaches to AR seems likely to change the world as the iPhone
did. But those behind them hope that, one day, a combination of them will.

17. Pay attention to the underlined phrases. Identify the grammar

structure. Translate them into Ukrainian.

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 Mobileye and Intel join forces

1. Read the article. Do the tasks that follow.

An Israeli firm and a tech giant team up to shape the future of cars
Сarmaking in Israel has amounted to little more than some unstylish
models put together in the latter half of the last century and a few rugged
off-roaders still assembled for the country’s security forces. A reluctance to
make them, however, has not stopped Israel from becoming a thriving
centre for the high-tech kit with which cars now bristle, and also for
mobility services such as ride-hailing.
The latest evidence of Israel’s pre-eminence in the field came on
March 13th, when Intel, a giant American chipmaker, paid $15.3bn for
Mobileye, a Jerusalem-based firm that is at the forefront of autonomous-car
technology. With the acquisition, Intel joins the ranks of technology
companies that are trying to outmanoeuvre carmakers and auto-parts
suppliers to develop the brains of vehicles of the future.
Mobileye is an attractive target because of what it does now and
what it will soon be capable of. Its EyeQ software is already used by most
of the world’s carmakers to help their vehicles stay in their lanes and brake
in emergencies, precisely what will also be required in autonomous
vehicles. This system, which is currently fitted in over 15m vehicles but is
set to be used by many millions more, can also collect information from
installed cameras to continuously update the incredibly detailed maps that
self-driving cars will require.
Israeli politicians are cock-a-hoop that the country’s prowess in
technology had made headlines around the world. Yigal Erlich, a former
chief scientist of the Israeli government, called it “a great achievement that
a company like Intel is building its future on Israeli technology”. There was
further delight that Intel will relocate its existing car-technology business,
which is sizeable, to the country.
Mobileye is not the first Israeli car-technology firm to attract a
foreign buyer. Waze, a driving-navigation app, was snapped up by Google
in 2013 for $1.1bn. Last year Volkswagen paid $300m for a share of Gett, a
ride-hailing startup. But this is by far the biggest deal. Though not a vast
sum by technology-industry standards, some analysts reckon that Intel has

364
overpaid. The firm is under pressure. Its main business, of providing chips
for PCs, is past its peak. Its record with deals to make up for that is
unenviable. Intel has proved willing to write enormous cheques to chase
growth. Last year it sold McAfee, a cyber-security business, for some
$4.2bn, around half what it had paid for it six years earlier.
Having largely missed out on the transition to mobile devices, Intel
may fear doing the same in autonomous cars. Competitors are beefing up.
Last year Qualcomm, another big chipmaker, announced a deal worth
$47bn for NXP Semiconductors, a firm that makes chips for cars. Nvidia,
better known for chips used by the gaming industry, is developing them for
cars, too.
Setting price aside, marrying Mobileye’s camera and mapping
expertise with Intel’s chip and computing skills makes sense as the battle to
establish predominance in the field of autonomous vehicles heats up.
The priority for tech companies such as Intel and Google is to get their
hands on the prodigious amounts of data that cars generate. Data are a vital
commodity for perfecting the algorithms that underpin autonomy.
Established car firms already have access to data from billions of miles of
driving. Google’s self-driving vehicles throw off data of their own. For
Intel, too, Mobileye’s value will be as a source of data as well as revenue
and profit.
Tech firms have also tried striking alliances with carmakers to secure
more data. Last year, in fact, both Intel and Mobileye teamed up with
BMW to develop self-driving cars. Carmakers have at last caught on to the
value of data and know that they should guard it jealously. The problem
they face is that they are also under pressure to share their data in return for
the new technology they badly need.
Intel and Mobileye have recognised that becoming large and
powerful gives technology firms more leverage in this relationship. As the
battle for data heats up it would be no surprise if both tech and automotive
companies were to come shopping for more of Israel’s car-tech wizardry.

2. Translate the underlined phrases into Ukrainian. Explain the

grammar structures.

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 Smartphones are Strongly Addictive

1. Read the article. Do the tasks that follow.

The price of constant entertainment on tap

TECHNOLOGY HAS ENABLED people to fill every moment of their

lives with a stimulus of one sort or another. It has eliminated the boredom
of solitude, replacing it with a continuous need for instant gratification. Or
rather, as Tristan Harris, a former product manager at Google, puts it, it is
technology companies that have made this trade for humans, designing
platforms, games and apps to keep them hooked. Worries about the
warping effect of technology are nothing new. Every tremor of progress in
history has been accompanied by a moral panic. The printing press allowed
“evil men” to “flood the market with anything that hints of lasciviousness”,
warned a monk in Venice in the 1470s. Any form of entertainment is
especially suspicious. Reading books, going to the theatre or cinema,
listening to new music, playing video games—all have been presented as
threatening to undermine authority, degrade human relationships and lure
people into sin.

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But the smartphone is different from all of them. Never before has one
device combined every element of modern mass media: telephony, texting,
music, video, the internet, social media, video games, even voice-activated
artificial intelligence. It is a personalised delivery vehicle for every
technological breakthrough that has ever caused concern. And consumers
have taken it up with tremendous relish. Edison Research, in a survey last
year of about 2,000 Americans over the age of 12, found that three-quarters
owned smartphones, just nine years after the first iPhone was introduced.
According to Pew, a research outfit, nearly half of American adults say
they could not live without their smartphones. In two recent studies young
adults were found to use their smartphones more than 80 times a day (see
chart).

Sherry Turkle of MIT, who has been studying the effects of technology on
users’ psyches for decades, believes that smartphones have made it harder
for people to form connections with each other, or even to be at ease on
their own. Some participants in one study, which required them to sit alone
without a smartphone for 15 minutes, chose to give themselves a painful
electric shock to escape the boredom.

Such findings might trigger yet more alarmist technophobia. Young

people’s constant interactions on Snapchat and Instagram, and their
Pavlovian responses to social-media notifications, may be the new normal.
Mr Harris suggests that their devices were specially designed to encourage
this change in behaviour. Tech companies have a responsibility, he
concludes, to give users more power to turn off their screens. The
availability of software that allows users to lock themselves out of the web
shows that at least some people feel in need of such help.

2. Match the Ukrainian and English equivalents:

1. перекручений, спотворений a) alarmist

2. підозрілий b) warping
3. винагорода c) relish
4. хтивість, похіть d) lasciviousness
5. привабливість, насолода, смак e) suspicious
6. поширювач тривожних чуток, панікер f) gratification

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3. Match the words with their meaning:

1. psyche a) to turn from a true, correct way

2. to trigger b) liking or enjoyment
3. to warp c) to reduce in strength, quality, intensity,
4. stimulus d) a factor able to cause a response
5. gratuity e) the human mind or soul
6. to eliminate f) to give rise (to); set off
7. on tap g) to remove or take out; to get rid of, to reject
8. warping h) to tempt or attract by the promise of a
9. to degrade reward
10. to lure smb i) a tip, gift or reward for services rendered
11. relish j) ready for immediate use
k) twisting

4. Translate the following phrases into Ukrainian:

• to escape the boredom of solitude

• a continuous need for instant gratification
• every tremor of progress
• to keep smb hooked
• personalised delivery vehicle
• technological breakthrough
• to cause concern
• to take it up with tremendous relish
• to lure people into sin
• to undermine authority
• to be at ease on one’s own
• responses to social-media notifications
• to lock oneself out of the web
• to encourage this change in behaviour

5. What do these numbers in the text stand for?

2,000 ; 80; three-quarters; 15

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6. Word formation. Look up the dictionary to find the derivatives of
the words below. Think of suffixes as well as prefixes (en-, de-, …):

e.g.
suspicious - suspicion, suspect (mind the change of stress: 1) підозрювати
2) підозріла особа;) suspiciousness, suspiciously

grade –
alarm –
notify –
bore –
respond –
conclude –
able –

7. Answer the questions:

1. Are worries about the warping effect of technology new?

2. How was any move of progress presented to society in the past?
3. How is smartphone different from other forms of entertainment?
4. How many elements of modern mass media does a smart phone
combine?
5. What negative effect of technology does Sherry Turkle mention?
6. What responsibility do tech companies currently have?

8. Read the second part of the article. Do the tasks that follow.

THE high-pitched whirr of an electric car may not stir the soul like
the bellow and growl of an internal combustion engine (ICE). But to
compensate, electric motors give even the humblest cars explosive
acceleration. Electric cars are similarly set for rapid forward thrust.
Improving technology and tightening regulations on emissions from ICEs
is about to propel electric vehicles (EVs) from a niche to the mainstream.
After more than a century of reliance on fossil fuels, however, the route
from petrol power to volts will be a tough one for carmakers to navigate.

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 The change of gear is recent. One car in a hundred sold today is
powered by electricity. The proportion of EVs on the world’s roads is still
well below 1%. Most forecasters had reckoned that by 2025 that would rise
to around 4%. Those estimates are undergoing a big overhaul as carmakers
announce huge expansions in their production of EVs. Morgan Stanley, a
bank, now says that by 2025 EV sales will hit 7m a year and make up 7%
of vehicles on the road. Exane BNP Paribas, another bank, reckons that it
could be more like 11% (see chart). But as carmakers plan for ever more
battery power, even these figures could quickly seem too low.

Ford’s boss is bolder still. In January Mark Fields announced that the “era
of the electric vehicle is dawning” and he reckons that the number of
models of EVs will exceed pure ICE-powered cars within 15 years. Ford
has promised 13 new electrified cars in the next five years. Others are
making bigger commitments. Volkswagen, the world’s biggest carmaker,
said last year that it would begin a product blitz in 2020 and launch 30 new
battery-powered models by 2025, when EVs will account for up to a

370
quarter of its sales. Daimler, a German rival, also recently set an ambitious
target of up to a fifth of sales by the same date.

The surge has two explanations: the rising cost of complying with
emissions regulations and the falling cost of batteries. Pure EVs, which
send no carbon dioxide directly into the atmosphere, and hybrids, which
produce far less than conventional engines, are a way to meet Europe’s
emissions targets—albeit an expensive one. But the gains from cheaper
methods such as turbocharging smaller engines, stop-start technology and
weight reductions will no longer be enough, since a tougher testing regime,
to be introduced in the wake of VW’s diesel-cheating scandal, will make
those targets still harder to reach.

The hefty cost of preventing nitrogen oxide spewing from diesel engines,
which emit far less carbon dioxide than the petrol equivalent, may see them
disappear by 2025. Further development of ICEs could be enough to meet
the 2021 targets. Carmakers also need to be prepared to hit the next ones,
says Andrew Bergbaum of AlixPartners, a consulting firm. These, yet to be
finalised in the EU for carbon dioxide, may be as low as 68g/km by 2025
compared with 130g/km today.

Regulations are favourable outside Europe, too. In China more than

400,000 pure EVs were sold last year, making it the world’s biggest
market. The government, keen to clear the air of choking exhaust fumes,
has plans for a quota that could insist that 8% of sales are EVs or hybrids
by 2018. And even if Donald Trump relaxes American emissions
standards, this will not hold back electrification. California, which accounts
for one in eight cars sold in America, is allowed to set tougher
environmental standards than the national ones. It, and seven of the other
states that have adopted its emissions rules, have a target of 3.3m EVs on
their roads by 2025.

Moving right along

Technology will have as much impact as politics. Vehicles that carmakers

are forced to produce for the sake of the environment will become ones that
buyers want for the sake of their wallets. EVs were once generally a second
car for richer, environmentally minded drivers, prepared to pay a big

371
premium for a vehicle with a battery that took an age to charge and had a
limited range.

The falling cost of batteries will make the cost of owning and running an
EV the same as that of a traditionally powered car in Europe by the early
2020s, even without the hefty government subsidies that many rich
countries use to sweeten the deal (see article). Better batteries should also
conquer “range anxiety”—most pure EVs now run out of juice after around
100 miles (161km). If battery costs continue to tumble and performance
improves at the current rate, the price of a car with a range of 300 miles
could hit $30,000 by the early 2020s, according to Exane BNP Paribas.
Slicker technology will also mean charging in minutes, not hours.

The lack of charging infrastructure still deters buyers, but signs of growth
are encouraging. In most rich countries governments, carmakers and
private companies are putting up the necessary cash. In America the
number of charging points grew by more than a quarter to almost 40,000 in
2016. Even Shell and Total, are planning to put chargers on the forecourts
of their petrol stations across Europe.

But EVs are not yet a profitable business for carmakers precisely because
of their batteries. Chevrolet’s Bolt, on sale late last year, costs under
$30,000 with subsidies and travels 238 miles between charges. But each
sale will reportedly set General Motors back $9,000. Tesla’s rival, the
Model 3, is set to go on sale later this year; the firm has yet to make an
annual profit. Even Renault-Nissan, the world’s biggest EV manufacturer,
loses money on electric models.

Research and development also costs a fortune. Daimler says it will spend
€10bn by 2025 on just ten battery-powered models. Restructuring is also
expensive. For a century carmakers have built factories, employed workers
and developed a supply chain around the ICE. In one scenario Morgan
Stanley reckons that VW’s entire car business could make a loss between
2025 and 2028 as it transforms itself.

Some carmakers are better placed than others for the transition. Profitable
premium brands such as Daimler and BMW have the resources to invest

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and can be confident that their richer customers will be the first to switch to
more expensive EVs. Mass-market carmakers have a trickier task,
according to Patrick Hummel of UBS, a bank. Despite falling costs, a
cheap EV for the mass market is still a distance away. The likes of Fiat
Chrysler (whose chairman, John Elkann, sits on the board of The
Economist’s parent company) or PSA Group, which makes Peugeots and
Citroëns, have barely begun changing. But these carmakers, already
operating with wafer-thin profit margins, must still invest heavily in
anticipation of that moment.

EVs may eventually make more money than ICE cars as battery costs fall
further. They are competitive in other ways too: EVs are simpler
mechanically, and require less equipment and fewer workers to assemble
them. But carmakers first face a transition that will hit cashflow and profits.
Getting ready for an electric race will be painful, but missing it altogether
would be disastrous.

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 To sleep, perchance

1. Read the article.

Screens before bedtime harm sleep. The effect is biggest for teenagers

Pity the poor pineal gland, tucked behind the thalamus in a gap
between the brain’s hemispheres. It has a simple task-to make melatonin, a
hormone that regulates sleep. In days gone by, it would start doing so after
sunset, ramp up to a maximum in the middle of the night, and then taper off
toward the morning. The result was regular, dependable periods of sleep
and wakefulness.
Modern life, though, is confusing for the pineal because its signal to
start work is the absence of light-specifically, of blue light. This part of the
spectrum radiates by the bucketful from light-emitting diodes in the screens
of phones, tablets and laptop computers. As far as the gland is concerned,
that turns night into day. Study after study has suggested night-time use of
screen-based gadgets has a bad effect on people’s sleep. Indeed, things are
getting worse as screens get smaller and are thus held closer to the eyes. As
a consequence there is a tidy market in devices and apps which regulate the
amount of blue light a screen emits.
The latest research suggests one group of people – teenagers-may be
particularly susceptible. Those in their mid-teens already have unusual
sleep patterns. Left to themselves, they stay up late and sleep in in the
morning because their melatonin cycles start and finish later than those of
adults. Add teenagers’ reputations for being glued to their screens and it
certainly seems reasonable to hypothesise that adolescents, in particular,
will suffer from sleep-disruption-by-gizmo.
One study, published in October by researchers in Switzerland,
tracked boys aged 15 to 17 over a fortnight in which they wore either
glasses fitted with filters that blocked blue light, or else clear glasses of
similar design, for several hours before they went to bed. It measured the
youths’ melatonin levels and reaction times over the course of the evening.
Minus blue light, participants were more ready for bed.
In February, research on nearly 10,000 Norwegian adolescents aged
between 16 and 19 confirmed what casual observation might suggest.

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Almost all used computers, phones and the like in the hour before they
went to bed. The data showed that gadget use was correlated with sleep
patterns. The more the teenagers looked at screens, the longer they took to
get to sleep and the less sleep they got.
A third piece of work, published this week in Lighting Research and
Technology, by Mariana Figueiro of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in
Troy, New York, also studied people aged between 15 and 17. Though
DrFigueiro looked at only 20 teenagers, her results were so much at
variance with her previous work on adults that they seem worth following
up.
First, participants wore orange glasses, to screen out blue light, until
bedtime. The next night they went without the glasses. On glasses-free
nights, their melatonin levels were 23% lower after an hour of looking at a
screen, compared with their levels on begoggled nights. After two hours,
they were 38% lower.
DrFigueiro’s previous studies with adults yielded falls in melatonin
of only 14% after two hours in front of a computer. In the matter of sleep
and screens, it seems, teens really are different. Not that such knowledge
will make a jot of difference to their behaviour.

Charge of the lithium brigade

Energy storage: The lithium-ion battery is steadily improving, but new

research aims to turbocharge the technology

It is hard to imagine modern life without batteries. These storehouses

of power open up new vistas, whether connecting people with the world
through portable devices or travelling in electric cars. Yet, like many
freedoms, the price is vigilance; the constant fretting over the charge meter.
Anyone who has spent time in an airport in recent years can attest
that one of the most popular places to wait for the plane is by the rare wall
socket or specially built tables festooned with electrical outlets. And for all
the promise of the electric car, the distance it can travel on a single charge
is limited, adding a new phrase to the lexicon of motoring: “range anxiety”.

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 The inability of power storage to keep up with new technology
frustrates many, especially entrepreneurs in Silicon Valley who bemoan the
lack of a Moore’s law for batteries. This is the name given to a 1965
prediction by Gordon Moore, a co-founder of Intel, that the cost of
microchips would continue to fall as the number of transistors crammed
onto a given area of silicon would double every 18 months or so. For
chipmakers like Intel this turned into a self- propelling prophecy that is-just
about- still delivering cheaper computing power.
Batteries have improved, but nowhere near the pace of Moore’s law.
Most mobile devices and electric cars are now powered by lithium-ion
batteries. They were commercialized by Sony in the early 1990s and have
got steadily better. The batteries are lighter and their capacities have
increased several times over the years, as witnessed by ever-thinner laptops
and smartphones.
The lithium-ion battery “is almost an ideal battery,” says Vincent
Battaglia, the head of the Electrochemical Technologies Group at
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California. Lithium is the light-
est metal on the planet and it can hold a charge extremely well compared to
heavier alternatives, such as lead, zinc and nickel-cadmium. Unlike the
latter it does not suffer from a “memory effect”, which means lithium
batteries do not need to berun down before recharging.
There are some drawbacks. Lithium is highly reactive-overcharging
and manufacturing faults can result in an internal short-circuit causing the
battery to heat up and sometimes burst into flames. Millions of laptop
batteries have been recalled and some of Boeing’s 787s were grounded in
2013 because of fires. Engineers are now better at managing this hazard.
An important measure of a battery’s ability is its “energy density”;
the amount of energy that can be stored for a given weight or volume.
Depending on construction, a lithium battery can store 100-250 watt-hours
per kilogram-more than twice as much as a nickel-cadmium one. An elec-
tric car with a 24 kilowatt-hour lithium battery has a range of 175km (109
miles) or so.
Even though China is now applying its manufacturing muscle to their
production, lithium batteries remain relatively expensive: typically around
$500 per kilowatt- hour of capacity. Hence a battery pack for even a small
electric car can cost around $10,000. Many in the car industry believe the

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range needs to be close to 500km and the cost around $100 per kilowatt-
hour before all-electric vehicles will move into the mass market. That
would also allow smartphones and laptops to run for days.
Such a battery would require a step-change in technology. Many
researchers are trying, but often run into difficulties scaling up promising
experiments into a product that can be mass-produced. Some scientists are
not sure if the energy density of lithium-ion batteries can be improved
much beyond present levels without significant changes in the materials
used to create the electrodes.
DrBattaglia’s team is working on what he describes as “transition
metals”. These are combinations of manganese, nickel, cobalt and graphite
which can be added to a lithium battery’s electrodes. Once the right recipe
is determined, the idea is that it will increase energy density without having
to develop a whole new type of battery. It would, though, be moreof an
incremental improvement.
Other researchers are trying for more. Yi Cui and his colleagues at
Stanford University are developing thin films-some only atoms thick-to
enclose the positive electrode. This would allow it to safely contain more
lithium, which coupled with a sulphur negative electrode (sulphur, like
lithium, also has a very high energy capacity) would enable a battery to
hold about five times as much energy by weight as today’s lithium batteries
do. A similarly huge increase in capacity is promised with work by
Chengdu Liang and his team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. They are
developing a lithium-sulphur battery that has a solid rather than liquid or
gel-like electrolyte. This would also make the battery more stable. But both
projects face several more years of work even if these batteries can be
made commercially.
Tiny solid-state batteries, as those with a solid electrolyte are known,
are already found in small devices and sensors, often providing backup
power to a microchip. They can be made by depositing materials onto a
substrate, rather like the way semiconductors are made. Despite an
extremely high energy density, making large solid- state batteries has been
too expensive for phones and cars. Nevertheless, some companies hope to
change that. Sakti3, a Michigan firm, aims to make big lithium-based ones
at the $100 per kilowatt-hour scale- although it does not say when. Dyson,
a British maker of vacuum cleaners, has been sufficiently impressed by the

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technology to invest $ism in the company recently. Volkswagen has put
money into OuantumScape, a Silicon Valley company also working on
solid-state batteries.
In theory, lithium-air batteries would provide the highest energy
densities-air, after all, is extremely light. Researchers have been
experimenting for years how to make such batteries, but no commercial
breakthrough appears in sight.
In some applications, though, weight is less of a problem and here
lithium will face competitors. Giant batteries are being developed to store
electricity on the grid, which could transform the market for intermittent
renewable sources such as wind and solar. The way utilities deal with
spikes in demand is to add generating capacity—so called “peaker”
stations. If surplus power could be stored fewer such stations would be
needed and supplies could be balanced more easily and cheaply.
Less than 0.01% of electricity is presently stored, says Philippe
Bouchard, vice-president of business development forEOS Energy Storage,
a New York startup. “Every other commodity supply chain has some form
of storage at the point of generation and through delivery,” he adds. Mr.
Bouchard is pitching his large container-sized zinc-based batteries for
storage to New York and Californian utilities. These cost $160 a kilowatt-
hour to store electricity, which the company says makes battery grid-
storage financially worthwhile.
Other firms making big batteries include giants like GE in America,
South Korea’s LG, Japan’s NEC and startups such as Aquion Energy,
which was spun out of Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh and is
backed by Microsoft’s co-founder, Bill Gates, among others.

Powering home

Such batteries could also be used by businesses and households. If it

were possible to accumulate power overnight, when it is cheap, in a battery
and discharge it during the day, when it is expensive, it would save users
money. Solar and wind power could be stored this way too, instead of
being pumped back into the grid in exchange for a discount on the bill.
Such systems might allow some businesses and homes to move, at least in
part, “off the grid”.

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 Smaller versions of grid-scale energy- storage systems would be
required for domestic use. One possibility is flow batteries, which generate
electricity when acharged liquid-electrolyte is pumped through them. In
theory, the capacity of a flow battery is as big as the containers in which
the electrolytes are stored-which for a stationary flow battery may not b e a
problem. Michael Aziz at Harvard University has been working on flow
batteries for the grid, but his team thinks they are close to being able to
make a safe, relatively inexpensive system, about the size of a domestic
heating-oil tank, to fit in the basement of a home.
Many flow batteries rely on pumping pricey solutions that contain
metals, but the Harvard team says their system could have a greater
commercial potential because it could be made more cheaply than those
using metal-based solutions. This is because the battery relies on naturally
occurring organic materials known as quinones, which bear similarities to
the energy-storage molecules used by plants and animals. At present the
researchers need to use bromine, a particularly toxic material, on one of the
electrodes to boost performance. “It’s not something I would put in my
basement,” Dr Aziz admits. But his team are optimistic they will find a way
to use organic materials on both electrodes. Such a battery would be
allowed in Dr Aziz’s basement.
It could take several years before flow batteries for domestic use
come to the market. But lithium batteries, if they could be made cheaply
enough, could compete as a lighter and more compact alternative to
batteries made from heavier and cheaper materials for storing energy in
buildings.
This is the thinking of Elon Musk, the billionaire founder of Tesla, a
Californian producer of electric cars (such as the Model S pictured on the
previous page). Tesla is building a $5 billion “gigafactory” in Nevada in
partnership with Panasonic, its Japanese battery supplier. Production
should start next year and by 2020 reach the equivalent of enough lithium
battery-packs to power 500,000 cars.
Rather than banking on a breakthrough, Tesla reckons steady
improvements and the manufacturing efficiencies of its giant factory will
reduce battery costs by some 30% and help it sell more electric cars. Some
of the batteries, though, will also be offered to businesses and households
for energy-storage. In May, Tesla announced the Powerwall battery for this

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market. A 10-kilowatt-hour version will cost $3,500 (excluding controls
and installation). Even if big innovations in lithium technology fail to
materialise, lithium batteries seem to have a bright future.

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 Ready to runcible

A guide to alternative smartphones: Want to be different? There are

now many handset brands to choose from, besides the ubiquitous
iPhone or Galaxy.

Is it a clock? Is it a rock? It’s a Runcible. That is the name of what

might be the strangest-looking smartphone ever designed. Styled after an
old-fashioned fob-watch, it takes its name from the works of Edward Lear,
a 19th-century British poet who invented nonsense words. Its Californian
(where else) creator, Monohm, bills it as an “anti-smartphone” that does
not dare to distract its user with alerts and beeps and other forms of
information overload. Instead of lots of hyperactive apps, forinstance, the
Runcible provides only a simple summary of its user’s social networking.
Runcible is not the only unusual smartphone destined to appear on
the market. Google will begin a trial in Puerto Rico later this year of a
“modular” device called Ara. Users will be able to update the phone, say
with a new battery or a better camera, by replacing one of its plug-in
modules, LG sells smartphones with a curved body and a pair of digital
eyes on the back that change expression (supposedly to establish
“emotional” contact with the user). And the latest model from Yota, a small
Russian maker, has a second black-and-white display on the back, which is
meant to allow a user to read for hours without draining the battery.
So should consumers expect smartphones to evolve into all sorts of
different shapes and sizes? Before the arrival of the touchscreen phones,
after all, there was a greater variety of shapes, from clamshell designs to
slide-out keyboards. Yet unusual designs, such as the Runcible, are likely
to remain rarities for now-activities like typing are suited to palm-sized
rectangular devices. If consumers really want an unusual-looking
smartphone then they had best wait a few years, says Geoff Blaber of CSS
Insight, a market-research firm. To provide really novel shapes,
components such as batteries and screens will first have to evolve, perhaps
with both becoming flexible. Even then, because of their clout in the
market and their economies of scale, it is likely to be Apple or Samsung
which pioneer them.

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 The choice of brands available to consumers is multiplying fast,
however. Most of the newcomers are regional brands, which come by the
hundreds and not just in China, where the phenomenon is most prevalent;
Coolpad, OnePlus and Oppo are among the better-known names. France
has seen the rise of Wiko, which is now one of the country’s most popular
smartphone brands. Africa, too, has its brands, such as VMIC, which hails
from Brazzaville, the capital of the Republic of Congo.
Although these firms make much of their regional roots (“African
technology for Africa” is VMK’Stagline), most are combinations of
Chinese manufacturing and local marketing. The producers may add nice
features (one of Wiko’s latest models, called Highway Pure, for instance, is
only 5.1 millimeters thick), but their aim is mainly to serve buyers who
want to upgrade to a real smartphone, but cannot afford the latest Apple
iPhone or Samsung Galaxy. The Highway Pure, with a respectable list of
specifications, costs less than $300; VMK’SElikiaL costs about $110. At
those prices most of these phones represent good value, and they work per-
fectly well. (The odd-looking phones are a lot dearer: when the Runcible is
launched later this year it is expected to be priced towards the top end; the
two-screen YotaPhone 2 retails for $680.)
The question is whether, and for how long, the regional brands will
be available to consumers elsewhere. The competition for cheap
smartphones is cut-throat and some of the smaller regional brands will not
survive, predicts Francisco Jeronimo of IDC, a market-research firm.
Xiaomi, a fast-growing Chinese firm, is one of the big brands, but problems
with intellectual-property rights might prevent it from moving as quickly as
it would like into markets outside China. That means India’s Micromax
may become the first big regional Asian smartphone brand to be widely
offered to Western consumers. The company is already India’s biggest
smartphone vendor, according to some analysts, with a market share of
22% compared with 20% for Samsung, its main rival. Micromax boasts an
impressive line-up of dozens of smartphone models, ranging in price from
less than $30 to more than $200.

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 Call the plumber
Novelty-seekers are not just interested in design and price; they also
care about the services that handset-makers offer. Given that, Mr.Jeronimo
says, buyers should look at brands, which view their devices as more of a
loss leader and try to make money by offering attractive services. This is
Xiaomi’s territory. The Chinese company is often compared to Apple and
its boss, Lei Jun, feted as a second Steve Jobs, but the better comparison
may be to Google and its co-founders. Xiaomi’s ambition is to be an online
powerhouse, not just a handset-maker. In April Mr. Lei predicted the com-
pany’s services revenue will triple to nearly $1 billion this year, about 6%
of expected total sales of $16 billion.
Micromax has ambitions in this area as well. One of its most in-
teresting handsets is Yureka, a $140 budget smartphone powered by
Cyanogen, a variant of Android. It allows users to customise and extend
Google’s operating system and even exchange the online giant’s mobile
services for other offerings.
“With Android, every phone became the same. And all the data goes
to Google,” says Rahul Sharma, a co-founder of Micromax. Cyanogen, he
says, will allow the firm to become more like Xiaomi by adding
differentiating features and services. “If I’m looking for a plumber, my
phone should be able to tell me whether a friend already knows one,”
explains Mr. Sharma. And smartphones should come with a selection of
services pre-installed which users can pick and choose from, he adds, rather
than being offered only a default set from Google. And if that all sounds a
bit too sensible, there is always the Runcible.

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 Watching the world go by

Executive jets faster than the speed of sound are ready to fly off the
drawing board

Supersonic travel for airline passengers came to an end on October

24th 2003 when a British Airways Concorde completed the last scheduled
flight from New York to London. With the ability to cruise at 2,i6okph
(i,35omph, or around Mach 2-twice the speed of sound) the fastest a
Concorde made it across the Atlantic was a shade under three hours,
compared with the seven or eight hours it takes in a subsonic airliner. A
number of things did for Concorde, including heavy fuel consumption, its
sonic boom restricting speed over land and a fall in passengers after an Air
France Concorde crashed in Paris in 2000, killing all 109 people on board.
No replacement aircraft has ever emerged. But a supersonic executive jet
may be a different matter.
One contender is the s-512, which is being developed by Spike
Aerospace, a Boston company. Instead of windows it will have a
“multiplex digital cabin”-a thin-screen video display either side of the
passenger compartment that would be fed with a live view taken by six
exterior cameras (a pair of conventional windows would be retained). The
interior effect would be dramatic although, as the company points out, for
much of the time there might be little to see apart from clouds or the stars
in a night-time sky. On those occasions films could be shown instead-or
even a PowerPoint presentation for workaholics.
Using video windows would make the jet lighter, quieter inside and
less expensive to build, says VikKachoria, Spike’s chief executive. The S-
512 could carry 12-18 passengers at Mach 1.6 and, unlike Concorde, would
have the range to fly from Los Angeles to Tokyo in just six hours.
Although at an early stage in its development, Mr. Kachoria says the
company has received $5m deposits for several of the roughly $100m jets,
which it hopes to start delivering in 2020.
Advanced aerodynamics and its relatively small size should reduce
the sonic boom of an executive jet. Aerion, a company based in Nevada, is
hoping to make a Mach 1.6 executive jet called the AS2. Throttled back to
around Mach 1.2, the company reckons it could fly over land without the

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boom ever reaching the ground. In 2014 Airbus agreed to collaborate with
Aerion on the project, which aims to have a prototype ready for test flights
in 2019. If supersonic travel does return, it looks like being more exclusive
than Concorde ever was.

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 Sitting ducks
In-office exercising trend seeks to combat negative effects of prolonged
sitting
by Hallie Zolkower-Kutz

Assistant Sports & Health Editor

As Americans spendmore time at their computers and less time on

their feet, health experts are looking to use technology to invigorate the
modern workplace and engage employees in physical activity.
Most office employees sit for at least 9.3 hours a day, according to
the Spinal Health Institute, which has created a market for healthimproving
programs.
Fran Melmed, president of Context Communication Consulting LLC
and a panelist in a March 10 South by Southwest forum addressing the
issue of physical inactivity, has developed an app called Hotseat, which
allows insurance providers to equip employees with an easy way to get off
their feet for two-minute activity breaks throughout the day.
According to Melmed, the free app gives users access to a library of
more than 40 activities involving cardio strength and stretching. Hotseat
will send users notifications throughout the day, giving them a 1 list of
challenges to complete such as bicep curls using books, pushupsagainst
desks and dancing.
“You can allow Hotseat to (sync with) your calendar,” Melmed said.
“It will find your open pockets of time so it doesn’t interrupt your meetings
and phone calls.”
Hotseat records users’ progress throughout the day and has a com-
petition aspect, Melmed said. Employees can pick coworkers to challenge
for a day and must complete all activities to stay in the running.
She said the first step in fixing the problem was to investigate the
health risks of sitting for long periods of time.
“(The South by Southwest panelists) talked about research that
points to increased risk of muscular skeletal problems and things like heart
disease, kidney disease, diabetes and cancer and even an earlier mortality
(caused by inactivity),” Melmed said.

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 She cited data from the World Health Organization, which said
physical inactivity is the fourth leading cause of death among Americans,
and those who don’t reach 150 minutes of exercise per week, or 30 minutes
most days, have a 20-30 percent higher risk of premature death.
Mark Brticevich, who teaches Personal Wellness at Columbia, said
there are other ways to get physical activity while working. Hementioned a
desk-treadmill hybrid that allows users to exercise while they work. He
also said transitioning to stand-up meetings would benefit both the health
of employees and the work environment.
“If you’re going to stand up at a meeting, you’re going to make it
short and to the point,” he said.
Melmed said she encourages the companies she works with to shift
to walk-and-talk meetings, which will keep employees moving throughout
the day, as opposed to sitting in a conference room.
“There’s a lot that’s tied to creativity and productivity about getting
up and moving,” she said. “You really need to supplement it with routine
movement throughout the day to avoid the health risks of prolonged
sitting.”
Flynn Paylor, senior export compliance manager at Alcatel-Lucent, a
telecommunications equipment company, said he spends his time at work
on the phone or at his desk. To increase his daily activity, Paylor
occasionally uses dumbbells for bicep curls while he is on conference calls.
He said if his bosses were to institute walk-and-talk meetings, he would be
open to the idea.

