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CHEMI
STRY
FORM3NOTES
(
0714497530)
(a)
Gasl aws
1.Matterismadeupofsmal lpart
icl
einaccordancetoKineti
cTheoryofmat
ter:
Natur
al l
y,t
herearebasical
l
yt hr
eestatesofmat t
er:
Soli
d,Liqui
dandgas:
(i
)Asol i
dismadeupofpar ticl
eswhichar everycl
oselypackedwithadefi
nit
e/f
ixed
shapeandf ixed/
defi
nit
ev ol
ume/ occupiesdefi
nit
espace.Ithasaveryhi
ghdensi
ty.

(i
i
)Al i
quidismadeupofpar t
icl
eswhichhavesomedegreeoffr
eedom.I
tthushas
nodefini
te/f
ixedshape.I
ttakestheshapeoft hecont
aineri
tisput.A l
i
quidhas
fi
xed/
defini
tevol
ume/occupi
esdefi
nit
espace.

(i
i
i)Agasismadeupofpar t
icl
esfr
eef r
om eachot
her
.Itthushasnodefi
nit
e/f
ixed
shape.Ittakes the shape ofthe contai
neriti
s put.Ithas no f
ixed/
def
ini
te
vol
ume/occupiesever
yspaceinacontai
ner.

2.
Gasesar eaff
ectedbyphy
sical
condi
ti
ons.Ther
ear
etwophy
sical
condi
ti
ons:
(i
)Temperature
(i
i
)Pressure

3.TheSIunitoftemperatureisKelvi
n(K)
.
o
DegreesCelsi
us/Centi
grade(C)arealsoused.
Thet wounitscanbeinterconvert
edfrom t
herel
ati
onshi
p:
o
C+273=K
K-273=oC

Practiceexampl
es
1.Conv ertthef
oll
owi
ngi
ntoKel
vin.
o
(i
)O C
o
C +273=Ksubst i
tut
i OoC +273=273K
ng:

(
ii
)-273oC
o
C +273=Ksubst
it
uti 273oC +273=0K
ng:-
1
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(
ii
i)25oC
o
C +273=Ksubst
it
uti 25oC +273=298K
ng:
(
iv)100oC
o
C +273=Ksubst
it
uti 100oC +273=373K
ng:
o
2.Conver
tthefoll
owingintodegr
eesCel
sius/
Centi
grade(C)
.
(i
)10K
K-273=oC substi
tut
ing: 10 – 273 =- 263oC
(i
i)(
i)1K
K-273=oC substi
tut
ing: 1 – 273 =- 272oC

(
ii
i)110K
K-273=oC subst
it
uti 163oC
ng: 110 – 273 =-

(
iv)-
24K
273=oC subst
K- it
uti
ng: - 297oC
24 – 273 =-

Thestandardt
emperatureis273K=0oC.
Theroom temper
atur
ei sassumedtobe298K =25oC

4.The SIunitofpressur
eis Pascal
(Pa)/Newton permet
re squar
ed (Nm-2).
Mil
li
met
ers’ofmercur
y(mmHg),
centimeter
sofmer
cury
(cmHg)andatmospheresare
al
socommonlyused.

Theunitsar enoti nter

conver
tibl
ebutPascals(
Pa)ar
eequalt
oNewt
onpermet
re
-2
squar
ed(Nm ) .
Thestandardpr essureistheatmospher
icpr
essure.
Atmosphericpressur eisequal
toabout:
(i)
101325Pa
(ii
)101325Nm-2
(ii
i)
760mmHg
(iv)
76cmHg
(v)oneat mospher e.

5.Mol eculesofgasesar ealway sinconti

nuousrandom motionathi ghspeed.Thi
s
motioni saffect
edbythephysicalcondi
ti
onsoftemperat
ureandpr essure.
Physicalconditi
onschangethev ol
umeoccupiedbygasesinacl osedsystem.
Theef fectofphy si
calcondi
ti
onsoft emperatur
eandpr essur
ewasi nvest
igat
edand
expressedi nbothBoyl
esandChar lesl
aws.

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6.Boyl
eslawst at
esthat
“thevolumeofaf i
xedmassofagasi
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onalt
othepr
essur
eat
const
ant/f
ixedtemperat
ure”
Mathematical
l
y:
Vol
ume α 1 (Fi xed/
const
antTemper
atur
e)
Pr
essure
Vα 1 (Fi
xed/ antT)i
const ePV=Const (
antk)
P
From Boy
leslaw ,ani ncr
easeinpressureofagascauseadecr easei
nvolume.i
.e
doubli
ngt
hepr essurecausethev
olumet obehalved.
Graphi
cal
lyt
her ef
oreaplotofvol
ume(V)againstpressur
e(P)pr
oducesacur
ve.

P
Gr
aphical
lyapl
otofv
olume(
V)agai
nsti
nver
se/
reci
procalofpr
essur
e(1/
p)pr
oducesa
st
rai
ghtli
ne

1
/
P

Fort
wogasesthen P1V1=P2V2
P1 = Pr
essur
eofgas1
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V1 =Volumeofgas1
P2 = Pressur
eofgas2
V2 = Vol
umeofgas2

Practi
ceexamples:
1.Af ixedmassofgasat102300Papr
essur
ehasav
olumeof25cm3.
Cal
cul
atei
ts
volumei ft
hepr
essurei
sdoubl
ed.
Wor ki
ng
P1V1=P2V2 Subst
it
uti
ng:102300x25=(
102300x2)xV2
V2=102300x25 = 12.5cm3
(102300x2)

2.Cal
culat
ethepressur
ewhichmustbeappli
edtoaf
ixedmassof100cm3
-
2
ofOxygenfori
tsv
olumet ot
ri
pleat100000Nm .

P1V1=P2V2 Subst
it
uti
ng:100000x100=P2x(100x3)
V2=100000x100 = 33333.3333Nm-2
(100x3)

3.
A 60cm3weat herball
onful
lofHy drogenatat
mospher
icpr
essur
eof
101325Pa was rel
eased i
ntothe atmospher
e.Wil
lthe bal
l
on reach
str
atospher
ewherethepr
essur
eis90000Pa?

P1V1=P2V2 Substit
uti
ng: 101325x60=90000xV2
V2=101325x60 = 67. 55cm3
90000
Thenew vol
umeat67.55cm3exceedbal loncapacit
yof60.
00cm3.
Itwi
l
l
bur
stbefor
ereachi
ngdesti
nat
ion.

7.
Char
les l
aw st
ates t
hat
“t
he v
olume ofa f
ixed mass ofa gas i
s di
rect
ly
pr
oporti
onalt
otheabsol
utet
emper
atur
eatconst
ant
/fi
xedpr
essur
e”
Mathemati
cal
ly:
Vol
ume α Pr
essur
e (
Fixed/
const
antpr
essur
e)

Vα T (
Fixed/ antP)i
const e V =Const (
antk)
T
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From Char l
eslaw,anincreaseint emper atureofagascauseani ncreaseinv olume.i
.e
doubl ingthetemperaturecauset hev olumet obedoubled.
1
Gasesexpand/ i
ncrease by / 273 byv olumeonheat ing.
Gasescont act
/decr easeby
1
/273byv olumeoncool i
ngatconst ant /
fixedpr essure.
Thev olumeofagascont i
nuedecr easingwi thdecreaseintemper
atureuntilat -
o
273C/ 0Kt hevol
umei szero.i
.e.t herei snogas.
Thi stemper at
ureiscalledabsolut ezer o.I ti
sthel owesttemperat
ureatwhi chagas
canexi st
.

Graphi
cal
l
yther
efor
eapl otofvolume(V)agai
nstTemper
atur
e(T)i
n:
o
(i
)Cproducesastr
aightl
inethatisext
rapol
atedt
otheabsol
utezer 273oC.
oof-

273oC
- 0oC
o
T(C)

(
ii
)Kel
vi
n/Kpr
oducesast
rai
ghtl
i
nef
rom absol
utezer
oofOKel
vi
n

0 T(
Kel
vi
n)

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Fort
wogasest
hen V1 = V2
T1 T2
T1 = Temper
atur
einKel
vi
nofgas1
V1 =Volumeofgas1
T2 = Temper
atur
einKel
vi
nofgas2
V2 = Vol
umeofgas2

Pract
iceexamples:
1.500cm3ofcar bon(
IV) deat0oC wast
oxi ransf
eredint
oacy
li 4oC.I
nderat- fthe
capacit
yofthecyli
nderi
s450cm3,
expl
ainwhathappened.

V1 = V2 subst
it
uti
ng 500 = V2
T1 T2 (
0+273) (
-4+273)

=500x( -
4x273) = 492.674cm3
(0+273)
Thecapaci
tyofcy
li
nder(500cm3)isl
essthannewvolume(492.674cm3).
7.
326cm3(500-
492.674cm3)ofcar
bon(
IV)oxi
degasdi
dnotf iti
ntothecy
li
nder
.
2.Amechanicwasf i
ll
i
ngadef l
atedtyrewit
hairinhi
sclosedgarageusingahand
pump.Thecapacit
yoft het
yrewas40,000cm3atroom t
emperat
ure.Herol
ledthet
yre
o
i
ntothecarout
side.Thetemper
atureoutsi
dewas30C.Expl
ainwhathappens.

V1 = V2 subst
it
uti
ng 40000 = V2
T1 T2 (
25+273) (
30+273)

=40000x(30x273) = 40671.
1409cm3
(25+273)
Thecapaci
tyofatyr
e(40000cm3)i
slesst
hannewvol
ume(40671.
1409cm3)
.
Thetyr
ethusburst
s.
3.Ahy dr
ogengasball
oonwith80cm3wasreleasedfr
om aresear
chst
ati
onatroom
o
temperat
ure.I
fthetemper
atureofthehi
ghestpointitr
oseis-30C,explai
nwhat
happened.
V1 = V2 subst
it
uti
ng 80 = V2
T1 T2 (
25+273) (
-30+273)

= 80x(-
30x273) = 65.
2349cm3
(25+273)
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Thecapaci
tyofball
oon(
80cm3)ismor
ethannewv
olume(
65.
2349cm3)
.
Theball
oonthusremai
nedint
act
.

8.Thecont inuousr andom mot i

onofgasesdi fferf rom gast ot heot her .
Themov ement
ofmol ecul es ( ofa gas)f rom r egion ofhigh concent r
ation t oar egion ofl ow
concent rationi scalleddi f
fusion.
Ther ateofdi f
fusionofagasdependsoni tsdensi t
y .i.e.Thehi ghert her ateof
diff
usi on, thel essdenset hegas.
Thedensi tyofagasdependsoni t
smol armass/ rel
at i
vemol ecularmass.i .
e.The
highert hedensi tythehi ghert hemol armass/ r
elat i
v eatomi cmassandt hust hel ower
therat eofdi ffusion.
Exampl es
1.Carbon( IV) oxide(CO2)hasamol armassof44g. Nit
rogen( N2) hasamol armassof
28g.( N2) ist husl i
ght er/lessdenset hanCar bon( IV)oxide( CO2).N2di f
f usesf asterthan
CO2.
2.Ammoni a( NH3)hasamol armassof17g. Nitrogen( N2)hasamol armassof28g.
(N2)i
st hus aboutt wi ce lighter/
less dense t han Ammoni a(NH3) .Ammoni a(NH3)
diff
usest wi cef astert hanN2.
3.Ammoni a(NH3)hasamol armassof17g. Hydr ogenchl ori
degashasamol armass
of36. 5g. Bot hgasesoncont actreacttof orm whi tef umesofammoni um chl ori
de
.Whenagl ass/ cottonwooldi ppedinammoni aandanot hergl ass/cot tonwooldi pped
i
nhy drochl or i
caci dar epl acedatopposi teendsofagl asst ube,bot hgasesdi ff
use
towar dseach ot her. A whi t ediskappear sneart o glass/ cotton wooldi pped in
hydrochl or icaci d.Thi sisbecausehy drogenchl oridei sheav i
er/densert hanAmmoni a
andt husi tsr at eofdi ffusioni slower.

Ther
ateofdi
ff
usi
onofagasi
sinaccor
dancet
oGr
ahamsl
awofdi
ff
usi
on.Gr
ahams
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l
awst at
esthat:
“t
her ateofdif
fusi
onofagasisi
nver
selypr
oporti
onalt
othesquar
erootofi
tsdensi
ty,
atthesame/ const
ant
/fi
xedt
emperat
ureandpressur
e”
Mat hemati
call
y
Rα 1 andsi
ncedensi
tyi
spr
opor
ti
onal
t hen Rα
omasst 1
√p √m
Fort
wogasest
hen:
R1 = R2 wher
e:R1andR2i
sther
ateofdi
ff onof1stand2ndgas.
usi
√M2 √M1 M1andM2i
st armassof1stand2ndgas.
hemol

Si
ncer
atei
sinv
erseoft
ime.i
.e.t
hehi
ghert
her
atet
hel
esst
het
ime:

Fort
wogasest
hen:
T1 =T2 where:T1andT2i
sthet
imet or1stand2ndgast
akenf odi
ff
use.
√M1 √M2 M1andM2isthemolarmassof1stand2ndgas.

Pract
iceexamples:
1.Itt
akes30secondsf or100cm3ofcarbon(I
V)oxidetodif
fuseacrossaporouspl
ate.
How longwilli
tt ake150cm3ofni t
rogen(
IV)
oxidet odi
ffuseacrosst hesameplat
e
underthesamecondi t
ionsoftemper
atur
eandpr essur
e.(C=12.
0,N=14.0=16.
0)

Mol
armassCO2=44.
0 Mol
armassNO2=46.
0
Met
hod1
100cm3CO2 takes 30seconds
150cm3 t akes 150x30 =45seconds
100

TCO2 = √mol
armassCO2 =>45seconds = √44.0
TNO2 √mol
armassNO2 TNO2 √46.
0

TNO2=45secondsx√46.
0 =46.
0114seconds
√ 44.0

Met
hod2
100cm3CO2 t
akes 30seconds
1cm3 t akes 100x1 = 3.3333cm3sec-1
30
RCO2 = √mol
armassNO2 =>3.3333cm3sec-1 = √46.
0
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RNO2 √mol
armassCO2 RNO2 √44.
0

3333cm3sec-1x√44.
RNO2=3. 0 2601cm3sec-1
= 3.
√ 46.
0

3.
2601cm3 t
akes 1seconds
150cm3 t
ake 150cm3 = 46.
0109seconds
3.
2601cm3

2.How longwould 200cm3 ofHy dr

ogenchl
ori
detaketodif
fuset
hroughapor
ous
pl
ugifcarbon(
IV)
oxi
detakes200secondst
odif
fuset
hrough.

Mol
armassCO2=44g Mol
armassHCl=36.5g
TCO2 = √mol armassCO2 =>200seconds = √ 44.
0
THCl √mol
armassHCl THCl √36.
5

THCl=200secondsx√36.5 =182. 1588seconds

√ 44.0
3.Oxygengastakes250secondstodiff
usethroughapor ousdi
aphr
agm.Cal
cul
ate
themolarmassofgasZwhi cht
akes227secondtodiffuse.

Mol
armassO2=32g Mol
armassZ=xg
T O2 = √molarmassO2 => 250seconds = √ 32.
0
TZ √molarmassZ 227seconds √ x

√ x=227secondsx√32 =26.3828grams
250
4.25cm3ofcar bon(
II
)oxi
dedif
fusesacr
ossapor ousplat
ein25seconds.How l
ong
wil
litt
ake75cm3ofCar bon(
IV)
oxidet
odiff
useacrosst
hesameplateunderthesame
condit
ionsoft
emperatur
eandpressur
e.(
C=12.0,
0=16.
0)

Mol
armassCO2=44.
0 Mol
armassCO=28.
0
Met
hod1
25cm3CO takes 25seconds
75cm3 t akes 75x25 =75seconds
25

TCO2 = √mol
armassCO2 =>TCO2seconds = √44.0
TCO √mol
armassCO 75 √28.
0

TCO2=75secondsx√44.
0 =94.
0175seconds
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√ 28.
0

Met
hod2
25cm3CO2 takes 25seconds
1cm3 t akes 25x1 = 1. 0cm3sec-1
25
RCO2 armassCO => xcm3sec-1 =
= √mol √28.
0
RCO √mol
armassCO2 1. 0cm3sec-1 √44.
0