“I think (being active) hasn’t been easy because we’re not in the
habit of it,” Paylor said. “We’re not aware of howbad (not exercising is). I
think if awareness goes up, people will get on board because they’ll realize
how bad it is for them.”

Michael Joyner, a researcher at the Mayo Clinic, said physical ac-

tivity is important for keeping the body’s blood vessels healthy.
“When you get up and walk around, your blood flow increasesin
various parts of your body,” he said. “That increase in blood flow keeps the
lining of the blood vessels healthy, and when the lining is healthy, they
have a powerful anti-inflammatory effect.”

387
 Joyner said the anti-inflammatory properties prevent cholesterol
from sticking to blood vessels and helps lower blood pressure. Exercise
stimulates glucose absorption in the skeletal muscles, which lowers the risk
of diabetes, she added.
Brticevich said sitting doesn’t allow enough oxygen into the brain,
making it harder to concentrate.
“Moving the body is essential, not only for physical health, but also
for mental and emotional health,” he said. “The more you can move, the
better you are.”

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 GRAMMAR TESTS
TEST 1

Choose the correct answer.

1. National university of life and environmental sciences of Ukraine
______ with Universities and Institutions of foreign countries.
a) study b) teach c) cooperate
2. Many state and political figures ______ from our University.
a) finished b) graduated c) came out
3. You like black coffee, ______ ?
a) aren’t you b) don’t you c) do you
4. He never uses his car except when it is necessary, _____?
a) doesn’t he b) does he c) isn’t he
5. The policeman is interviewing the robber.
a) Who is interviewing the robber?
b) Who is the robber interviewing?
6. I _____ that man because I _____ English.
a) not understand / don’t know
b) don’t understand / not know
c) don’t understand / don’t know
7. What _________? – She is a secretary at our University.
a) is she doing b) she does c) does she do
8. Dad will present me a personal computer, ______?
a) will he b) won’t Dad c) won’t he?
9. We rarely watch TV, but last week we _______ a lot of programmes.
a) were watching b) watch c) watched
10. Every day I help Mom about the house, but last week I was very
busy with my exam. So I _______ her much.
a) don’t help b) didn’t helped c) didn’t help
11. First I _______ the phone and then I read your letter.
a) had answered b) was answering c) answered
12. On Monday morning I ______ the bus and had to walk to the
University.
a) misses b) missed c) was missing
13. Where do you usually have ______ lunch?
a) my b) a c) your d) our

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14. He was having supper when his friend _______ into the room.
a) came b) comes c) was coming
15. We celebrate Christmas ________ the 7th of January.
a) in b) at c) on
16. It’s interesting to know more facts ______ my university.
a) of b) about c) with
17. The farmers sell vegetables and fruits which they grow in _____
gardens.
a) our b) them c) their
18. Andy _________ to see us this morning.
a) will come b) comes c) is coming
19. My colleague _______________my phone number.
a) always forgets b) is always forgetting c) forget always
20. I knew that he __________waiting for somebody.
a) is b) was c) would
21. I _______ she ________ this party.
a) thinks, likes b) am thinking, is liking c) think, is liking
22. She’s __________university teacher.
a) a b) an c) the
23. I’m not sure what ____________.
a) do they want? b) do they want c) they want.
24. We’re going ______________the opera tomorrow.
a) at b) to c) in
25. Why _________________________?
a) those men are laughing? b) are those men laughing?
26. Who _______________ this article?
a) write b) wrote c) did write
27. What ___________?
a) does she like? b) does she likes? c) she likes?

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TEST 2

Choose the correct answer.

1. My friend sings … (beautiful/beautifully).
2. Did she … (get/got/getting) the message?
3. I … (learn/am learning/have been learning) English for five years
now.
4. If you … (speak/will speak/had spoken) to him, he would have told
you about his problems.
5. Jenny is afraid of … (going/go/to go) by plane.
6. We have been waiting for you … (since/for) twelve o'clock.
7. Can I … (take/make/do) a picture of you?
8. What will the … (weather/whether) be like tomorrow?
9. They had to … (concentrate/concentrate themselves/concentrate each
other) on the task.
10. Fred, … (who/which/whose) sister is in my class, is very cute.
11. Last week I … (see/saw/have seen) Susan in a shop.
12. There isn't … (many/much) milk left.
13. My mobile phone is … (as modern/moderner/more modern/most
modern) than yours.
14. My … (hobby/hobbys/hobbies) are dancing and drawing.
15. He … (went not/didn’t went/did not go) to the cinema last night.
16. I saw … (him/she/their) yesterday.
17. They … (will come/would come) to see us if they had a car.
18. He has an/a old car.
19. The house … (was built/was build/was builded) in 1840.
20. I don't have … (some/no/any) pets.

Fill the gaps with the correct tenses.

1. I (learn) English for seven years now.
2. But last year I (not/work) hard enough for English, that's why my
marks (not/be) really that good then.
3. As I want to pass my English exam successfully next year, I (go) to
study harder this term.
4. During my last summer holidays, my parents (send) me on a
language course to London.

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5. It was great and I think I (learn) a lot.
6. Before I (go) to London, I (not/enjoy) learning English.
7. But while I (do) the language course, I (meet) lots of young people
from all over the world.
8. There I (notice) how important it (be) to speak foreign languages
nowadays.
9. Now I (have) much more fun learning English than I (have) before
the course.
10. At the moment I (revise) English grammar.
11. And I (already/begin) to read the texts in my English textbooks
again.
12. I think I (do) one unit every week.
13. My exam (be) on 15 May, so there (not/be) any time to be lost.
14. If I (pass) my exams successfully, I (start) an apprenticeship in
September.
15. And after my apprenticeship, maybe I (go) back to London to work
there for a while.
16. As you can see, I (become) a real London fan already.

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TEST 3

Choose the correct answer.

1. Could I … (say/tell/talk) to you for a minute?
2. He … (works/is working/has worked/has been working) here for five
years now.
3. Rome … (did not build/had not built/was not built/was not building)
in a day.
4. Who is the woman … (in/at/on) the picture?
5. How … (many/much) sugar do you take in your tea?
6. Before he went to England he … (read/reads/has read/had read) tons
of guide books.
7. I was looking for my hat but I couldn't find it …
(anywhere/everywhere/somewhere).
8. I can't … (remember/remember myself/remind) the last song they
were playing.
9. I used to … (getting up/get up) early in the morning.
10. He is … (so/such) a nice man.
11. He said that he … (tells/has told/had told) her the news the day
before.
12. Because of her behaviour she now has … (less/little/fewer) friends
than before.
13. I am used to … (work/working) hard .
14. My parents had their sitting room … (paint/painting/painted).
15. You should ask her … (polite/politely/politly).
16. He spent five years in … (the prison/prison).
17. This book contains lots of … (informations/information) on
computers.
18. … (Throwing/Having thrown/Thrown) out of the band, he began a
solo career.
19. If Hamlet had married marries would marry Ophelia, she would not
have committed had not committed would not commit suicide.

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TEST 4

Choose the correct answer:

A
1. Computers…….. more and more popular.
A are becoming B become C is becoming
2. Paul……… to a chief accountant when I saw him.
A is talking B was talking C talks
3. Richard…… very hard at the moment.
A is working B works C has worked
4. Sam…….. to supermarket on weekends.
A was walking B is walking C walks
5. We to Bukovel ski resort last winter.
A have gone B went C go
6. The bank…. by the time I got there.
A closes B closed C had closed
7. She… while her husband …………the plants.
A cooked/watered B was cooking/was watering C has been
cooking/was watering
8. I…… Portugese for three years now.
A learn B am learning C have been learning
9. Jill…. Amy since she was five years old.
A has known B knows C have known
10. They……… for three hours when they stopped for a rest.
A have been driving B had been driving C were driving
11. World War II broke…… in 1939.
A out B up C down
12. The River Dnipro……… into the Black Sea.
A is flowing B flows C flowed
13. Dad……… to work by the time I woke up.
A is going B has already gone C had already gone
14. My niece works……….. a law firm.
A to B on C for
15. Max…….. every day for the last six months.
A exercises B is exercising C has been exercising
16. They often…….. on holiday abroad when they were single.

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 A went B go C have gone
17. It's hard to concentrate…… your work when there is a lot of noise.
A in B on C to
18. They……… in that house for twenty five years.
A have lived B are living C live
19. Mary………to Odessa at 3:00 tomorrow morning.
A flies B was flying C is flying
B
1. They have got a huge house. They…. be rich.
A needn't B can C must
2. ……. you open the window, please?
A Shall B Can C Must
3. The new stadium ……... last month by the mayor.
A was opened B is opened C is opening
4. Jim has applied…. a new job.
A for B to C from
5. They are giving ……… a CD with that magazine
this month.
A away B off C back
6. You……… walk on the grass in the park.
A needn't B must C mustn't
7. They teased Colin………his new haircut.
A of B for C about
8. Your report must………. by Friday evening.
A have finished B being finished C be finished
9. They………. have given me a lift home, but they did.
A should B needn't C must
10. The windows…… once a month.
A clean B are cleaned C are being cleaned
11. The fire went…… very quickly last night.
A after B out C off
12. Tom……..run very fast when he was twenty.
A can't B could C can
13. The bills…. by Friday.
A will have been paid B are paid C are being paid
14. My teeth….. by the dentist tomorrow.

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 A are being checked B are checked C will have checked
15. I…… tidy my room today. My mother said so.
A can B must C have to
16. ……. you help me with the cooking, please?
A Should B Shall C Will
17. I insist on my money………… immediately.
A to be refunded B be refunded C being refunded
18. We were surprised …….his reaction to the news.
A of B at C for
19. The test papers…. now.
A were handed out B are being handed out
C is handed out

C
1. She….him that she would be late.
A tells B said C told
2. He ran…… the thieves, but they got away.
A after B across C away
3. Excuse me, could you …….me the way to the bank, please?
A tell B told C say
4. I can't decide…… which outfit to wear.
A from B of C on
5. They …….. to hit us if we didn't give them the money.
A offered B threatened C suggested
6. This is the man….. car was stolen last week.
A which B who C whose
7. I…… good morning to him, but he ignored me.
A say B said C told
8. My pen has run……ink, so I can't finish this letter.
A away B into C out of
9. If we can't find a hotel, I'm sure Bill will put us…..
A out B up C down
10. Mark put ….. some good ideas at today's meeting.
A up B back C forward
11. She was astonished …….the number of presents she received.
A about B at C with

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 12. He….. for breaking the window.
A admitted B apologised C accused
13. The table…. he bought had been damaged.
A who B where C that
14. He asked her…… she had any experience in banking.
A why B that C if
15. The security guards prevented us…… entering the building.
A from B to C of
16. She………. that he was always taking her things.
A complained B denied C boasted
17. The girl….. lives next door wants to be a singer.
A which B who C where
18. The reason………. he left is that he felt ill.
A why B who C when
19. I haven't heard….. Katie since she moved away.
A of B to C from
20. This record reminds me ……… my youth.
A of B into C with

D
1. By the time they came,… was too late to go out.
A they B it C there
2. The pillows on my bed are very …
A soft B softly C softer
3. He wrote out a cheque…. £200.
A to B of C for
4. Have you seen…… wallet? I can't find it anywhere.
A your B my C our
5. She is always jealous….. other people.
A to B of C for
6. The ball hit me in…….eye.
A my B the C one
7. I woke up so late that I……had time for breakfast.
A harder B hard C hardly
8. David is ….. tall as his father.
A much B a lot C as

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9. I wore the ……..clothes I could find.
A smart B smarter C smartest
10. I'm standing …… the manager while she is away.
A up to B for C in for
11. Jane is much …… than her sister.
A pretty B prettier C prettiest
12. My house is very……..the post office.
A near B nearly C nearest
13. …… , we heard a loud noise.
A Sudden B Suddenly C More suddenly
14. James takes …..his father in looks.
A after B down C off
15. There is a big difference……independence and selfishness.
A about B of C between
16. The….bicycles are in the garden, where they left them.
A boys B boy's C boys'
17. She took….. sewing in order to keep busy.
A down B up C off-
18. He made this table ….
A herself B himself C itself
19. James is very…
A clever B cleverly C cleverest
20. .... is someone at the door.
A It B He C There
21. I turned……the volume to hear my favourite song.
A on B up C down
22. ….you finished that report yet?
A Didn't B Haven't C Hasn't
23. We were disappointed ….the hotel. It wasn't very nice.
A for B about C with
24. He was offered a job in America, but he turned it…
A up B down C off

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TEST 5

1. Complete each sentence with two to five words, including the word in
bold.
1 She's never made a presentation before.
first It's made a presentation.
2 When did you order the laptop?
since How long …………….. ordered the laptop?
3 I've never heard such a funny story.
ever It's the funniest …………….. heard.
4 I haven't eaten meat for a few months.
time The last ………was a few months ago.
5 When did he start his training course?
ago How long ……….. his training course?
6 She started learning Chinese six months ago.
been She for six months.
7 They haven't finished installing the program yet.
still They …………………………….. the program.
8 We didn't start eating until all the guests had arrived.
before We waited until all the guests ………………… eating.
9 When did you last see your neighbour?
since How long is it …………. neighbour?
10 Playing football near the road is dangerous.
to It is football near the road.
11 This coat is too small for me to wear.
enough This coat for me to wear.
12 The exercise is so difficult that I can't do it.
too The exercise is to do.
13 The man made us tidy the garden.
made We the garden by the man.
14 Talking is not allowed during the exam.
talk Nobody during the exam.
15 The house needs tidying.
tidied The house needs
16 Saving some money for the future is useful.
to It is some money for the future.

399
17 The teacher made them do the exercise again.
made They the exercise again by the teacher.
18 You aren't allowed to open this envelope.
mustn't You this envelope.
19 Perhaps Jane has gone out.
may Jane out.
20 Yesterday, we elected the new chairman.
was The new chairman yesterday.
21 Tom wrote the business plan which won the competition.
by The poem which won the competition …….Tom.
22 I advise you to go to bed early tonight.
should You early tonight.
23 They will fire you if you continue to come in late.
be You …… if you continue to come in late.
24 Eric doesn't like people pointing at him.
being Eric pointed at.
25 It's possible that they left early this morning.
could They this morning.
26 I lost my keys while I was shopping.
were My keys while I was shopping.
27 It isn't necessary for you to work late tonight.
have You late tonight.
28 She covered the cake with icing.
with The cake …… icing.

2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct infinitive form or the -ing
form.
1. They managed … (open) the door.
2. The participants were too tired ……. (continue) the debate.
3. I fancy…… (go) to a nightclub later tonight.
4. …… (walk) is a good form of exercise.
5. As far as I remember you mentioned ……(go) to China several times.
6. You had better….. (phone) your subcontractor now.
7. There's no point in …… (complain) about it if you have no receipt.
8. They ran outside only…. (find) that the car had gone.

400
 9. I haven't decided where ……(invest) my money yet.
10. She advised us…. (speak) to the boss.
11. I went to work without …..(have) breakfast this morning.
12. He wants to know how ….(write) a letter of application.
13. My parents let me……(have) a party for my friends.
14. They are glad ….. (be) home again.
15. Jim would like ……(start) his own business.

3. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense:

1. My colleague and I….. (often/go) fishing together.
2. The team … (hold) meetings on the project every other day.
3. We …….(play) on the beach when it started to rain.
4. She ……(take) the English exam last year.
5. Their company…. (open) a new shop in the suburbs of Kiev next
month.
6. By the time I arrived, the lecture …..(already/start).
7. I'm lost. I ….(drive) around here for an hour.
8. They….. (stand) on the platform for an hour when the train came.
9. They….(show) a new thriller at the cinema this week.
10. His secretary……(seldom/be) late for work.
11. The mechanic….. (repair) my car at the moment.
12. My parents ……(just/move) to a beautiful house in the country.

4.Choose the correct answer:

1. 'What are your plans for the summer?'
'I…… with my cousins in the country.'
A will have stayed B will stay C am going to stay
2. 'Did you see Jason yesterday?' 'No, but I …….. him this evening.'
A will probably see B will have seen C will have been seeing
3. 'Are you ready to go?' 'Yes. I …… in a few minutes.'
A will be leaving B am leaving C will leave
4. 'What are you thinking about?'
'My holiday. This time next week I …… in the Seychelles.'
A will be relaxing B will relax C am relaxing

401
 5. 'I would like … for a picnic tomorrow.' 'That's a good idea.'
A going B go C to go
6. 'Please knock before ……. the room.' 'I will.'
A to enter B entering C enter
7. 'You had better …… your homework before dinner.'
'Okay. I've almost finished it.'
A finish B to finish C finishing
8. 'Where have you been?' 'I went to the bank …..some money.'
A getting B to get C get
9. 'How long has Sarah worked for that company?'
'She……there for two years by the end of this month.'
A has been working B will work C will have been
working
10. 'I saw the lightning … the tree last night.' 'Yes, it was a terrible storm,
wasn't it?'
A hitting B to hit C hit
11. 'I'm exhausted.' 'You'll soon get used to …… long hours,'
A have worked B working C work
12. The children's party finishes at 6 o'clock.' 'Okay. I …… them up on
my way home.'
A will be picking B will pick C pick
13. 'I listen…….the radio every morning.' 'Do you? I read the newspaper.'
A in B at C to
14. 'How do I get to the ice-rink from here?'
'Get….a number 7 bus. It will take you there.'
A on B from C in

5. Link the sentences using the correct word(s) in brackets.

1. Jack likes football. Terry likes basketball, (too/ where as)
2. Computers are very useful. You can store a lot of information on
them, (for example/whereas)
3. She wore a coat. It was warm outside, (and/even though)
4. I studied hard. I wanted to pass the exam, (because/in addition)
5. He locked the doors. He didn't want to be burgled.
(on the other hand/since)

402
 6. I love tea. Sarah loves coffee, (too/whereas)
7. I had a shower. I went to bed. (but/then)
8. He didn't have much money. He bought me a present.
(because/although)
9. Simon is tired. He is ill. (however/as well as)
10. We all had a lovely time. Peter was in a bad mood. (whereas/apart from)

6. Choose the correct answer.

1. I went to the doctor's…. I felt ill.
A due to B so C because
2. Tony made the lunch….. I cut the grass.
A while B when C afterwards
3. Dogs are very loyal pets…., they can guard your property.
A Because B What is more C Even though
4. We all like chocolate…. David, who hates it.
A although B but C apart from

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TEST 6

I. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form:

1. Jane (watch) TV for hours; that's why her eyes are red.
2. The pancakes (taste) delicious.
3. Look! It's Francis! I (not see) him for ages.
4. Paul (listen) to a new record in his room. Shall I call him?
5. It's the first time she ever (be) to the club.
6. While the president (fly) to Canada his plane (fall) into the sea.
7. We normally (live) with our parents but for these two months we
(live) in our aunt's flat. She (go) away on business.
8. Don't phone me at 8.00. I (watch) the news programme on TV then.
9. We will turn the TV off when our guests (come).
10. Your hair (grow) a lot since I last (see) you.
11. I (study) English for some months now and I (not discover) anything
really difficult so far.
12. She always (bite) her nails. I can't stand this habit of hers.
13. When World War II began Hitler (rule) Germany for six years.
14. While I (have) lunch in the snack bar round the corner, I (meet) an
old friend whom I (not see) for a long time.
15. At the end of this month Mrs Parsons (work) here for exactly 25
years.
16. They (get) married next week. They've already sent the invitations.
17. We (drive) along the road when we (see) a car which (break) down.
So we (stop) to see if we could help.
18. Was Tom at home when you arrived? – No, he (go) to the party.
19. I can give you a definite answer only after I (to speak) to my
manager.
20. I hope, when you (to do) this exercise, there (not to be) so many
mistakes in it.
21. By next Sunday I (to repair) my greenhouse.
22. You’d better not go bathing until you (to get rid) of that cough.
23. When I (to learn) a thousand English words, shall I be able to read a
newspaper?
24. This time next Monday I (to sit) in a London cafe.

404
 25. I (listen) to you for the past half an hour, but I’m afraid I (not
understand) a word.

II. Choose the correct variant.

1. She _______ by the manager to make a decision. (asked/is
asked/asks/has asked)
2. He said that he ________ the task by 5p.m. the next day. (has
written/would have written/wrote)
3. I _____ along the street for 20 min when I saw that monument.
(walked/had walked/had been walking/was walking)
4. We were told that he ______ to enter our University. (is going/was
going/went/goes)
5. I’m late, ________ ? (amn’t I/ aren’t I/don’t I/am I)
6. Can you type? -Yes, I _______ how to type when I was at school.
(taught/was taught/ had taught)
7. The wind that ________ heavily all night faded at sunrise.
(blows/blew/is blowing/had been blowing)
8. My colleague ______ you when you come. (helped/has helped/will
help/had helped)
9. He ________ unwell for a few days when the doctor was sent for.
(was/had been/had being/has been)
10. This time tomorrow I _______ on a plane to Paris. (will sit/would
sit/will be sitting/would be sitting)
11. My friend _________ America yet. (hadn’t been to/wasn’t in/hasn’t
been to/hasn’t been in)
12. I ______ a bath when the phone rang. (had/have had/was
having/have)
13. Does your dog eat a lot? No, it _________ twice a day. (is fed/are
fed/fed/was fed)

III. Complete tag-questions with the correct ending:

1.You can’t speak English, …?

can’t you?
are you?
can you?

405
don’t you?

2. She has already cleaned her shoes, …?

doesn’t she?
didn’t she?
has she?
hasn’t she?

3. There are a lot of butterflies in the fields, …?

aren’t they?
are they?
aren’t there?
are there?

4. The Smiths bought a car a year ago, …?

haven’t they?
did they?
didn’t they?
do they?

5. I haven’t broken my leg, …?

have I?
haven’t I?
did I?
didn’t I?
6. He has never been to a concert, …?
hasn’t he?
did he?
has he?
didn’t he?

7. She wrote an annual report last week, …?

hasn’t she?
did she?
has she?
didn’t she?

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IV. Find a mistake in some of these sentences.
1. Have you seen Ann yesterday?
2. I have finished work at 2 o’clock.
3. I’m reading now. I have finished my work.
4. Where have you been last night?
5. Sue isn’t here. She’s gone out.
6. Have you seen Paul last week?
7. George has left school three years ago.
8. Have you ever been to Britain?
9. Has Napoleon Bonaparte died in 1821?
10. The weather has been very bad last week.

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 IRREGULAR VERBS

Infinitive Past Participle Infinitive Past Participle

be was/were been catch caught caught
beat beat beaten choose chose chosen
become became become come came come
begin began begun cost cost cost
bend bent bent cut cut cut
bite bit bitten deal dealt dealt
blow blew blown do did done
break broke broken draw drew drawn
bring brought brought drink drank drunk
build built built drive drove driven
buy bought bought eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen say said said
feed fed fed see saw seen
feel felt felt sell sold sold
fight fought fought send sent sent
find found found set set set
fly flew flown sew sewed sewn
forbid forbade forbidden shake shook shaken
forget forgot forgotten shine shone shone
forgive forgave forgiven shoot shot shot
freeze froze frozen show showed shown
get got got shrink shrank shrunk
give gave given shut shut shut
go went gone sing sang sung
grow grew grown sink sank sunk
hang hung hung sit sat sat
have had had sleep slept slept
hear heard heard slide slid slid
hide hid hidden speak spoke spoken
hit hit hit spend spent spent
hold held held split split split
hurt hurt hurt spread spread spread
keep kept kept stand stood stood
know knew known steal stole stolen
lay laid laid stick stuck stuck
lead led led strike struck struck
leave left Left swear swore sworn
lend lent lent sweep swept swept

408
lie lay lain swim swam swum
light lit lit take took taken
lose lost lost teach taught taught
make made made tear tore torn
mean meant meant tell told told
meet met met think thought thought
pay paid paid throw threw thrown
put put put understand understood understood
read read read wake woke woken
ride rode ridden wear wore worn
ring rang rung win won won
rise rose risen write wrote written
run ran run

409
 GRAMMAR REFERENCES

USED TO
Для вираження повторюваної дії, яка відбувалася або тривала
певний час в минулому і на даний момент закінчилася, в англійській
мові часто вживається конструкція used to + V.
e.g. We used to live in Moscow. — Ми жили в Москві.
I used to go to the stadium every day. — Колись я ходив на стадіон
кожного дня.
Заперечна і питальна форми утворюється за допомогою дієслова
did.
e.g. I did not use to wear jeans.
Did you use to be thin?

Також в англійській мові є подібні конструкції, але з різними

відтінками значень.

used to + V
Дія відбувалася в минулому, I used to live in a big city. —
на момент мовлення Колись я жив у великому місті.
закінчилася. (Зараз я вже там не живу.)
to get used to + Ving — I got used to living in a big city. —
звикати щось робити Я звик жити у великому місті.
(Спочатку це було для мене
чимось незвичним, але я звик до
цього.)
to be used to + Ving — I am used to living in a big city. —
бути звикшим до чогось Я звик до життя у великому місті.
(Це для мене не є проблемою, це
моє повсякденне життя.)
to be used to + N — I am used to the noise of a big city.
бути звиклим до чогось — Я звикла до шуму великого
(іменник) міста. (Він для мене є чимось
звичним.)

410
 PRESENT PERFECT VS. PAST SIMPLE
Одним з найскладніших питань при перекладі речень,
виражених в українській мові минулим часом, є розпізнавання
перфектних і неозначених часів. Наступна таблиця показує
відмінності між цими часовими формами.

The present perfect is used when I have seen three movies this
the time period has NOT finished week. (This week has not finished
yet.)
The simple past is used when the I saw three movies last week.
time period HAS finished (Last week has finished.)
The present perfect is often used Martin has crashed his car again.
when giving recent news (This is new information.)
The simple past is used when Martin crashed his car last year.
giving older information (This is old information.)
The present perfect is used when I have seen that movie already.
the time is not specific (We don't know when.)
The simple past is used when the I saw that movie on Thursday.
time is clear (We know exactly when.)
The present perfect is used with I have lived in Victoria for five
for and since, when the actions years.
have not finished ye (I still live in Victoria.)
The simple past is used with for I lived in Victoria for five years.
and since, when the actions have (I don't live in Victoria now.)
already finished

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 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
Present Perfect Continuous (Progressive) утворюється з
допоміжного дієслова to be в Present Perfect та дієприкметника
теперішнього часу основного дієслова:
have
+ been + Ving
has
І have been working.
He has been working.
У питальній формі перше допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед
підметом:
Have you been working?
У заперечній формі після першого допоміжного дієслова вживається
заперечна частка not:
Не has not been working.
Present Perfect Continuous вживається для вираження дії, що
почалася в минулому і тривала протягом певного періоду і або все ще
продовжується в цей момент, або щойно закінчилася:
His father has been Його батько працює на цьому заводі
working at this plant for двадцять років (почав працювати 20 років
twenty years. тому і працює досі).
Здебільшого на період тривалості дії вказують обставини часу,
часто з прийменниками for та since.
Present Perfect Continuous вживається в питальних реченнях з
питальними словами since when з якого часу, відколи і how long як
довго, скільки часу, якщо мова йде про період що безпосередньо
передує моменту мовлення:
Since when have you been waiting for me?
How long have you been learning English?
З дієсловами, що не вживаються з часами групи Continuous, замість
Present Perfect Continuous вживається Present Perfect. У цьому разі
Present Perfect перекладається на українську мову теперішнім часом.

PRESENT PERFECT VS. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

(PROGRESSIVE)
Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous
1.Вживається для вираження 1. Вживається для вираження дії,
закінченої дії. Акцент на яка ще триває. Акцент на
результат. незакінченість і тривалість.
2. Часто вживається для 2. Вживається для вираження

412
вираження тривалості дії:
— скільки зроблено: I’ve been reading books on
I’ve read a lot about it elephants for two months.
— скільки разів це робилося:
I’ve been to Africa twice
— скільки саме речей зроблено
She’s written three articles

PAST PERFECT
Past Perfect утворюється з допоміжного дієслова to have у Past
Indefinite та дієприкметника минулого часу (Past Participle) основного
дієслова. Дієслова в Past Perfect не змінюються за особами й числами:
І (he, she, it, we, you, they) had worked.
У питальній формі допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед підметом:
Had you worked?
У заперечній формі після допоміжного дієслова вживається заперечна
частка not:
І had not worked.
Past Perfect вживається для вираження дії, що відбулася раніше
іншої минулої дії, позначеної дієсловом у Past Indefinite:
І told you I had met her. Я казав тобі, що зустрічав її
(зустрічав її раніше, ніж говорив
про це).
Але: 1. Під час переліку минулих дій у тій послідовності, в якій вони
відбувалися, дієслова вживаються у Past Indefinite:
І opened the door, closed it and went into the bedroom.
2. У складнопідрядному реченні із сполучниками after після того як і
before перед там як, перш ніж, коли немає потреби наголошувати, що
одна дія передує іншій, і в головному, і в підрядному реченнях
вживається Past Indefinite:
Не stood motionless after she Він стояв нерухомо, після того як
disappeared. (Shaw) вона зникла.
Past Perfect вживається для вираження минулої дії, що вже
закінчилася до певного моменту в минулому. Цей момент
позначається такими словосполученнями: by two o'clock до другої
години, by that time до того часу, by the 1st of September до першого
вересня тощо:
Заперечна форма Past Perfect вказує на те, що до певного моменту в
минулому дія ще не закінчилася.

413
 THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE) TENSE
(Майбутній тривалий час)

Future Continuous — часова форма дієслова, що вживається для

вираження тривалої дії, яка відбуватиметься в якийсь момент або
період часу в майбутньому.
I. Утворення
Futures Continuous утворюється з допоміжного дієслова to be в Future
Indefinite та дієприкметника теперішнього часу основного дієслова:
will + be + Ving
I will be translating this article. — Я перекладатиму цю статтю.
II. Питальна форма
У питальній формі допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед підметом:
Will they be working? — Вони працюватимуть?
When will he be working? — Коли він буде працювати?
III. Заперечна форма
У заперечній формі після допоміжного дієслова вживається частка
not:
We will not be working there. — Ми не будемо тут працювати.
Не will not be staying here. — Він не буде зупинятися тут.
IV. Вживання
Future Continuous вживається для вираження майбутньої тривалої дії,
яка відбуватиметься в певний момент в майбутньому. Цей момент
може бути виражений:
а) вказівкою часу: at 3 o’clock, at 5 a.m.;
б) іншою майбутньою одноразовою дією, вираженою Present Simple:
I will be cooking dinner when he comes.
в) іншою майбутньою тривалою дією, яка також виражається Future
Continuous (дві паралельні майбутні тривалі дії):
I will be cooking dinner and he will be reading a book.

414
 РЕЧЕННЯ (SENTENCES)

Для того, щоб правильно побудувати англійське речення,

необхідно знати певні правила. Порядок слів у реченні буде
визначатися, перш за все, типом речення. Залежно від мети
висловлювання в англійській мові розрізняють такі типи речень:
а) розповідні (declarative sentences)
б) питальні (interrogative sentences)
в) спонукальні (imperative sentences)
г) окличні (exclamatory sentences).
Головними членами речення є підмет і присудок. Підмет (the subject)
в англійській мові, як і в українській, найчастіше виражається
іменником або особовим займенником. Присудок (the predicate)
виражається різними дієслівними формами (в залежності від часу,
стану і способу смислового дієслова).
Порядок слів в англійському реченні чітко фіксований. Дуже
важливо пам’ятати це правило, так як від цього залежить зміст вашого
висловлювання. Візьмемо, наприклад, українське речення “Викладач
запитує студента”. Якщо поміняти місцями іменники, не змінюючи їх
форми, зміст речення не зміниться: “Студента запитує викладач”.
Слово “викладач” і в цьому реченні є підметом, оскільки воно стоїть у
називному відмінку, а іменник “студента”, хоч і займає місце на
початку речення, є прямим додатком, бо має закінчення знахідного
відмінка.
Якщо у відповідному англійському реченні “The teacher asks the
student” зробити таку ж саму перестановку, отримаємо речення “The
student asks the teacher”, зміст якого зовсім інший: “Студент запитує
вчителя”, оскільки в англійській мові роль іменника в реченні
визначається його місцем. Іменник, що стоїть перед дієсловом-
присудком, є підметом, а іменник, що стоїть після присудка —
прямим додатком.

Порядок слів англійського розповідного речення

I II III IV
Підмет Присудок Додаток Обставин
непря прямий прийменни а місця /
мий ковий часу
We study - English - -
Ми вивчаємо англійську

415
We send him our letters - every
Ми посилаєм йому наші листи week
о кожного
тижня
She reads - her notes to Peter every day
Вона читає - свої Пітеру кожного
записи дня

Такий порядок слів, коли підмет стоїть перед присудком, називається

прямим і саме він є найбільш характерною структурою англійського
розповідного речення.

При перетворенні в непряму мову наказових речень (Imperative

sentence) наказовий спосіб дієслова прямої мови замінюється
інфінітивом. У заперечній формі перед інфінітивом ставиться частка
not.
Структура наказового речення

to order
to tell
to command a person to whom we (not)
refer command or Infinitive+(pronoun)
to ask request
to beg
e.g. She said to me, “Don’t be late”.
She told me not to be late.
e.g. She said to me, “Wake me up at 8”.
She asked me to wake her up at 8.

Питальні речення (Interrogative sentences) також можуть бути

виражені непрямою мовою. Такі запитання мають структуру
розповідного речення: в них прямий порядок слів (присудок ставиться
після підмета), допоміжне дієслово не вживається. Розглянемо окремо
загальні (general questions) та спеціальні питання (special questions).

Загальні та спеціальні питання

Загальне запитання

to ask if
to wonder

416
to want to know whether direct word order
e.g. She said to me, “Do you speak English?”.
She asked me if I spoke English.
Він запитав мене чи я розмовляю
англійською.

Сполучники if та whether перекладаються українським прийменником

„чи”.
В англійській мові є чотири типи питальних речень: загальні,
спеціальні, розділові та альтернативні. Два з них ми розглянемо зараз,
два — трохи пізніше.
Питання до всього речення називається загальним питанням.
Воно уточнює інформацію і на нього зазвичай дається відповідь “так”
або “ні”. При цьому, у відповіді обов’язково повинно прозвучати
допоміжне дієслово, яке було використане у запитанні та особовий
займенник, який відповідає по формі підмету.
Наприклад: Are you at home? — Yes, I am.
Ти вдома? — Так, я вдома.
В даному реченні використовується дієслово to be. В запитанні
воно має форму 2-ї особи, так як узгоджується з особовим
займенником you, а у відповіді — 1-ї, так як відповідь будується від
першої особи однини —I. Але в обох реченнях це одне і те ж дієслово
to be. У питанні, як ми уже знаємо, дієслово to be стоїть перед
підметом, у відповіді — після.
Питання, яке стосується лише певного члена речення і задається
з метою отримання нової конкретної інформації, називається
спеціальним. Будь-яке спеціальне питання починається з питального
слова:
who хто
what що
whose чий
whom кого
which котрий
when коли
where де, куди
why чому
how як
how many (для злічуваних як багато
іменників)
how much (для незлічуваних
іменників)

417
 how long як довго
Якщо будувати спеціальне запитання з дієсловом to be, воно
матиме ось таку структуру:

Питальне to be (у потрібній підмет

слово формі)
Where are you?

Subject and object questions

Who and what can be the subject or the object of a question. There is no
auxiliary verb or inversion in subject questions as there is in object
questions. We use an auxiliary verb in the answer to a subject question.

Who did Ricardo inherit the company from? (object question)

(From his father.)
Who inherited the company? (subject question)
(Ricardo did.)
What do employees vote on? (object question)
(On big decisions.)
What changed in 1980? (subject question)
(Semco did.)

418
 УЗГОДЖЕННЯ ЧАСІВ
(SEQUENCE OF TENSES)

В українській мові дієслово-присудок підрядного додаткового

речення може вживатись у будь-якому часі (теперішньому, минулому
чи майбутньому), залежно від змісту. В англійській мові це можливо
лише тоді, коли дієслово-присудок головного речення виражає дію
стосовно теперішнього або майбутнього часу:
І think that it will snow. Я думаю, що буде сніг.
He understands that he has made a Він розуміє, що допустив по-
mistake. милку.
Якщо ж присудок головного речення в англійській мові виражений
дієсловом в одному з минулих часів, то в підрядному додатковому
реченні дієслово-присудок, як правило, має бути в одному з минулих
часів або в майбутньому з точки зору минулого (Future-in-the-Past).
Якщо в головному реченні дієслово-присудок виражає минулу
дію, а дія підрядного додаткового речення відбувається в той самий
період часу, що й дія головного, то в підрядному реченні вживається
Past Simple або Past Continuous.
І thought you were his friends. Я думав, що ви його друзі.
Who told you I was here? Хто вам сказав, що я тут?
Якщо в головному реченні дієслово-присудок виражає
минулу дію, а дія підрядного додаткового речення відбулася раніше
дії головного, то в підрядному реченні вживається Past Perfect. В
українській мові такі речення перекладаються минулим часом:
We asked him if anything if Ми запитали його, чи не
anything had happened. трапилося чого-небудь.
Але: Якщо в підрядному реченні точно зазначено час виконання дії, то
цю дію виражають за допомогою Past Simple або Past Continuous:
Не said that he finished school in Він сказав, що закінчив школу в
1994. 1994 році.
Правило послідовності часів не застосовується в підрядних
додаткових реченнях, які виражають загальновідомі факти:
Не knew that metals conduct Він знав, що метали проводять
electricity. електрику.
The teacher told that the Earth Вчитель сказав, що Земля рухається
moves round the sun. навколо Сонця.
Також це правило не діє, якщо мова йде про передачу
висловлювання, яке щойно прозвучало.
A: What did Ann say? I didn’t hear A: Що сказала Анна? Я не почула
her. її.

419
B: She said (that) she is hungry. B: Сказала, що вона голодна.

НЕПРЯМА МОВА
(INDIRECT SPEECH)

В англійській мові перетворення прямої мови в непряму

відбувається за певними правилами з утворенням складнопідрядного
речення. При цьому береться до уваги правило узгодження часів та
тип речення прямої мови.
При перетворенні прямої мови на непряму вказівні займенники та
деякі обставини часу і місця змінюються так:
Пряма мова Непряма мова
this that
these those
now then
here there
today that day
yesterday the day before
the day before yesterday two days before
tomorrow the next day
the day after tomorrow two days later
ago before
next the next

Загалом, розповідне речення (Declarative sentence) має наступну

структуру:
to say
to tell
to promise (that) direct word order
to remark
to admit
e.g. She said, “I have seen this film”.
She said that she had seen that film

Спеціальні запитання (special questions) при переході з прямої

мови в непряму мають наступну структуру:
to ask who
to wonder what
to want to know when direct word order
where
why

420
 how
e.g. We asked her, “When will you come back?”.
We asked when she would come back .
При цьому питальні слова стають сполучними словами, допоміжне
дієслово не вживається, а речення має прямий порядок.
При перетворенні в непряму мову наказових речень (Imperative
sentence) наказовий спосіб дієслова прямої мови замінюється
інфінітивом. У заперечній формі перед інфінітивом ставиться частка
not. Структура речення виглядає наступним чином:
to order
to tell
to command a person to whom we (not)
refer command or Infinitive+(pronoun)
to ask request
to beg
e.g. She said to me, “Don’t be late”.
She told me not to be late.
e.g. She said to me, “Wake me up at 8”.
She asked me to wake her up at 8.

421
 ВКАЗІВНІ ЗАЙМЕННИКИ
(DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS)

Займенник this (these) вживаються стосовно предметів, що

перебувають близько від того, хто говорить, а також тоді, коли
йдеться про щось близьке в часі, що належить до теперішнього часу.
Займенник that (those) вживається стосовно предметів більш
віддалених від того, хто говорить, а також тоді, коли йдеться про щось
більш віддалене в часі, що належить до минулого або майбутнього
часу.
Займенники this і that вживаються як займенники-прикметники у
функції означення і як займенники-іменники у ролі підмета і додатка.
This watch is expensive. Цей годинник дорогий.
(означення)
This is an expensive watch. Це дорогий годинник.
(підмет)
If you need a pen, take this. Якщо тобі потрібна ручка,
(додаток) візьми цю.
В англійській мові, на відміну від української, вказівні
займенники у ролі підмета узгоджуються в числі з іменною частиною
складеного присудка.
Наприклад:
Це парта. This is a desk.
Це парти. These are desks.
То наш будинок. That is our house.
То наші будинки. Those are our houses.

ОСОБОВІ ЗАЙМЕННИКИ
(PERSONAL PRONOUNS)

Особові займенники в англійській мові мають два відмінки:

називний (the Nominative Case) і об’єктний (the Objective Case).
Займенник he вживається замість іменників, що є назвами істот
(здебільшого людей) чоловічої статі: father батько, boy хлопець, cock
півень та ін.
Займенник she вживається замість іменників, що є назвами істот
жіночої статі: mother мати , girl дівчина, cow корова та ін.
Займенник it замінює іменники — назви неістот, тварин і
рослин, а також іменник baby немовля. Українською мовою особовий
займенник it перекладається словами він, вона, воно залежно від роду
відповідного іменника в українській мові:

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 The house is large. It is new. Будинок великий. Він новий.
Take this book. It is good. Візьми цю книжку. Вона хороша.
Eat the apple. It is ripe. Їж яблуко. Воно стигле.
Займенник you вживається при звертанні до однієї або кількох
осіб і відповідає українським займенникам ти і ви. Український
переклад дуже часто залежить від контексту.

ПРИСВІЙНІ ЗАЙМЕННИКИ

(POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS)
В англійській мові присвійні займенники мають дві форми:
залежну (conjoint) і абсолютну (absolute).
Залежна Абсолютна Українські відповідники
форма форма
I my mine мій, моя, моє, мої
he his his його (чоловічий рід)
she her hers її
it its - його (середній рід), її
we our ours наш, наша, наше, наші
you your yours ваш, ваша, ваше, ваші
they their theirs їхній, їхня, їхнє, їхні

Присвійні займенники в залежній формі вживаються перед

іменниками і виконують роль означення: my address моя адреса, her
name її ім’я, its windows його вікна (наприклад, будинку), our
university наш університет, your bag твоя (ваша) сумка , their family
їхня сім’я.
Присвійні займенники в абсолютній формі не вживаються перед
іменниками. Вони замінюють їх і виконують функції підмета, іменної
частини присудка, додатка:
This book is mine. Ця книга моя.
Where are all our toys? — Mine are Де всі наші іграшки? — Мої
here. тут.

423
 У ролі означення присвійний займенник у абсолютній формі
вживається з прийменником of після означуваного іменника.
He is a friend of mine. Він — мій друг.
В англійській мові немає такого присвійного займенника, що
відповідав би українському займеннику свій і стосувався будь-якої
особи. Український присвійний займенник свій англійською мовою
перекладається різними присвійними займенниками залежно від
особи, якої він стосується.
Я користуюся своїм I use my computer.
комп’ютером.
Ти користуєшся своїм You use your computer.
комп’ютером.
Він користується своїм He uses his computer.
комп’ютером.
Ми користуємося своїм We use our computer.
комп’ютером.
Вони користуються своїм They use their computer.
комп’ютером.
У цьому значенні англійські присвійні займенники часто вживаються з назвами
частин тіла і предметів одягу. В українській мові в таких ситуаціях присвійні займенники
не вживаються взагалі.

He shook his head. Він похитав головою.

The girl put on her coat. Дівчинка одягла пальто.

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 МНОЖИНА ІМЕННИКІВ
(PLURAL FORM OF NOUNS)

Іменники в англійській мові поділяються на злічувані (countable

nouns) і незлічувані (uncountable nouns).
Злічувані іменники означають предмети, які можна порахувати: a
chair —стілець, a teacher — вчитель, a question — запитання.
Незлічувані іменники — це назви речовин і багатьох абстрактних
понять, які не піддаються лічбі: water — вода, milk — молоко, freedom
— свобода, friendship — дружба та ін.
Злічувані іменники вживаються в однині (singular) і множині (plural).
Незлічувані іменники множини не мають.
Утворення множини:
Більшість іменників англійської мови утворюють множину шляхом
додавання до форми однини закінчення –s / -es. Це закінчення
вимовляється:
[s] — після глухих приголосних, крім [s], [∫], [t]:
a lamp лампа — lamps ['læmps]
a lake озеро — lakes ['leıks]
[z] — після голосних і дзвінких приголосних, крім [z], [Ȝ], [dȜ]:
a train поїзд — trains [treınz]
a name ім’я — names [neımz]
a sea море — seas [sı:z]
[ız] — після звуків [s], [z], [∫], [t∫], [Ȝ], [dȜ]:
a place місце — places ['pleısız]
a rose троянда — roses ['rouzız]
a wish бажання — wishes ['wı∫ız]
a branch гілка — branches [bra:n t∫ız]
a garage гараж — garages ['gæra:Ȝız]
a page сторінка — pages ['peıdȜız]

1. На письмі більшість іменників мають у множині закінчення –s.

Закінчення –es додається, якщо:
а) іменник в однині закінчується на –s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -z:
a bus автобус— buses a lunch сніданок — lunches
a dress сукня — dresses a box коробка — boxes
a bush кущ — bushes a quiz тест— quizzes
б) іменник в однині закінчується на –о:
a hero герой — heroes a tomato помідор — tomatoes
Але деякі слова є винятками:
a piano піаніно — pianos radio радіо — radios

425
 a photo фото — photos video відео — videos
kangaroo кенгуру — tattoo татуювання —
kangaroos tattoos
kilo кілограм — kilos zoo зоопарк — zoos
Ще деякі слова допускають дві форми, при цьому форма з
закінченням –es є більш вживаною:
mosquito комар — mosquitoes/ mosquitos
tornado торнадо — tornadoes/ tornados
volcano вулкан — volcanoes/ volcanos
zero нуль — zeroes/ zeros

в) іменник в однині закінчується на –у з попередньою приголосною.

При цьому у змінюється на і:
a story оповідання — stories a fly муха — flies
Подібної зміни не відбувається, якщо перед –у стоїть голосна:
a play п’єса — plays
2. Якщо іменник у однині закінчується на –f або –fe, у множині f
змінюється на v з додаванням закінчення –s / -es. Буквосполучення –
ves вимовляється [vz]:
a wife дружина — wives a calf теля — calves
a wolf вовк — wolves a knife ніж — knives
a half половина — halves a life життя — lives
a leaf листок — leaves a shelf полиця — shelves
Винятки:
belief переконання — beliefs chief начальник — chiefs
cliff скеля — cliffs roof дах — roofs

3. Деякі іменники утворюють множину шляхом зміни кореневої

голосної:
a man [mæn] чоловік —men [men]
a woman ['wumæn] жінка — women ['wımın]
a child [t∫aıld] дитина — children [t∫ıldrən]
a tooth [tu:] зуб — teeth [ti:]
a foot [fut] ступня — feet [fi:t]
a goose [gu:s] гуска — geese [gi:s]
an ox [ɔks] бик — oxen ['ɔksən]
a mouse [maus] миша — [maıs]
a louse [laus] воша — [laıs]
4. Деякі іменники англійської мови мають однакові форми однини і
множини:
one deer олень— two deer олені

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one sheep вівця — two sheep вівці
one species вид — two species види
one means засіб — two means засоби
5. Форма множини іменників fruit фрукт/фрукти і fish риба/риби
вживається лише тоді, коли мова йде про різні види.
Bob has an aquarium. He has one fish.
Sue has an aquarium. She has seven fish.
6. Деякі іменники латинського і грецького походження зберігають
форми множини, які вони мали в цих мовах:
phenomenon [fı'nɔmınən] явище — phenomena [fı'nɔmınə]
crisis ['kraısıs] криза — crises ['kraısi:z]
В англійській мові, як і в українській, є іменники, що вживаються
тільки в однині або тільки в множині.
Так, назви речовин, а також багато іменників, що виражають
абстрактні поняття, вживаються тільки в однині: chalk крейда, silver
срібло, реасе мир, соurаgе відвага та ін.
Деякі іменники в англійській мові вживаються тільки в однині, а
відповідні їм іменники в українській мові мають форми однини й
множини або навіть тільки множини, наприклад: advice порада,
поради; knowledge знання; information інформація, відомості; news
новина, новини; progress успіх, успіхи; money гроші.
До іменників, які в англійській мові вживаються лише в множині,
належать, як і в українській мові, назви предметів, що складаються з
двох рівних або подібних частин, наприклад: tongs обценьки,
spectacles окуляри, trousers штани, scissors ножиці та ін.

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 ПОНЯТТЯ ПРО АРТИКЛІ
(ARTICLES)

В англійській мові артиклі можуть вживаються перед

іменниками. Існує два артиклі: неозначений — а/аn (різне написання
неозначеного артикля (а або аn) залежить від літери, з якої
починається іменник: якщо ця літера приголосна, пишемо артикль а,
якщо голосна – аn) та означений артикль the.
Артикль або його відсутність по-особливому характеризують особу,
предмет або явище, позначене іменником.
Неозначений артикль а/аn походить від слова оnе, що означає "один",
"дехто", "якийсь", "хтось". Тому і у сучасній англійській мові він
указує на неозначеність однієї особи, предмета або явища,
позначеного іменником, не виділяючи його із ряду подібних. Коли
мова іде про декілька осіб, предметів або явищ, неозначений артикль
a/an не вживається.
Означений артикль the вказує на означеність однієї або декількох осіб,
предметів, явищ, позначених іменником, тобто виділяє його з ряду
подібних або підкреслює його одиничний, унікальний характер.
Означеність або неозначеність, як правило, обумовлюються
конкретною ситуацією спілкування.

Вживання артиклів перед іменниками у однині.

a /an the
Неозначений, відносить до Означений, індивідуалізує
класу
1. Якщо перед іменником (з У значенні “цей”, “той”, “той
означенням або без нього) самий” або вже відомий
можна при перекладі на україн- співбесіднику або читачеві:
ську мову поставити: “один”,
“один з”, “який-небудь”, “хтось”, Look at the dress! It's just your
“дехто”, “якийсь”: size.
Jane wants to buy a dress. Поглянь на цю сукню! Вона
Джейн хоче купити сукню. якраз твого розміру.
(яку-небудь). The book you gave me yesterday
We bought a new interesting book. is very interesting.
Ми купили нову цікаву книгу. Книга, яку ти дав мені вчора,
(якусь, одну із подібних). дуже цікава.

2. Коли особа або предмет Коли особа або предмет

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 з'являються у тексті вперше: з'являються у контексті
He entered the room and saw a повторно:
man. The man was very excited.
Він увійшов до кімнати і Чоловік був дуже
побачив чоловіка (якогось схвильований.
незнайомого чоловіка). (той, якого він побачив).

3. Якщо йдеться про людину - одну Якщо йдеться про людину або
з ряду однотипних (за предмет, єдиний у своєму роді:
національністю, фахом і т.ін.): Не is the rector of our university.
Не is a teacher at our university.
Він викладач нашого
університету.

Вживання артиклів перед іменниками у множині.

У цьому випадку артикль a /an не вживається, а артикль the
зберігається:
We bought new books. The new book swe bought are very
Ми купили нові книги. interesting.
Нові книги, які ми купили, дуже
цікаві.

Особливі випадки вживання артиклів.

Артиклі не вживаються:
1. Якщо перед іменником стоїть присвійний займенник my — мій,
your — твій, ваш, his — його, і т.ін. або одне з таких слів:
some—декілька, деяка кількість these — ці
any — який-небудь that — той, та
many (much) - багато those — ті
few (little) - мало other — інші
this — цей, ця another — інший, ще один
2. Перед та після заперечного слова nо:
І have no perfumes. — У мене немає парфумів.
3. Перед іменниками, за якими йде цифрова інформація:
Do exercise 3 on page 87. — Виконайте вправу 3 на стор. 87.
I live in room 1247. — Я мешкаю в номері 1247.
4. Перед власними назвами:
імена людей, клички тварин Peter, Mr. Brown, Spot
назви країн, міст Germany, London
окремі острови або гори Cyprus; Mount Vezuvius
материки America, Australia

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окремі озера Lake Baikal, Ontario
планети, сузір'я Mars, Orion
назви навчальних закладів, що Oxford University
починаються з власної назви
назви штатів, провінцій, областей Oklahoma, Odessa oblast
свята Christmas, Thanksgiving
Day

5. Перед назвами видів спорту hockey, chess

6. Перед абстрактними поняттями service, quality
7. Перед назвами наук economics, history
8. Перед назвами днів тижня, on Monday — в понеділок;
місяців in May — у травні
9. Перед назвами речовин, продуктів харчування, матеріалів або
напоїв артикль, як правило, не ставиться.
glass — скло whisky — віскі
paper — папір tea — чай
iron — залізо juice — сік

Примітка: Наявність артикля a /an або the перед такими іменниками

вказує на те, що йдеться про предмет, виготовлений з цієї речовини,
або про порцію, певну кількість продукту або напою:
a/the glass — скло (напр. у вікні); a/the -whisky - порція (чарка)
склянка a/the paper - документ; віскі a/the tea - чашка чаю
газета an/the iron - a/the juice — стакан (банка,
праска пляшка) соку

Завжди вживається означений артикль the:

1. Перед такими географічними the Atlantic Ocean, the
назвами: Dnieper, the Black Sea, the
океани, річки, моря, затоки Great Lakes, the Bahamas, the
групи островів, гір, озер, Alpsthe
канали British Channelthe
деякі країни United States of America,
the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland
2. Перед назвами готелів the Hilton Hotel
3. Перед назвами кораблів the Titanic, the Fyodor
Shalyapin
4. Перед назвами етнічних груп the Indians, the Ukrainians
5. Перед назвами історичних доку- the Constitution

430
 ментів
6. Перед порядковими числівниками the first, the second, the third
7. З такими словами та
словосполученнями: Сонце, Земля, Місяць
the Sun, the Earth, the Moon погода
the weather кінець
the end вранці (увечері)
in the morning (evening) увесь день (тиждень, рік)
the whole day (week, year)

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 THE PASSIVE VOICE
(ПАСИВНИЙ СТАН ДІЄСЛОВА)

Особа або предмет, що виконує дію, називається суб'єктом дії.

Особа або предмет, на які спрямовано дію, називається об’єктом дії.
Так, у реченні The managers are discussing the results (Менеджери
обговорюють результати) the managers означає суб'єкт дії, а results —
її об'єкт.
В англійській мові дієслова вживаються в активному стані (the Active
Voice) і пасивному (the Passive Voice).
Якщо підметом речення є суб'єкт дії, то дієслово-присудок вживається
в активному стані:
My brother signed this contract Мій брат підписав цей
yesterday. контракт вчора.
Якщо підметом речення є об'єкт дії, то дієслово-присудок вживається
в пасивному стані:
This contract was signed yesterday. Цей контракт був підписаний
учора.
Усі часові форми пасивного стану в англійській мові
утворюються з відповідних часів допоміжного дієслова to be та
дієприкметника минулого часу основного дієслова, тобто дієслова в 3-
й формі.
Passive Voice дієслів групи Indefinite.
Past Present Future
was am
+ V3 is + V3 will be + V3
were are
He was promoted. He is promoted. He will be promoted.
They were employed. They are employed. They will be
employed.

У питальній формі допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед підметом:

Where was this document printed? Де було надруковано цей
документ?
У заперечній формі частка not ставиться після допоміжного дієслова:
Не was not offered this job. Йому не запропонували цю роботу.

Часові форми пасивного стану вживаються за тими самими

правилами, що й відповідні часи активного стану.
Так, часи групи Indefinite пасивного стану, як і активного, виражають
одноразову, повторювану або постійну дію в теперішньому, минулому

432
або майбутньому часі і вживаються для вираження майбутньої дії в
підрядних реченнях часу та умови:
These questions were asked very Ці питання задавалися дуже
often. часто.
Our company was founded in 1998 Наша компанія була заснована
in London. 1998 року в Лондоні.
Today English is written, spoken, Сьогодні англійською мовою
broadcast and understood on every пишуть, розмовляють та ведуть
continent. радіопередачі, її розуміють на всіх
континентах.
I'll be very glad if I am promoted. Я буду дуже радий, якщо
отримаю підвищення.
This contract will be translated into Цей контракт буде перекладено
Ukrainian. українською мовою.
Пасивний стан вживається тоді, коли в центрі уваги
співрозмовників є особа або предмет, на які спрямована дія (об'єкт
дії). Суб'єкт дії при цьому дуже часто не вказується:
Terms of the contract were Умови контракту були обговорені
discussed yesterday. вчора.
У цьому реченні terms є об'єктом дії, вираженої присудком (їх
обговорили), саме про них, а не про діючу особу йде мова.
При потребі суб'єкт дії може бути виражений за допомогою додатка з
прийменником by (назви істот) або with (назви неістот):
They were invited by our Їх запросив наш менеджер.
manager.
He was suddenly struck with the Раптом йому прийшло в голову
solution of this problem. рішення цієї проблеми.

The passive voice

(continuous tenses)
Present (Past) Continuous Passive утворюється з допоміжного
дієслова to be в Present (Past) Continuous та дієприкметника
минулого часу основного дієслова. Future Continuous в пасивному
стані не вживається.
Passive Voice дієслів групи Continuous.
Past Present Future
was am
+ being + V3 is+ being + V3 ------------------
were are
He was being I am being interviewed.
interviewed. He is being listened to.

433
They were being
employed.
У питальній формі допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед
підметом:
Is this document being printed? Цей документ друкується?
У заперечній формі частка not ставиться після допоміжного дієслова:
Our web-site in not being re- Наразі наш веб-сайт не
designed at the moment. реорганізовують.

Часові форми пасивного стану групи Continuous вживаються за

тими самими правилами, що й відповідні часи активного стану. Past
Continuous і Present Continuous виражають тривалу дію, що
відбувається в якийсь момент або період часу в теперішньому чи
минулому.
This question is being discussed Саме зараз це питання
right now. обговорюється.

Конструкція to be going to do smth. (збиратися щось робити)

також вживається в пасивному стані. Правило використання цієї
конструкції таке ж, як і в активному стані: виконавець дії має намір
здійснити її в найближчому майбутньому або надає їй відтінку
обов’язковості, неминучості виконання.
В пасивному стані конструкція має таку форму:

Past Present
was am
+ going to be is + going to
+V3 be +V3
were are
He was going to be He is going to be promoted.
promoted. They are going to be employed.
They were going to be
employed.
При перекладі таких речень українською мовою використовується
конструкція „Очікується, що...”.
Наприклад: The conttract is going to be signed tomorrow. — Очікується,
що контракт буде підписано завтра.

434
 МОДАЛЬНІ ДІЄСЛОВА
(MODAL VERBS)
Дієслово may
Дієслово may має дві форми: теперішній час may і минулий час
might. Але в значенні минулого часу дійсного способу форма might
вживається дуже рідко, головним чином у підрядних реченнях за
правилом послідовності часів:
Не asked the doctor if he might use Він запитав лікаря, чи йому
his telephone. (Hemingway) можна скористатися його
телефоном.
Дієслово may найчастіше виражає припущення з відтінком
сумніву, невпевненості. У цьому значенні may вживається у
стверджувальних і заперечних реченнях з усіма формами інфінітива.
Indefinite Infinitive з дієсловом may звичайно виражає дію, що
стосується майбутнього часу:
She may come back. Може, вона повернеться.
Сполучення may з Continuous Infinitive виражає припущення,
що дія відбувається в момент мовлення:
Не may be waiting for you. Можливо, він чекає на вас.
Якщо дієслово не вживається в формі Continuous, то дія, що
стосується теперішнього часу, позначається формою Indefinite
Infinitive:
She may know about it. Можливо, вона знає про це.
They may be at school now. Можливо, вони зараз у школі.
Perfect Infinitive вказує на те, що припущення тут стосується
лише минулого часу:
І may have put it on the table. Може, я поклав його на столі.
Дієслово may, як і саn, вживається для вираження можливості
виконати дію, що залежить від певних обставин. У цьому значенні
may вживається лише у стверджувальних реченнях з неозначеним
інфінітивом:
You may go there by train. Ви можете поїхати туди поїздом.
Перфектний інфінітив після might вказує на те, що дія, яка могла б
відбутися, не відбулася:
І might have stayed at home. Я міг би залишитися вдома.
Дієслово may з неозначеним інфінітивом вживається для
вираження дозволу:
You may open the window. Ти можеш відчинити вікно.
Форма might вживається (досить рідко) в питальних реченнях
для вираження ввічливого прохання:
Might I borrow your umbrella, Можна я скористаюся вашою

435
please? парасолею?
Заперечна форма may not означає заборону, але вона часто
замінюється заперечною формою дієслова must (іноді саn):
May we use dictionaries? Можна користуватися
No, you must not. словниками?
Hi, не можна.
Дозвіл або заборону можна виразити також за допомогою
словосполучень to be allowed і to be permitted, які вживаються
замість may стосовно дії у минулому або майбутньому часі:
We were allowed to use Нам дозволяли користуватися
dictionaries. словниками.

Дієслово must
Дієслово must має лише одну форму. Дія, виражена інфінітивом
у сполученні з must, може стосуватися теперішнього і майбутнього
часу:
Не must be at school now. Зараз він мусить бути в школі.
She must come tomorrow. Вона має прийти завтра.
Дієслово must виражає обов'язок, необхідність. У цьому
значенні must вживається у стверджувальних і питальних реченнях
лише з неозначеним інфінітивом:
То catch the train I must get up at Щоб потрапити на поїзд, я мушу
six. встати о 6 годині.
Для вираження необхідності стосовно минулого і майбутнього
часу вживається дієслово to have у відповідних часових формах (див.
Pattern II);
But he had to wait. Але він мусив чекати.
У заперечних реченнях must виражає заборону. У цьому
значенні must вживається лише з неозначеним інфінітивом:
You must not talk aloud in the У читальному залі не дозволяється
reading-hall. голосно розмовляти.
Коли йдеться про те, що немає потреби, необхідності
виконувати дію, вживають заперечну форму дієслова need — need not
або заперечну форму модального дієслова to have:
Must we come to school tomorrow? Треба нам приходити в школу
— No, you needn't. завтра? — Ні, не треба.
Дієслово must вживається для вираження наказу і поради. У цих
значеннях воно вживається у стверджувальних і заперечних реченнях
з неозначеним інфінітивом:
Tomorrow you must come to school Завтра ви повинні прийти до
at eight. школи о восьмій годині.

436
You must not read this book. It is He треба читати цієї книжки.
not interesting. Вона нецікава.
Дієслово must вживається для вираження припущення, що
межує з упевненістю. У цьому значенні must вживається лише в
стверджувальних реченнях, але з усіма формами інфінітива.
Сполучення must з Continuous Infinitive виражає припущення,
що дія відбувається в момент мовлення або протягом теперішнього
періоду часу.
Якщо дієслово не вживається у формах Continuous, то припущення
стосовно теперішнього часу виражається сполученням must з
неозначеним інфінітивом:
Не must be eighty. Йому, напевно, вісімдесят.
Сполучення must з Perfect Infinitive виражає припущення, що
дія відбулася в минулому:
She must have а caught cold. Вона, напевно, застудилася.
Дієслово must не вживається для вираження припущення стосовно
майбутнього часу. Припущення щодо майбутніх дій можна висловити
за допомогою слів evidently, probably або виразів to be sure, to be
likely, to be unlikely та ін.:
He is not likely to return soon. Він навряд чи скоро повернеться.
Треба пам'ятати, що must у значенні припущення не вживається
у заперечних реченнях. Для вираження припущення із заперечним
значенням вживаються слова evidently, probably:
Evidently he doesn't know your Він, напевно, не знає вашої
address. адреси.

Модальне дієслово have to

Дієслово to have, вжите як модальне, виражає необхідність чи
обов’язковість дії, зумовленої обставинами.
На відміну від інших модальних дієслів, дієслово to have має форми
інфінітива, дієприкметника і герундія і може вживатися в часових
формах, яких не мають інші модальні дієслова, зокрема в
майбутньому часі. З модальним дієсловом to have вживається лише
Indefinite Infinitive з часткою to:
І have to get up the next morning Завтра вранці я маю встати о сьомій
at seven. (Dreiser) годині.
І had to sell most of my things. Я змушений був продати більшість
(Heym) своїх речей.
You'll have to go now. (Parker) Вам доведеться зараз піти додому.

437
 Питальна й заперечна форми модального дієслова to have у
Present Indefinite і Past Indefinite утворюються з допоміжним дієсловом
to do:
You did not have to think about it. Вам не треба було думати про це.
В українській мові дієслово мати також вживається в значенні
мусити.
В усному мовленні вираз to have got також вживається в модальному
значенні і виражає необхідність чи обов’язок, зумовлені обставинами:
I've got to get up early. Мені треба встати рано.
Питальна й заперечна форми утворюються, як відповідні форми
Present Perfect.

Дієслова should і ought

Дієслова should і ought майже не різняться за значенням. Кожне
з них має лише одну форму. Should вживається з інфінітивом без
частки to. Після ought інфінітив вживається з часткою to.
Дієслова should і ought виражають моральний обов'язок (з точки зору
того, хто говорить), пораду, рекомендацію. У цих значеннях should і
ought вживаються з різними формами інфінітива.
Сполучення should і ought з Indefinite Infinitive виражають дію
стосовно теперішнього або майбутнього часу:
You ought to read more. Вам слід більше читати.
Kate is in hospital. You should visit Катя у лікарні. Ви б відвідали її.
her.
Continuous Infinitive з should/ought виражає дію стосовно
теперішнього часу, іноді стосовно моменту мовлення.
You oughtn't to be working for Вам не слід працювати у тих
those people. людей.
Сполучення Perfect Infinitive з дієсловами should і ought у
стверджувальній формі означає, що дія, бажана на думку того, хто
говорить, не відбулася. Заперечна форма should і ought у сполученні з
Perfect Infinitive виражає дію, що відбулася як небажана з точки зору
того, хто говорить:
You should have sent her to Вам слід було послати її до
school. школи.
Дієслово should вживається в риторичних запитаннях з питальним
словом why для вираження подиву, сильного здивування, обурення:
Why should I feel guilty about Чому я маю почувати себе винним у
it? цьому?

438
 Конструкція had better

Конструкція had better використовується, коли мова йде про

пораду і, якщо особа не прийме її до уваги, може трапитись щось
погане.
На українську мову перекладається „краще б”:
You’d better leave now, or you’ll be Тобі б краще піти зараз, бо
late. запізнишся.
Конструкція had better завжди відноситься до теперішнього або
майбутнього часу, а не до минулого, хоча дієслово to have і має форму
Past Simple.
Як правило, дієслово to have має скорочену форму: ’d better.
Заперечна форма утворюється з додаванням часточки not:
You’d better not be late. Вам би краще не запізнюватись.

Дієслово can

Дієслово саn має дві форми: теперішній час саn і минулий час
could:
І саn swim. Я вмію плавати.
Не could read when he was Він умів читати, коли йому було п'ять
five. років.
Дієслово can виражає фізичну або розумову здатність, уміння або
можливість виконати дію в теперішньому або минулому часі:
Не can lift this weight. Він може підняти цю вагу.
Can you see anything? Ви що-небудь бачите?
І can read French. Я можу читати французькою
І couldn't solve the problem. мовою.
You can buy this book; it is on sale Я не міг розв'язати задачі.
now. Ти можеш купити цю книжку;
вона зараз у продажу.
Після форми could у цих значеннях може вживатися перфектний
інфінітив, який вказує на те, що дія, яка могла відбутися, не відбулася:
You could have bought this book; it Ти міг купити цю книжку, вона
was on sale. була в продажу. (але не купив).
Не could have guessed it. Він міг здогадатися про це. (але не
здогадався).
Дієслово саn не має майбутнього часу. Замість саn вживається
сполучення to be able бути спроможним: інфінітив після нього

439
вживається з часткою to. Вираз to be able іноді вживається також
відносно теперішнього і минулого часу:
Perhaps this young man will be able Можливо, цей молодий чоловік
to help you. зможе допомогти вам.
She wasn't able to answer. Вона не могла відповідати.
Дієслово can вживається для вираження дозволу або заборони (в
заперечній формі).
You can use dictionaries. Можете користуватися
You can't use dictionaries. словниками.
Словниками користуватися не
можна.

Форма could у значенні дозволу вживається лише в питальних

реченнях для вираження ввічливого прохання:
Could I take your pen? Можна мені взяти вашу ручку?
Дієслово саn вживається для вираження сумніву, здивування,
невіри. У цих значеннях воно вживається лише в питальних і
заперечних реченнях, але з різними формами інфінітива.
Continuous Infinitive з дієсловом can означає дію, яка відбувається в
теперішньому часі.
Can she be working now? Невже вона зараз працює?
Where could she be going? Куди б вона могла зараз іти?
Indefinite Infinitive вживається в цьому самому значенні, але лише з
дієсловами, що не мають форми Continuous:
Can he knew Japanese? Невже він знає японську мову?
She can't be at home now. He може бути, щоб вона зараз
була вдома.
Perfect Infinitive означає дію, яка відбулася в минулому.
Can he have done it? Невже він зробив це?
She cannot have said this. He може бути, щоб вона сказала
це.
Вживання could замість can у цих значеннях не змінює часу дії, а
лише підсилює сумнів, невпевненість.