0cm3sec-1x√28.
RCO2=1. 0 7977cm3sec-1
= 0.
√ 44.
0

0.7977cm3 t
akes 1seconds
75cm3 t
akes 75cm3 = 94.
0203seconds
0.7977cm3

(
b)I
ntr
oduct
iont
othemol
e,mol
armassesandRel
ati
veat
omi
cmasses

1.Themol
eistheSIuni
toft heamountofsubst
ance.
2.Thenumberofparti
clese.g.at
oms,ions,molecul
es,el
ect
rons,cows,car
sar
eal
l
measur
edint
ermsofmol es.
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3.Thenumberofpar
ti
clesi
nonemoleiscal
ledtheAv ogadr
osConst
ant
.Iti
sdenot
ed
“L”
.
TheAvogadr
osConst
antcont
ai 023x1023par
n6. ticl
es.i.
e.
23 23
1mole=6.
023x10 parti
cles =6.023x10
23
2moles=2x6.023x10 par ti
cl
es =1.205x1024
0.
2moles=0.2x6.023x1023parti
cles 205x1022
=1.
0.
0065mol
es=0.0065x6. 023x1023par
ti
cl
es =3.914x1021

3.Themassofonemol eofasubst
ancei scal
ledmol
armass.Themol
armassof:
(i)
anelementhasmassequaltorelat
iveatomicmass/RAM(i
ngrams)
oft
heelement
e.
g.
Molarmassofcarbon(
C)=r
elati
veatomicmass=12.0g
23
6.
023x10 par t
icl
esofcarbon=1mol e=12.
0g

Molarmassofsodium(
Na)=rel
ati
veat
omi
cmass=23.
0g
23
6.
023x10 parti
clesofsodi
um =1mole=23.
0g

MolarmassofI
ron(Fe)=rel
ati
veat
omi
cmass=56.
0g
23
6.
023x10 part
icl
esofir
on=1mol e=56.
0g

(i
i
)amol ecul
ehasmassequalt or elat
ivemolecularmass/ RMM ( i
ngrams)oft he
molecul
e.Relati
vemol ecularmass i sthesum oft herel
ativ
eatomicmassesoft he
el
ement smakingthemol ecule.
Thenumberofat omsmaki ngamol eculeiscall
edatomici
ty.Mostgaseousmolecules
arediat
omic(e.g.O2,
H2, N2,F2,Cl2,
Br 2,I
2)
noblegasesaremonoatomic(e.
g.He,
Ar ,Ne,
Xe),
Ozonegas(O3)istr
iatomice. g.

MolarmassOxy
genmolecul
e(O2)=r
elati
vemol
ecul
armass=(
16.
0x2)
g=32.
0g
23
6.
023x10 parti
clesofOxy
genmol ecule=1mole=32.
0g

Molarmasschl
orinemolecule(
Cl2)=r
elat
ivemol
ecul
armass=(
35.
5x2)
g=71.
0g
23
6.
023x10 particlesofchlori
nemolecule=1mole=71.0g

MolarmassNit
rogenmol
ecule(
N2)=r
elati
vemol
ecul
armass=(
14.
0x2)
g=28.
0g
23
6.
023x10 par t
icl
esofNi
trogenmolecul
e=1mol e=28.
0g

(i
i
)acompoundhasmassequalt or elat
ivef
ormularmass/RFM (i
ngr
ams)oft
he
molecul
e.Rel
ati
veformul
armass i sthesum oftherel
ati
veatomi
cmassesoft
he
el
ementsmakingthecompound.e.
g.
(
i)
Mol
armassWat
er(
H2O)=r
elat
ivef
ormul
armass=[
(1.
0x2)+16.
0]g=18.
0g
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023x1023par
6. t
icl
esofWatermolecule=1mol e=18.
0g
23
6.
023x10 par t
icl
esofWatermoleculehas:
23
-2x6.023x10 parti
clesofHydrogenatoms
23
-1x6.
023x10 par t
icl
esofOxy genatoms

(
ii
)Mol
armasssul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d(H2SO4)=rel
ati
vefor
mul
armass
=[
(1.
0x2)+32. 0+(16.
0x4) ]
g=98.0g

023x1023par
6. t
icl
esofsul
phuri
c(VI
)acid(H2SO4)=1mole=98.
0g
23
6.
023x10 par t
icl
esofsul
phuri
c(VI
)acid(H2SO4)has:
23
-2x6.023x10 par t
icl
esofHy drogenatoms
23
-1x6.023x10 par t
icl
esofSulphurat oms
23
-4x6.023x10 par t
icl
esofOxy genat oms

(
ii
i)
Molarmasssodi
um carbonate(
IV)
(Na2CO3)=r
elat
ivef
ormul
armass
=[(
23.
0x2)+12. 0+(16.0x3)]g=106.0g

023x1023par
6. t
icl
esofsodium car
bonate(
IV)(
Na2CO3)=1mole=106.
0g
23
6.
023x10 par t
icl
esofsodium car
bonate(
IV)(
Na2CO3)has:
23
-2x6.023x10 par t
iclesofSodium at
oms
23
-1x6.023x10 par t
iclesofCarbonatoms
23
-3x6.023x10 par t
iclesofOxygenatoms

(
iv)
MolarmassCalci
um carbonat
e(IV)
(CaCO3)=r
elat
ivef
ormul
armass
=[(
40.
0+12.0+(16.0x3)]g=100.0g.

6.023x1023parti
clesofCal
cium car
bonate(
IV)(CaCO3)=1mol
e=100.
0g
23
6.
023x10 par t
icl
esofCalci
um carbonat
e(I
V) (
CaCO3)has:
23
-1x6. 023x10 par ti
clesofCalci
um atoms
23
-
1x6. 023x10 par ti
clesofCarbonatoms
23
-
3x6. 023x10 par ti
clesofOxygenatoms

(
v )
MolarmassWater
(H2O)=rel
ati
vef
ormul
armass
=[
(2x1.0)+16.
0]g=18.0g
023x1023par
6. t
icl
esofWater(
H2O)=1mol e=18.
0g
23
6.
023x10 par t
icl
esofWater(
H2O)has:
23
-2x6.023x10 parti
clesofHydrogenat
oms
23
-2x6.023x10 parti
clesofOxygenatoms

Pr
act
ice
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1.Calcul
atet
henumberofmol espr
esenti
n:
(i
)0.
23gofSodium atoms
MolarmassofSodium at
oms=23g
Mol
es= massi ngrams =>0. 23g = 0.
01mol
es
Mol
armass 23

(
ii
)0.
23gofChl
ori
neat
oms

Mol
armassofChlor
ineat
oms=35.
5g
Mol
es= massi ngrams =>0.23g =0.
0065mol
es/
6.5x10-3mol
es
Molarmass 35.
5

(
ii
i)0.
23gofChl
ori
nemol
ecul
es

Mol
armassofChlor
inemol
ecul
es=(35.5x2)=71.
0g
Mol
es= massi ngrams =>0.
23g =0.0032mol
es/
3.2x10-3mol
es
Molarmass 71

(
iv)0.
23gofdil
utesul
phuri
c(VI)
aci
d
MolarmassofH2SO4=[ (
2x1)+32+(4x14)
]=98.0g
Mol
es=massi ngr
ams =>0.
23g =0. 0023mol
es/
2.3x10-3mol
es
Molarmass 98
2.Cal
culatet
henumberofat omspresenti
n:(
Avogadrosconst 0x1023)
antL=6.
(i
)0.23gofdil
utesulphur
ic(VI
)aci
d
Met hodI
Mol armassofH2SO4=[ (
2x1)+32+( 4x14)
]=98.0g
Moles=massi ngrams =>0.23g =0. 0023moles/ 3x10-3mol
2. es
Molarmass 98
1molehas6. 0x1023atoms
-3
2.
3x10 mol eshas (2.3x10-3x6.0x1023)= 1. 38x1021at
oms
1
MethodII
MolarmassofH2SO4=[ (2x1)+32+( 4x14)
]=98.0g
23
98.
0g=1mol ehas6.0x10 at oms
0.
23gt heref
orehas (0.23gx6. 0x1023) = 1.38x1021atoms
98
(
ii
)0.
23gofsodi um car
bonat
e(IV)decahy
drat
e

MolarmassofNa2CO3.
10H2O=
[(
2x23)+12+( 3x16)+(10x1.0)+(
10x16)
]=276.
0g
MethodI
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Mol
es=massi
ngrams =>0.
23g = 0.
00083moles/
-
4
Mol
armass 276 8.
3x10 mol es
1molehas6.0x1023atoms
-4 -4 23 20
8.
3x10 mol eshas (8.3x10 mol esx6.
0x10 )= 4. 98x10 atoms
1
MethodII
276.
0g=1mol ehas6.0x1023at oms
0.
23gtheref
orehas (0.23gx6. 0x1023) = 4.
98x1020at
oms
276.
0
(
ii
i)
0.23gofOxy gengas

Mol
armassofO2=(
2x16)=32.
0g
Met
hodI
Mol
es=massi
ngrams =>0.
23g = 0.
00718moles/
-
3
Mol
armass 32 7.18x10 moles
1mol
ehas2x6.0x1023atomsi nO2
-
3 -3
7.
18x10 mol
eshas(
7.18x10 mol 0x1023)=8.
esx2x6. 616x1021at
oms
1
Met
hodII
32.
0g=1mol ehas2x6.0x1023at
omsi
nO2
0.
23gther
eforehas (
0.23gx2x6. 0x1023) = 8.
616x1021at
oms
32.
0

(
iv)
0.23gofCar
bon(
IV)
oxi
degas

MolarmassofCO2=[12+(2x16)
]=44.
0g
Met
hodI
Moles=massingrams =>0.23g = 0.
00522moles/
-
3
Mol
armass 44 5.22x10 moles

1molehas3x6. 0x1023atomsi nCO2

-3 -3
7.
18x10 mol eshas(
5.22x10 mol 0x1023)=9.
esx3x6. 396x1021at
oms
1
Met
hodII
44.
0g=1mol ehas3x6. 0x1023atomsinCO2
0.
23gtheref
orehas (0.23gx3x6. 0x1023) = 9.409x1021atoms
44.
0

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(
c)Empi
ri
cal
andmol
ecul
arf
ormul
a
1.Theempiricalf
ormulaofacompoundi
sit
ssimpl
estformula.I
tisthesi
mplestwhole
numberr ati
osi nwhichatomsofelement
scombinet oformt hecompound.2. I
tis
mat hemati
callyt
helowestcommonmult
ipl
e(LCM)oft
heat omsoft heel
ementsinthe
compound
3.Pract
ical
l
yt he empiri
calfor
mul
a ofa compound can be determi
ned asint he
foll
owingexamples.
Todet
ermi
net
heempi
ri
cal
for
mul
aofcopperoxi
de
(
a)Met
hod1:
From coppert
ocopper
(I
I)
oxi
de
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Procedure.
Weighacl eandrycoveredcrucibl
e(M1) .
Puttwospatulaful
lofcopperpowderintothe
cruci
ble.Weighagai
n( M2).
Heatthecr ucibl
eonastrongBunsenf l
amef orfi
veminutes.
Li
ftthelid,andswir
lthecrucibl
ecar efull
yusingapairoftong.Coverthecruci
bleand
conti
nueheat i
ngforanotherfiv
emi nut es.Removetheli
dandst opheating.Al
l
owt he
cruci
bletocool.Whencool r
eplacethel idandwei
ght hecontent
sagain(M3).
Sampl
eresul
ts

Massofcr
uci
ble(
M1) 15.
6g
Massofcr
uci
ble+copperbefor
eheati
ng(M2) 18.
4
Massofcr
uci
ble+copperaft
erheat
ing(
M3) 19. 1

Sampl
equest
ions

1.Cal
cul
atethemassofcopperpowderused.
Massofcruci
ble+copperbef
oreheat
ing(
M2) = 18.4
Less Massofcr uci
ble(
M1) =-15.
6g
Massofcopper 2.8g

2.Cal
cul
atethemassofOxy genusedtoreactwi
thcopper.
MethodI
Massofcruci
ble+copperaft
erheati
ng(M3) = 19. 1g
Massofcruci
ble+copperbefor
eheating(
M2) =-18.4g
MassofOxygen = 0.7g
MethodI
I
Massofcruci
ble+copperaft
erheati
ng(M3) = 19. 1g
Massofcruci
ble = -15.
6g
Massofcopper(I
I)
Oxi
de = 3. 5g

Massofcopper
(I
I)
Oxi
de = 3.
5g
Massofcopper = -2.
8g
MassofOxygen = 0.
7g

3.Cal
culat
ethenumberofmol esof:
(i
)copperused(Cu=63. 5)
numberofmol esofcopper=massused => 2.
8 = 0.
0441mol
es
Mol
armass 63.
5
(i
i)Oxygenused(O=16. 0)
numberofmol esofoxygen=massused => 0.
7 = 0.
0441mol
es
Molarmass 16.
0

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4.Det
erminet
hemol erat
ioofthereact
ants
Molesofcopper =0. 0441moles = 1 =>Mol
erat
ioCu:
O=1:
1
Molesofoxygen 0.0441moles 1

5.
Whatist
heempirical
,for
mul
aofcopperoxi
def
ormed.
CuO(copper
(I
I)oxi
de

6.St
ateandexplai
ntheobservat
ionsmadedur
ingt
heexper
iment.
Observ
ati
on
Colourchangefrom br
owntoblack
Expl
anati
on
Copperpowderi sbrown.Onheati
ngitr
eact
swithoxygenfrom t
heai
rtof
orm
bl
ackcopper(I
I)
oxide

7.Explain why magnesium ribbon/shav

ings would be unsui
tablein a similar
experi
mentastheoneabov e.
Hotmagnesium gener
atesenoughheatenergytoreactwit
hbothOxy genandNitr
ogen
i
nt heairfor
mingawhi tesol
idmi xt
ureofMagnesium oxideandmagnesi um ni
tr
ide.
Thiscausesexper
imentalmasserror
s.

(b)Method2:From copper(
II
)oxi
detocopper
Procedur
e.
Weighacl eandryporcelai
nboat(M1).Puttwospat
ulaf
ullofcopper(
II
)oxi
depowder
i
ntothecrucibl
e.Rewei ght
heporcel
ainboat(
M2)
.Putt
heporcel
ainboatinaglasst
ube
andsetupt heapparatusasbelow;

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Passslowl y(
topreventcopper (
II
)oxidef rom beingblownaway)astream ofeit
herdry
Hydrogen/ ammoni a/
laborator
ygas/car bon(II
)oxi
degasforabouttwomi nut
esfrom a
sui
tablegenerator
.
Whenal ltheintheappar at
ussetupi sdr ivenout,
heatthecopper
(I
I)oxi
destrongl
yfor
aboutfiveminutesuntilt
hereisnof urtherchange.Stopheati
ng.
Conti
nuepassi ngthegasesunt il
thegl asst ubeiscool.
Turnoffthegasgener ator.
Careful
lyremov et
hepor celai
nboatf ormt hecombustiont
ube.
Reweigh( M3).

Sampl
eresul
ts
Massofboat(
M1) 15.
6g
Massofboatbefor
eheati
ng(M2) 19.
1
Massofboataft
erheat
ing(
M3) 18.
4

Sampl
equest
ions
1.Cal
culat
ethemassofcopper(I
I)
oxideused.
Massofboatbefor
eheati
ng(M2) = 19.
1
Massofemptyboat(M1) =-15.
6g
Massofcopper(
II
)Oxi
de 3.5g
2.Cal
culat
ethemassof
(
i)Oxygen.
Massofboatbefor
eheati
ng(M2) = 19.1
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Massofboataft
erheati
ng(
M3) =-18.
4g
Massofoxygen = 0.
7g
(
ii
)Copper
Massofcopper
(II
)Oxi
de = 3.
5g
Massofoxygen = 0.
7g
Massofoxygen = 2.
8g

3.Cal
culat
ethenumberofmol esof:
(i
)Copperused(Cu=63. 5)
numberofmol esofcopper=massused => 2.
8 = 0.
0441mol
es
Mol
armass 63.
5
(i
i)Oxygenused(O=16. 0)
numberofmol esofoxygen=massused => 0.
7 = 0.
0441mol
es
Molarmass 16.
0

4.Det
erminet
hemol erat
ioofthereact
ants
Molesofcopper =0. 0441moles = 1 =>Mol
erat
ioCu:
O=1:
1
Molesofoxygen 0.0441moles 1

5.
Whatist
heempirical
,for
mul
aofcopperoxi
def
ormed.
CuO(copper
(I
I)oxi
de

6.Stat
eandexpl ai
ntheobservat
ionsmadeduri
ngtheexperi
ment.
Observat
ion
Col
ourchangef r
om blackt
obr own
Expl
anati
on
Copper(
II
)oxi
depowderi sblack.Onheat
ingi
tisreducedbyasui
tabl
ereduci
ng
agenttobrowncoppermet al.
7.Expl
ainwhymagnesium oxidewouldbeunsuitablei
nasimilarexperi
mentasthe
oneabove.
Magnesi
um ishi
ghinthereact
ivi
tyser
ies.Noneoftheabov
ereducingagentsi
sst
rong
enoughtor
educetheoxi
det ot
hemet al.