440
 НЕОСОБОВІ ФОРМИ ДІЄСЛОВА
(NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB)

Форми дієслова, які вживаються в ролі присудка речення,

називаються особовими (предикативними) формами (Finite Forms of
the Verb). В англійській мові (як і в українській) є також неособові
(непредикативні) форми дієслова (Non-Finite Forms of the Verb), тобто
такі, що не вживаються в ролі присудка, але можуть входити до його
складу. Це герундій (the Gerund), інфінітив (the Infinitive) і
дієприкметник (the Participle).
Неособові форми дієслова не мають граматичних ознак особи, числа і
способу, не виражають часу дії (теперішнього, минулого чи
майбутнього), а лише вказують на співвіднесеність у часі, тобто чи є
виражена ними дія одночасною з дією присудка, чи передує їй.

ІНФІНІТИВ
(THE INFINITIVE)

Інфінітив — це неособова форма дієслова, яка тільки називає

дію і відповідає на запитання що робити?, що зробити?: — to write
писати, to answer відповідати.
В англійській мові інфінітив має одну просту і п'ять складних форм.
Інфінітив перехідних дієслів має форми часу й стану, а неперехідних
— тільки часу:

Форми Active Passive

інфінітива
Indefinite to write to be written
to ask to be asked
Continuous to be writing —
to be asking
Perfect to have written to have been written
to have asked to have been asked
Perfect Con- to have been writing —
tinuous to have been asking

Якщо дієслово не вживається в пасивному стані або в формі

Continuous, то кількість форм інфінітива відповідно менша.

441
Ознакою інфінітива в англійській мові є частка to, але в багатьох
випадках інфінітив вживається без частки to. Частка not перед
інфінітивом вказує на заперечну форму.
Інфінітив вживається в активному стані, якщо іменник або займенник,
до якого він відноситься, означає суб'єкт дії, вираженої інфінітивом:
But they don't want to work with Але вони не хочуть з нами
us. працювати.

Інфінітив вживається в пасивному стані, якщо іменник або займенник,

до якого він відноситься, означає об'єкт дії, вираженої інфінітивом:
She didn't want to be asked. Вона не хотіла, щоб її
запитували.
Значення і вживання форм інфінітива
Інфінітив має одну просту та п’ять складних форм.
Інфінітив у формі Indefinite вживається:
1. Якщо дія, яку він виражає, одночасна з дією, вираженою
дієсловом-присудком речення:
І am sorry to hear it. (Dickens) Мені прикро чути це.
Не was glad to see them. Він був радий бачити їх.
It will be very interesting to read Буде дуже цікаво прочитати ці
these books. книжки.
2. 3 дієсловами, що виражають намір, надію, бажання і т. ін. Indefinite
Infinitive означає дію, майбутню по відношенню до дії, вираженої
дієсловом-присудком:
І hope to see you on Monday. Я сподіваюсь побачитися з вами в
І want to make a report. понеділок.
Не decided to go alone. Я хочу зробити доповідь.
Він вирішив іти сам.
3. 3 модальними дієсловами Indefinite Infinitive часто виражає
майбутню дію:
They may come tomorrow. Може, вони приїдуть завтра.
You should see a doctor. Тобі слід звернутися до лікаря.
Continuous Infinitive виражає тривалу дію, що відбувається
одночасно з дією, вираженою дієсловом-присудком:
It was pleasant to be driving a car Приємно було знову вести
again. (Braine) автомобіль.
The manager seemed to be listening. Здавалося, що менеджер слухає.
Perfect Infinitive виражає дію, що передує дії, вираженій
дієсловом-присудком.
І was pleased to have signed that Я був задоволений, що я підписав
contract. той контракт.

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 З модальними дієсловами should, ought, could, might у
стверджувальній формі, а також після was/were в модальному
значенні Perfect Infinitive показує, що дія не відбулася:
Не should have stayed in the Йому слід було залишитися в офісі
office. (але він не залишився).
Мені треба було піти звідси о пів на
І ought to have left here at half четверту (але я не пішов).
past three. Ви могли дати мені записку в ту ж
You could have given me the хвилину, коли я увійшов in (але не
message the minute I came. дали).
Не was to have done it. Він мав зробити це (але не зробив).
Таке саме значення має Perfect Infinitive після минулого часу
дієслів to expect сподіватися, чекати; to hope надіятися; to intend
мати намір та ін.:
І hoped to have found him at Я сподівався застати його вдома (але
home. не застав).
Perfect Continuous Infinitive виражає тривалу дію, що
відбувалася протягом певного часу перед дією, вираженою дієсловом-
присудком:
І am happy to have been working Я щасливий, що працюю в нашій
for our company for 10 years. компанії уже 10 років.

ГЕРУНДІЙ
(GERUND)

Герундій — це неособова форма дієслова із закінченням -ing, що

має властивості дієслова й іменника.
Як і інфінітив, герундій називає дію: reading читання, listening
слухання.
В українській мові немає форми, яка відповідала б герундію. Слова
читання, слухання — іменники, що утворились від дієслів, але не
мають граматичних ознак дієслова.
Дієслівні властивості герундія:
а) Герундій перехідних дієслів вживається з прямим додатком:
І like reading books. Я люблю читати книжки.

б) Герундій може мати означення, виражене прислівником:

They continued listening Вони продовжували уважно
attentively. слухати.

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в) Герундій має неозначену й перфектну форми, вживається в
активному і пасивному стані. За формою герундій збігається з
відповідними формами Present Participle.

Active Passive
Indefinite inviting being invited
Perfect having invited having been invited

Неозначена форма герундія (Indefinite Gerund) вживається:

1) для вираження дії, одночасної з дією, вираженою дієсловом -
присудком речення.
I don’t mind staying Я не заперечую проти того, щоб
late. залишатися довше.

2) для вираження дії безвідносно до якогось певного часу:

Seeing is believing. Бачити—значить вірити.

Перфектна форма герундія (Perfect Gerund) виражає Дію, що передує

дії, вираженій дієсловом-присудком речення.
I remember having invited Я пам’ятаю, що запрошував
him. його.

В англійській мові є певні дієслова, які, як правило, вимагають

вживання герундія:
avoid consider enjoy like (= enjoy) postpone
can’t help delay finish look forward put off
to
can’t stand deny involve mind risk
carry on dislike justify miss suggest
Наприклад:
When she finished speaking, she asked if anyone had any questions.
I look forward to seeing you on Tuesday.

Preposition Combinations followed by Gerund

В англійській мові окремі дієслова сполучаються з герундієм за
допомогою певних прийменників, утворюючи стійкі
словосполучення. Вживання того чи іншого прийменника
визначається дієсловом.
be excited }about doing it insist on doing

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be worried it
complain }about / of doing it keep (someone) }from doing it
dream prevent
talk (someone)
think prohibit
(someone)
stop (someone)
apologize }for doing it believe }in doing it
blame (someone) be interested
forgive participate
(someone) succeed
have an excuse
have a reason
be responsible
thank (someone)
be accused }of doing it be }to doing it
be capable accustomed in
for the purpose addition
be guilty be committed
instead be devoted l
take advantage look forward
take care object
be tired be opposed
be used

ДІЄПРИКМЕТНИК
(THE PARTICIPLE)

Дієприкметник (The Participle) — це неособова форма дієслова,

що має властивості дієслова, прикметника і прислівника. В
англійській мові є два дієприкметники — дієприкметник
теперішнього часу (Present Participle або Participle І) і
дієприкметник минулого часу (Past Participle або Participle II).
Present Participle утворюється за допомогою закінчення -ing, яке
додається до інфінітива дієслова без частки to:
to negotiate – negotiating (той, що приймає участь у переговорах)
Present Participle відповідає українському дієприкметнику активного
стану теперішнього часу та дієприслівнику недоконаного виду:
resting - відпочиваючий, відпочиваючи

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Past Participle (Participle II) правильних дієслів утворюється за
допомогою закінчення -ed, що додається до інфінітива без частки to,
тобто так само, як і стверджувальна форма Past Indefinite цих дієслів:
to invite – invited (запрошений)
Past Participle неправильних дієслів знаходимо в ІІІ-й колонці
Таблиці неправильних дієслів.

Форми дієприкметників
В англійській мові дієприкметники мають форми теперішнього часу
(Present Participle), минулого часу (Past Participle) і перфектну (Perfect
Participle), а також форми пасивного і активного стану.

Форма діє- Неперехідні

Перехідні дієслова
прикметника дієслова

Active Voice Passive Voice Active Voice

Present
inviting being invited going
Participle
Past Participle invited gone

Perfect
Participle having invited having been having gone
invited

Вживання форм Participle

Present Participle не має певного часового значення і виражає різні
часові відношення залежно від контексту і значення дієслова, від
якого утворено дієприкметник. Якщо дієслово-присудок має форму
теперішнього часу, то дія, виражена Present Participle, відноситься до
теперішнього; якщо воно має форму минулого часу — до минулого;
майбутнього — до майбутнього.
Knowing different tactic ploys very Добре знаючи різні тактичні
well, he can solve any problems. ходи, він може вирішити будь-які
Knowing different tactic ploys very проблеми.
well, he could solve any problems. Добре знаючи різні тактичні
Knowing different tactic ploys very ходи, він міг вирішити будь-які
well, he will be able solve any проблеми.
problems. Добре знаючи різні тактичні
ходи, він зможе вирішити будь-
які проблеми.

446
Present Participle може також виражати дію, що відноситься до
теперішнього часу, незалежно від часу дії, вираженої дієсловом-
присудком речення:
The delegation discussing these Делегація, яка обговорює ці
issues came from Kyiv yesterday. питання, вчора прибула з Києва.

Хоч дієслово-присудок цього речення стоїть у минулому часі, Present

Participle виражає дію, що відноситься до теперішнього часу.
Present Participle може виражати дію, що передує дії, вираженій
присудком, якщо обидві дії відбуваються безпосередньо одна за
одною. У такому значенні часто вживається Present Participle дієслів
to enter - входити; to open; to close; to arrive; to see - бачити; to hear -
чути та ін.:
Entering the negotiation room, he Увійшовши до кімнати
quickly took his seat. переговорів, він швидко сів.

У такому разі Present Participle перекладається на українську мову

дієприслівником доконаного виду.
Perfect Participle виражає дію, що передує дії вираженій дієсловом-
присудком. Perfect Participle відповідне українському дієприслівнику
доконаного виду:
Having said this, they stopped speaking. Сказавши це, вони припинили
(Gaskell) розмову.
Having given their word, they ought to keep Давши слово, вони мусять
it. дотримувати його.
Past Participle має лише одну форму і є пасивним дієприкметником.
Він вживається тоді, коли іменник або займенник, до якого він
відноситься, позначає об'єкт вираженої ним дії:
A signed letter was left on Підписаний лист був залишений на
his table. його столі.

ОБ'ЄКТНИЙ ІНФІНІТИВНИЙ КОМПЛЕКС

(THE OBJECTIVE INFINITIVE COMPLEX)

У реченні I like Anna to sing this song (Мені подобається, як

Анна співає цю пісню) інфінітив to sing виражає дію, яку виконує
особа, позначена іменником, що стоїть перед інфінітивом — Anna,
тобто інфінітив відноситься до іменника, що стоїть перед ним. Отже,
Anna to sing являє собою єдине ціле, або синтаксичний комплекс. У
реченні цей комплекс виконує роль складного додатка, оскільки на

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запитання What do I like? відповідь має бути не Anna, a Anna to sing —
як Анна співає.
Такий комплекс, що має у своєму складі інфінітив і вживається в
функції додатка (object), називається об'єктним інфінітивним
комплексом (Objective Infinitive Complex).
Першою частиною цього комплексу може бути не тільки іменник, а й
особовий займенник в об'єктному відмінку:
І like her to dance. Мені подобається, як вона танцює.
Таким чином, ми бачимо, що об'єктний інфінітивний комплекс
складається з двох частин. Перша частина комплексу — іменник у
загальному відмінку або особовий займенник в об'єктному відмінку.
Друга частина комплексу — інфінітив, що виражає дію, яку виконує
або якої зазнає особа або предмет, позначений іменником чи
займенником, що стоїть перед інфінітивом.
На українську мову об'єктний інфінітивний комплекс перекладається
здебільшого підрядним додатковим реченням, при цьому іменник або
займенник стає підметом, інфінітив — присудком.
Об'єктний інфінітивний комплекс вживається після певних груп
дієслів, що виражають:
1. бажання, намір, почуття: to want - хотіти; to wish, to desire -
бажати; to like - любити, подобатися; to dislike - не любити, не
подобатися; to hate - ненавидіти; to intend - мати намір; should/would
like - хотів би та ін.:

She wanted us to discuss this Вона хотіла, щоб ми обговорили це

question. питання.
Не intended me to go with him Він розраховував, що я піду з ним на
to this meeting. цю зустріч.

2. думку (погляд), припущення, сподівання: to consider - вважати; to

believe – вірити, бути переконаним; to think - думати; to find -
знаходити; to know - знати; to expect – сподіватися, очікувати; to
suppose - припускати та ін. Після дієслів цієї групи (крім to expect)
найчастіше вживається інфінітив дієслова to be:
We consider him to be one of the Ми вважаємо його одним з
best negotiators. найкращих учасників переговорів.
Не expected them to return on time. Він сподівався, що вони
повернуться вчасно.

3. наказ, прохання, дозвіл, пораду, примус: to order - наказувати; to

ask, to request - просити; to allow, to permit – дозволяти; to advise, to

448
recommend - радити, рекомендувати; to cause - спричиняти, to force,
to make - примушувати; to let - дозволяти. Після дієслів to make i to let
інфінітив вживається без частки to:
They made our management sign Вони примусили наше керівництво
this contract. підписати цей контракт.
Our director ordered these Наш директор наказав негайно
documents to be translated перекласти ці документи.
immediately.

4. сприйняття за допомогою органів чуття: to see - бачити; to hear -

чути; to feel - почувати; to watch, to observe - спостерігати; to notice -
помічати. Після цих дієслів інфінітив у об'єктному інфінітивному
комплексі також вживається без частки to:
We saw him be very nervous. Ми бачили, що він дуже
They all watched him go to the нервував.
board meeting. Вони всі спостерігали, як він
ішов на засідання ради
директорів.

СУБ'ЄКТНИЙ ІНФІНІТИВНИЙ КОМПЛЕКС

(THE SUBJECTIVE INFINITIVE COMPLEX)

Якщо речення We consider him to be a good negotiator (Ми

вважаємо його хорошим переговірником), до складу якого входить
об'єктний інфінітивний комплекс, перетворити на пасивне — Не is
considered to be a good negotiator (Він вважається хорошим
переговірником), то інфінітив to be виражатиме дію, яку виконує
особа, позначена займенником he. Отже, him to be утворюють
синтаксичний комплекс. Цей комплекс має функцію складного
підмета, тому що присудок речення is considered відноситься не лише
до займенника he, а до всього комплексу he... to be. Через те, що до
складу комплексу входить Інфінітив, а весь комплекс виконує роль
підмета речення (subject), він називається суб'єктним інфінітивним
комплексом (Subjective Infinitive Complex).
Першою частиною суб'єктного інфінітивного комплексу може бути
займенник і іменник у загальному відмінку.
Отже, суб'єктний інфінітивний комплекс складається з двох частин.
Перша частина комплексу — іменник у загальному відмінку або
особовий займенник у називному відмінку. Друга частина комплексу
— інфінітив, що виражає дію, яку виконує або якої зазнає особа або
предмет, позначений іменником або займенником.

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Особливістю суб'єктного інфінітивного комплексу є те, що перша і
друга його частини відокремлені одна від одної присудком речення (в
наведеному прикладі is considered).
У суб'єктному інфінітивному комплексі інфінітив вживається з
часткою to після всіх дієслів.
Суб'єктний інфінітивний комплекс вживається з певними
групами дієслів:
1. to say – говорити, to report – повідомляти, to ask – просити,
запитувати, to order - наказувати, to announce – оголошувати у
пасивному стані:
The president is reported to have Повідомляють, що президент
arrived in Geneva. прибув до Женеви.
The new manager is said to work 12 Кажуть, що новий менеджер
hours a day. працює по 12 годин на день.
2. з дієсловами (в пасивному стані), що означають думку (погляд),
припущення, сподівання: to think - думати; to know - знати, to
consider - вважати, to believe - вірити, to suppose - припускати, to
expect - сподіватися та ін.:
The meeting is expected to begin Очікується, що збори почнуться
this morning. сьогодні вранці.
I was supposed to prepare an annual Передбачалося, що я підготую
financial report. річний фінансовий звіт.
Не was thought to have gone Думали, що він пішов.
3. з дієсловами (в пасивному стані), що виражають сприйняття за
допомогою органів чуттів — to see, to hear, to feel, to notice, to observe
– спостерігати, to watch:
4. з дієсловами (в пасивному стані), що виражають наказ, прохання,
дозвіл, примус: to order - наказувати; to ask, to request - просити, to
allow, to permit - дозволяти; to make, to cause, to force - примушувати:
They were ordered to leave the hall. Їм наказали залишити зал.

5. з дієсловами to seem – здаватися; to happen, to chance -

траплятися; to appear, to turn out, to prove – виявлятися:
He seemed to be thinking about Здавалося, що він про щось думає.
something. (Dreiser)
You don’t seem to have heard what I Здається, що ти не чула, що я
said. сказав.
6. зі словосполученнями to be sure, to be certain – бути впевненим, to be
likely, to be unlikely:
We are likely to meet often. Схоже, нам доведеться часто
зустрічатися.

450
 Речення з суб'єктним інфінітивним комплексом на українську
мову перекладаються здебільшого складнопідрядними реченнями.
Переклад слід починати з присудка, який в українській мові
перетворюється на неозначено-особове або безособове головне
речення. Перша частина комплексу (іменник або займенник), яка є
підметом англійського речення, стає підметом підрядного додаткового
речення, а інфінітив перекладається особовою формою дієслова, що
стає присудком підрядного речення.

ОБ'ЄКТНИЙ ДІЄПРИКМЕТНИКОВИЙ КОМПЛЕКС

(THE OBJECTIVE PARTICIPLE COMPLEX)

В англійській мові дієприкметник, як і інфінітив, утворює

синтаксичні комплекси з іменниками та займенниками.
Об'єктний дієприкметниковий комплекс складається з двох частин.
Перша частина комплексу — іменник у загальному відмінку або
особовий займенник в об'єктному відмінку, друга частина —
дієприкметник, що виражає дію, яку виконує або якої зазнає особа або
предмет, позначений іменником або займенником. Другою частиною
цього комплексу може бути Present Participle і Past Participle.
Цей зворот аналогічний звороту “The Objective Infinitive Complex” і
так само виконує в реченні функцію одного члена речення, а саме
функцію складного додатка та вживається після дієслів to see, to hear,
to feel, to watch, to notice, to find, to observe:
I heard him discussing this question. Я чув, як він обговорював це
I heard his name mentioned several питання.
times during the conversation. Я чув, як його ім’я декілька разів
згадувалось під час розмови.

Об'єктний дієприкметниковий комплекс з Present Participle після

дієслів, що означають сприймання за допомогою органів чуттів, дуже
близький за значенням до об'єктного інфінітивного комплексу.
Різниця між І saw them sign the contract і І saw them signing the contract
полягає в тому, що в першому реченні (з інфінітивом) лише
констатується факт, тоді як у другому (з дієприкметником) дія
виражається як процес (я бачив, як саме це відбувалося).
Об'єктний дієприкметниковий комплекс вживається з дієсловами, що
виражають бажання, а також процеси мислення. З цими дієсловами
вживається лише Past Participle:
І want him changed. Я хочу, щоб він змінився.
I consider myself betrayed. Я вважаю, що мене зрадили.

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 Об'єктний дієприкметниковий комплекс з Past Participle
вживається після дієслів to have і to get і виражає дію: а) що
виконується не особою, позначеною підметом, а кимсь іншим для неї;
б) якої зазнає особа, позначена підметом. В цьому випадку питальна
та заперечна форми утворюються з допоміжним дієсловом do:
I must have these documents Мені треба підписати ці документи.
signed. (в значенні: хтось має їх підписати
Do you have your photo для мене)
taken? Вас сфотографували?(в значенні:
хтось зробив це?)

СУБ’ЄКТНТНИЙ ДІЄПРИКМЕТНИКОВИЙ КОМПЛЕКС

(THE SUBJECTIVE PARTICIPLE COMPLEX)

Суб'єктний дієприкметниковий комплекс складається з двох

частин. Перша частина комплексу — іменник у загальному відмінку
або особовий займенник у називному відмінку. Друга частина
комплексу —дієприкметник (здебільшого Present Participle), що
виражає дію, яку виконує особа або предмет, позначені першою
частиною комплексу:
He was seen signing this Бачили, як він підписував цей
document. документ.
Суб'єктний дієприкметниковий комплекс вживається переважно
з дієсловами, які виражають сприймання за допомогою органів чуттів
(to see, to hear, to feel, to watch, to notice, to observe у пасивному
стані) і виконують у реченні роль присудка, який ставиться між
першою і другою частиною комплексу.
З дієсловами to consider, to believe - вважати; to find - знаходити іноді
вживається суб'єктний дієприкметниковий комплекс з Past Participle:
The work was considered finished. Роботу вважали закінченою.
У реченні суб'єктний дієприкметниковий комплекс виконує функцію
складного підмета.

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 УМОВНІ РЕЧЕННЯ
(CONDITIONAL SENTENCES)

Умовні речення в англійській мові, як і в українській,

відносяться до складнопідрядних речень. Тобто, складаються із двох
частин: головного речення (Result clause) і підрядного (if-clause).
Підрядне речення виражає умову, при якій відбудеться дія, виражена
головним реченням. Здійснення дії головного речення залежить,
таким чином, від умови, вираженої підрядним реченням.
В англійській мові виділяють 4 основні типи умовних речень,
які в залежності від часової форми присудка будуть мати різні
значення та відноситись до різних часових періодів.

Нульовий тип умовних речень

Нульовий тип умовних речень виражає дію, що завжди відбувається в
результаті іншої дії, вираженої підрядним реченням.
Наприклад:
If I need to calculate something I Якщо мені потрібно щось
use a calculator. підрахувати, я використовую
калькулятор.
Існують певні правила щодо вживання граматичних часових
форм в умовних реченнях нульового типу:
1) в if-clause завжди вживається лише Present simple;
2) в Result clause вживається також лише Present simple:

if-clause Result clause

Present simple Present simple
If I have a lot of papers I always file them.

1st Conditional
if + Present Simple, will + infinitive (without to) Перший тип
умовних речень
Перший тип умовних речень виражає майбутню реальну дію,
що відбудеться в результаті іншої дії, вираженої підрядним реченням.
Наприклад:
If I know his phone number I will Якщо я знатиму його номер
call him. телефону, я йому зателефоную.
Існують певні правила щодо вживання граматичних часових форм в
умовних реченнях першого типу:
1) в if-clause завжди вживається лише Present simple;

453
2) в Result clause вживається Future Simple або дієслово в наказовий
способі:

if-clause Result clause

Present simple Future Simple
If I have any questions I will call him and discuss them.
If I am not tired I will translate this letter.

2nd Conditional
if+ Past Simple, would/could/might + infinitive (without to)

Другий тип умовних речень виражає нереальну дію в

теперішньому або майбутньому, що могла б відбутися за умови
виконання іншої дії, вираженої підрядним реченням.
Наприклад:
If I knew his phone number I would Якби я знав його номер телефону,
call him. я б йому зателефонував. (Але я не
знаю, тому не зателефоную)
Існують певні правила щодо вживання граматичних часових форм в
умовних реченнях другого типу:
1) в if-clause завжди вживається лише Past Simple;
2) в Result clause вживається would / could + V :

if-clause Result clause

Past Simple Future Simple
If I had any questions I would call him and discuss them.
If I were* not tired I would translate this letter.

* В сучасній англійській мові допускається вживання форми однини в

реченнях такого типу.
e.g. If I was not tired I would translate this letter.

3rd Conditional
if+ Past Perfect, would/could/may/might + have + past participle

Третій тип умовних речень виражає нереальну минулу дію, що

могла б відбутися в результаті іншої дії, вираженої підрядним
реченням, але не відбулася. Тобто, ми говоримо лише про минулий
час.
Наприклад:
If I had known his number I would Якби я знав його номер, я б

454
have sent him that fax. відправив йому той факс. (Але
номера я не знав і факс не
відправив)
Правила щодо вживання граматичних часових форм в умовних
реченнях третього типу наступні:
1) в if-clause завжди вживається лише Past Perfect;
2) в Result clause вживається would + have + V3:

if-clause Result clause

Past Perfect would + have + V3
If I had any questions I would have called him and discussed
them.
If I had not been tired I would have translated that letter.

455
 ПРИКМЕТНИКИ
(ADJECTIVES)
Прикметники в англійській мові не змінюються ні за числами, ні
за родами, ні за відмінками:
a round table круглий стіл
round tables круглі столи
a young man молодий чоловік
a young woman молода жінка
an old worker старий робітник
an old worker's son син старого робітника

Прикметники в англійській мові змінюються лише за ступенями

порівняння. Якісні прикметники в англійській мові мають основну
форму (the positive degree), вищий ступінь порівняння (the
comparative degree) і найвищий (the superlative degree).
Форми вищого і найвищого ступенів порівняння прикметників
можуть бути, як і в українській мові, простими і складеними.
Прості форми ступенів порівняння утворюються додаванням до
основної форми прикметника закінчення -еr у вищому і -est у
найвищому ступені:
cold colder the coldest
холодний холодніший найхолодніший

Складені форми ступенів порівняння утворюються додаванням до

основної форми прикметника слова more більш у вищому ступені і
most найбільший—у найвищому.
dangerous more dangerous the most dangerous
небезпечний небезпечніший найнебезпечніший

Прості форми ступенів порівняння мають:

а) усі односкладові прикметники:
short — shorter — shortest
б) двоскладові прикметники, що закінчуються на -у, -ег, -1е, -оw.
heavy heavier the heaviest
clever cleverer the cleverest
simple simpler the simplest
narrow narrower the narrowest

в) двоскладові прикметники з наголосом на другому складі

polite politer the politest

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Складені форми ступенів порівняння мають усі багатоскладові
прикметники (з кількістю складів більше двох), а також двоскладові
прикметники з наголосом на першому складі, крім тих, що
закінчуються на -у, -ег, -le, -ow:
difficult more difficult the most difficult

Правила правопису простих форм ступенів порівняння прикметників:

а) якщо прикметник закінчується німим -е, то перед закінченнями -ег
та -est воно випадає:
large larger largest
white whiter whitest

б) якщо односкладовий прикметник закінчується однією приголосною

з попереднім коротким голосним звуком, то кінцева приголосна перед
закінченнями -ег та -est подвоюється:
hot hotter hottest
big bigger biggest
в) якщо прикметник закінчується буквою -у з попередньою
приголосною, то перед -ег, -est у змінюється на і:
dirty dirtier dirtiest
dry drier driest

г) Ступені порівняння прикметників good добрий, bad поганий, little

малий утворилися від інших коренів:
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least

д) Прикметники old старий та far далекий мають дві форми вищого й

найвищого ступенів:
old older, elder oldest, eldest
far farther, further farthest, furthest

Форми elder і eldest вживаються, коли йдеться про членів однієї сім'ї
(my elder brother мій старший брат), але якщо при порівнянні є слово
than ніж;, то вживається форма older, а не elder (he is three years older
than his sister).
Обидві форми farther і further вживають, коли говорять про відстань,
further, крім того, має ще значення дальший, наступний.
При порівнянні в реченні звичайно вживається сполучник than:
She is younger than Helen. Вона молодша за Олену.

457
Для підсилення вищого ступеня вживаються слова much, far
набагато, значно; still ще:
This film is much better. Цей фільм значно кращий.
It is still colder today. Сьогодні ще холодніше.
Іменник, що має означення, виражене прикметником у найвищому
ступені, вживається з означеним артиклем:
the highest mountain найвища гора
the most interesting story найцікавіше оповідання
При порівнянні предметів з однаковою мірою якості вживається
прикметник в основній формі, який ставиться між as...as:
February was as cold as Лютий був такий же холодний, як і
January. січень.

Для вираження меншої міри якості прикметник в основній формі

ставиться між not so...as:
June is not so hot as July. Червень не такий жаркий, як липень.

458
 ЧИСЛІВНИКИ
(NUMERALS)

Числівники в англійській мові поділяються на кількісні

(cardinal numerals) і порядкові (ordinal numerals).
1 — one 9 — nine
2—two 10—ten
З — three 11 — eleven
4—four 12 — twelve
5 —five 100 —a (one) hundred
6 — six 1,000 — a (one) thousand
7 — seven 1,000,000 — a (one) million
8 — eight

Кількісні числівники від 13 до 19 утворюються додаванням

суфікса -teen до відповідних числівників першого десятка, які в трьох
випадках (13,15,18) перед суфіксом -teen зазнають змін у написанні й
вимові:
three thirteen
four fourteen
five fifteen
six sixteen
seven seventeen
eight eighteen
nine nineteen
Назви десятків утворюються додаванням суфікса -ty до
відповідних числівників першого десятка, при цьому деякі з них
зазнають змін у вимові і написанні:
two twenty
three thirty
four forty
five fifty
six sixty
seven seventy
eight eighty
nine ninety

Числівники, що позначають числа, які складаються з десятків і

одиниць, а також числа, що мають одиниці вищих розрядів (сотні,
тисячі, мільйони), є складеними.

459
У складених числівниках між десятками і наступними за ними
одиницями ставиться дефіс:
21 — twenty-one 69 — sixty-nine
235 — two hundred and thirty-five 4,007 — four thousand and
seven
581,462 — five hundred and eighty-one thousand four hundred and sixty-
two.
Числівник one перед словами hundred, thousand, million часто
замінюється неозначеним артиклем: 1,694 — а (або one) thousand six
hundred and ninety-four.
Числівники hundred, thousand, million у множині не мають закінчення -
s, якщо перед ними стоїть інший числівник:
564 — five hundred and sixty-four
8,000 — eight thousand
2,000,025 — two million and twenty-five
Але якщо ці числівники вживаються як іменники, тобто коли перед
ними нема іншого числівника, вони приймають у множині закінчення
-s. У цьому разі після них стоїть іменник з прийменником of:
hundreds of students сотні студентів; thousands of workers тисячі
робітників.

Порядкові числівники, крім перших трьох, уворюються з

відповідних кількісних числівників додаванням суфікса -th:
four — fourth
fifteen — fifteenth
При цьому в числівниках five і twelve -ve змінюється на f:
five —fifth
twelve — twelfth
До числівника eight, як і до інших, додається при вимові звук [θ], а на
письмі — лише одна буква h: eight — eighth
У числівнику nine перед суфіксом -th буква е опускається:
nine—ninth
У назвах десятків перед суфіксом -ty буква у змінюється на іе:
sixty — sixtieth
Кількісним числівникам від 1 до 3 відповідають такі порядкові
числівники:
one — first
two — second
three — third
У складених порядкових числівниках, як і в українській мові форму
порядкового числівника має лише останнє слово:

460
twenty-one—twenty-first
three hundred and sixty-four — three hundred and sixty-fourth

461
 Asking the time
A: Excuse me, what's the time?
B: It's six o'clock.
A: Thank you very much.
B: Not at all.

It’s six o’clock It’s a quarter past six

It’s half past six

It’s a quarter to seven

It’s five (minutes) to seven It’s five (minutes) past seven

It's ten to seven by my watch. It's ten past seven by my watch.

My watch is five minutes slow My watch is five minutes fast
(відстає) (спішить)

462
This watch keeps good time (йде
точно)

Якщо ми говоримо про час англійською мовою, потрібно

пам’ятати, що ми не говоримо про 15, 24 годину. Ми говоримо: “It’s
nine o’clock a.m.” — дев’ята година ранку. “It’s nine o’clock р.m.” —
дев’ята година вечора.
a. m. (Latin) — ante meridiem ['ǽntimə'ridiəm] — до полудня (від 24 до
12 години).
p. m. (Latin) — post meridiem ['poust mə'ridiəm] — після полудня, (від
12 до 24 години).
Вирази зі словом “time”
in time — завчасно
on time — вчасно
from time to time — час від часу
hard times — тяжкі часи
next (last) time — наступного (минулого) разу
three times — тричі;
but: once — одного разу, twice — двічі.

463
 Glossary

English Vocabulary - Computer Terminology

A program that views and prints information in its original

Acrobat
format even if a copy of the original program that created
Reader
the information is not available.

Anti-virus A program that searches for viruses and removes any virus
Program that it finds.

Software designed for a certain use, such as word

Application
processing. Also called a program.

Any file linked to an e-mail message is called an

Attachment
attachment.

A specific type of e-commerce regarding transactions from

B2B
business to business via the Internet.

The process of copying important files and information

Backup from the PC's hard disk to another medium, such as floppy
disks or tape. A disk or tape used to store files.

A measurement of the volume of information that can be

Bandwidth transmitted over a network at any given time. The higher
the bandwidth, the faster the data can be broadcast.

Section of the computer case where equipment like floppy

Bay
disk drives and CD-ROM drives can be installed.

Bi-directional A cable that allows information to flow in both directions.

Cable Used with many newer printers.

A set of low-level routines in a computer's ROM that

BIOS (Basic
application programs (and operating systems) can use to
Input/Output
read characters from the keyboard, to output characters to

464
System) printers, and to interact with the hardware in other ways.

An innovative wireless technology, operating on a 2.4 Ghz

Bluetooth
ISM band.

To mark a document or a specific place in a document for

Bookmark
future reference.

Derived from "boot strap." To start or restart a computer. A

cold boot means to start the computer by turning the power
Boot
switch on. A warm boot is resetting a computer that is
already on.

bps (bits per

The standard measure of data transmission speeds.
second)

A high-speed Internet connection. Technically speaking,

Broadband
broadband typically starts at 384 kilobytes per second.

A software program that lets you access and navigate the

Browser
Internet with a graphical interface.

Bundled Software programs that are included with the purchase of a

Software computer or piece of hardware.

A modem that allows rapid Internet access over a cable

Cable Modem television line. To use a cable modem, Internet service must
be available from the cable television company.

The use of hardware and software for designing products.

CAD Many architects and design engineers use computer-aided
(Computer- design to generate three-dimensional images of various
Aided Design) products, such as houses, automobiles, furniture, and
airplanes.

CD-ROM A hard plastic disc that holds about 650 megabytes of

465
(Compact computer data. This disc cannot be written on. CD (R) - A
Disc - Read compact disc that can be written on, but cannot be erased or
Only reused. CD-R drives can play CD-ROMs. CD-RW - can be
Memory) reused.

Drawings or other images that have been produced to be

Clip Art
used in computer programs.

The clipboard is anl area in the computer memory that

temporarily stores data to be copied to another location.
Clipboard You get data into the clip board by using the Cut or Copy
function. You get data out of the clipboard by pasting it into
a document.

Technology that reduces the size of a file. Compression

allows a file to be transmitted over the Internet more
Compression quickly and to be stored using less space. Some common
compression standards are Zip files for the PC, Stuffit files
for the Mac, and MP3

Computer An individual’s level of skill with computers and computer

literacy applications.

A cookie is a piece of text that is placed on your hard drive.

Its job is to record bits of information such as the pages
Cookies you've visited, items in an online shopping cart, and your
user name and password for a specific site that you have
visited.

A serious computer failure caused by a hardware or

Crash software malfunction. A crash is said to happen when either
the computer or the program stops responding.

A symbol, usually a solid rectangle, blinking underline

Cursor character or arrow that signifies where on the screen the
next entry will occur.

466
Data Representation of facts, concepts, or instructions.

Collection of information that has been organized in a

Database structured format that can be accessed through a computer
system.

Default is a setting or value that is assigned automatically

by an operating system, program, or piece of computer
Default equipment. It remains in effect unless changed by the end
user. For example the Microsoft Word program sets a
default font size of 10 points.

Defragment The process of taking pieces of files that are scattered or

(Defrag) fragmented on the hard disk and unifying them.

A metaphor for the on-screen computing environment. A

Desktop computer desktop includes the screen background, icons,
and windows visible on the computer screen.

Desktop The use of computer hardware and software for page

Publishing layout, typesetting and design.

An Internet domain name is an individual's or organization's

unique name, which points to a specific Internet address.
Domain Name
The domain name is the part of the Internet address that
usually follows the www.

To move or copy a document, program or other data from

Download the Internet or other computer to your computer. The
opposite of upload.

Dpi (Dots per Way of measuring the density of output of printers and
Inch) scanners. The higher the dpi, the better the resolution.

Drag To relocate an object on a desktop by placing the mouse

cursor (pointer or arrow) on top of the image, pressing the

467
 left button, and holding the button down while moving the
image to another location on the desktop.

A driver is a piece of software necessary for the computer

to operate an attached device e.g. a printer. . These drivers
Driver
need to be installed on your computer before the new
equipment will work properly.

DVD (Digital RHigh density disk that can hold from 4.7 gigabytes to 17
Video Disc) gigabytes of information.

Business conducted online, including buying and selling of

E-Commerce
goods, etc.

E-Mail
Messages sent through a computer network, such as the
(Electronic
Internet.
Mail)

Also known as a smiley. An emoticon is a group of

keyboard characters that are put together to create a picture.
Emoticon
Smileys or emoticons often show the feelings or emotions
of the sender.

An Ethernet card is a piece of computer hardware that

enables communication between two or more computers on
Ethernet
a network. Creating a network allows multiple computers to
share resources.

Expansion The slots inside the computer which accept computer

Slots boards.

FAQ
(Frequently Compilation of the most commonly asked questions about a
Asked certain subject or product.
Questions)

468
 A modem which is designed to send and receive faxes
Fax-Modem
through a computer, as well as act as a regular modem.

Field A space allocated for a certain type of information.

File A collection of data.

File
Changing the formatting of a data file.
Conversion

A firewall is a security measure that protects a computer or

Firewall a computer network from unauthorized access. A firewall
can be software, hardware, or a combination of both.

A type of bus standard also known as IEEE 1394. This very

fast bus supports data transfer rates of up to 400 Mbps.
FireWire
Because of its high speed, FireWire is often used for
transferring video files.

An object that can hold multiple documents (or files). Used

Folder to organize information. Folders can also be called
directories.

A collection of letters and numbers in a particular typeface.

Font
E.g. arial, verdana, comic sans ms, etc

One or more lines of text that appear at the bottom of every

Footer
page of a document.

(1) The specific arrangement of data (2) To prepare a

storage medium, usually a disk, for reading and writing. i.e.
Format
to format a floppy disk (3) To specify the properties of an
object, i.e. to format the text in a word processing program.

An on-line discussion group where people exchange ideas

Forum
about a common interest. Also called a newsgroup.

469
 The condition of a disk in which files are divided into
Fragmentation scattered pieces. Fragmentation occurs naturally as you
create, modify, and delete files.

Copyrighted software given away for free by the author.

Freeware
You can use such software, but cannot sell it in any way.

A type of procedure or routine that is used in programming

Function computers as well as in certain computer programs, such as
spreadsheets.

GIF (Graphic
A common format for image files. GIF files are often used
Interchange
for Web pages.
Format)

Gigabyte A unit of computer storage roughly equaling one billion

(GB) bytes.

Someone, usually knowledgeable about computers, who

Hacker
accesses electronic information without permission.

The storage disk inside of the computer that holds the

Hard Disk operating system and programs. This is contained within a
hardware mechanism known as a Hard Drive.

The physical components of a computer system. Refers to

Hardware
objects like disk drives, monitors, keyboards, and printers.

One or more lines of text that appear at the top of every

Header
page of a document.

The word Home Page has several meanings. It is the Web

page that your browser uses when it starts. The same term
Home Page
also refers to the main Web page out of a collection of Web
pages.

470
 The language used to create Web pages for publication on
HTML
the Web. Pages produced with HTML are like text
(Hypertext
documents that have tags embedded in them. The tags
Markup
contain coding for attaching graphics, formatting, and
Language)
hypertext links.

HTTP
(Hypertext The protocol used by the World Wide Web that defines
Transfer how messages are formatted and transmitted.
Protocol)

A word that you click on when on the Web to take you to

Hypertext
another Web page or site. These links are usually
Link
underlined or in a different color.

A small picture that represents a program, file or command

Icon in your computer system. It is activated by moving the
cursor onto the icon and pressing a button or key.

Incremental A backup procedure that backs up only those files that have
Backup been changed or modified since the previous backup.

To set in from the margin. Usually used in the first line of a

Indent
paragraph.

IrDA Port A port that allows the transfer of data from one device to
(Infrared Data another without any cables via infrared light waves. Both
Association) devices must have infrared ports.

A printer which produces text and images by spraying ink

Ink Jet Printer onto the paper. It produces a print out which is close to laser
quality at less cost.

(n) Information or data that goes into the computer. This

Input includes information that is typed on the keyboard, as well
as information that is gathered from other devices, such as

471
 mice or scanners. (v) The act of entering data into a
computer.

A service that lets you know which of your friends and

Instant
online buddies are available and provides the means for you
Messenger
to privately communicate with them.

Something that connects two separate entities. It can be

either hardware or software. Generally used to refer to the
Interface
user interface or the part of a software program that
connects the computer with a human operator (user).

A global web of computers that allows individuals to

Internet
communicate with each other.

ISP (Internet
A company that lets you connect to their computers in order
Service
to connect to the Internet usually for a fee.
Provider)

A lever device similar to a mouse. Basically used to play

Joystick
games on the computer.

(Joint Photographic Experts Group) Pronounced J-peg. The

JPEG most commonly used format for image files, often preferred
for photographic images.

Kilobits per second (thousands of bits per second). A unit of

measurement for modems that indicates the speed at which
Kbps
data is transferred. One kilobit is equal to 1,024 bits, but is
commonly rounded to 1,000 bits.

An input device used to type programs, instructions and

Keyboard
data into the computer. Similar to the keys on a typewriter.

LAN (Local A computer network for an area that is usually limited to

Area the same building or the same area in a building.

472
Network)

Laptop A small, portable computer that can sit on your lap. Laptop
Computer computers are often also referred to as notebook computers.

Printers that produce high quality printouts. They operate

Laser Printer like a copy machine, using lasers and toner to produce an
image.

(pronounced like "ledding") In word processing and

Leading desktop publishing, vertical spacing of lines of text in a
paragraph.

Before using the Internet or other online service, you are

Login (Log
required to login. This usually entails entering a user name
On)
and password.

A system which allows the user to easily generate form

Mail Merge letters by automatically inserting each different name and
address into the same letter or document.

Megabyte A unit of computer storage roughly equaling one million

(MB) bytes.

A list of commands, options, or hyperlinks which can be

selected by the user. Use menus to choose a command to
Menu
tell your computer what to do. Menus reside in the menu
bar which is usually at the top and/or left of the screen.

A device that allows computers to

communicate over telephone lines. Modems
Modem change the computer's digital signal to an
(MOdulator/DEModulator) analog signal that can be sent over the
telephone lines, and to digital again at the
receiving end.

473
 A television-like screen that shows you what your computer
Monitor
is doing.

An input device that lets you control the computer by

Mouse controlling the location and action of the cursor on the
computer screen.

One of the standards for compressing full-motion digital

MPEG
video. Requires hardware for decompression.

Netiquette Rules for maintaining etiquette while using the Internet.

A computer network is formed when two or more

Network computers are connected in order to share resources. A
network can use either a wired or a wireless connection.

An on-line discussion group generally geared to a specific

Newsgroup
topic or group of people.

Notebook
A lightweight portable computer.
Computer

OCR (Optical The process of reading text from paper and translating it
Character into a format that the computer can understand and
Recognition) manipulate.

Not connected (to a network/internet) and therefore unable

Off-line
to communicate.

On-line Connected and able to communicate.

On-line Performing normal banking transactions, such as making

Banking deposits and, paying bills electronically.

Orientation In printing, the direction of the paper. Portrait means that

the paper is higher than it is wide. Landscape means that the

474
 paper is wider than it is high.

Anything that comes out of a computer including screen

Output
images, printed pages and sounds.

A code used to gain access to a Web site, program, or

Password
computer system.

PDA A handheld device that acts as a mini-computer. A PDA

(Personal functions as a personal organizer and usually contains
Digital appointments, to do lists, and contact information for
Assistant) friends and associates.

PIM (Personal
A type of software that is used to organize information,
Information
especially, addresses, to-do lists and appointments.
Manager)

Pixel (Picture A cluster of colored dots that combine to form images on

element) the computer screen.

A smaller piece of software that adds features to a larger

Plug-in piece of software. Internet browsers often use plug-ins to
increase the functionality of the basic program.

POP (Point of A protocol used to retrieve e-mail from a mail server. Most
Presence) e-mail applications use the POP protocol.

Software that is used to create a series of documents, slides,

Presentation
transparencies or video images and sounds used to exhibit a
Software
product or image. E.g. Powerpoint

A set of standards that allows two products to work together

Protocol by standardising communications between the two
products.

Record In a database, one set of information.

475
Relational A somewhat complex database which uses several tables
Database that relate to each other in some way.

A button, usually located on the front of the computer,

Reset Button which resets or restarts the computer software without
turning the computer completely off.

The term used to describe sharpness and clarity of an

Resolution
image. The higher the resolution, the better the image.

A software program, often part of an operating system,

Scan Disk
which searches the hard disk for errors and corrects them.

A device that takes a picture of a printed page or image and

Scanner
puts it into the computer memory.

A software program that runs some sort of animation on the

Screen Saver
computer screen when it is turned on, but not in use.

A bar that appears on the right and/or bottom of your

screen. It indicates there is more viewing area to be seen
Scroll Bar
than will fit on the screen at one time. A mouse can be used
to maneuver the scroll bar.

A computer or device that manages network resources. A

file server is a computer and storage device that is used for
Server
storing files. A print server is a computer that manages one
or more printers.

Shareware is "try before you buy" software based on a

unique concept. Someone creates a program, puts it on the
Shareware
Internet, and allows anyone to copy and use it. If the end-
user likes the program, he or she pays the creator a fee.

To turn or place an object at an angle. Often use in drawing

Skew
programs to manipulate pictures or drawings.

476
SMTP
The main protocol used to send electronic mail on the
(Simple Mail
Internet. SMTP consists of a set of rules for transfer of e-
Transfer
mail.
Protocol)

The program or instructions that tell the computer what to

Software
do.

Spam is unwanted e-mail or messages to several recipients,

Spam
the electronic equivalent of junk mail.

Spreadsheet A collection of data.

A group of programs that are sold together as one unit for a

Suite
price less than the cost of the individual components.

A mechanism for setting automatic stops or margins in

order to line up text or items in columns. Also a key on the
Tab
keyboard that moves the cursor or pointer to the next tab
stop.

A collection of data arranged in rows and columns. Tables

Table are commonly used in database programs, spreadsheets and
word processing programs.

The bar usually found at the bottom of a Windows screen.

Taskbar The taskbar shows which software programs are open. It
also contains the Start button.

A pattern that is used to create other like items. Often used

Template to create documents that are similar, but have small
differences.

A strip of icons in a software program that usually are

Toolbar
located at the top of the screen.

477
 An input device that consists of a small touch-sensitive pad.
Touchpad The user moves his or her finger across the pad to move the
cursor on the screen.

In word processing or desktop publishing, to adjust the

Tracking
space between the characters of type.

Troubleshoot To systematically investigate a problem and find a solution.

A software program which removes or uninstalls other

Uninstaller
programs.

To improve your computer system by installing new

components. Also to install a new version of the software
Upgrade
that you are already using to gain new features and
improvements.

To move or copy a document, program or other data from

Upload your computer to the Internet or another computer. The
opposite of download.

URL
(Uniform
A system for addressing Internet sites.
Resource
Locator)

A program that helps you perform necessary maintenance

Utility
or correct problems with your computer system. Disk
Programs
backup and anti-virus programs are utility programs.

A virus is simply a set of computer instructions (computer

code) that is written by some unscrupulous person with the
Virus
intent purpose of infiltrating as many computer systems as
possible.

WAN (Wide A computer network that covers an area larger than a single

478
Area building.
Network)

A program that provides an interface that allows you to

Web Browser
connect to the World Wide Web.

A site or area on the World Wide Web that is accessed by

its own Internet address. Each Web site contains a home
Web Site page and may also contain additional pages. Each Web site
is owned and updated by an individual, company, or
organisation.

A camera that allows viewing of live images through the

Webcam
Internet.

An assistant or helper created by a software program to help

Wizard
the user perform tasks.

Word A piece of software used to create documents which are text

Processor oriented.

This term is often used synonymously with the word

World Wide
Internet; however it is actually a graphical interface for the
Web
Internet.

Idioms A

Means that a picture can tell a story more than a

A picture tells a
thousand words of descriptive text can, taken from a
thousand words
Chinese proverb

Basically means someone who has to have proof of

something. Taken from the Bible when the Disciple
A doubting Thomas
Thomas didn't believe theJjesus had risen from the
dead and wanted proof.

A bird in the hand is Meaning it is better to be certain of having

479
worth two in something you have than to risk that something in
the bush the hope that there is something extra elsewhere

A persons attitude, outlook or actions will always be

A Leopard can't
the same, just as you can't change the design of the
change its spots
spots on a Leopard

Apple of my (his,
Meaning someone's favorite Son or Daughter
her) eye

A fool and his

This means that a fool will spend his money quickly
money are
usually without much thought or care
easily parted

Some people who have very little knowledge of

something, think they are better at it than they are,
A little knowledge is
and things then usually go wrong. ie they think they
a dangerous thing
can do plumbing, but can't, the result being an
unwanted leak.

A penny for your

This is used to asked what someone is thinking
thoughts

A still tongue keeps Means its better to keep quite about something,
a wise head perhaps not to gossip

Meaning that the object is of no practical good for it

As much use as a is intended use, ie you couldn't use a fireguard made
chocolate fire guard from chocolate because it would melt, therefore it
would be useless.

Above board Is used to describe something that is proper or legal

Means making a situation worse by your actions or

Add fuel to the fire
speech

480
 Someone's or something's weak spot ie if you can be
tempted to do something for a piece of chocolate
Achilles heal
because you love chocolate, then the chocolate is
your Achilles heal

When you add insult to injury, you make a bad

Add insult to injury
situation worse

Means you do something you don't want to do, but

Against the grain
do it because you have no choice

Some action or other is said to be "put on the back

Back burner burner" if it's given a lower action priority or
delayed.

Back the wrong Means you have given support to the losing side of
horse something

Back to square one To start from the beginning

Back to the drawing If you "go back to the drawing board" you have to go
board back to the beginning of something and start again.

If you have your "back to the wall" you are in a

Back to the wall
difficult situation with little room to maneuver.

Is some annoying person who likes giving advice to

Back seat driver the person performing the task especially when the
advice is wrong or unwanted.

Is a person who tends to make another person a bad

Bad apple
person

481
 Is a person who cannot be trusted, a good egg is the
Bad egg
opposite

To "bad mouth " someone is to say some nasty about

Bad mouth
them

Bad worker always Means that if someone makes a bad job of something
blames his tools he blames his tools and not his own expertise

If someone is a "bag of bones" its usually because

Bag of bones
they are underweight

A "bakers dozen" is thirteen. Originated from when

Bakers were fined if they sold twelve loaves under
Bakers dozen
weight, so they used to put in an extra loaf, just to be
safe.

Ball's in your court Means the next decision is yours to make

Is an approximate number used as an example or

Ball park
guess, ie a rough estimate of the cost of something

Means you tell someone your personal or private

Bare your heart
feelings

This is said of someone who tends to shout and

Bark is worse that
threaten about something but doesn't do anything
their bite
about it.

Barking up the Means that you or someone has misunderstood

wrong tree something and is completely wrong.

Is someone who gives advice on something they no

Barrack room layer
little about.

Barrel of laughs Is said about someone who you think is always funny

482
 and joking

Is used when someone shows no emotion towards

Bat an eyelid
when surprised

You "batten down the hatches" to prevent something

Batten down the
happening. From seagoing people, they batten the
hatches
hatches to prevent water ingress is storms

This is when two people battle it out in a dispute, and

Battle of nerves neither are willing to give in, waiting for the other
side to give in

If something bears fruit it produces a positive result,

Bear fruit ie if your lottery ticket wins then you ticket has born
fruit.

To "bear the brunt" is to face or endure something

Bear the brunt
bad.

Someone who beats around the bush is trying to say

Beating about the
something in a round about way without actually
bush
saying it.

Means that what you see may be deceptive. ie a

Beauty is only skin
lovely polished car may look nice, but the engine
deep
may not work properly.

If someone is at your beck and call, then they do

Beck and call everything for you when you ask no matter when or
where.

If someone has a "bee in their bonnet" about

Bee in their bonnet something, it means they won't let it go,
metaphorically

Before you can say It means you do something very quickly before you

483
Jack Robinson can say the words "Jack Robinson"

Beggars can't be Means that anybody in need of something must

choosers except anything offered to them

If something is said or happens "behind closed

Behind closed doors doors" then it's said or done away from other peoples
scrutiny

Behind someone's Means something is done without the other persons

back knowledge

Belly up Means something has gone badly wrong

If someone isn't feeling well, or doing very well or if

something isn't up to standard then it's said to be
Below par
below par. Taken from the game of Golf where par is
the standard shot for a particular hole. ie par 3

Is when you do two things to make doubly sure of

something, refers to men's trousers, if the the belt
Belt and braces
breaks the trousers won't fall down because there are
still braces to keep them up.

Bend over If someone bends over backwards, they do

backwards everything they can to help you

If something is besides the point then its said not be

Besides the point
be relevant to the matter in hand

If someone is besides themselves they are said to be

Beside themselves
overly worried about something

When you choose the best available out of a bad

Best of a bunch
selection

484
 Means its better to do something or say something
Better late than never
late than not do or say it at all

Better to be safe than

Better to be cautious than to take risks
sorry

Better than a poke in Means its better to have something than nothing at
the eye all

Better the devil you Means its better to stay with what or who you know
know than risk something or someone you don't

Between a rock and a When a choice you have to make makes no

hard place difference because either one is unpleasant

Between the devil If you are caught between the devil and the deep blue
and the deep blue sea sea, you are in a dilemma, ie a difficult choice

Means you have something more important to do

Bigger fish to fry
than you are doing now

Birds of a feather Means people of the same type or have the same
flock together interests stick together

Bite off more than If you bite off more than you can chew it means you
you can chew are taking on more than you can handle (manage)

Bite someone's head Means you criticise someone rather angrily to their
off face

If you bite your lip you are keeping quiet about

Bite your lip
something that displeases you

Blackball To blackball someone you are voting against them

Blessing in disguise If some bad luck happens to you which results in

485
 something good it's said to be a blessing in disguise

Blind leading the Means that someone in charge of something doesn't

blind know anymore that the person they are in charge of

If someone is as bold as brass means they are very

Bold as brass confident and not worried about being caught doing
something that maybe they shouldn't be doing

If you have a bone to pick with someone then you

Bone to pick are annoyed with them about something and want to
tell them how you feel

If you box clever you use your intelligence to get

Box clever
what you want even if it means cheating

Means the weather is cold enough to freeze the balls

off a brass monkey. From the British Navy where the
Brass monkey cannon balls were kept in a structure called a brass
monkey, when the weather was really cold the
cannon balls would fall the monkey

If you get down to brass tacks then you get down to

Brass tacks
the real business in hand

This is said to someone to wish them good luck or in

Break a leg
the UK it means let's get on with a certain something

Bright eyed and Means you are someone who is full of enthusiasm
bushy tailed and energy

Brings home the Someone who brings home the bacon earns the
bacon money to live on

Brush under the If you brush something under the carpet you are
carpet ignoring or hiding something

486
 If someone behaves like a bull in a china shop they
Bull in a china shop
are behaving clumsily

Bull headed Means you are stubborn

Burn the midnight oil Means you are working untill very late at night

Means you do something that makes it impossible to

Burn your bridges
go back to your original position

Bury your head in If someone buries their head in the sand, they are
the sand ignoring something that is wrong

Butterflies in your Means you are nervous about something that you are
stomach about to do

Means something is done correctly, exactly as it is

By the book
supposed to be done

If something gets known about by word of mouth it

By word of mouth means it gets known about by someone talking about
it, and not an advertisement etc.

By the skin of your Means you have only just managed to do something
teeth that you came very near to failing

If someone calls off the dogs, they stop attacking or

Call off the dogs
criticising someone

If you call the shots, you are in charge and tell people
Call the shots
what to do

Call the tune The person who calls the tune makes the important

487
 decisions about something

Calm before the A calm time immediately before period of violent

storm activity or argument is the calm before the storm

If an action can create serious problems, it is opening

Can of worms
a can of worms

If you have a card up your sleeve, you have a

Card up your sleeve surprise plan or idea that you are keeping back until
the time is right

A carpetbagger is an opportunist without any

Carpet bagger
scruples or ethics

If someone offers a carrot and stick, they offer an

Carrot and a stick incentive to do something combined with the threat
of punishment

Meaning an instance of something has just occurred

Case in point
that was previously discussed

Something or someone that casts a long shadow has

Cast a long shadow
considerable influence on other people or events

If you cast an aspersion, you try to blacken

Cast aspersion someone's name and make people think badly of
them

If you make other people not sure about a matter,

Cast doubt on
then you have cast doubt on it

A person with a cast iron stomach can eat or drink

Cast iron stomach
anything without any ill effects

If you cast pearls before swine, you offer something

Cast pearls before
of value to someone who doesn't appreciate it. a

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swine swine is a pig

If you cast sheep's eyes at at someone, you look

Cast sheep's eyes
lovingly or with longing at them

The casting vote is a vote given to a chairman or

Casting vote
president that is used when there is a deadlock

Plans that are impractical and will never work out are
Castles in the air
castles in the air

If something or someone puts, or sets the cat among

Cat among the
the pigeons, they create a disturbance and cause
pigeons
trouble

If someone asks if the cat has got your tongue, they

Cat got your tongue want to know why you are not speaking when they
think you should

Cat nap A short sleep is called a cat nap

Cats whiskers Something excellent is the cat's whiskers

Catch someone red If someone is caught red-handed, they are found

handed doing something wrong or illegal

Caught with your If someone is caught with his or her hand in the
hand in the cookie cookie jar, he or she is caught doing something
jar wrong

If someone is champing at the bit, they are very

Champ at the bit
eager to accomplish something

If people change horses in midstream, they change

Change horses mid
plans or leaders when they are in the middle of
stream
something

489
 If you change the way you think or feel about
Change of heart
something, you have a change of heart

If you change tack, you use a different method for

Change track
dealing with something

If someone changes their ideas or the way they talk

Change your tune
about them, they change their tune

When you know something very well, and can quote

Chapter and verse
it, you know it chapter and verse

This means that family members are more important

Charity begins at
than anyone else, and should be the focus of a
home
person's efforts

If someone chases rainbows, they try to do

Chasing rainbows
something that they will never achieve

If you are chasing your tail, you are going round in

Chasing your tail circles trying to achieve something without a positive
result

If something is very inexpensive, it is as cheap as

Cheap as chips
chips

Cheap at half the If something's cheap at half the price, it's very cheap
price indeed

Cheap shot A cheap shot is an unprincipled criticism

If things or people are cheek by jowl, they are very

Cheek by jowl
close together

If people cherry pick, they choose the things they

Cherry pick
want that are beneficial to them and leave the rest

490
 If someone is chewing on a bone, he or she is
Chew on a bone
thinking about something intently

If you chew the fat with someone, you talk at leisure

Chew the fat
with them

Child's play If something is child's play, it is very easy and simple

Is when something is told from person to person,

Chinese whispers
especially if it is gossip or scandal

Chip off the old If someone is a chip off the old block, they closely
block resemble one or both of the parents in character

Chip on your If someone has a chip on their shoulder, they are

shoulder resentful about something and feel that they have
been treated badly
If things chop and change, they keep changing, often
Chop and change
unexpectedly

If something is as clean as a whistle, it is extremely

Clean as a whistle
clean, spotless

If something or someone has a clean bill of health,

Clean bill of health
then there's nothing wrong

If you make a clean break, you break away

Clean break
completely from something

Someone with clean hands, or who keeps their hands

Clean hands
clean, is not involved in illegal or immoral activities

When someone has a clean sheet, they have got no

Clean sheet
criminal record or problems affecting their reputation

Clean slate If you start something with a clean slate, then

491
 nothing bad from your past is taken into account

If something is as clear as a bell, it is very clear or

Clear as a bell
easy to understand

If something is as clear as mud, then it is very

Clear as mud
confusing and unclear

When people climb on the bandwagon they do

Climb on the band
something because it is popular and everyone else is
wagon
doing it

If something is close at hand, it is nearby or

Close at hand
conveniently located

If the result of something is a close call, it is almost

impossible to distinguish between the parties
Close call involved and to say who has won or whatever. It can
also mean that you very nearly have a serious
accident or get into trouble

If people try to fix something after the problem has

Close the door after
occurred, they are trying to close the stable door after
the horse has bolted
the horse has bolted

If something is close to your heart, you care a lot

Close to your heart
about it

If you don't listen to people, they may suggest you

Cloth ears
have cloth ears

If someone has ideas or plans that are completely

Cloud cuckoo land
unrealistic, they are living in cloud cuckoo land

Cloud nine If you are on cloud nine, you are extremely happy

492
 If a cloud of suspicion hangs over an individual, it
Cloud of suspicion
means that they are not believed or are distrusted

If you think you see a problem coming it's called a

Cloud on the horizon
cloud on the horizon

To make a rude gesture by putting one thumb to the

Cook a snook
nose with the fingers outstretched

If you get cold feet about something, you lose the

Cold feet
courage to do it

Cold fish Is a person who shows no emotion

If you see things in the cold light of day, you see

Cold light of day them as they really are, not as you might want them
to be

If something brings you out in a cold sweat, it

Cold sweat
frightens you a lot

Accidental or unintended damage or casualties are

Collateral damage
collateral damage

If something is collecting dust, it isn't being used

Collecting dust
any more

If someone comes clean about something, they admit

Come clean
to deceit or wrong doing

If someone says they'll do something come hell or

Come hell or high
high water, they mean that nothing will stop them, no
water
matter what happens

Come out in the If something comes out in the wash, it won't have
wash any permanent negative effect

493
 If someone comes out of their shell, they stop being
Come out of your
shy and withdrawn and become more friendly and
shell
sociable

If you come to grips with a problem or issue, you

Come to grips
face up to it and deal with it

If you come up smelling roses, you get a positive

Come up smelling of
result, especially when things seemed to be going
roses
badly at first

Comes with the If something comes with the territory, it is part of a

territory job or responsibility and just has to be accepted

Cook someone's
If you cook someone's goose, you ruin their plans
goose

If people cook the books, they keep false accounts to

Cook the books
make money illegally or avoid paying tax

Cool as a cucumber To act fine when you a actually scared or nervous

A couch potato is an extremely idle or lazy person

who chooses to spend most of their leisure time
Couch potato
horizontal in front of the TV and eats a diet that is
mainly junk food

Couldn't give two If you couldn't give two hoots about something, you
hoots don't care at all about it

When people count their blessings, they concentrate

Count your blessings on all the good things in their lives instead of the
negative ones

Crack a nut with a If you use a sledgehammer to crack a nut, you apply
sledge hammer too much force to achieve a result

494
Cream of the crop The cream of the crop is the best there is

If someone cries crocodile tears, they pretend to be

Crocodile tears
upset or affected by something

Cross a bridge when If you cross a bridge when you come to it, you deal
you come to it with the problem when it arises, and not before

If someone has a cross to bear, they have a heavy

Cross to bear burden of responsibility or a problem that they alone
must cope with

If someone cries wolf, they raise a false alarm about

Cry wolf
something

Curiosity killed the This is said of a person who pokes their nose into
cat something they shouldn't

If people try to curry favour, they try to get people to

Curry favour
support them

If a person is described as a cut above other people,

Cut above
they are better in some way

If something is cut and dried, then everything has

Cut and dried
already been decided about it

If you cut it fine, you only just manage to do

Cut it fine
something- at the very last moment

If somebody or something doesn't cut the mustard,

Cut the mustard
they or it fails to reach the required standard

If someone's cut to the quick by something, they are

Cut to the quick
very hurt and upset indeed

495
 The place where you gain your early experience is
Cut your teeth on
where you cut your teeth

If something cuts no ice, it doesn't have any effect or

Cut no ice
influence

Something that is cutting edge is at the forefront of

Cutting edge
progress in its area

Daft as a brush Someone who is daft as a brush is a little stupid

If something is expected to have a great effect or

Damp Squib
impact but doesn't, it is a damp squib.