8.Wr
it
etheequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
iont
hatwoul
dtakepl
acewhent
her
educi
ngagenti
s:

(
i)Hy
drogen
CuO(s) + H2(
g) -> Cu(s) +H2O(l
)
(
Black) (
brown) (
col
ourl
essl
iqui
dfor
m
oncool
erpart
s)
(
ii
)Car
bon(
II
)oxi
de
CuO(s) + CO(
g) -
> Cu(
s) +CO2(
g)
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(
Black) (
brown) (
col
ourl
essgas,
for
m
whi
tepptwit
hli
mewater)
(i
i
i)Ammoni
a
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(
g) -
> 3Cu(s) + N2(
g)+ 3H2O( l
)
(
Black) (
brown) (
colour
lessli
quidf
orm
oncoolerpar
ts)

9.Expl
ainwhyt
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snecessar
ydur
ingt
heabov
eexper
iment
;

(
i)
Ast r
eam ofdryhy
drogengasshouldbepassedbef or
eheat
ingcopper(
II
)
Oxi
de.
Ai
rcombinewit
hhydr
ogeni
npresenceofheatcausi
nganexpl
osi
on

(i
i)
Ast r
eam ofdr
yhydrogengasshouldbepassedaft
erheat
ingcopper(
II
)Oxi
de
hasbeenstopped.
Hotmetal
li
ccoppercanbere-oxi
dizedbackt
ocopper(I
I)
oxi
de

(
ii
i)Ast
ream ofexcesscar
bon(
II
)oxi
degasshoul
dbei
gni
tedt
obur
n

Car
bon(II
)oxi
deishighl
ypoi
sonous/
tox
ic.Oni
gni
ti
oni
tbur
nst
ofor
m l
esst
oxi
c
car
bon(
IV)oxi
degas.

10.St
atet
wosour
cesofer
rori
nthi
sexper
iment
.

(
i)
Allcopper
(I
I)
oxidemaynotbereducedt
ocopper.
(
ii
)Somecopper(I
I)oxi
demaybeblownouttheboatbyt
her
educi
ngagent
.

4.Theoret
ical
ytheempi
ri
calf
ormul
aofacompoundcanbedet
ermi
nedasi
nthe
foll
owingexamples.

(
a)Aoxi
deofcoppercont
ain80%bymassofcopper
.Det
ermi
nei
tsempi
ri
calf
ormul
a.
(
Cu=63.5,
16.0)

%ofOxy
gen=100%-%ofCopper=>100-80 =20%ofOxy
gen

El
ement Copper Oxygen
Sy
mbol Cu O
Molespresent= %composit
ion 80 20
Molarmass 63.
5 16
Di
videbythesmall
estval
ue 1.
25 1.
25
1.
25 1.
25
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Mol
erat
ios 1 1

Empi
ri
cal
for
mul
aisCuO

(
b)1.
60gofanoxi
deofMagnesi
um cont
ain0.
84gbymassofMagnesi
um.Det
ermi
ne
i
tsempi
ri
calf
ormul
a(Mg=24.
0,16.
0)
MassofOxy
gen=1.
60– 0.
84=>0.
56gofOxy
gen
El
ement Magnesi
um Oxygen
Sy
mbol Mg O
Molespresent= %composit
ion 0.84 0.
56
Molarmass 24 16
Di
videbythesmall
estval
ue 0.
35 0.
35
0.
35 0.
35
Mol
erati
os 1 1
Empi
ri
calfor
mul
aisMgO

(
c)Anoxi
deofSi
l
iconcont
ain47%bymassofSi
l
icon.Whati
sit
sempi
ri
calf
ormul
a(Si
=28.
0,16.
0)
MassofOxy
gen=100– 47=>53%ofOxy
gen

El
ement Si
li
con Oxygen
Sy
mbol Si O
Molespresent= %composit
ion 47 53
Molarmass 28 16
Di
videbythesmall
estval
ue 1.
68 3.
31
1.
68 1.
68
Mol
erati
os 1 1.
94 =2
Empi
ri
calfor
mul
aisSi
O2

(
d)Acompound cont
ain70%bymassofI
ronand30%Oxy
gen.Whati
sit
sempi
ri
cal
f
ormul
a(Fe=56.
0,16.
0)
MassofOxy
gen=100– 47=>53%ofOxy
gen
El
ement Si
l
icon Oxygen
Sy
mbol Si O
Molespr
esent= %composi
tion 47 53
Molarmass 28 16
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Di
vi
debyt
hesmal
l
estv
alue 1.
68 3.
31
1.
68 1.
68
Mol
erat
ios 1 1.
94 =2

Empi rical f
ormul ai sSi O2
2.Duringheat ingofahy dratedcopper( II
)sulphate(VI)cr
ystal
s,thefoll
owingreadings
wer eobt ained:
Massofev aporati
ngdi sh=300. 0g
Massofev aporati
ngdi sh+hy drat edsalt=305. 0g
Massofev aporati
ngdi sh+anhy droussalt=303. 2g
Calculatet he numberofwat erofcr ystall
izat
ion molecul
es i n hy
drated copper
(I
I)sulphat e(VI)
(Cu=64. 5,S=32. 0,
O=16. 0, H=1. 0)
Wor king
MassofHy dratedsalt=305. 0g- 300.0g=5. 0g
Massofanhy droussal t=303. 2g- 300.0g=3. 2g
Massofwat erinhy dr
at edsal t=5. 0g-3.2g=1. 8g
Mol armassofwat er(
H2O)=18. 0g
Mol armassofanhy drouscopper( II
)sul
phat e(VI)(
CuSO4)=160. 5g
Element /compound anhy drouscopper(I
I) Oxy gen
sulphate(VI)
Symbol CuSO4 O
Mol espr esent= composi tionby 3, 2 1.8
mass 160. 5 18
Mol armass
Dividebyt hesmal l
estv alue 0.0199 0.1
0.0199 18
Mol erat i
os 1 5

Theempir
icalfor
mulaofhy
dratedsalt=CuSO4.5H2O
Hydr
atedsalthasfi
ve/
5moleculesofwaterofcryst
all
i
zat
ions

4.Themolecul
arfor
mulaist
heact
ualnumberofeachki
ndofat
omspr
esenti
na
molecul
eofacompound.
Theempi
ri
calf
ormulaofanioni
ccompoundisthesameasthechemi
calf
ormul
abut
forsi
mpl
emolecularstr
uct
uredcompounds,t
heempir
icalf
ormulamaynotbethe
sameast
hechemicalfor
mula.
Themol ecul
arf
ormul
aisamul
ti
pleofempi
ri
calf
ormul
a.I
tisdet
ermi
nedf
rom t
he
r
elat
ionshi
p:
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(
i) n= Rel
ati
vefor
mularmass
Rel
ati
veempir
ical
for
mula
wher
enisawholenumber.

(
ii
)Rel
ati
veempi
ri
cal
for
mulaxn=Rel
ati
vef
ormul
armass
wher
enisawholenumber
.

Pr
act
icesampl
eexampl
es
1.Ahydrocarbonwasfoundtocont
ain92.
3%car
bonandther
emainingHydr
ogen.
I
fthemol ecul
armassofthecompoundis78,
det
ermi
nethemolecul
arfor
mula(
C=12.
0,
H=1.0)

MassofHy
drogen=100– 92.
3=>7.
7%ofOxy
gen

El
ement Car
bon Hydr
ogen
Sy
mbol C H
Molespresent= %composit
ion 92.3 7.
7
Molarmass 12 1
Di
videbythesmall
estval
ue 7.
7 7.
7
7.
7 7.
7
Mol
erat
ios 1 1

Empi
ri
calformul aisCH
Themolecularfor
mularisthusdeter
mined:
n= Rel ati
vefor
mularmass = 78 =6
Relati
veempiri
calfor
mula 13

Themol
ecul
arf
ormul
ais(
CH)x6 =C6H6

2.Acompoundofcar bon,hy
drogenandoxygencontai
n54.55% car
bon,9.
09% and
remaini
ng36.
36%oxygen.
I
fitsrel
ati
vemol
ecul
armassis88, det
ermi
nei
tsmolecul
arf
ormula(C=12.
0,H=1.
0,O=
16.0)
El
ement Car
bon Hydr
ogen Oxygen
Sy
mbol C H O
Molespresent= %composit
ion 54.55 9.
09 36.
36
Molarmass 12 1 16
Di
videbythesmall
estval
ue 4.
5458 9.
09 2.
2725
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2.
2725 2.
2725 2.
2725
Mol
erat
ios 2 4 1

Empi
ri
calformul aisC2H4O
Themolecularfor
mulaisthusdet
ermi
ned:
n= Rel ati
vefor
mularmass = 88 =2
Relati
veempir
icalf
ormul
a 44

Themol
ecul
arf
ormul
ais(
C2H4O)x2 =C4H8O2.