If you will dance on someone's grave, you will outlive

Dance on
or outlast them and will celebrate their passing away or
someone's grave
dying

Dark horse If someone is a dark horse, they are a bit of a mystery

Daylight robbery You have been overcharged

If something is dead and buried, something has long

Dead and buried
been settled and is not going to be reconsidered

If something's dead as a dodo, it is lifeless as in the

Dead as a Dodo
Dodo bird

Dead duck If something is a dead duck, it is a failure

Dead from the Someone who's dead from the neck up is very stupid
neck up indeed

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 If something is dead in the water, it isn't going
Dead in the water
anywhere or making any progress

Someone who is as deaf as a post is unable to hear at

Deaf as a post
all

Is a letter usually ending the relationship ie between a

Dear John
boyfriend and girlfriend

If someone looks like death warmed up, they look very

Death warmed up
ill

Someone who has money but never puts his hand in

Deep pockets and
his pocket to pay for anything has deep pockets but
short arms
short arms

If you live a devil-may-care life it means you are

Devil may care
willing to take more risks than most people

If someone plays Devil's advocate in an argument,

Devil's advocate they adopt a position they don't believe in just for the
sake of the argument

Dig your heals in If you dig your heels in, you start to resist something

If a person has a discerning eye, they are particularly

Discerning eye
good at judging the quality of something

Discretion is the
Means that it is often better to think carefully and not
better part
act than to do something that may cause problems
of valour

If you dish the dirt on something or someone, you

Dish the dirt
make unpleasant or shocking information public

Do a runner If for example a person leaves a restaurant without

497
 paying, they do a runner

Do as you would Treat others as you would hope to be respected and

be done treated by them

Someone who does someone's dirty work, carries out

Do their dirty
the unpleasant jobs that the first person doesn't want to
work
do

Is where there is intense competition and rivalry,

Dog eat dog world
where everybody thinks only of himself or herself

Dog tired If you are Dog tired, you are worn out or exhausted

If someone is led a dogs life then are said to be treated

Dogs life
badly

If a book is dog-eared, it is in bad condition, with torn

Dog eared
pages

If you ask for a doggy bag in a restaurant, they will

Doggy bag
pack the food you haven't eaten for you to take home

Doldrums If a person is in the doldrums, they are depressed

Don't count your

This means that you should wait until you know
chickens
whether something has produced the results you desire,
before they're
rather than acting beforehand
hatched

Don't cry over When something bad happens and nothing can be done
spilt milk to help it people say, 'Don't cry over spilt milk

Don't hold your If you are told not to hold your breath, it means that
breath you shouldn't have high expectations about something

Don't judge a This means that you should not judge something or

498
book by it's cover someone by appearances

This means that if you are given something, a present

Don't look a gift
or a chance, you should not waste it by being too
horse in the mouth
critical

If you are told not to upset the applecart, you are being
Don't upset the
told not to disturb the way things are done because it
apple cart
might ruin things

Dot all the I's and If you dot all the i's and cross all the t's, you do
cross the T's something very carefully and thoroughly

Double edged
Means that a decision is made that could go either way
sword

Down at heal Someone who is down at heel is short of money

Down in the If someone is down in the mouth, they look unhappy

mouth or depressed

If something has gone down the pan, it has failed or

Down the pan
been ruined

Someone who's down-to-earth is practical and

Down to earth
realistic

If you drag your heels, you either delay doing

Drag your heals something or do it as slowly as possible because you
don't want to do it

If you draws a line , you establish a limit beyond

Draw the line
which things will be unacceptable

When someone is dressed to kill, they are dressed very

Dressed to kill
smartly

499
 If someone drops a bombshell, they announce
Drop a bombshell something that changes a situation drastically and
unexpectedly
If someone drops a bombshell, they announce
Drop in the ocean something that changes a situation drastically and
unexpectedly

Drown your
means to get drunk to forget your problems
sorrows

Dunkirk spirit is when people pull together to get

Dunkirk spirit
through a very difficult time

A person who is extremely keen to do something is an

Eager beaver
eager beaver

Someone who has eagle eyes sees everything; no detail

Eagle eyes
is too small

Early bird catches The early bird catches the worm means that if you start
the worm something early, you stand a better chance of success

Something that is as easy as ABC is very easy or

Easy as ABC
simple

This idiom means that money or other material gains

Easy come easy go that come without much effort tend to get spent or
consumed as easily

If you eat crow, you have to admit that you were wrong
Eat crow
about something

If someone apologizes and shows a lot of regret for

Eat humble pie
something they have done, they eat humble pie

500
 If someone tells you to eat your heart out, they are
Eat your heart out
saying they are better than you at something

If you eat your words, you accept publicly that you

Eat your words
were wrong about something you said

If someone has egg on their face, they are made to look

Egg on your face
foolish or embarrassed

If something requires elbow grease, it involves a lot of

Elbow grease
hard physical work

Empty vessels
Those who know nothing often speak the most
make most sound

Even keel If something is on an even keel, it is balanced

Every cloud has a Means sometimes even bad things can turn out for the
silver lining better

Every dog has it's

This means that everyone gets their moment to shine
day

If you try every trick in the book, you try every

Every trick in the
possible way, including dishonesty and deceit, to get
book
what you want

If all avenues are being explored, then every

Explore all
conceivable approach is being tried that could possibly
avenues
get the desired result

When a person is very attractive, they can be described

Eye candy
as eye candy

Is when something is done back to a person as

Eye for an eye
retribution for what they did

501
 If someone's eyes are bigger than their stomach, they
Eyes bigger than
are greedy and take on more than they can consume or
their stomach
manage

If someone has a face like thunder, they are very angry

Face like thunder
or upset about something

If you have to face the music, you have to accept the

Face the music
consequences of something you have done wrong

If you take something at face value, you accept the

Face value
appearance rather than looking deeper into the matter

Fair crack of the If everybody has a fair crack of the whip, they all have
whip equal opportunities to do something

A fairweather friend is the type who is always there

Fair weather friend when times are good but forgets about you when things
get difficult

If a person falls from grace, they lose favour with

Fall from grace
someone

If someone tries to sell you something that has fallen of

Fall off the back of
the back of a lorry, they are trying to sell you stolen
a lorry
goods

If someone falls off the wagon, they start drinking after

Fall off the wagon
having given up completely for a time

This means that the more you know something or

Familiarity breeds
someone, the more you start to find faults and dislike
contempt
things about it or them

502
 Things that happen fast and furious happen very
Fast and furious
quickly without stopping or pausing

A fat cat is a person who makes a lot of money and

Fat cat
enjoys a privileged position in society

Fat chance This is a way of telling someone they have no chance

Fat hits the fire When the fat hits the fire, trouble breaks out

Fate worse than Describing something as a fate worse than death is a

death fairly common way of implying that it is unpleasant

A success or achievement that may help you in the

Feather in your cap
future is a feather in your cap

Feather your own If someone feathers their own nest, they use their
nest position or job for personal gain

If someone is short of money or feeling restricted in

Feel the pinch
some other way, they are feeling the pinch

A practical and realistic person has their feet on the

Feet on the ground
ground

Fight an uphill When you fight an uphill battle, you have to struggle
battle against very unfavourable circumstances

Fight tooth and If someone fights tooth and nail for something, they
nail will not stop at anything to get what they want

If you have a fighting chance, you have a reasonable

Fighting chance
possibility of success

When you are finding your feet, you are in the process
Find your feet
of gaining confidence and experience in something

503
 If thing's are fine and dandy, then everything is going
Fine and dandy
well

If you have a finger in the pie, you are involved in

Finger in the pie
something

Fingers and If you are all fingers and thumbs, you are being clumsy
thumbs and not very skilled with your hands

If you want to ask someone a question and they tell you

Fire away to fire away, they mean that you are free to ask what
you want

Firing on all If something is firing on all cylinders, it is going as

cylinders well as it could

The first place you stop to do something is your first

First port of call
port of call

If you are placed in a situation that is completely new

Fish out of water to you and confuses you, you are like a fish out of
water

If there is something fishy about someone or

Fishy something, there is something suspicious about them or
it

Fit as a fiddle If you are fit as a fiddle, you are in perfect health

If something is fit for a king, it is of the very highest

Fit for a king
quality or standard

Your flesh and blood are your blood relatives,

Flesh and blood
especially your immediate family

Flogging a dead This is used when someone is trying to raise interest in

504
horse an issue that no-one supports anymore

A fly in the ointment is something that spoils or

Fly in the ointment
prevents complete enjoyment of something

If you are able to see and hear events as they happen,

Fly on the wall
you are a fly on the wall

When children leave home to live away from their

Fly the nest
parents, they fly the nest

If something is food for thought, it is worth thinking

Food for thought
about or considering seriously

You put your foot in your mouth when you say

Foot in the mouth something embarrassing, inappropriate, wrong or
stupid usually accidentally

Foot the bill If somebody foots the bill, they pay for everybody

Something enjoyable that is illegal or immoral is

Forbidden fruit
forbidden fruit

Forgone If the result of something is a foregone conclusion,

conclusion then the result is obvious before it's started

If the police suspect foul play, they think a crime was

Foul play
committed

Four eyes A person who wears glasses

If someone has a free rein, they have the authority to

Free rein
make the decisions they want without any restrictions

If someone makes a Freudian slip, they accidentally

Freudian slip use the wrong word, but in doing so reveal what they
are really thinking rather than what they think the other

505
 person wants to hear

If something is going from pillar to post, it is moving

From pillar to post around in a meaningless way, from one disaster to
another

Someone who starts life very poor and makes a fortune

From rags to riches
goes from rags to riches

From the bottom If someone does something from the bottom of their
of the heart heart, then they do it with genuine emotion and feeling

From the horses If you hear something from the horse's mouth, you hear
mouth it directly from the person concerned or responsible

From the word go means from the very beginning of

From the word go
something

If you go at something full bore, you give it everything

Full bore
you've got in the form of energy

If something is the Full Monty, it is the real thing, not

Full monty
reduced in any way

Full of hot air someone who is full of hot air talks a lot of rubbish

Someone who acts in a arrogant or egotistical manner

Full of ones self
is full of himself/herself

Full of the joys of If you are full of the joys of spring, you are very happy
spring and full of energy

If something happens in the fullness of time, it will

Fullness of time
happen when the time is right and appropriate

Fur coat and no Someone with airs and graces, but no real class is to

506
knickers have a fur coat and no knickers

Thinking or ideas that do not agree with the facts or

Fuzzy thinking
information available

When someone says 'Game on!', it means that they are

Game on
accepting a challenge or ready to get something done

If someone is paid garden leave then they are being

Garden leave
paid when they are not doing the job, but at home

Gather pace If events gather pace, they move faster

Get along If people get along famously, they have an exceedingly

famously good relationship

If someone gets away scot-free, they are not punished

Get away scot free
when they have done something wrong

Get away with If you get away with murder, you do something bad
murder and don't get caught or punished

If you get it in the neck, you are punished or criticised

Get it in the neck
for something

Get it off your If you get something off your chest, you confess to
chest something that has been troubling you

If you get someone's drift, you understand what they

Get my drift
are trying to say

If a project or plan gets off the ground, it starts to be

Get off the ground
put into operation

507
 If something gets on your nerves, it annoys or irritates
Get on your nerves
you

Get out of bed the If you get out of bed on the wrong side, you wake up
wrong side and start the day in a bad mood for no real reason

If you get the ball rolling, you start to do something

Get the ball rolling
you've planned to do

If you get the green light to do something, you are

Green light
given the necessary permission to start it

If you get the show on the road, you put a plan into
Get the show on
operation or begin something, similar to Get the ball
the road
rolling

If someone has lots of get up and go, they have lots of

Get up and go
enthusiasm and energy

If you get your feet wet, you gain your first experience
Get your feet wet
of something

If you get your teeth into something, you become

Get yor teeth into
involved in or do something

Get your wires If people get their wires cross, they misunderstand each
crossed other, especially when making arrangements

If something or someone hasn't got a ghost of a chance,

Ghost of a chance
they have no hope whatsoever of succeeding

If someone has the gift of the gab, they speak in a

Gift of the gab
persuasive and interesting way

If you gild the lily, you decorate something that is

Gild the lily
already ornate

508
 A girl Friday is a female employee who assists
Girl friday
someone without any specific duties

A person who is generally known to have been guilty

Give a dog a bad
of some offence will always be suspected of a similar
name
type of offence

In negotiations you give a little ground and in return

Give and take
take a little back, usually in the form of a compromise

If you give something some stick, you put a lot of

Give it some stick
effort into it

Give someone a If you give someone a leg up, you help them to achieve
leg up something that they couldn't have done alone

Give someone a If you give someone a piece of your mind, you criticise
piece of your mind them strongly and angrily

Give someone a
If you can give someone a run for their money, you are
run for their
as good, or nearly as good, as they are at something
money

Give someone If you give someone enough rope, you give them the
enough rope chance to get themselves into trouble

Give someone If someone gives you stick, they criticise you or punish
stick you

When the gloves are off, people start to argue or fight

Gloves are off
in a more serious way

If a person is described as a glutton for punishment, the

Glutton for
happily accept jobs and tasks that most people would
punishment
try to get out of

509
Go against the If a person does something that he normally would
grain disapprove of it is said to go against the grain

If you go bananas, you are wild with excitement,

Go bananas
anxiety, or worry

Go bust If a company goes bust, it goes bankrupt

If something goes by the boards, it fails to get approved

Go by the boards
or accepted

Go down without a If someone goes down without a fight, they surrender

fight without putting up any resistance

If you go Dutch in a restaurant, you pay for your own

Go Dutch
meal

This is used to tell someone to go away and leave you

Go fly a kite
alone

If someone goes nuts, they get either excited or angry

Go nuts
over something

If people are going round in circles, they keep

Going round in
discussing the same thing without reaching any
circles
agreement or coming to a conclusion

Go spare If you go spare, you lose your temper completely

Go tell it to the Is said to someone you suspect is lying or telling

birds something that is incredible

If you go the distance, you continue until something

Go the distance
ends, no matter how difficult

Go the extra mile If you go the extra mile it means you will do more to

510
 make sure you succeed

When you go through the motions, you do something

Going through the
like an everyday routine, without any feelings
motions
whatsoever

If someone has gone to seed, they have declined in

Go to seed
quality or appearance

Go to your head If something goes to your head, it makes you feel vain

Go west If something goes west, it goes wrong

If you go overboard with something, then you take

Go overboard
something too far, or do too much

A golden handshake is a payment made to someone to

Golden handshake
get them to leave their job

A golden rule is an instruction, written or perceived,

Golden rule
that must be followed to the letter

Someone with a golden touch can make money from or

Golden touch
be successful at anything they do

If something has gone to pot, it has gone wrong and

Gone to pot
doesn't work any more

If something has gone to the dogs, it has gone badly

Gone to the dogs
wrong and lost all the good things it had

Good as gold If children are as good as gold, they behave very well

Good egg A person who can be relied on is a good egg

Good Samaritan A good Samaritan is a person who helps others in need

511
 If something's in good shape, it's in good condition. If a
Good shape
person's in good shape, they are fit and healthy

A goody two-shoes is a self-righteous person who

Goody two shoes
makes a great deal of their virtue

Grab the bull by If you grab (take) the bull by its horns, you deal head-
the horns on and directly with a problem

Grasp the nettle If you grasp the nettle, you deal bravely with a problem

If you start at the grass roots, you start from the very
Grass roots
beginning

If someone is on the gravy train, they have found and

Gravy train
easy way to make lots of money

If you grass someone up you report them for doing

Grass someone up
something they should'nt be doing

A grease monkey is an idiomatic term for a motor

Grease monkey
mechanic

If something or someone moves like greased lightning,

Greased lightning
they move very fast indeed

If something or someone is going great guns, they are

Great guns
doing very well

Great unwashed This is a term used for the working class masses

Greek to me If you don't understand something, it's all Greek to you

Green fingers Someone with green fingers has a talent for gardening

Green light If you are given the green light, you are given approval

512
 to do something

Green with envy If you are green with envy, you are very jealous

Grey matter Grey matter is the colloqial name given to the brain

The grey pound is an idiom for the economic power of

Grey pound
elderly people

If you have to grin and bear it, you have to accept

Grin and bear it
something that you don't like

If you are a guinea-pig, you take part in an experiment

Guinea pig
of some sort and are used in the testing

If someone is gung ho about something, they support it

Gung ho
blindly and don't think about the consequences

If someone has a hair of the dog, they have an

Hair of the dog
alcoholic drink as a way of getting rid of a hangover

Hale and hearty Someone who is hale and hearty is in very good health

If you have half a mind to do something, you haven't

Half a mind decided to do it, but are thinking seriously about doing
it

A half-baked idea or scheme has is something that has

Half baked
not been thought through or planned very well

If people are going at it hammer and tongs, they are

Hammer and tongs arguing fiercely. The idiom can also be used when
people are doing something energetically

513
 Someone who's living from hand to mouth, is very
Hand to mouth poor and needs the little money they have coming in to
cover their expenses

If something hangs by a thread, there is a very small

Hang by a thread
chance indeed of it being successful or surviving

If an outcome is hanging in the balance, there are at

Hang in the
least two possibilities and it is impossible to predict
balance
which will win

If you hang someone out to dry, you abandon them

Hang out to dry
when they are in trouble

If you reach a happy medium, you are making a

Happy medium
compromise; reaching a conclusion or decision

A person who is as hard as nails is either physically

Hard as nails tough or has little or no respect for other people's
feelings

Hard cheese Hard cheese means hard luck

Hard of hearing Someone who's hard of hearing is a bit deaf

Hard on someone's If you are hard on someone's heels, you are close to
heals them and trying to catch or overtake them

If someone puts a lot of pressure on you to do or buy

Hard sell
something, they are hard selling it

Hard to come by If something is hard to come by, it is difficult to find

Hard up If you are hard up, you have very little money

Hat trick Is three successes; one after the other

514
 A piece of criticism that destroys someone's reputation
Hatchet job
is a hatchet job

Have a heart If someone has a heart, they are kind and sympathetic

If someone has the floor, it is their turn to speak at a

Have the floor
meeting

Have your cake If someone wants to have their cake and eat it too, they
and eat it want everything their way

If you have had your fill, you are fed up of somebody

Have your fill
or something

Someone who has his or her moment exhibits a

Have your moment positive behavior pattern on an occasional basis but not
generally

Have your work If you have your work cut out, you are very busy
cut out indeed

He that travels far

People who travel widely have a wide knowledge
knows much

He who hesitates is
If one waits too long, the opportunity vanishes
lost

Head for the hills If people head for the hills, they run away from trouble

If a person has their head in the clouds, they have

Head in the clouds
unrealistic, impractical ideas

If someone's head is on the block, they are going to be

Head on the block held responsible and suffer the consequences for
something that has gone wrong

515
 If heads will roll, people will be punished or sacked for
Heads will roll
something that has gone wrong

A headstrong person is obstinate and does not take

Headstrong
other people's advice readily

Heard through the Is when you receive information indirectly through a

grapevine series of third parties, similar to a rumour

Heart in the right If someone's heart is in the right place, they are good
place and kind, though they might not always appear to be so

Heart in your boots If you're heart is in your boots, you are very unhappy

Heart in your If your heart is in your mouth, then you feel nervous or
mouth scared

If your heart is not in something, then you don't really

Heart isn't in it
believe in it or support it

If your heart misses a beat, you are suddenly shocked

Heart misses a beat
or surprised

Someone with a heart of gold is a genuinely kind and

Heart of gold
caring person

If someone is heavy-handed, they are insensitive and

Heavy handed use excessive force or authority when dealing with a
problem

If you hedge your bets, you don't risk everything on

Hedge your bets
one opportunity, but try more than one thing

If you do something hell for leather, especially

Hell for leather
running, you do it as fast as you can

516
 When there's no trace of something or a person, you
Hide nor hair
haven't seen hide nor hair of it or them

If people are on a hiding to nothing, their schemes and

Hiding to nothing
plans have no chance of succeeding

If you are left high and dry, you are left alone and
High and dry
given no help at all when you need it

The high and mighty are the people with authority and
High and mighty power. If a person is high and mighty, they behave in a
superior and condescending way

If someone's as high as a kite, it means they have had

High as a kite
too much to drink or are under the influence of drugs

If someone is high-handed, they behave arrogantly and

High handed
pompously

If something hits a nerve, it upsets someone or causes

Hit a nerve them pain, often when it is something they are trying to
hide

Something that is hit and miss is unpredictable and

Hit and miss
may produce results or may fail

When someone hits rock bottom, they reach a point in

Hit rock bottom
life where things could not get any worse

If someone hits the ceiling, they lose their temper and

Hit the ceiling
become very angry

Hit the hay When you hit the hay, you go to bed

If someone hits the mark, they are right about

Hit the mark
something

517
Hit the nail on the If someone hits the nail on the head, they are exactly
head right about something

When people hit the road, they leave a place to go

Hit the road
somewhere else

If you lose your temper and get very angry, you hit the
Hit the roof
roof

When you hit the sack, you go to bed, same as hit the
Hit the sack
hay

A Hobson's choice is something that appears to be a

Hobsons choice free choice, but is really no choice as there is no
genuine alternative

If you hold all the aces, you have all the advantages
Hold all the aces
and your opponents or rivals are in a weak position

If you hold the fort, you look after something or

Hold the fort
assume someone's responsibilities while they are away

If you hold the torch for someone, you have an

Hold the torch
unrequited or unspoken love

If someone tells you to hold your horses, you are doing

Hold your horses something too fast and they would like you to slow
down

If you can hold your own, you can compete or perform

Hold your own
equally with other people

If you hold your tongue, you keep silent even though

Hold your tongue
you want to speak

Holier than thou Someone who is holier-than-thou believes that they are

518
 morally superior to other people

Someone who has a hollow leg drinks what seems to

Hollow legs
be more than his stomach can hold

A hollow victory is where someone wins something in

Hollow victory name, but are seen not to have gained anything by
winning

The home stretch is the last part of something, like a

Home stretch
journey, race or project

If somebody accepts or believes something hook, line,

Hook line and
and sinker, they accept it completely, it comes from
sinker
fishing

If something hasn't got a hope in hell, it stands

Hope in hell
absolutely no chance of succeeding

A hornets' nest is a violent situation or one with a lot of

Hornets nest
dispute

Horses for courses means that what is suitable for one

Horses for courses
person or situation might be unsuitable for another

If you hot foot it out of a place, you leave very quickly,

Hot foot
often running

Hot under the If you're hot under the collar, you're feeling angry or
collar bothered

Hot water If you get into hot water, you get into trouble

Someone who is hot-blooded is easily excitable or

Hot blooded
passionate

519
Hot headed A hot-headed person gets angry very easily

A time when someone really needs something, almost a

Hour of need
last chance, is their hour of need

If something is hunky dory, it is perfectly satisfactory,

Hunky dory
fine

This expression is used to refer to something good that

Icing on the cake
happens on top of an already good thing or situation

Idle hands are the When someone is not busy, or being productive,
Devil's handiwork trouble is bound to follow

I'll cross that road Means I'll think about something just when it happens,
when I come to it not in advance

You can say this when you are absolutely sure that you
I'll eat my hat are right to let the other person know that there is no
chance of your being wrong

If at first you don't

succeed try and try If you fail, keep trying until you get it right
again

If it isn't broken Any attempt to improve on a system that already works

don't fix it is pointless and may even break it

If the cap (or shoe) If the description is correct, then it is describing the
fits truth, often when someone is being criticised

If you can't stand

This means that if you can't take the pressure, then you
the heat get out of
should remove yourself from the situation
the kitchen

520
If you lie down
This means that if you become involved with bad
with dogs you'll
company, there will be negative consequences
get up with fleas

If you'll pardon my This idiom is used as a way of apologising for

French swearing

If someone is ill at ease, they are worried or

ill at ease
uncomfortable

Ill-gotten gains are profits or benefits that are made

ill Gotten gains
either illegally or unfairly

If you are in a cleft stick, you are in a difficult

In a cleft stick
situation, caught between choices

In a fix If you are in a fix, you are in trouble

If something happens in a flash, it happens very

In a flash
quickly indeed

If something happens very quickly or immediately, it

In a heartbeat
happens in a heartbeat

If you are in a jam, you are in some trouble. If you get

In a jam
out of a jam, you avoid trouble

In a jiffy If something happens in a jiffy, it happens very quickly

In a nutshell This idiom is used to introduce a concise summary

If someone will do something in a tick, they'll do it

In a tick
very soon

In a tight spot If you're in a tight spot, you're in a difficult situation

In someone elses It is difficult to know what another person's life is

521
shoes really like, so we don't know what it is like to be in
someone elses shoes

In cahoots If people are in cahoots, they are conspiring together

If something is done in cold blood, it is done ruthlessly,

In cold blood
without any emotion

If you're in dire straits, you're in serious trouble or

In dire straights
difficulties

In donkeys years This means for a very long time

Things that come in small groups at irregular intervals,

In dribs and drabs
instead of all arriving at the same time

When things happen in droves, a lot happen at the same

In droves
time

If things are in full swing, they have been going for a

In full swing sufficient period of time to be going well and very
actively

If someone is in high spirits, they are in a very good

In high spirits
mood or feeling confident about something

In hot water If you are in hot water, you are in serious trouble

If someone is in your good books, you are pleased with

In my good books
or think highly of them at the moment

If someone is in over their head, they are out of the

In over your head depth in something they are involved in, and may end
up in a mess

In someone's If a person is in someone's pocket, they are dependent,

522
pocket especially financially, on them

If someone is in stitches, they are laughing

In stitches
uncontrollably

If people do things in tandem, they do them at the same

In tandem
time

If something is in the bag, it is certain that you will get

In the bag
it or achieve it

In the black If your bank account is in credit, it is in the black

In the club If a woman's in the club, she's pregnant

If someone is in the doghouse, they are in disgrace and

In the doghouse
very unpopular at the moment

If you are in the driver's seat, you are in charge of

In the drivers seat
something or in control of a situation

If someone's in the hot seat, they are the target for a lot
In the hot seat
of unwelcome criticism and examination

If you are left in the lurch, you are suddenly left in an

In the lurch
embarrassing or tricky situation

In the pink If you are in very good health, you are in the pink

If something's in the pipeline, it hasn't arrived yet but

In the pipeline
its arrival is expected

If people are in the same boat, they are in the same

In the same boat
predicament or trouble

In the short run This refers to the immediate future

523
In the soup If you're in the soup, you're in trouble

If you are in two minds about something, you can't

In two minds
decide what to do

If there is a period of warmer weather in late autumn, it

Indian summer
is an Indian summer

Someone who rules or controls something with an iron

Iron fist
fist is in absolute control and tolerates no dissent

A person who has a few irons in the fire has a number

Irons in the fire
of things working to their advantage at the same time

It's not over till the This idiom means that until something has officially
fat lady sings finished, the result is uncertain

It costs an arm and If something costs an arm and a leg, it is very

a leg expensive indeed

It never rains but it It never rains but it pours' means that when things go
pours wrong, they go very wrong

This idiom is used to suggest that when things go

It takes two to
wrong, both sides are involved and neither side is
tango
completely innocent

This is said when things have gone wrong; the idea

It's an ill wind that
being that when bad things happen, there can also be
blows no good
some positive results

Means that getting upset after something has gone

It's no good crying
wrong is pointless; it can't be changed so it should be
over spilt milk
accepted

It's your funeral The other person has made a decision that you think is

524
 bad. However, it is their choice; it is their funeral

One gets itchy feet when one has been in one place for
Itchy feet
a time and wants to travel

People who live in ivory towers are detached from the

Ivory tower
world around them

If everything has frozen in winter, then Jack Frost has

Jack frost
visited

A jack-of-all-trades is someone that can do many

Jack of all trades
different jobs

If you say that someone has jam on their face, they

Jam on your face
appear to be caught, embarrassed or found guilty

Someone who has a Jekyll and Hyde personality has a

Jekyll and Hyde
pleasant and a very unpleasant side to the character

Very wealthy people who travel around the world to

Jet set
attend parties or functions are the jet set

To emphasize just how black something is, such as

Jet black
someone's hair, we can call it jet-black

Where people give jobs, contracts, etc, to their friends

Jobs for the boys
and associates, these are jobs for the boys

If a number of people want the same opportunity and

Jockey for position are struggling to emerge as the most likely candidate,
they are jockeying for position

Jog the memory If you jog someone's memory, you say words that will
help someone trying to remember a thought, event,

525
 word, phrase, experience

Joe public Joe public is the typical, average person

A Johnny-come-lately is someone who has recently

Johnny come
joined something or arrived somewhere, especially
lately
when they want to make changes that are not welcome

If people are joined at the hip, they are very closely

Joined at the hip
connected and think or do things the same way

If someone is said to be the judge and jury, it means

Judge and jury they are in charge of every decision made and it's
outcome

Jump on the If people jump on the bandwagon, they get involved in

bandwagon something that has recently become very popular

If you jump the gun, you start doing something before

Jump the gun
the appropriate time

If you are prepared to jump through hoops for

Jump through
someone, you are prepared to make great efforts and
hoops
sacrifices for them

If someone says that it is a jungle out there, they mean

Jungle out there
that the situation is dangerous and there are no rules

If the jury's out on an issue, then there is no general

Jury's out
agreement or consensus reached on it

If a bad or evil person gets their just deserts, they get

Just deserts the punishment or suffer the misfortune that it is felt
they deserve

Just for the hell of When someone does something just for the hell of it,

526
it they do it without a good reason

If something is said to be just for the record, the person

Just for the record is saying it so that people know but does not
necessarily agree with or support it

Just in the nick of If you do something in the nick of time, you just
time manage to do it just in time, with seconds to spare

If someone is just off the boat, they are naive and

Just off the boat
inexperienced

Just what the If something's just what the doctor ordered, it is

doctor ordered precisely what is needed

When people take the law into their own hands and
Kangaroo court form courts that are not legal, these are known as
kangaroo courts

If someone is very enthusiastic, they are as keen as

Keen as mustard
mustard

If you keep abreast of things, you stay informed about

Keep abreast
developments

If you keep someone or something at bay, you maintain

Keep at bay
a safe distance from them

If you keep in touch with someone, you keep

Keep in touch communicating with them even though you may live
far apart

If you keep something on the Q T, you keep it quiet or

Keep it on the QT
secret

527
Keep it under your If you keep something under your hat, you keep it
hat secret

If you keep mum about something, you keep quiet and

Keep mum
don't tell anyone

If your kept posted about something, your kept up-to-

Keep posted
date with information and developments

Keep at arms If you keep someone or something at arm's length, you

length keep a safe distance away from them or it

Keep someone on If you keep someone on their toes, you make sure that
their toes they concentrate on what they are supposed to do

Keep the wolf at If you keep the wolf at bay, you make enough money
bay to avoid going hungry or falling heavily into debt

People who try to keep up with the Joneses are

Keep up with the
competitive about material possessions and always try
Joneses
to have the latest and best things

This expression is used to tell someone to have

Keep your chin up
confidence

If you keep your cool, you don't get excessively excited

Keep your cool
or disturbed in a bad situation

If you keep your ear to the ground, you try to keep

Keep your ear to
informed about something, especially if there are
the ground
rumours or uncertainties

Keep your eyes

If you keep your eyes peeled, you stay alert or watchful
peeled

Keep your head If you are just managing to survive financially, you are

528
above water keeping your head above water

Keep your pecker If someone tells you to keep your pecker up, they are
up telling you not to let your problems get on top of you

Keep your shirt on This idiom is used to tell someone to calm down

A pretty or fine kettle of fish is a difficult problem or

Kettle of fish
situation

If an issue or problem is kicked into touch, it is pushed

Kicked into touch aside and hidden in the hope that it will be forgotten or
ignored

Kick the bucket When someone kicks the bucket, they die

If you have to kick your heels, you are forced to wait

Kick your heels
for the result or outcome of something

Kill the goose that If you kill the goose that lays the golden egg, you ruin
lays the golden egg something that is very profitable

Kill two birds with When you kill two birds with one stone, you resolve
one stone two difficulties or matters with a single action

The king of the castle is the person who is in charge of

King of the castle something or in a very comfortable position compared
to their companions

If something is worth a king's ransom, it costs or is

Kings ransom
worth a lot of money

If people kiss and tell, they disclose private or

Kiss and tell
confidential information

Kiss of death The kiss of death is an action that means failure or ruin

529
 for someone, a scheme, a plan, etc

Kiss something If someone tells you that you can kiss something
goodbye goodbye, you have no chance of getting or having it

A knee-jerk reaction is an instant, instinctive response

Knee-jerk reaction
to a situation

When your knickers are in a twist, you are angry and

Knickers in a twist
snappish over something trivial

Knight in shining A knight in shining armour is someone who saves you

armour when you are in great trouble or danger

Knock on wood This idiom is used to wish for good luck

Knock something If you knock something on the head, you stop it or stop
on the head doing it

Knock your socks If something knocks your socks off, it amazes and
off surprises you, usually in a positive way

Someone who is experienced and knows how the

Know the ropes
system works, know the ropes

Know which side If you know which side one's bread is buttered on, you
one's bread is know where your interests lie and will act accordingly
buttered on to protect or further them

Know which way This means that you should know how things are
the wind blows developing and be prepared for the future

If someone is very well-informed about something,

Know your onions
they know their onions

530
 A person who is very difficult to control and
Loose cannon
unpredictable is a loose cannon

A labour of love is a project or task undertaking for the

Labour of love interest or pleasure in doing it rather than the reward,
financial or otherwise

someone that is weak or that falls behind in ability or

Lame duck
achievement

If someone has gone to the land of nod, they have

Land of nod
fallen asleep or gone to bed

A landslide victory is a victory in an election by a very

Landslide victory
large margin

A lap dog is a person who is eager to please another at

Lap dog the expense of his or her own needs in order to
maintain a position of privilege or favor

If something is in the lap of the gods, it is beyond our

Lap of the gods
control and fate will decide the outcome

If something is excessive or exaggerated, it is larger

Larger than life
than life

The person who has the last laugh ends up with the
Last laugh
advantage in a situation after some setbacks

The last straw is the final problem that makes someone

Last straw lose their temper or the problem that finally brought
about the collapse of something

A last-ditch attempt is a desperate attempt that will

Last ditch
probably fail anyway

531
Laugh a minute Someone who is a laugh a minute is very funny

Laugh up your If you laugh up your sleeve, you laugh at someone

sleeve secretly

If someone becomes a laughing stock they do

Laughing stock something so stupid or wrong that no one can take
them seriously and people scorn and laugh at them

If somebody's a law unto themselves, they do what

Law unto your self they believe is right regardless of what is generally
accepted as correct

If someone lays down the law, they tell people what to

Lay down the law
do and are authoritarian

If someone leads you up the garden path, they deceive

Lead someone up
you, or give you false information that causes you to
the garden path
waste your time

If someone leads with their chin, they speak or behave

Lead by the chin
without fear of the consequences

If you look everywhere to find something, or try

Leave no stone
everything to achieve something, you leave no stone
unturned
unturned

If the left hand doesn't know what the right hand is

Left hand doesn't
doing, then communication within a company,
know what the
organisation, group, etc, is so bad that people don't
right hand is doing
know what the others are doing

If you are left in the dark about something, you aren't

Left in the dark
given the information that you should have

Left to your own If someone is left to their own devices, they are not

532
devices controlled and can do what they want

Left handed A left-handed compliment is one that sounds like

compliment praise but has an insulting meaning

Somebody who becomes a legend in their own lifetime

Legend in their
acquires fame, but often only to a select or specialist
own lifetime
audience, while they are still alive

If you lend an ear, you listen to what someone has to

Lend an ear
say

Leopards can't Means that people cannot change basic aspects of their
change their spots character, especially negative ones

Something that is the lesser of two evils, is an

Lesser of two evils
unpleasant option, but not as bad as the other

If people decide to let bygones be bygones, they decide

Let bygones be
to forget old problems or grievances they have with
bygones
each other

If someone is told to let sleeping dogs lie, it means that

Let sleeping dogs
they shouldn't disturb a situation as it would result in
lie
trouble or complications

Let the chips fall This means that we shouldn't try to control events,
where they may because destiny controls them

Means that you should think of yourself and not be

Let the devil take
concerned about other people; look after yourself and
the hindmost
let the devil take the hindmost

If people let the genie out of the bottle, they let

Let the genie out
something bad happen that cannot be put right or
of the bottle
controlled

533
Let the grass grow If you let the grass grow round your feet, you delay
round your feet doing things instead of taking action

Let your guard If you let your guard down, you relax and stop looking
down out for danger

If you let your hair down, you usually throw inhibitions

Let your hair down
to the wind and thoroughly enjoy yourself

This is used as a way of suggesting that it is time to

Lets call it a day
stop working on something

If people interpret laws and regulations strictly,

Letter of the law ignoring the ideas behind them, they follow the letter
of the law

If there's a level playing field everybody is treated

Level playing field
equally

Lie low If someone lies low, they try not to be found or caught

Lie through their Someone who is always lying, regardless of what

teeth people know, lies through their teeth

Life is just a bowl

This idiom means that life is simple and pleasant
of cherries

If you can see light at the end of the tunnel, then you
Light at the end of
can see some signs of hope in the future, though things
the tunnel
are difficult at the moment

If someone is light on their feet, they can move quickly

Light on your feet
and are agile

Light years ahead If you are light years ahead of others, you are a long
way in front of them in terms of development, success,

534
 etc

Like a beached If you are completely stuck somewhere and can't get
whale away, you are stranded like a beached whale

Like a bear with a If someone's like a bear with a sore head, they
sore head complain a lot and are unhappy about something

If you tackle a job very quickly, without any real

Like a bull in a
thought about what you are doing, you are going at it
china shop
like a bull in a china shop

Like a cat on hot If someone is like a cat on hot bricks, they are very
bricks nervous or excited

Like a cat that got If someone looks very pleased with themselves and
the cream happy, they look like a cat that got the cream

Like a duck to If someone has a natural talent for something and

water enjoys it, they take to it like a duck to water

Like a fish needs a If someone needs something like a Fish Needs a

bicycle Bicycle, they do not need it at all

Like a fish out of If someone feels like a fish out of water, they are very
water uncomfortable in the situation they are in

If you watch something or someone like a hawk, you

Like a hawk
observe very closely and carefully

If someone rushes about like a headless chicken, they

Like a headless
move very fast all over the place, usually without
chicken
thinking

Like a kid in sweet If someone is like a kid in a sweet shop, they are very
shop excited about something

535
Like a moth to a Something that is like a moth to a flame is attracted to
flame something that is deadly or dangerous

If something happens like clockwork, it happens at

Like clockwork
very regular times or intervals

Like giving
If something is like giving a donkey strawberries,
donkeys
people fail to appreciate its value
strawberries

When people say this, they mean that the person will
Like it or lump it have to accept the situation because it isn't going to
change

Like lambs to the If somebody does something unpleasant without any

slaughter resistance, they go like lambs to the slaughter

Like two peas in a If people or things are like two peas in a pod, they look
pod identical

If something if like pulling teeth, it is very difficult,

Like pulling teeth especially if trying to extract information or to get a
straight answer from someone

Like taking sweets If something is like taking sweets from a baby, it is

from a baby very easy to do

If something is going like the clappers, it is going very

Like the clappers
fast

Like there's no If you do something like there's no tomorrow, you do it

tomorrow fast or energetically

If something happens or spreads like wildfire, it

Like wildfire
happens very quickly and intensely

536
Lily livered Someone who is lily-livered is a coward

if someone's says they'll do something and then doesn't

Lip service
they are giving lip service

Live high off the If you are living high off the hog, you are living
log lavishly

A person who is very active, both mentally and

Live wire
physically, is a live wire

Loan shark A loan shark lends money at very high rates of interest

When people lock horns, they argue or fight about

Lock horns
something

Lock the stable

If someone takes action too late, they do this; there is
door after the
no reason to lock an empty stable
horse has bolted

This is an expressions that means 'everything'; if

Lock stock and
someone buys a company lock, stock and barrel, they
barrel
buy absolutely everything to do with the company

Someone with a long face is sad or depressed about

Long face
something

If someone is long in the tooth, they are a bit too old to

Long in the tooth
do something

If something is a long shot, there is only a very small

Long shot
chance of success

This idiom means that you should think carefully about

Look before you
the possible results or consequences before doing
leap
something

537
 If you look on the bright side, you try to see things in
Look on the bright
an optimistic way, especially when something has gone
side
wrong

Look what the cat's This idiom is used when someone arrives somewhere
dragged in looking a mess or flustered and bothered

If someone loses the plot, they have stopped being

Loose the plot
rational about something

Loose your
If someone has lost their marbles, they've gone mad
marbles

If someone loses their shirt, they lose all their money

Loose your shirt
through a bad investment, gambling, etc.

To have the 'Luck of the draw' is to win something in a

Luck of the draw competition where the winner is chosen purely by
chance

A nail in someone's or something's coffin is a problem

Nail in the coffin
or event that is a clear step towards an inevitable failure

If a game, election, contest, etc, is a nail-biter, it is

Nail biter exciting because the competitors are so close that it is
impossible to predict the result

The basic characteristics of something is the nature of

Nature of the beast
the beast

538
 If two competitors or candidates, etc, are neck and
Neck and neck neck, then they are very close and neither is clearly
winning

If someone talks about their neck of the woods, they

Neck of the woods
mean the area where they live

If trying to find something is like looking for a needle

Needle in a hay
in a haystack, it means that it is very difficult, if not
stack
impossible to find among everything around it

Neither here nor If something is neither here nor there, it is of very little
there importance

Neither use nor Something that serves no purpose and is not

ornament aesthetically pleasing is neither use nor ornament

If you have some money saved for the future, it is a

Nest egg
nest egg

If something needs new blood, it has become stale and

New blood
needs new ideas or people to invigorate it

New brush sweeps A new brush sweeps clean means that someone with a
clean new perspective can make great changes

New kid on the A new kid on the block is a person who has recently
block joined a company, organisation, team, etc,

If someone finds new enthusiasm and energy for

New lease of life
something, they have a new lease of life

If you do something in the nick of time, you do it at the

Nick of time
very last minute or second

Night owl A night owl is someone who goes to bed very late

539
 A close contest where neither opponent seems to be
Nip and tuck
gaining the advantage

If someone is nipping at the bit, they are anxious to get

Nip at the bit something done and don't want to wait, another one is
champ at the bit

If you nip something in the bud, you deal with a

Nip it in the bud problem when it is still small, before it can grow into
something serious

If people get down to the nitty gritty, they concentrate

Nitty gritty
on the most important and serious issues

No bed of roses If something isn't a bed of roses, it is difficult

Something that will not work, A square peg in a round

No go
hole is a no go

If someone is no great shakes at something, they are

No great shakes
not very good at it

If there are no holds barred, there are no rules of

No holds barred
conduct; you can do anything

Ifs and Buts is a term used to describe the reasons

No ifs or buts
people give for not wanting to do something

No laughing
Something that is no laughing matter is very serious
matter

If there is no love lost between two people they have a

No love lost strong enmity towards or hate for the other and make
no effort to conceal it

No pain no gain Means that sometimes something is only achieved with

540
 a great deal of effort

This means without mercy. We can say no quarter

No quarter
given or asked

If something is to be done and no questions asked, then

No questions
it doesn't matter what methods are used or what rules
asked
are broken to ensure that it gets done

No skin off my If something's no skin off your nose, it doesn't affect or

nose bother you at all

No spring chicken If someone is no spring chicken, they are not young

If something has no strings attached, there are no

No strings attached
obligations or requirements involved

If people say that there's no time like the present , they

No time like the
believe that it is far better to do something now than to
present
leave it for later, in which case it might never get done

No two ways about If there are no two ways about something, there is no
it other possible interpretation

No use to man nor If something or someone is no use to man or beast, it or

beast they are utterly useless

Nods as good as a This is a way of saying you have understood something

wink to a blind that someone is said, even though it was not said
horse directly.

None are so blind

This idiom is used when people refuse to accept facts
as those who don't
presented to them
want to see

Nosy parker A nosy parker is someone who is excessively interested

541
 in other people's lives

Not a snowballs There is absolutely no possibility of something

chance in hell happening if there's not a snowball's chance in hell

If someone doesn't bat an eye, they do not react when

Not bat an eyelid
other people normally would

When someone says that they weren't born yesterday,

Not born yesterday
they mean that they are not naive or easily fooled

Not cricket If something is not cricket, it is unfair

Not enough room If a room is very small, you can say that there isn't
to swing a cat enough room to swing a cat in it

Not have two

If someone has not got two pennies to rub together,
pennies to rub
they are very poor indeed
together

If something is not your cup of tea, you don't like it

Not my cup of tea
very much

Someone distancing themselves from a situation could

Not on my watch
say that it is not on their watch

If something is not your bag, it is not really suitable for

Not our bag
your needs or you don't like it much

Not the only

If something is not the only pebble on the beach, there
pebble on the
are other possibilities or alternatives
beach

A success or achievement that might help you in the

Notch on your belt
future is a notch on your belt

542
Nothing to crow If something's nothing to crow about, it's not
about particularly good or special

Nothing to write Something that is not special or good is nothing to

home about write home about

Nothing ventured You can't win if you don't join in the game; if you don't
nothing gained participate in something, you will not achieve anything

If something's null and void, it is invalid or is no longer

Null and void
applicable

A number cruncher is someone who is very good at

Number cruncher
dealing with numbers and calculations

The nuts and bolts are the most essential components

Nuts and bolts
of something

Nutty as a fruit Someone who's nutty as a fruitcake is irrational or

cake crazy

Object lesson An object lesson serves as a warning to others

Odds and ends are small, remnant articles and things-

Odds and ends
the same as 'bits and bobs'

Off colour If someone looks off colour, they look ill

Off the beaten Somewhere that's off the beaten track is in a remote
track location

If you do something off the cuff, you do it without any

Off the cuff
preparation

543
 If someone is off the hook, they have avoided
Off the hook
punishment or criticism for something they have done

If something is off the mark, it is inaccurate or

Off the mark
incorrect

If someone has gone off the rails, they have gone off
Off the rails
the straight and narrow

Something off the record is said in confidence because

Off the record
the speaker doesn't want it attributed to them

If something goes off the scale, it far exceeds the

Off the scale
normal standards, good or bad, for something

If a product is off the shelf, it can be used straightaway

Off the shelf
without any setting-up

Off the top of your If you say something off the top of your head, you
head don't think about it beforehand

If something puts or throws you off your track, it

Off the track distracts you or keeps you from achieving what you
want

If someone is off their chump, they are crazy or

Off your chump
irrational

Off your rocker Someone who is off their rocker is crazy

Off-hand means without preparation. People say that

Off hand they don't know the answer off-hand, meaning that they
don't know it at that time

An old chestnut is something that has been repeated so

Old chestnut
many times that it has lost its impact

544
 If something's old hat, it seems rather old fashioned
Old hat
and dated

A proverb or piece of advice that is commonly

Old wives tale accepted as truth and is handed down the generations,
but is normally false

Oldest trick in the The oldest trick in the book is a well-known way of
book deceiving someone, though still effective

If you hold out or offer an olive branch, you make a

Olive branch
gesture to indicate that you want peace

If someone is on a fishing expedition, they are trying to

On a fishing
get information, often using incorrect or improper ways
expedition
to find things out

If you're on a roll, you're moving from success to

On a roll
success

If you hand or give something on a silver platter to

On a silver platter
someone, you let them have it too easily

On all fours If someone is on all fours, they crawl

On hold If something is on hold, no action is being taken

On ice If something is on hold, no action is being taken

Means you are in a precarious position, usually said "

On thin ice
he is skating on thin ice"

Means someone is waiting excitedly for something to

On tenterhooks
happen

On the ball If someone's on the ball, they are well-informed and

know what's going on in their area of responsibility or

545
 interest

Is a machine is on the blink, it isn't working properly or

On the blink
is out of order

On the blower If someone is on the blower, they are on the phone

When you are called to the bosses office because you

are in trouble, and something has not gone according to
On the carpet
plan for which you are responsible for, you are said to
on the carpet

Someone who is stealing money from work is on the

On the fiddle
fiddle, especially if they are doing it by fraud

If you do things on the fly, you do things without

On the fly
preparation, responding to events as they happen

On the game A person who is on the game works as a prostitute

If you decide something on the hoof, you do it without

On the hoof
planning, responding to events as they happen

If you get something for free that would normally have

On the house to be bought, especially in a bar or restaurant, it is on
the house

If someone is on the make, they are trying to make a lot

On the make
of money, usually illegally

If you buy something on the never-never, you buy it on

On the never never
long-term credit

If someone is on the rebound, their relationship has

On the rebound
recently ended and they are emotionally unstable

546
 If you start something or set off on the right foot, you
On the right foot
get off to a good start

When something or someone is on the ropes, it or they

On the ropes
are doing badly and likely to fail

If someone is on the run, they are avoiding arrest and

On the run
hiding from the police

On the same If people are on the same wavelength, they have the
wavelength same ideas and opinions about something

If something like a project is on the shelf, nothing is

On the shelf
being done about it at the moment

On the take Someone who is stealing from work is on the take

If a word is on the tip of your tongue, you know you

On the tip of your
know the word, but you just can't quite remember it at
tongue
the moment

This idiom means 'consecutively'; I'd saw them three

On the trot
days on the trot

If you are on the up and up, you are making very good
On the up and up
progress in life and doing well

If someone is on the wagon, they have stopped

On the wagon
drinking alcohol

On top of the If you are on top of the world, everything is going well
world for you

When someone is on their high horse, they are being

On your high horse inflexible, arrogant and will not make any
compromises

547
On your last legs If someone's on their last legs, they're close to dying

If someone is up on their soapbox about something,

On your soap box they are very overtly and verbally passionate about the
topic

On your tod If you are on your tod, you are alone

On your toes Someone on his or her toes is alert and ready to go

If somebody is said to be once bitten twice shy, it

Once bitten twice means that someone who has been hurt or who has had
shy something go wrong will be far more careful the next
time

Once in a blue If something happens once in a blue moon, it happens

moon very rarely indeed

If something is done at one fell swoop, it is done in a

One fell swoop
single period of activity, usually swiftly and ruthlessly

One good turn Means if someone does something good for you, you
deserves another will do something good for them in return

One hand washes This idiom means that we need other people to get on
the other as cooperation benefits us all

One man's loss is

Means that you may gain from another persons loss
another man's gain

One man's drink is

This idiom means that one person can like something
another man's
very much, but another can hate it
poison

One over the eight Someone who is one over the eight is drunk

548
One swallow
This means that one good or positive event does not
doesn't make a
mean that everything is all right
summer

If one person does all the work or has all the

One man band responsibility somewhere, then they are a one-man
band

If a person is an open book, it is easy to know what

Open book
they think or how they feel about things

Means someone opens a quarrel or enmity which was

Open old wounds
almost forgotten

Open a can of If you open a can of worms, you do something that will
worms cause a lot of problems

Opportunity This idiom means that you only get one chance to
knocks only once achieve what you really want to do

If you have other fish to fry, it doesn't matter if one

Other fish to fry opportunity fails to materialise as you have plenty of
others

Other side of the The other side of the coin is a different, usually
coin opposing, view of a situation

If someone lives out in the sticks, they live out in the

Out in the sticks
country, a long way from any metropolitan area

Out like a light If you are out like a light, you fall fast asleep

Out of hand If something gets out of hand, it gets out of control

If someone or something is out of your league, you

Out of my league
aren't good enough or rich enough, etc, for it or them

549
Out of pocket If you are out of pocket on a deal, you have lost money

Out of sight, out of mind is used to suggest that

Out of sight out of
someone will not think or worry about something if it
mind
isn't directly visible or available to them

If you are feeling a bit upset and depressed, you are out
Out of sorts
of sorts

If something happens out of the blue, it happens

Out of the blue
suddenly and unexpectedly

Out of the frying If you get out of one problem, but find yourself in a
pan and into the worse situation, you are out of the frying pan, into the
fire fire

Out of the mouths People say this when children unexpectedly say
of babes something very intelligent or wise

If you are out of the woods, you have emerged safely

Out of the woods
from a dangerous situation

Out of this world If something is out of this world, it is fantastic

If you get someone out of your hair, you get them to

Out of your hair
stop bothering or annoying you

If someone is out of their mind, they are so emotional

Out of your mind
about something that they are no longer rational

If somebody's out on a limb, they are in a very exposed

Out on a limb
position and could get into difficulties

Over my dead If you say that something will happen over your dead
body body, you will not let it happen

550
 If someone is over the hill they have reached an age at
Over the hill
which they can longer perform as well as they used to

If you are over the moon about something, you are

Over the moon
overjoyed

Packed in like If a place is extremely crowded, people are packed like

sardines sardines, or packed in like sardines

If someone is very annoying and always disturbing

Pain in the neck
you, they are a pain in the neck

If you go out for a night out with lots of fun and

Paint the town red
drinking, you paint the town red

If you open a Pandora's box, something you do causes

Pandora's box
all sorts of trouble that you hadn't anticipated

Paper over the If you paper over the cracks, you try to make
cracks something look or work better

A paper tiger is a person, country, institution, etc, that

Paper tiger
looks powerful, but is actually weak

If something is par for the course, it is what you

Par for the course expected it would be. If it is above par, it is better, and
if it is below par, it is worse

If you learn something parrot fashion, you learn it word

Parrot fashion
for word

If something is part and parcel of your job, say, it is an

Part and parcel
essential and unavoidable part that has to be accepted

551
 If someone is a pass master at something then they are
Pass master
very good at it

If you pass the buck, you avoid taking responsibility by

Pass the buck
saying that someone else is responsible

If you pass the hat, you ask a people in a group to give

Pass the hat
money

If something requires the patience of Job, it requires

Patience of Job
great patience (pronounced Jobe)

Pay on the nail If you pay on the nail, you pay promptly in cash

Pay through the If you pay through the nose for something, you pay a
nose very high price for it

If you have paid your dues, you have had your own
Pay your dues
struggles and earned your place or position

Pecking order The pecking order is the order of importance or rank

The idiom 'the pen is mightier than the sword' means

Pen is mightier
that words and communication are more powerful than
than the sword
wars and fighting

Penny pincher A penny pincher is a mean person or who is very frugal

Someone who is penny wise, pound foolish can be very

Penny wise pound
careful or mean with small amounts of money, yet
foolish
wasteful and extravagant with large sums

People in glass
People should not criticise other people for faults that
houses shouldn't
they have themselves
throw stones

552
 When someone gives you a pep talk it is to build you
Pep talk
up to help you accomplish something

Pick up the tab A person who pays for everyone picks up the tab

If an idea or scheme is pie in the sky, it is utterly

Pie in the sky
impractical

If someone buys a pig in a poke, they buy something

Pig in a poke without checking the condition it was in, usually
finding out later that it was defective

If you think something will never happen or succeed,

Pigs might fly
you can say that 'pigs might fly'

If you work for pin money, you work not because you
Pin money need to but because it gives you money for extra little
luxuries and treats

If what someone says should be taken with a pinch of

Pinch of salt salt, then they exaggerate and distort things, so what
they say shouldn't be believed unquestioningly

If someone receives a pink slip, they receive a letter

Pink slip
telling them they have lost their job

A pipe dream is an unrealistic, impractical idea or

Pipe dream
scheme

Plain as the nose If something is as plain as the nose on your face, it is

on your face very clear and obvious

If something is relatively easy and there are no

Plain sailing
problems doing it, it is plain sailing

Plan B Plan B is an alternate or fall-back position or method

553
 when the initial attempt or plan goes wrong

If people play fast and loose, they behave in an

Play fast and loose
irresponsible way and don't respect rules, etc

If you play for time, you delay something because you

Play for time
are not ready or need more time to thing about it

If someone plays hard to get, they pretend not to be

Play hard to get
interested or attracted by someone

Playing havoc with something is creating disorder and

Play havoc confusion; computer viruses can play havoc with your
programs

If children play hooky, they don't attend school when

Play hooky they should and don't have a valid reason for their
absence

Play into If you play into someone's hands, you do what they
someone's hands were expecting you to do and take advantage of this

If you play it by ear, you don't have a plan of action,

Play it by ear
but decide what to do as events take shape

If you play second fiddle, you take a subordinate role

Play second fiddle
behind someone more important

If someone plays the fool, they behave in a silly way to

Play the fool
make people laugh

If someone plays to the audience, they say or do things

Playing to the
that will make them popular, but which are not the
audience
right things to do

Pleased as punch If someone is as pleased as punch they very happy

554
 about something

Poacher turned Someone who gets a legitimate job which is the

gamekeeper opposite of their previous one

Poetry in motion Something that is poetry in motion is beautiful to watch

When you point the finger at someone, you are

Point the finger
accusing and blaming them for something

When someone pops the question, they ask someone to

Pop the question
marry them

Pop your clogs When people pop their clogs, they die

If someone hypocritically criticises a person for

Pot calling the
something that they themselves do, then it is a case of
kettle black
the pot calling the kettle black

If you take pot-luck, you take whatever happens to be

Pot luck
available at the time

If someone wants their pound of flesh, the force

someone to pay or give back something owed, even
Pound of flesh
though they don't need it and it will cause the other
person a lot of difficulty

Practice what you If you practice what you preach, you do what you say
preach other people should do

If someone preaches to the converted, they talking

Preaching to the
about a subject or issue with which their audience
converted
already agrees

If someone behaves calmly and rationally in difficult

Presents of mind
circumstances, they show presence of mind

555
 If you are pressed for time, you are in a hurry or
Pressed for time
working against a very tight schedule

A prodigal son is a young man who wastes a lot on

Prodigal son money on a lavish lifestyle. If the prodigal son returns,
they return to a better way of living

Proof of the
This means that something can only be judged when it
pudding is in the
is tested or by its results
eating

Pros and cons are arguments for or against a particular

Pros and cons
issue

Someone who is as proud as a peacock is excessively

Proud as a peacock
proud

Pull no punches If you pull no punches, you hold nothing back

Pull out all the If you pull out all the stops, you do everything you
stops possibly can to achieve the result you want

A person of higher position or in authority pulls rank,

Pull rank
he or she exercises his/her authority

If you pull someone's leg, you tease them, but not

Pull someone's leg
maliciously

If you pull strings, you use contacts you have got to

Pull strings
help you get what you want

This idiom is way of telling somebody that you don't

Pull the other one
believe them

Pull the wool over If you pull the wool over someone's eyes, you deceive
someone's eyes or cheat them

556
 If you aren't satisfied with someone and want them to
Pull up your socks
do better, you can tell them to pull up their socks

Pull your finger If someone tells you to do this, they want you to hurry
out up

If you pull your punches, you do not use all the power
Pull your punches
or authority at your disposal

If someone is not pulling their weight, they aren't

Pull your weight
making enough effort, especially in group work

Pull yourself up by If you pull yourself up by your bootstraps, you make

your boot straps the effort to improve things for yourself

A punch bag is a person who gets a lot of unfair

Punch bag
criticism

Puppy love Puppy love is love between two very young people

Push comes to If or when push comes to shove, the situation has

shove become some bad that you are forced to do something

If someone is said to be pushing up the daisies, they are

Pushing up daisies
dead

If someone tells you to put a sock in it, they are telling

Put a sock in it
you to shut up

Put all your eggs If you put all your eggs in one basket, you risk
in one basket everything on a single opportunity

Put on airs and If someone puts on airs and graces, they pretend to be
graces grander and more important than they really are

Put someone's If you put someone's nose out of joint, you irritate them

557
nose out of joint or make them angry with you

put someone on a If If you put someone on a pedestal, you admire them

pedestal greatly, idolise them

Put someone out to If someone is put out to pasture, they are forced to
pasture resign or give up some responsibilities

Put that in your This is used as an unsympathetic way of telling

pipe and smoke it someone to accept what you have just said

Put the carriage If you put the carriage before the horse, you try to do
before the horse things in the wrong order

Put the kybosh on To put an end to something

Put two and two If someone puts two and two together, they reach a
together correct conclusion from the evidence

Put you in the If you put someone in the picture, you tell them the
picture information they need to know about something

Put your best foot If you put your best foot forward, you try your best to
forward do something

Put your cards on If you put your cards on the table, you make your
the table thoughts or ideas perfectly clear

When someone puts their foot down, they make a firm

Put your foot down
stand and establish their authority on an issue

If you put your foot in it, you do or say something

Put your foot in it
embarrassing and tactless or get yourself into trouble

Put your foot in If you put your foot in your mouth, you say something
your mouth stupid or embarrassing

558
Put your hand on If you put your hand on your heart, then you can say
your heart something knowing it to be true

Put your heads If people put their head together, they exchange ideas
together about something

Put your shoulder When you put your shoulder to the wheel, you
to the wheel contribute to an effort

Put yourself in If you put yourself in someone's shoes, you imagine

someone's shoes what it is like to be in their position

Putting the cart When you put the cart before the horse, you are doing
before the horse something the wrong way round

If you try to put or get a quart into a pint pot, you try
Quart into a pint pot
to put too much in a small space. (1 quart = 2 pints)

The queen bee is a woman who holds the most

Queen bee
important position in a place

A woman who is pre-eminent in her area is a Queen

Queen of hearts
of Hearts

Queer fish A strange person is a queer fish

If someone is in a lot of trouble, especially financial,

Queer street
they are in Queer Street

If someone queers your pitch, they interfere in your

Queer your pitch
affairs and spoil things

If something's a question of time, it's certain to

Question of time
happen, though we don't know exactly when

559
 Someone who goes to the front of a queue instead of
Queue jumping
waiting is jumping the queue

If something happens quick as a flash, it happens

Quick as a flash
very fast indeed

If you make some money easily, you make a quick

Quick buck
buck

A quick fix is an easy solution, especially one that

Quick fix
will not last

If someone is quick off the mark, they are very quick

Quick off the mark
to use, start or do something new

If somebody is quids in, they stand to make a lot of

Quids in
money from something

If someone's as quiet as a mouse, they make

Quiet as a mouse
absolutely no noise

When you know that something is about to go

Quiet before the
horribly wrong, but hasn't just yet, then you are in
storm
the quiet before the storm

If something or someone goes to rack and ruin, they are

Rack and ruin
utterly destroyed or wrecked

If you rack your brain, you think very hard when trying
Rack your brain
to remember something

Someone who starts life very poor and becomes rich

Rags to riches
goes from rags to riches

Rain on your If someone rains on your parade, they ruin your

560
parade pleasure or your plans

Raining cats and When it is raining cats and dogs, it is raining very
dogs heavily

If you save something, especially money, for a rainy

Rainy day day, you save it for some possible problem or trouble
in the future

If someone raises Cain, they make a big fuss publicly,

Raise Cain
causing a disturbance

If something raises eyebrows, it shocks or surprises

Raise eyebrows
people

If you go back to old problems and try to bring them

Rake over old
back, making trouble for someone, you are raking over
coals
old coals

The rank and file are the ordinary members of a

Rank and file company, organisation, etc, excluding the managers
and directors

The rat race is the ruthless, competitive struggle for

Rat race
success in work, etc

Raw deal A raw deal is when you are treated unfairly

If you read between the lines, you find the real message
Read between the
in what you're reading or hearing, a meaning that is not
lines
available from a literal interpretation of the words

If you read someone the riot act, you give them a clear
Read someone the
warning that if they don't stop doing something, they
riot act
will be in serious trouble

561
 Something that's the real McCoy is the genuine article,
Real McCoy
not a fake

Recharge your If you recharge your batteries, you do something to

batteries regain your energy after working hard for a long time

A recipe for disaster is a mixture of people and events

Recipe for disaster
that could only possibly result in trouble

If you give someone the red-carpet treatment, you give

Red carpet
them a special welcome to show that you think they are
treatment
important

If something is a distraction from the real issues, it is a

Red herring
red herring

A red letter day is a one of good luck, when something

Red letter day
special happens to you

The red light district is the area of a town or city where

Red light district
there is prostitution, sex shops, etc

If something is a red rag to a bull, it is something that

Red rag to a bull
will inevitably make somebody angry or cross

This is a negative term for the official paperwork and

Red tape
bureaucracy that we have to deal with

If someone reinvents the wheel, they waste their time

Re invent the
doing something that has already been done by other
wheel
people

Rest on their If someone rests on their laurels, they rely on their past
laurels achievements, rather than trying to achieve things now

Revenge is sweet When you are happy to be proved right or you get your
own back for something someone has done, then you

562
 know that revenge is sweet

If something is without rhyme nor reason, it is

Rhyme nor reason
unreasonable

If someone is riding high, they are very successful at

Riding high
the moment

If someone rides roughshod over other people, they

Ride roughshod impose their will without caring at all for other people's
feelings

If you ride shotgun, you protect or guard something

Ride shotgun
when it is being transported

If things are right as rain, then everything is going well

Right as rain
in your life

If something is right up your street, it suits you

Right up my street
perfectly

If something rings a bell, it reminds you of something

Ring a bell you have heard before, though you may not be able to
remember it very well

If you have a ringside seat, you can observe something

Ringside seat
from a very close and clear position

Rise and shine If you wake up full of energy, you rise and shine

If you rob Peter to pay Paul, you try to solve one

Rob Peter to pay
problem, but create another in doing so, often through
Paul
short-term planning

Rock the boat If you rock the boat, you destabilise a situation by
making trouble. It is often used as advice; 'Don't rock

563
 the boat'

If something is not rocket science, it is not very

Rocket science
complicated or difficult to understand

Roll out the red If you roll out the red carpet, you treat someone in a
carpet special way, especially when welcoming them

Rome was not This idiom means that many things cannot be done
built in a day instantly, and require time and patience

If people see things through rose tinted glasses, they

Rose tinted glasses
see them in a more positive light than they really are

If a person is rough and ready, they are not very refined

Rough and ready
or good mannered

A rough diamond is a person who might be a bit rude

Rough diamond
but who is good underneath it all

To get the rough end of the stick is to be treated

Rough end of the
unfairly or to come off worse than the other party in a
stick
transaction, situation or relationship

If someone has gone round the bend, they have stopped

Round the bend
being rational about something

If you go round the houses, you do something in an

Round the houses inefficient way when there is a quicker, more
convenient way

If you rub shoulders with people, you meet and spend

Rub shoulders time with them, especially when they are powerful or
famous

Rub someone up If you annoy or irritate someone when you didn't mean

564
the wrong way to, you rub them up the wrong way

This means that the person will one day bitterly regret
Rue the day
what they have done

Ruffle a few If you ruffle a few feathers, you annoy some people
feathers when making changes or improvements

Rule of thumb Rule of thumb means approximately

If someone rules the roost they are the boss.

Rule the roost Example:There's no doubt who rules the roost in this
house

If someone "Runs a mile", they do everything they can

Run a mile
to avoid a situation

When things or people are running amok, they are wild

Run amock
and out of control

If someone tries to run before they can walk, they try to

Run before you
do something requiring a high level of knowledge
can walk
before they have learned the basics

Run circles around If you can run circles around someone, you are smarter
someone and intellectually quicker than they are

If you are run off your feet, you are extremely busy and
Run off your feet
don't have enough time to do everything

If somebody is being criticised harshly by a lot of

Run the gauntlet
people, they are said to run the gauntlet

Run your mouth

If someone runs their mouth off, they talk too much
off

565
 If something is run-of-the-mill, there is nothing
Run of the mill
exceptional about it- it is ordinary or average

If a characteristic runs in the family, it can clearly be

Runs in the family seen in members of different generations i.e a large
nose or temperament

Something that is as safe as houses is very secure or

Safe as houses
certain

A proposition that is a safe bet doesn't have any risks

Safe bet
attached

A person who can be trusted to do something without

Safe pair of hands
causing any trouble is a safe pair of hands

If a lot of people do something risky at the same time,

Safety in numbers
the risk is reduced because there is safety in numbers

If you sail close to the wind, you take risks to do

Sail close to the
something, going close to the limit of what is allowed
wind
or acceptable

Someone who sails under false colours is hypocritical

Sail under false
or pretends to be something they aren't in order to
colours
deceive people

If you rub salt in a wound, you make someone feel bad

Salt in the wound
about something that is already a painful experience

People who are salt of the earth are decent, dependable

Salt of the earth
and unpretentious

Same old same old When nothing changes, it's the same old, same old

566
 To keep your reputation and the respect of other people
Save face
especially after something may have gone wrong

Save someone's If something saves your bacon, it saves your life or

bacon rescues you from a desperate situation

If someone saves their skin, they manage to avoid

Save your skin
getting into serious trouble

If you are saved by the bell, you are rescued from a

Saved by the bell
danger or a tricky situation just in time

If someone has some character defects, but has a

Saving grace characteristic that compensate for their failings and
shortcomings, this is their saving grace

Scare the daylights If you scare the daylights out of someone, you terrify
out of someone them

This idiom is used as a pejorative term for a sexually

Scarlet woman
promiscuous woman, especially an adulteress

Scattered to the If something's scattered to the four winds, it goes out in

four winds all directions

If someone escapes scot free, they avoid payment or

Scot free
punishment

The phrase 'Scotch mist' is used humorously to refer to

Scotch mist something that is hard to find or doesn't exist -
something imagined

When all the best people, things or ideas and so on are

Scraping the barrel used up and people try to make do with what they have
left, they are scraping the barrel

Scream blue If someone shouts very loudly in anger, or fear, they

567
murder scream blue murder

Screw loose If someone has a screw loose, they are crazy

If you are getting your sea legs, it takes you a while to

Sea legs
get used to something new

The seamy side of something is the unpleasant or

Seamy side
sordid aspect it has

If some has second thoughts, they start to think that an

Second thoughts idea, etc, is not as good as it sounded at first and are
starting to have doubts

If you overcome tiredness and find new energy and

Second wind
enthusiasm, you have second wind

See eye to eye If people see eye to eye, they agree about everything

If someone sees red, they become very angry about

See red
something

See the light When someone sees the light, they realise the truth

If somebody says this when leaving, they expect to see

See you anon
you again soon

This idiom means that people can only really believe

Seeing is believing
what they experience personally

If something's seen better days, it has aged badly and

Seen better days
visibly compared to when it was new

Sold down the If you sell someone down the river, you betray their
river trust

568
 If a product is selling very well, it is selling like hot
Sell like hot cakes
cakes

If someone sells their soul, they betray their most

Sell your sole
precious beliefs

Send someone If you send someone packing, you send them away,
packing normally when they want something from you

Send someone to If you send someone to Coventry, you refuse to talk to

Coventry them or co-operate with them

When you separate the wheat from the chaff, you select
Separate the wheat
what is useful or valuable and reject what is useless or
from the chaff
worthless

If something is set in stone, it cannot be changed or

Set in stone
altered

Set the wheels in When you set the wheels in motion, you get something
motion started

If you set you sights on something it's because you

Set your sights on have seem something and really want and are
determined to get it

Seven sheets to the If someone is seven sheets to the wind, they are very
wind drunk

Seventh heaven If you are in seventh heaven, you are extremely happy

If you shake a leg, you are out of bed and active. It can
Shake a leg
be used to tell someone to hurry up

Shanks's pony If you go somewhere by Shanks's pony, you walk there

Shape up or ship If someone has to shape up or ship out, they have to

569
out improve or leave their job, organisation, etc

If someone is as sharp as a pin, they are very clever

Sharp as a pin
indeed or astute

Someone who isn't easily deceived or fooled is a sharp

Sharp cookie
cookie

If you shed light on something, you make it clearer and

Shed light
easier to understand

Shifting sands If the sands are shifting, circumstances are changing

If people shilly-shally, they can't make up their minds

Shilly shally
about something and put off the decision

If your ship has come in, something very good has

Ship came in
happened to you

Shipshape and If things are shipshape and Bristol fashion, they are in
Bristol fashion perfect working order

If the shoe is on the other foot, someone is

Shoe is on the
experiencing what they used to make others
other foot
experience, normally negative things

If you do something on a shoestring, you try to spend

Shoe string
the absolute minimum amount of money possible on it

Shot down in If someone demolishes your argument, it (and you)

flames have been shot down in flames

Someone who shoots from the hip talks very directly or

Shoot from the hip
insensitively without thinking beforehand

Shoot yourself in If you shoot yourself in the foot, you do something that

570
the foot damages your ambition, career, etc

The 'Shop floor' refers to the part of an organisation

Shop floor where the work is actually performed rather than just
managed

Short end of the If someone gets the short end of the stick, they are
stick unfairly treated or don't get what they deserve

If somebody gives you short shrift, they treat you

Short shrift
rudely and brusquely, showing no interest or sympathy

If you have a shot in the dark at something, you try

Shot in the dark something where you have little hope of success, also a
stab in the dark

Show someone a If you show someone a clean pair of heels, you run
clean pair of heels faster than them when they are chasing you

Show someone the If you show someone the ropes, you explain to
ropes someone new how things work and how to do a job

Show your true To show your true colours is to reveal yourself as you
colours really are

A shrinking violet is a shy person who doesn't express

Shrinking violet
their views and opinions

If someone's sick as a parrot about something, they are

Sick as a parrot
unhappy, disappointed or depressed about it

If you are sick to death of something, you have been

Sick to death
exposed to so much of it that you cannot take any more

Someone or something that is a sight for sore eyes is a

Sight for sore eyes
pleasure to see

571
 It is often better to say nothing than to talk, so silence
Silence is golden
is golden

A silver surfer is an elderly person who uses the

Silver surfer
internet

If something has happened since time immemorial, it's

Since time
been going on for such a long time that nobody can
immemorial
remember a time without it

Sing from the If people are singing from the same hymn sheet, they
same hymn sheet are expressing the same opinions in public

If someone sings like a canary, they tell everything

Sing like a canary they know about a crime or wrongdoing to the police
or authorities