4.
Ahydrocarbonbur
nscompl
etel
yinexcessai
rtof
orm 5.
28gofcar
bon(I
V)oxi
deand
2,
16gofwat er
.
Ifthemol ecul
armassofthehy dr
ocarbonis84,draw andnameit
s mol ecul
ar
st
ruct
ure.

Si
nceahydrocarboni
sacompoundcontai
ningCarbonandHy
drogenonl
y.Then:
Massofcar
boni nCO2= MassofCinCO2 x massofCO2=>
MolarmassofCO2
12 x 5.28 = 1. 44g√
44
MassofHydrogeninH2O= MassofCi nH2O x massofH2O=>
MolarmassofH2O
2 x 2.16 = 0. 24g√
18

El
ement Carbon Hydr
ogen
Sy
mbol C H
Molespresent= mass 1.44g 0.
24g√
Molarmass 12 1
Di
videbythesmall
estval
ue 0.
12 0.
24
0.
12 0.
12

Molerati
os 1 2√
Empir
icalformul aisCH2√
Themolecul arfor
mularisthusdeter
mined:
n= Rel ati
vefor
mularmass = 84 = 6√
Relati
veempiri
calfor
mula 14

Themolecul
arformul
ais(CH2)x6 =C6H12.√
molecul
arname Hexene√/
Hex-
1-ene (
oranyposi
ti
oni
somerofHexene)
Molecul
arstr
uctur
e
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H H H H H H

H C C C C C C H√

H H H H
5.CompoundAcont ai
n5. 2% bymassofNitrogen.Theotherel
ementspresentare
Carbon,hydrogenandOxy gen.Oncombust
ionof0.085gofAinexcessOxygen,
0.224g
ofcarbon(I
V)oxideand0.0372gofwaterwasformed.Deter
minetheempir
icalf
ormula
ofA( N=14.0,O=16.0,C=12.0,H=1.
0)

MassofNi
nA = 5.
2% x 0.
085 = 0.
00442g

MassofCi nA = 12 x 0.224 =0. 0611g

44
MassofHi nA = 2 x 0.0372 =0. 0041g
18
MassofOi nA =0. 085g– 0.
004442g = 0. 0806g(MassofC, H,
O)
=>0. 0611g+0. 0041g = 0.0652g(MassofC, H)
0.0806g( MassofC,H,
O)-0.
0652g( MassofC,H)=0. 0154g
El
ement Nit
rogen Car bon Hydrogen Oxy gen
Sy
mbol N C H O
Molespresent= mass 0.
00442g 0. 0611g 0. 0041g 0. 0154
Mol armass 14 12 1 g 16
Di
videbythesmallestv al
ue 0.
00032 0.00509 0. 0041g 0. 00096
0.
00032 0.00032 0. 00032 0. 00032
Molerat
ios 1 16 13 3

Empi
ri
cal
for
mul
a=C16H13NO3

(
d)Mol
argasv
olume

Thevol
umeoccupiedbyonemol eofal lgasesatthesamet emperat
ureandpressur
e
i
saconstant.
Iti
s:
(i
)24dm3/24l
itr
es/
24000cm3atr oom t emperatur
e(25oC/298K)andpr
essur
e(r
.t
.p).
i.
e.1moleofall
gases=24dm3/ 24li
tr
es/24000cm3atr .
t.
p
Examples
1moleofO2=32g=6.0x1023parti
cles=24dm3/ 24li
tres/24000cm3atr.
t.
p
23
1moleofH2=2g=6.0x10 par t
icl
es=24dm3/ 24li
tres/24000cm3atr.
t.
p
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1mol 0x1023par
eofCO2=44g=6. ti
cles=24dm3/
24li
tres/
24000cm3atr.t
.p
23
1mol
eofNH3=17g=6.
0x10 part
icl
es=24dm3/ 24l
it
res/24000cm3atr
.t
.p
23
1mol
eofCH4=16g=6.
0x10 part
icl
es=24dm3/24li
tr
es/24000cm3atr.
t.
p

(i
i)22.
4dm3/ 22.4li
tr
es/22400cm3 at st andar d t emper atur 0oC/
e( 273K) and
pressure(s.
t.
p)
i
.e.1mol eofallgases=22. 4dm3/ 22.4li
tres/ 22400cm3ats. t
.p
Exampl es
1mol eofO2=32g=6. 0x1023par ti
cles=22. 4dm3/ 22. 4l
it
res/22400cm3ats. t.
p
23
1mol eofH2=2g=6. 0x10 par ti
cles=22. 4dm3/ 22. 4li
tr
es/22400cm3ats. t.p
23
1mol eofCO2=44g=6. 0x10 par ti
cles=22. 4dm3/ 22.4l
itr
es/ 22400cm3ats. t.
p
23
1mol eofNH3=17g=6. 0x10 par ti
cles=22.4dm3/ 22.4li
tr
es/ 22400cm3ats. t.p
23
1mol eofCH4=16g=6. 0x10 par t
icl
es=22. 4dm3/ 22.4li
tres/22400cm3ats. t
.p
Thev olumeoccupi edbyonemol eofagasatr .t.
pors. t.
pi scommonl ycall
edthe
mol argasv olume.Whet hert hemol argasv ol
umei satr .t.
pors. t.
pmustal waysbe
specifi
ed.
From theabov ethereforeal essormor evolumecanbedet ermi nedasintheexamples
below.

Pract
iceexamples
1.Cal
culatet
henumberofparti
clespr esentin:
23 -
1
(Av
ogadrosconst
ant=6.
0x10 mol e)

(
i)2.
24dm3ofOxy
gen.

22.
4dm3 -
> 0x1023
6.
2.
24dm3 -
> 2.
24x6.0x1023
22.4

0x1022 mol
=6. ecul 0x1022. = 1.
es=2x6. 2x1023at
oms

(i
i
)2.24dm3ofCarbon(
IV)oxi
de.
22.
4dm3 - > 6. 0x1023
2.
24dm3 - > 2. 24x6.0x1023
22.4
22
=6.0x10 molecul
es=( CO2)=3x6. 0x1022. = 1.
8x1023at
oms

2.0.
135gofagaseoushy drocar
bonXoncompl etecombusti
onproduces0.41gof
car
bon(
IV)oxi
deand0.
209gofwat er
.0.
29gofXoccupy120cm3atroom temperatur
e
and1at mospher
epressur
e. NameX anddraw it
smol ecul
arst
ruct
ure.(
C=12.0,
O=
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16.
O,H=1.
0,1mol eofgasoccupi es24dm3atr .t
.p)
-
1
MolarmassCO2=44gmol e√ MolarmassH2O=18gmol e-1√
MolarmassX= 0.29x( 24x1000) cm3=58gmol e-1√
120cm3
Si
nceahy drocarboni
sacompoundcont ai
ningCarbonandHy dr ogenonl
y.Then:
Massofcarboni nCO2= MassofCi nCO2 x massofCO2=>
MolarmassofCO2
12 x 0.41 = 0. 1118g√
44
MassofHy drogeninH2O= MassofCi nH2O x massofH2O=>
MolarmassofH2O
2 x 0.209 = 0. 0232g√
18

El
ement Carbon Hydr
ogen
Sy
mbol C H
Molespresent= %composit
ion 0.g118 0.
0232g√
Molarmass 12 1
Di
videbythesmall
estval
ue 0.
0093 0.
0232
0.
0093 0.
0093√

Mol
erat
ios 1x2 2.
5x2
2 5√
Empi
ri
calformul aisC2H5√
Themolecularfor
mularisthusdeter
mined:
n= Rel ati
vefor
mularmass = 58 = 2√
Relati
veempiri
calfor
mula 29

Themolecul
arf
ormulai
s(C2H5)x2 =C4H10.
√
Molecul
enameButane
Molecul
astr
uct
ure
H H H H

H C C C C H√

H H H H

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(
e)Gr
avi
met
ri
canal
ysi
s

Gravi
met r
icanal
ysi
sistherelati
onshi
pbetweenreact
ingmassesandt hevolumesand
/ormasses ofpr oducts.Al lreact
ants ar
ei n molerati
os totheirpr oduct
sin
accordancetothei
rstoichi
omet r
icequat
ion.Usi
ngthemol erat
ionofr eactant
sand
productsanyvol
umeand/ ormasscanbedet ermi
nedasintheexamples:

1.Cal
culatethevolumeofcarbon(I
V)ox
ideatr.
t.
pproducedwhen5.0gofcalci
um
car
bonateisstr
onglyheat
ed.
(Ca=40.
0,C=12.
0,O=16.
0,1moleofgas=22.
4atr
.t
.p)
Chemicalequat
ion
CaCO3(s) -> CaO( s) + CO2(
g)
Moler
at i
os 1: 1: 1

MolarMassCaCO3 =100g
Met hod1
100gCaCO3(
s) ->24dm3CO2( g)atr
.t
.p
5.
0gCaCO3(s) -> 5. 0gx24dm3 =1. 2dm3/
1200cm3
100g

Method2
Mol
esof5.0gCaCO3(s)=5.0g =0.
05moles
100g
Mol
er at
io1:
1
Mol
esofCO2(g)=0.
05moles
Vol
umeofCO2(g)=0.
05x24000cm3=1200cm3/
1.2dm3

2.1.
0gofanall
oyofalumi
nium andcopperwerer
eact
edwit
hexcesshy
drochl
ori
caci
d.
I
f840cm3ofhydrogenats.
t.pwaspr oduced,
cal
cul
atet
he%ofcopperint
heall
oy.
(Al
=27.
0,onemol
eofagasats. t
.p=22.
4dm3)

Chemicalequat
ion
Copperdoesnotr eactwi
thhy
dr ochl
ori
cacid
2Al
(s)+ 6HCl (aq)->2AlCl
3(aq)+3H2( g)
Method1

3H2(g)=3molesx( 22.4x1000)cm3=>2x27gAl
840cm3 =>840cm3x2x27=0. 675gofAl
umi
nium
3x22.4x1000
Totalmassofal
l
oy–massofal umini
um =massofcopper
=>1.0g-0.675g=0.
325gofcopper

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%copper = massofcopperx100% = 32. 5%

Massofal
loy
Met
hod2
Mol
erati
o2Al
:3H2 =2:
3
Mol
esofHydr
ogengas= volumeofgas => 840cm3= 0.
0375mol
es
Mol
argasvolume 22400cm3

Mol
esofAl = 2/
3mol
esofH2 => 2/
3x0.
0375mol
es=0.
025mol
es

MassofAl
=mol
esxmol
armass=>0.
025mol
esx27=0.
675g

Tot
almassofal
l
oy–massofalumi
nium =massofcopper
=>1.
0g-0.
675g=0.325gofcopper

%copper = massofcopperx100% = 32.

5%
Massofal
loy

(
f)GayLussac’
slaw

GayLussacsl
awst
atest
hat“
whengasescombi
ne/
reactt
heydosoi
nsi
mpl
evol
ume
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rati
ostoeachotherandt
othei
rgaseousproduct
satconstant/sametemper
atur
eand
pressur
e”
GayLussacslawthusonl
yappl
ytogases
Giventhevol
umeofonegasr eactant
,theothergaseousreactant
scanbededuced
thus:

Examples
1.Calculatet he v
olume ofOxygen r
equir
ed to compl
etel
yreactwi
th 50cm3 of
Hydrogen.
Chemicalequat i
on:2H2(g)+ O2(g) -> 2H2O( l
)
Volumeratios 2 : 1 : 0
Reacti
ngv olumes 50cm3 : 25cm3
50cm3ofOxygenisused

2.Calcul
atet he v
olume ofairrequir
ed t
o compl
etel
yreact
s wi
th 50cm3 of
Hydr
ogen.
(assumeOxy geni
s21%byvolumeofai
r)

Chemicalequat
ion:2H2(g)+ O2(g) -
> 2H2O(
l)
Volumerati
os 2 : 1 : 0
Reacti
ngvolumes 50cm3 : 25cm3
50cm3ofOxygenisused
21% = 25cm3
100% = 100x25 =
21

3.I
f5cm3 ofa hy drocar
bon CxHy burnin 15cm3 ofOxygen t
of orm 10cm3 of
Carbon(I
V)oxi
de and 10cm3 ofwat ervapour/
steam,obt
ainthe equat
ion f
ort
he
react
ionandhencefindtheval
ueofxandyi nCxHy.

Chemi calequati
on: CxHy( g) + O2(g) -
> H2O(g)+CO2(g)
Volumes 5cm3 : 15cm3 : 10cm3:10cm3
Volumer atios 5cm3 : 15cm3 : 10cm3 : 10cm3
(di
videbyl owestvol
ume)5 5 5 5
Reacti
ngv ol umerat
ios 1vol
ume 3volume 2vol
ume2v olume

Bal
ancedchemi
cal
equati
on: CxHy(g)+ 3O2(g)-> 2H2O( g)+2CO2(
g)
If“
4H”arein2H2O( g)t
hey =4
If“
2C”arein2CO2( g)t
hex=2
Thus(i
)chemicalformulaofhydrocarbon=C2H4
(
ii
)chemicalnameofhy drocarbon=Et hene

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4.100cm3ofnitr
ogen(II
)oxi
deNOcombinewith50cm3ofOxy gent
of or
m 100cm3of
a singl
e gaseous compound ofnitr
ogen.Allvolumes measured atthe same
temperat
ureandpressur
e.Obtai
ntheequat
ionfort
hereact
ionandnamet hegaseous
product
.

Chemical equat
ion: NO( g) + O2(g) -
> NOx
Volumes 100cm3 : 50cm3 : 100
Volumer ati
os 100cm3 : 50cm3 : 100cm3 (
div
ideby
l
owestv olume)50 50 50
Reacti
ngv olumerati
os 2vol
ume 1volume 2vol
ume

Bal
ancedchemical equat
ion: 2NO( g)+ O2( g)-> 2NOx(
g)
Thus(i
)chemi
cal formulaoftheni
tr
ogencompound=2NO2
(
ii
)chemicalnameofcompound=Ni t
rogen(
IV)oxi
de

5.When 15cm3 ofa gaseoushy drocarbon wasbur ntin 100cm3 ofOxygen ,

the
resul
ti
nggaseousmixtureoccupi
ed70cm3atr oom t emperatur
eandpressur
e.When
thegaseousmixt
urewaspassedt hrough,potassium hydroxi
deitsv
olumedecreased
to25cm3.
(a)Whatvol
umeofOxy genwasuseddur i
ngther eact
ion.(
1mk)
Vol
umeofOxygenused=100- 25=75cm3√
(Pwascompletelybur
nt)

(b)
Det
erminethemolecularf
ormulaofthehydrocar
bon(
2mk)
CxHy +O2 ->xCO2 + y H2O
15cm3: 75cm3
15 15
1 :3√
=>1atom ofCreactwit
h6( 3x2)at
omsofOxy gen
Thusx=1andy=2 =>Phasmol ecul
afor
mul aCH4√

(g)Ioni
cequati
ons
Ani oni
cequati
oni sachemi
calstatementshowi ngthemovementofions(cat
ionsand
anions)fr
om reactant
stopr
oducts.
Solids,
gasesandl i
qui
dsdonotionize/
dissociateint
ofreei
ons.Onl
yioni
ccompounds
i
naqueous/ solut
ionormoltenst atei
onize/dissoci
ateint
ofreecati
onsandani ons
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(i
ons)
Ani onicequat
ionisusual
l
yder
ivedf
rom ast
oichi
omet
ri
cequat
ionbyusi
ngt
he
fol
lowinggui
del
ines

Guideli
nesf orwri
tingionicequat ions
1.Wr i
tethebal ancedstoichi
omet r
icequat ion
2.I
ndicatet hestatesymbol soft her eactantsandproduct
s
3.Spli
tint ocat i
onsandani onsal lt hereactantsandproduct
sthatexisti
naqueous
state.
4.Cancel outanycat i
onandani ont hatappearonbot hthepr
oductandreact
antsi
de.
5.Rewr it
et hechemi calequation.Itisani onicequat
ion.

Pract
ice
(a)
Preci
pit
ati
onofani
nsol
ubl
esal
t

Allinsoluble sal
ts ar e prepared int he l
aboratoryfrom double decompositi
on
/pr
ecipi
tation.Thisinv ol
vesmi xingtwosol ublesaltstoform onesolubl
eandone
i
nsolublesalt
1.Whensi lverni
tr
ate(V)soluti
oni saddedtosodium chlor
idesol
uti
on,
sodium ni
tr
ate(V)
sol
utionandawhi t
epr eci
pit
ateofsi l
verchl
orideareformed.