If someone sits on the fence, they try not to support

Sit on the fence
either side in a dispute

Someone who's sitting pretty is in a very advantageous

Sitting pretty
situation

A sitting duck is something or someone that is easy to

Sitting duck
criticise or target

Six feet under If someone is six feet under, they are dead

If something is all at sixes and sevens, then there is a

Sixes and sevens lot of disagreement and confusion about what should
be done

If someone is skating on thin ice, they are taking a big

Skate on thin ice
risk

If someone has a skeleton in the closet, they have a

Skeleton in the
dark, shameful secret in their past that they want to

572
closet remain secret

Skin someone If someone skins you alive, they admonish and punish
alive you hard

If someone gets a slap on the wrist, they get a very

Slap on the wrist minor punishment when they could have been punished
more severely

Sleep like a log If you sleep like a log, you sleep very soundly

This is used as a way of telling someone to leave or go

Sling your hook
away

If you say something accidentally, it is a slip of the

Slip of the tongue
tongue

Slip through your If something slips through your fingers it escapes or is

fingers lost through carelessness

A person from whom it is difficult to get anything

Slippery customer
definite or fixed is a slippery customer

Is where something or someone is progressively getting

Slippery slope
worse

If something or someone is slow but sure, they may

Slow but sure
take their time to do something, but they are reliable

Someone who is as sly as a fox is cunning and

Sly as a fox experienced and can get what they want, often in an
underhand way

Small fry If someone is small fry, they are unimportant

Smart Alec A smart Alec is a conceited person who likes to show

573
 off how clever and knowledgeable they are

If you smell a rat, you know instinctively that

Smell a rat
something is wrong or that someone is lying to you

Smoke and mirrors An attempt to conceal something is smoke and mirrors

Smoking gun A smoking gun is definitive proof of someone's guilt

Someone who is a snake in the grass betrays you even

Snake in the grass
though you have trusted them

Snug as a bug in a If you're as snug as a bug in a rug, you are feeling very
rug comfortable indeed

Sod's law states that if something can go wrong then it

Sod's law
will

If you soft soap someone, you flatter them, usually to

Soft soap someone
get your own way

If something or someone is as sound as a bell, it is in

Sound as a a bell very good condition or they are very nice people and
can be trusted

if something is as sound as a pound, it is very good or

Sound as a pound
reliable

When someone says something critical or negative

Sour grapes
because they are jealous, it is a case of sour grapes

Spanner in the If someone puts or throws a spanner in the works, they

works ruin a plan

Spare the rod and This means that if you don't discipline children, they
spoil the child will become spoilt

574
 If you are talking about someone and they happen to
Speak of the Devil walk in, you can use this idiom as a way of letting them
know you were talking about them

Speak to the organ

grinder not the Talk to the boss not the subordinate
monkey

If something speaks volumes, it tells us a lot about the

Speak volumes real nature of something or someone,even though it
may only be a small detail

Speak with a fork To say one thing and mean another, to lie, to be two-
tongue faced

Spend a penny This is a euphemistic idiom meaning to go to the toilet

The spice of life is something that makes it feel worth

Spice of life
living

Spick and span If a room is spick and span, it is very clean and tidy

If you spill the beans, you reveal a secret or confess to

Spill the beans
something

If someone spins a yarn, they tell a story, usually a long

Spin a yarn
or fanciful one

When someone spins you a line, they are trying to

Spinning a line
deceive you by lying

Spit blood If someone is spitting blood, they are absolutely furious

If a person is the spitting image of somebody, they look

Spitting image
exactly alike

575
 If people split hairs, they concentrate on tiny and
Split hairs
unimportant details to find fault with something

If someone spoils the ship for a ha'pworth (halfpenny's

Spoil the ship for a
worth) of tar, they spoil something completely by
ha,pworth or tar
trying to make a small economy

If you use a sprat to catch a mackerel, you make a

Sprat to catch a
small expenditure or take a small risk in the hope of a
mackerel
much greater gain

If something springs to mind, it appears suddenly and

Spring to mind
unexpectedly in your thoughts

If you do something on the spur of the moment, you do

Spur of the
it because you felt like it at that time, without any
moment
planning or preparation

A square meal is a substantial or filling meal, taken

Square meal originaly from theRoyal Navy because their meals
were served on a square plate

If somebody's or something is in a situation, where

Square peg in a
they or it doesn't fit in then they or it is a square peg in
round hole
a round hole

When someone is squaring the circle, they are trying to

Square the circle
do something impossible

If something is squeaky clean, it is very clean indeed-

spotless. If a person is squeaky clean, they have no
Squeaky clean
criminal record and are not suspected of illegal or
immoral activities

Squeeze blood out When people say that you can't squeeze blood out of a
of a stone stone, it means that you cannot get something from a

576
 person, especially money, that they don't have

A stalking horse is a strategy or something used to

Stalking horse
conceal your intentions

Stand in good If something will stand you in good stead, it will

stead probably be advantageous in the future

If something is state of the art, it is the most up-to-date

State of the art
model incorporating the latest and best technology

Someone who wants to preserve the status quo wants a

Status quo
particular situation to remain unchanged

Steal someone's If someone steals your thunder, they take the credit and
thunder praise for something you did

If people try to stem the tide, they are trying to stop

Stem the tide
something unpleasant from getting worse

If you step on someone's toes, you upset them,

Step on someone's
especially if you do something that they should be in
toes
charge of

If you leave someone to stew in their own juices, you

Stew in your own
leave them to worry about the consequences of what
juices
they have done wrong or badly

If someone or something really annoys you, it is said to

Stick in your craw
stick in your craw

If something sticks or stands out like a sore thumb, it is

Stick out like a
clearly and obviously different from the things that are
sore thumb
around it

Stick to your guns If you stick to your guns, you keep your position even

577
 though people attack or criticise you

Stick your neck If you stick you neck out, you take a risk because you
out believe in something

A stick-in-the-mud is someone who doesn't like change

Stick in the mud
and wants things to stay the same

A sticking point is a controversial issue that blocks

Sticking point progress in negotiations, etc, where compromise is
unlikely or impossible

The tendency to keep (or steal) an object you

Sticky fingers touch. Also, to steal something quickly without
anyone noticing

If you are on a sticky wicket, you are in a difficult

Sticky wicket
situation

Something or someone that is stiff as a poker is

Stiff as a poker
inflexible

If you keep your emotions to yourself and don't let

Stiff upper lip others know how you feel when something bad
happens, you keep a stiff upper lip

People use this idiom to imply that people who are

Still waters run
quiet and don't try to attract attention are often more
deep
interesting than people who do try to get attention

If something stirs your blood, it arouses feelings or

Stir the blood
passions

Stone deaf Someone who is stone deaf is completely deaf

Stone's throw If a place is a stone's throw from where you are, it is a

578
 very short distance away

Stool pigeon A stool pigeon is a police informer

If someone exaggerates a problem or makes a small

Storm in a tea cup problem seem far greater than it really is, then they are
making a storm in a teacup

If someone keeps a straight face, they remain serious

Straight faced
and do not show emotion or amusement

Straight from the If someone talks straight from the shoulder, they talk
shoulder honestly and plainly

The straw that broke the camel's back is the problem

Straw that broke
that made you lose your temper or the problem that
the camel's back
finally brought about the collapse of something

If people are streets ahead of their rivals, they are a

Streets ahead
long way in front

If something strikes a chord, it is familiar to you,

Strike a cord reminds you of something or is connected to you
somehow

If you strike while the iron is hot you do something

Strike while the
when things are going well for you and you have a
irons hot
good chance to succeed.

Someone who will not listen to other people's advice

Stubborn as a mule and won't change their way of doing things is as
stubborn as a mule

Sure as eggs are

These means absolutely certain
eggs

579
Sure fire If something is sure-fire, it is certain to succeed

A farewell or final appearance, action, or work. The

Swan song beautiful legendary song sung only once by a swan in
its lifetime, as it is dying

Swear like a Someone who is foul-mouthed and uses bad language

trooper all the time, swears like a trooper

If you are swept off your feet, you lose control

Sweep off your
emotionally when you fall in love or are really
feet
impressed

Sweep things If people try to ignore unpleasant things and forget

under the carpet about them, they sweep them under the carpet

If you swim against the tide, you try to do something

Swim against the
that is very difficult because there is a lot of opposition
tide
to you

If you swim with the tide, you do the same as people

Swim with the tide
around you and accept the general consensus

If you swing the lead, you pretend to be ill or do not do

Swing the lead
your share of the work

Swings and If something's swings and roundabouts, it has about as

roundabouts many disadvantages as it has advantages

When the tables are turned, the situation has changed

Tables are turned giving the advantage to the party who had previously
been at a disadvantage

Take a hike This is a way of telling someone to get out

580
take a leaf out of If you take a leaf out of someone's book, you copy
someone's book something they do because it will help you

When things take a nose dive, they decline very

Take a nose dive
quickly and head towards disaster

If you take a rain check, you decline an offer now,

Take a rain check
suggesting you will accept it later

Take by the scruff If you take something by the scruff on the neck, you
of the neck take complete control of it

If you take something for granted, you don't worry or

think about it because you assume you will always
Take for granted
have it. If you take someone for granted, you don't
show your appreciation to them

Take forty winks If you take forty winks, you have a short sleep

If you take something in your stride, you deal with it

Take something in
even though it is difficult or unpleasant without letting
your stride
it bother or upset you

If you take something on the chin, something bad has

Take it on the chin
happened to you and you take it directly without fuss

If people take no prisoners, they do things in a very

Take no prisoners aggressive way, without considering any harm they
might do to achieve their objectives

Take coal to Doing something that is completely pointless or

Newcastle unnecessary is like taking coal to Newcastle

If someone is taken down a peg (or taken down a peg

Take someone
or two), they lose status in the eyes of others because
down a peg
of something they have done wrong or badly

581
Take someone for If you are taken for a ride, you are deceived by
a ride someone

Take someone to If you take someone to task, you scold them for
task something they have done wrong

Take someone If you take someone under your wing, you look after
under your wing them while they are learning something

To assess a situation, to conduct a personal inventory

Take stock
of ones beliefs and values, etc

Take the biscuit If something takes the biscuit, it is the absolute limit

When we use the phrase in everyday talk, we mean that

Take the bull by
the person we are talking about tackles their problems
the horns
directly and is not worried about any risks involved

If you take the chair, your become the chairman or

Take the chair
chairwoman of a committee, etc

If you tall the fall, you accept the blame and possibly
Take the fall
the punishment for another's wrongdoing

If you take the flak, you are strongly criticised for

Take the flak
something

If you take the heat, you take the criticism or blame for
Take the heat something you didn't do, normally to protect the guilty
person

If you take the plunge, you decide to do something or

Take the plunge commit yourself even though you know there is an
element of risk involved

People say that you have to take the rough with the
Take the rough
smooth, meaning that you have to be prepared to

582
with the smooth accept the disadvantages as well of the advantages of
something

If you take your hat off to someone, you acknowledge

Take your hat off
that they have done something exceptional and deserve
to someone
your respect

If something can be taken as read, it is so definite that

Taken as read
it's not necessary to talk about it

Talk nineteen to If someone talks very quickly, they talk nineteen to the
the dozen dozen

Talk out of the If someone is talking out of the back of their head, they
back of your head are talking rubbish

When people talk turkey, they discuss something

Talk turkey
frankly

Something that is likely to be hard to achieve or fulfill

Tall order
is a tall order

Tall story A tall story is one that is untrue and unbelievable

If people are tarred with the same brush, they are said
Tarred with the
to have the same set of attributes or faults as someone
same brush
they are associated with

If you give someone a taste of their own medicine, you

Taste of your own
do something bad to someone that they have done to
medicine
you to teach them a lesson

Teach your When people say 'don't teach your grandmother to suck
grandmother to eggs', they mean that people shouldn't try to teach
suck eggs someone who has experience or is an expert in that area

583
 The teacher's favorite pupil is the teacher's pet,
Teachers pet
especially if disliked by the other pupils

The problems that a project has when it is starting are

Teething problems
the teething problems

If you tempt providence, you take a risk that may well

Tempt providence
have unpleasant consequences

The balls in your If somebody says this to you, they mean that it's up to
court you to decide or take the next step

The phrase 'The be all and end all' means that a

The be all and end
something is the final, or ultimate outcome or result of
all
a situation or event

The bigger they This idiom means that the more powerful have more to
are the harder they lose, so when they suffer something bad, it is worse for
fall them

The grass is
This idiom means that what other people have or do
greener on the
looks preferable to our life
other side

When the penny drops, someone belatedly understands

The penny drops
something that everyone else has long since understood

When the plot thickens, a situation becomes more

The plot thickens
complicated and difficult

The sands of time is an idiom meaning that time runs

The sands of time out either through something reaching an end or
through a person's death

The short straw If you take the short straw, you lose a selection
process, which means that you have to do something

584
 unpleasant

The whole
Everything, the entire object, or all the related parts
shooting match

The world and his If the world and his wife were somewhere, then huge
wife numbers of people were present

If someone's bark is worse than their bite, they get

Their bark is worse
angry and shout and make threats, but don't actually do
that their bite
anything

There are many This is an expression meaning there are many different
ways to skin a cat ways of doing the same thing

There's no such This idiom means that you don't get things for free, so
thing as a free if something appears to be free, there's a catch and
lunch you'll have to pay in some way

If people are thick as thieves, they are very close

Thick as thieves
friends who have no secrets from each other

If a person is thick-skinned, they are not affected by

Thick skinned
criticism

The thin blue line is a term for the police, suggesting

Thin blue line that they stand between an ordered society and
potential chaos

The thin end of the wedge is something small and

Thin edge of the
seemingly unimportant that will lead to something
wedge
much bigger and more serious

Think outside of If you think outside the box, you think in an

the box imaginative and creative way

585
 If someone is given the third degree, they are put under
Third degree a great deal of pressure and intimidation to force them
to tell the truth about something

A thorn in your side is someone or something that

Thorn in your side
causes trouble or makes life difficult for you

Those who live by

This means that violent people will be treated violently
the sword die by
themselves
the sword

Three sheets to the

Someone who is three sheets in the wind is very drunk
wind

If you do something through gritted teeth, you accept

Through gritted
or agree with it against your will and it is obvious to
teeth
others how you really feel

Through thick and If someone supports you through thick and thin, they
thin support you during good times and bad

Throw a spanner in If you throw a spanner into the works, you ensure that
the works something fails

Throw caution to When people throw caution to the wind, they take a
the wind great risk

Throw down the Throw down the gauntlet is to issue a challenge to

gauntlet somebody

If you throw in the towel, you admit that you are

Throw in the towel
defeated or cannot do something

If you are thrown in at the deep end, you have to deal

Throw someone in
with serious issues the moment you start something
at the deep end
like a job, instead of having time to acquire experience

586
 If someone is thrown to the wolves, they are
Throw someone to
abandoned and have to face trouble without any
the wolves
support

Throw the baby If you get rid of useful things when discarding
out with the bath inessential things, you throw the baby out with the bath
water water

Throw the book at If you throw the book at someone, you punish them as
someone severely as possible

Throw your toys To make an angry protest against a relatively minor

out of the pram problem, in the process embarrassing the protester

If someone throws their weight around, they use their

Thow your weight
authority or force of personality to get what they want
around
in the face of opposition

Thumb your nose If you thumb your nose at something, you reject it or
at scorn it

If something tickles your fancy, it appeals to you and

Tickle your fancy
you want to try it or have it

If you are very pleased about something, you are

Tickled pink
tickled pink

Tie the knot When people tie the knot, they get married

If things or people are kept on a tight rein, they are

Tight rein
given very little freedom or controlled carefully

If you run a tight ship, you control something strictly

Tight ship
and don't allow people much freedom of action

Tighten your belt If you have to tighten your belt, you have to economise

587
'Till the cows This idioms means 'for a very long time'. (Until the
come home cows come home' is also used.)

If you do something till you're blue in the face, you do

Till your blue in
it repeatedly without achieving the desired result until
the face
you're incredibly frustrated

Tide and tide waits This is used as a way of suggestion that people should
for no man act without delay

Time is on your If time is on your side, you have the luxury of not
side having to worry about how long something will take

A time-honoured practice is a traditional way of doing

Time honoured
something that has become almost universally accepted
practice
as the most appropriate or suitable way

The tip of the iceberg is the part of a problem that can

Tip of the iceberg be seen, with far more serious problems lying
underneath

If someone responds to an insult by being rude back,

Tit for tat it's tit for tat- repaying something negative the same
way

To a T If something is done to a T, it is done perfectly

To err is human to This idiom is used when someone has done something
forgive divine wrong, suggesting that they should be forgiven

To have the If you have the courage of your convictions, you are
courage of your brave enough to do what you feel is right, despite any
convictions pressure for you to do something different

If someone toes the line, they follow and respect the

Toe the line
rules and regulations

588
Tomorrow is This means that things might turn out better or that
another day there might be another opportunity in the future

If something is tongue in cheek, it isn't serious or

Tongue in cheek
meant to be taken seriously

Too big for your If someone is too big for their boots, they are conceited
boots and have an exaggerated sense of their own importance

Too many cooks This means that where there are too many people trying
spoil the broth to do something, they make a mess of it

Too many irons in This means juggling too many projects at once and
the fire something's bound to fail

Top dog The most important or influential person is the top dog

If something is top notch, it's excellent, of the highest

Top notch
quality or standard

If something is touch and go, the result is uncertain and

Touch and go
could be good or bad

Touch wood This idiom is used to wish for good luck

Something or someone that is as tough as old boots is

Tough as old boots
strong and resilient

If something is a tough nut to crack, it is difficult to

Tough nut to crack
find the answer or solution

A train of thought is a sequence of thoughts, especially

Train of thought when you are talking to someone and you forget what
you were going to say

If you tread on someone's toes, you upset them,

Tread on
especially if you do something that they should be in

589
someone's toes charge of

If someone is treading water, they are making no

Tread water
progress

A person who is true blue is loyal and dependable,

True blue
someone who can be relied on in all circumstances

If someone shows their true colours, they show

True colours
themselves as they really are

A trump card is a resource or strategy that is held back

Trump card for use at a crucial time when it will beat rivals or
opponents

Tug at the If something tugs at the heartstrings, it makes you feel

heartstrings sad or sympathetic towards it

When people turn a blind eye, they deliberately ignore

Turn a blind eye something, especially if people are doing something
wrong

If someone turns a deaf ear to you, they don't listen to

Turn a deaf ear
you

Turn over a new If someone turns a new leaf, they change their
leaf behaviour and stop doing wrong or bad things

Turn something on If you turn something on its head, you turn it upside
it's head down or reverse it

To get over a bad run. When a loss making venture

Turn a corner
ceases to make losses, it has "turned the corner"

Turn the other If you turn the other cheek, you are humble and do not
cheek retaliate or get outwardly angry when someone offends

590
 or hurts you

If circumstances change completely, giving an

Turn the tables advantage to those who seemed to be losing, the tables
are turned

Turn turtle If something turns turtle, it turns upside down

Turn up like a bad If someone turns up like a bad penny, they go

penny somewhere where they are not wanted

Turn water into If someone turns water into wine, they transform
wine something bad into something excellent

If someone turns their nose up at something, they reject

Turn up your nose it or look down on it because they don't think it is good
enough for them

Turn up for the A turn-up for the books is an unexpected or surprising

books event

Twinkling of an If something happens in the twinkling of an eye, it

eye happens very quickly

Twist someone's If you twist someone's arm, you put pressure on them
arm to try to make them do what you want them to do

Two heads are When two people work together more things get
better than one accomplished

Two left feet A person with two left feet can't dance

If things or people are like two peas in a pod, they look

Two peas in a pod
very similar or are always together

Different but closely related features of one idea,

Two sides of the
Rewards and punishments, are two sides of the same

591
same coin coin

If someone uses an argument that could both help them

Two edged sword and harm them, then they are using a two-edged sword;
it cuts both ways

Someone who is two-faced will say one thing to your

Two faced
face and another when you're not there

If a government changes its position radically on an

U-turn issue, especially when they have promised not to do so,
this is a U-turn

An ugly duckling is a child who shows little promise,

Ugly duckling
but who develops later into a real talent or beauty

If someone does something bad and unnecessary

Uncalled for without consideration for another's feelings, what they
do is uncalled for

If you're in uncharted waters, you are in a situation that

Un chartered water is unfamiliar to you, that you have no experience of
and don't know what might happen

If someone is suspected of having done something

Under a cloud
wrong, they are under a cloud

If a ship sails under a flag of convenience, it is

registered in a country where taxes, etc, are lower than
Under a flag of
in the country it comes from, so if someone does
convenience
something under a flag of convenience, they attempt to
avoid regulations and taxes by a similar means

If someone does something under false colours, they

Under false
pretend to be something they are not in order to

592
colours deceive people so that they can succeed

If someone is being attacked and cricitised heavily,

Under fire
they are under fire

Under lock and If something is under lock and key, it is stored very
key securely

Under someone's If you are under someone's heel, your in someone's

heels way

If something slips under the radar, it isn't detected or

Under the radar
noticed

Bribes or illegal payments are often described as

Under the table
money under the table

If you are feeling a bit ill, sad or lack energy, you are
Under the weather
said to be under the weather

If you have something under your belt, you have

Under your belt already achieved or experienced it and it will probably
be of benefit to you in the future

If you say something under your breath, you whisper or

Under your breath
say it very quietly

If something happens right in front of you, especially if

Under your nose it is surprising or audacious, it happens under your
nose

Under your skin If someone gets under your skin, they really annoy you

Someone who is manipulated or controlled by another

Under your thumb
person is under his or her thumb

Uneasy is the head This means that people with serious responsibilities

593
that wears the have a heavy burden
crown

If something isn't a bed of roses, or it is difficult you

Up a gum tree
are up a gum tree

If you are up a river without a paddle, you are in an

Up the river
unfortunate situation, unprepared and with none of the
without a paddle
resources to remedy the matter

If something is up for grabs, it is available and whoever

Up for grabs
is first or is successful will get it

If a matter is up in the air, no decision has been made

Up in the air
and there is uncertainty about it

If you up sticks, you leave somewhere, usually

Up sticks
permanently and without warning

If you up the ante, you increase the importance or value

of something, especially where there's an element of
Up the ante
risk as the term comes from gambling, where it means
to increase the stake (the amount of money bet)

If someone or something is up the creek, they are in

Up the creek
real trouble

Up the duff If a woman is up the duff, she's pregnant

If something has gone up the spout, it has gone wrong

Up the spout
or been ruined

Up the stick If a woman is up the stick, she's pregnant

Up the wall If someone goes up the wall, they get very angry

594
 When you go up the wooden hill, you go up the stairs
Up the wooden hill
to bed

If something doesn't come up to scratch, it doesn't meet

Up to scratch
the standard required or expected

If something isn't up to snuff, it doesn't meet the

Up to snuff
standard expected

If you bring someone up to speed, you update them on

Up to speed
something

You you are up to your eyes in something, you are

Up to your eyes deeply involved or to have too much of something like
work

If someone's in something up to the neck, they are very

Up to your neck
involved in it, especially when it's something wrong

Up with the lark If you get up very early, you're up with the lark

The upper crust are the upper classes and the

Upper crust
establishment

Upper hand If you have the upper hand, you have the advantage

Upset the apple If you upset the apple cart, you cause trouble and upset
cart people

This vale of tears is the world and the suffering that

Vale of tears
life brings

Variety is the spice The more experiences you try the more exiting life
of life can be

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Vanish into thin air Disappear without a trace

This idiom is used to describe a person who appears

Velvet glove
gentle, but is determined and inflexible underneath

If someone vents their spleen, they release all their

Vent your spleen
anger about something

A vicious circle is a sequence of events that make

Vicious circle
each other worse

If something is virgin territory, it hasn't been

Virgin territory
explored before

A vote to see if a person or political party still has the

Vote of confidence
majority's support

Vote with one's feet Show that you don't like something by leaving

If someone is waiting in the wings, or in the wings,

Waiting in the
they are in the background, but nearby, ready to act on
wings
short notice

When someone doesn't realise what is really happening

Wake up and smell or is not paying enough attention to events around
the coffee them, you can tell them to wake up and smell the
coffee

A wake-up call is a warning of a threat or a challenge,

Wake up call especially when it means that people will have to
change their behaviour to meet it

Walk a fine line If you have to walk a fine line, you have to be very
careful not to annoy or anger people or groups that are

596
 competing

Walk in the park An undertaking that is easy is a walk in the park

If you have to walk on eggshells when with someone,

Walk on egg shells you have to be very careful because they get angry or
offended very easily

Walk the green Someone or something that is walking the green mile is
mile heading towards the inevitable

If someone walks the plank, they are going toward

Walk the plank
their own destruction or downfall

Walking A very knowledgeable person is a walking

encyclopedia encyclopedia

If you are walking on air, you are so happy that you

Walking on air
feel as if you could float

Walking time A person whose behaviour is erratic and totally

bomb unpredictable is a walking time-bomb

A war chest is a fund that can be used to finance a

War chest campaign like and election or for use in emergencies or
unexpected times of difficulty

A war of words is a bitter argument between people or

War of words
organisations, etc

Warm the cockles If something warms the cockles of your heart, it makes
of your heart you feel happy

If someone is on the warpath, they are very angry about

Warpath something and will do anything to get things sorted the
way they want

597
 If you wash your hands of something, you disassociate
Wash your hands
yourself and accept no responsibility for what will
of something
happen

If you don't waste things, you are less likely to end up

Waste not want not
lacking

If a person is referred to as a 'waste of space', it means

Waste of space
he is not worth very much

If something is like watching grass grow, it is really

Watch grass grow
boring

If criticism or something similar is like water off a

Water off a ducks
duck's back to somebody, they aren't affected by it in
back
the slightest

Water under the If something belongs to the past and isn't important or
bridge troubling any more, it is water under the bridge

Watering hole A watering hole is a pub

Watery grave Someone who has gone to a watery grave has drowned

Wear your heart on Someone who wears their heart on their sleeve shows
your sleeve their emotions and feelings publicly

If you weather a storm, you get through a crisis or hard

Weather the storm
times

If something is a weight off your shoulders, you have

Weight off your
relieved yourself of a burden, normally something that
shoulders
has been troubling you or worrying you

Well heeled Someone who is well-heeled is rich

Wet behind the Someone who is wet behind the ears is either very

598
ears young or inexperienced

A wet blanket is someone who tries to spoil other

Wet blanket
people's fun

If you are thirsty and have an alcoholic drink, you wet

Wet your whistle
your whistle

Whale of a time If you have a whale of a time, you really enjoy yourself

What goes round This saying means that if people do bad things to other
comes round people, bad things will happen to them

The expression what will be will be is used to describe

What will be will
the notion that fate will decide the outcome of a course
be
of events

What's good for

This idiom means that all people should be treated the
the goose is good
same way and not be subjected to different standards
for the gander

Whatever floats When people say this, they mean that you should do
your boat whatever makes you happy

When the wheels fall off something, it goes wrong or

Wheels fall off
fails

When Hell freezes

An impossible or very unlikely situation or event
over

This idiom means that when you are visiting a different

When in Rome do
place or culture, you should try to follow their customs
as the Romans do
and practices

When it rains it This idiom means that when things go wrong, a lot of
pours things go wrong at the same time

599
 Means there is not much chance of something
When pigs fly
happening

When the chickens

When a person pays dearly for something bad he or she
come home to
did in the past, the chickens come home to roost
roost

Where there's a This idiom means that if people really want to do

will there's a way something, they will manage to find a way of doing it

Where there's When there is an indication or sign of something bad,

smoke there's fire usually the indication is correct

If something whets your appetite, it interests you and

Whet your appetite
makes you want more of it

Which came first

This idiomatic expression is used when it is not clear
the chicken or the
who or what caused something
egg

Whilst the cats

People whose behaviour is strictly controlled go over
away the mice will
the top when the authority is not around
play

If someone says that you can whistle for something,

Whistle for it
they are determined to ensure that you don't get it

A whistle-stop tour is when someone visits a number of

Whistle stop tour
places quickly, not stopping for long

If someone is whistling in the dark, they believe in a

Whistle in the dark positive result, even though everybody else is sure it
will not happen

White as a sheet A bad shock can make somebody go as white as a sheet

600
 If something or someone is as white as snow, they are
White as snow
perfect or completely uncorrupted and honest

A white elephant is an expensive burden; something

White elephant
that costs far too much money to run

White feather If someone shows a white feather, they are cowards

If you tell a white lie, you lie in order not to hurt

White lie
someone's feelings

Who wears the The person who wears the trousers in a relationship is
pants the dominant person who controls things

Whole kit and The whole kit and caboodle means 'everything'
caboodle required or involved in something

Whole new ball If something's a whole new ball game, it is completely

game new or different

The whole nine yards means means everything that is

Whole nine yards
necessary or required for something

Whole shebang The whole shebang includes every aspect of something

Why keep a dog There's no need to do something yourself when you

and bark yourself have somebody to do it for you, usually trivial matters

If you give someone a wide berth, you keep yourself

Wide berth
well away from them because they are dangerous

If something is wide of the mark, it is inaccurate or

Wide of the mark
incorrect

A wild goose chase is a waste of time- time spent

Wild goose chase
trying to do something unsuccessfully

601
 Something that deceives by its appearance is a will-o’-
Will of the wisp the-wisp; it looks good, but turns out to be a
disappointment

If somebody wins by a nose, they only just beat the

Win by a nose
others

If something is done to pretend to be dealing with an

Window dressing issue or problem, rather than actually dealing with it, it
is window dressing

If you do something on a wing and a prayer, you try to

Wing and a prayer do something and hope you'll succeed even though you
have very little chance of success

Wipe the floor If you wipe the floor with someone, you destroy the
with arguments or defeat them easily

If you wipe the smile of someone's face, you do

Wipe the smile off
something to make someone feel less pleased with
someone's face
themselves

If someone does something with a heavy hand, they do

With a heavy hand
it in a strict way, exerting a lot of control

With a heavy heart To do something with regret or sadness

With child If a woman's with child, she's pregnant

With flying If you pass something with flying colours, you pass
colours easily, with a very high mark or grade

With friends like This expression is used when people behave badly or
that who needs treat someone badly that they are supposed to be
enemies friends with

Whither on the If something withers on the vine, it fails to get the

602
vine intended result, doesn't come to fruition

If you come within a whisker of doing something, you

Within a whisker
very nearly manage to do it but don't succeed

If something happens without a hitch, nothing at all

Without a hitch
goes wrong

Wolf in sheep's A wolf in sheep's clothing is something dangerous that

clothing looks quite safe and innocent

If someone can't see the wood for the trees, they get so
Wood for the trees caught up in small details that they fail to understand
the bigger picture

If something becomes known by word of mouth, it is

Word of mouth because people are talking about it, not through
publicity, etc

If words fail you, you can't find the words to express

Words fail me
what you are trying to say

Works like a
If something works like a charm, it works perfectly
charm

Work like a Trojan If someone works like a Trojan, they work very hard

If people work the system, they exploit the state or

Work the system
similar setup to their advantage

Work your fingers If you work your fingers to the bone, you work
to the bone extremely hard on something

Work your socks

If you work your socks off, you work very hard
off

603
Work your tail off If you work your tail off, you work extremely hard

If everything is going well and the future looks full of

World at your feet
opportunity, you have the world at your feet

World is your When the world is your oyster, you are getting
oyster everything you want from life

A worms eye view of something is the view from

Worms eye view
below, either physically or socially

If something's worse for wear, it has been used for a

Worse for wear long time and, consequently, isn't in very good
condition, or a person is drunk

Worse things This idiomatic expression is used as a way of telling

happen at sea someone not to worry so much about their problems

If something is worth a shot, it is worth trying as there

Worth a shot
is some chance of success

Worth your salt Someone who is worth their salt deserves respect

If you wouldn't touch something with a barge pole, you

Wouldn't touch it
would not consider being involved under any
with a barge pole
circumstances

Writing's on the If the writing's on the wall for something, it is doomed

wall to fail

If someone has done something wrong or secret, but

Written all over
cannot hide it in their expression, it is written all over
your face
their face

If something is written in stone, it is permanent and

Written in stone
cannot be changed

604
Wrong end of the If someone has got the wrong end of the stick, they
stick have misunderstood what someone has said to them

If you start something on the wrong foot, you start

Wrong foot
badly

The dangers for people in the military that civilians

X factor do not face, for which they receive payment, are
known as the X factor

This is used to say where something is located or

X marks the spot
hidden

X rated If something is x-rated, it is not suitable for children

If someone has a yellow streak, they are cowardly

Yellow streak
about something

Yellow bellied A yellow-bellied person is a coward

If you have a yen to do something, you have a desire to

Yen
do it

Someone who always agrees with people in authority is

Yes man
a yes-man

You are what you This is used to emphasise the importance of a good diet
eat as a key to good health

You can catch This means that it is easier to persuade people if you
more flies with use polite arguments and flattery than if you are
honey than you confrontational

605
can with vinegar

You can lead a

horse to water but This idiom means you can offer something to someone,
you can't make it like good advice, but you cannot make them take it
drink

You can't have

your cake and eat This idiom means that you can't have things both ways
it

You can't make an

Means that in order to achieve something or make
omelette without
progress, there are often downsides in the process
breaking eggs

You can't unring a This means that once something has been done, you
bell have to live with the consequences as it can't be undone

You could have

This idiom is used to mean that the person was very
knocked me down
shocked or surprised
with a feather

You don't own a

If there is someone in a lower position who can or
dog and bark
should do a task, then you shouldn't do it
yourself

This means that if you do bad things to people, bad

You reap what you
things will happen to you, or good things if you do
sow
good things

You scratch my
Means that if you do something for me, I'll return the
back and I'll
favour
scratch yours

You've made your This means that someone will have to live with the
bed, you'll have to consequences of their own actions

606
lie in it

Young people with new ideas and fresh approaches are

Young blood
young blood

Your eyes are

bigger than your Means that you take more food than you can eat
stomach

If your name is mud, then you are in a bit of trouble

Your names mud
about something

Your sins will find This idiom means that things you do wrong will
you out become known

The time when something important is to begin is

Zero hour
zero hour

If the police have a zero tolerance policy, they will

Zero tolerance not overlook any crime, no matter how small or
trivial

Zigged before you If you did things in the wrong order, you zigged
zagged before you zagged

Zip it This is used to tell someone to be quiet

If someone tells you to zip your lip, they want to to

Zip your lip
shut up or keep quiet about something

607
 НАВЧАЛЬНЕ ВИДАННЯ

ДАНЬКЕВИЧ ЛЮДМИЛА РОСТИСЛАВІВНА

ЯМНИЧ НАТАЛІЯ ЮРІЇВНА

Навчальний посібник з англійської мови для студентів вищих

навчальних закладів. – К., 2017. – 608 с.

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