Bal
ancedstoi
chi
ometr
icequat
ion
AgNO3(aq)+ NaCl
(aq) -> AgCl
(s) + NaNO3(
aq)

Spl
itreact
ant
spr oductexisti
nginaqueousst
ateascat
ion/
anion
+ - + - +
Ag( aq)+NO3 (aq)+Na( aq)+Cl(aq) -> AgCl (
s)+ Na( +NO3-(
aq) aq)

Cancelouti
onsappeari
ngonr eact
antandpr
oductside
+ - + -
Ag( aq)+NO3 (aq)+Na( aq)+Cl(
aq) -> AgCl (s)+ Na+( +NO3-(
aq) aq)

Rewr i
tet
heequat
ion
+ -
Ag( aq)+Cl(
aq)-> AgCl
(s)(
ioni
cequat
ion)

2.When bar i
um nit
rate(V)sol
uti
on i
s added to copper
(II
)sulphat
e(VI
)soluti
on,
copper
(I
I)ni
tr
ate(
V)soluti
onandawhit
epreci
pit
ateofbari
um sulphate(
VI)aref
ormed.

Bal
ancedst
oichi
omet
ri
cequat
ion

Ba(
NO3)
2(aq) + CuSO4(
aq) -
>BaSO4(
s) + Cu(
NO3)2(
aq)

Spl
i
treact
ant
spr
oductexi
sti
ngi
naqueousst
ateascat
ion/
ani
on
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Ba2+(
aq)+2NO3-(
aq)+Cu2+(
aq)+SO42-(
aq)- s)+2NO3-(
>BaSO4( +Cu2+(
aq) aq)

Cancelouti
onsappear i
ngonr eact
antandproductsi
de
2+ - 2+ 2-
Ba ( aq)+2NO3 (aq)+Cu ( aq)+SO4 (aq)
- s)+2NO3-(
>BaSO4( aq)+Cu2+(
aq)

Rewr i
tetheequati
on
2+ 2-
Ba ( aq)+SO4 (aq)-
>BaSO4(
s)(
ioni
cequat
ion)

3.A y el
low pr ecipi
tat
e of Potassium I
odi
de i
sfor
med f
rom t
he r
eact
ion of
Lead(II)
nit
rate(v )andpotassi
um i
odide.
Balancedst oichiomet r
icequat
ion

Pb(
NO3)
2(aq) + 2KI
(aq) -
>PbI
2(s) + 2KNO3 (
aq)

Spli
tr eact
ant
sproductexi
stingi
naqueousstat
eascation/
anion
2+ - + - -
Pb ( aq)+2NO3 (aq)+2K (aq)+2I( aq)-
>PbI
2(s)+2NO3 ( +2K+(
aq) aq)

Cancel outi
onsappeari
ngonr eact
antandproductsi
de
2+ - + -
Pb ( aq)+2NO3 (aq)+2K (aq)+2I( aq)-
>PbI s)+2NO3-(
2( +2K+(
aq) aq)

Rewr i
tetheequati
on
2+ -
Pb ( aq)+2I( aq) -
> PbI
2(s)(
ioni
cequat
ion)

(b)Neut
ral
izati
on
Neutral
i
zationisthereacti
onofanacidwi
thasolubl
ebase/
alkal
iori
nsol
ubl
ebase.
(i
)React
ionofalkali
swi t
hacids
1.React
ionofnitr
ic(
V)acidwithpot
assi
um hy
droxi
de

Bal
ancedst
oichi
omet
ri
cequat
ion

HNO3(
aq) + KOH(
aq) -
>H2O(
l) + KNO3 (
aq)

Spli
treact
ant
spr oductexist
ingi
naqueousst
ateascat
ion/ani
on
+ - + - -
H( aq)+NO3 (aq)+K ( aq)+OH (aq)-
>H2O(l
)+NO3 ( +K+(
aq) aq)

Cancelouti
onsappearingonreactantandpr
oductsi
de
+ - + -
H( aq)+NO3 (aq)+K (aq)+OH ( aq)-
>H2O(l)+NO3-( +K+(
aq) aq)

Rewri
tetheequati
on
+ -
H( aq)+OH ( aq) -
> H2O(
l)(
ioni
cequat
ion)

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2.
React
ionofsul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
dwi
thammoni
asol
uti
on

Bal
ancedst
oichi
omet
ri
cequat
ion

H2SO4(
aq)+ 2NH4OH(
aq) -
>H2O(
l) + (
NH4)2SO4 (
aq)

Spl
itreact
ant
spr oductexi
sti
nginaqueousstateascat
ion/
anion
+ 2- + - 2-
2H (aq)+SO4 ( aq)+2NH4 ( aq)
+2OH ( aq)-
>2H2O(l
)+SO4 ( +2NH4+(
aq) aq)

Cancelouti
onsappear i
ngonr eact
antandproductsi
de
+ 2- + -
2H (aq)+SO4 ( aq)+2NH4 (aq)+2OH (aq)-
>2H2O(l)+SO42-( +2NH4+(
aq) aq)

Rewr i
tetheequation
+ -
2H ( aq)+2OH ( aq) -
> 2H2O(l
)
+ -
H( aq)+OH ( aq) -> H2O(l
)(ioni
cequat
ion)

3.
React
ionofhy
drochl
ori
caci
dwi
thZi
nchy
droxi
de

Bal
ancedst
oichi
omet
ri
cequat
ion

2HCl
(aq) + Zn(
OH)
2(s)-
>2H2O(
l)+ ZnCl
2(aq)

Spl
itreact
ant
spr oductexi
stinginaqueousst
ateascat i
on/anion
+ - - 2+
2H (aq)+2Cl(aq)+Zn( OH)2(s)->2H2O(l
)+2Cl( aq)
+Zn ( aq)

Cancelouti
onsappeari
ngonreactantandproductside
+ - -
2H (aq)+2Cl(aq)+Zn(
OH)2(
s)- >2H2O(l)+2Cl( +Zn2+(
aq) aq)

Rewritetheequat
ion
+
2H (aq)+Zn(OH)2(s)-
>2H2O(
l)+Zn2+(
aq)(
ioni
cequat
ion)
(h)
Mol arsol
uti
ons

Amol arsoluti
onisonewhoseconcentrat
ionisknown.TheSIunitofconcent
rati
onis
Molar
itydenotedM.
Molar
itymaybedef inedasthenumberofmol esofsol ut
epr esenti
nonecubi c
deci
met erofsolut
ion.
Onecubi cdecimet
erisequalt
oonelit
reandalsoequalt
o1000cm3.
Thehighert hemol ar
ityt
hehi
ghertheconcentr
ati
onandt hehigher/mor
esolut
ehas
beendissolvedint
hesol v
enttomakeonecubicdecimeter
/lit
re/
1000cm3soluti
on.

Exampl
es

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2M sodium hy droxidemeans2mol esofsodium hydr

oxidesolut
ei sdissol
vedi n
enoughwat ertomakeonecubi cdeci
meter
/li
tr
e/1000cm3unifor
m solut
ionmixtureof
sodium hydroxi
deandwat er
.
0.02M sodium hydroxi
demeans0.02molesofsodium hy
droxi
desolutei
sdissol
v edin
enoughwat ertomakeonecubi cdeci
meter
/li
tr
e/1000cm3unifor
m solut
ionmixtureof
sodium hydroxi
deandwat er
.
“2M”ismor econcent r
atedt
han“0.
02M”.

Pr
epar
ati
onofmol
arsol
uti
on

Procedure
Weighaccur atel
y4. 0gofsodium hy
droxi
depel
let
sintoa250cm3volumet
ri
cf l
ask.
Usingawashbot tleaddabout200cm3ofdist
il
ledwater
.
Stoppertheflask.
Shakev i
gorouslyforthreeminut
es.
Remov et hest opperforasecondt henconti
nuetoshakef oraboutanot
hertwo
minutesuntilallthesolidhasdi
ssolv
ed.
Addmor ewat erslowlyuptoexactl
ythe250cm3mar k.

Sampl
equest
ions
1.
Cal
culat
ethenumberofmol
esofsodi
um hy
droxi
depel
l
etspr
esenti
n:
(
i)4.
0g.
MolarmassofNaOH=(
23+16+1)=40g
Moles=Mass => 4.0 = 0. 0x10-1mol
1 /1. es
Molarmass 40

(
ii
)250cm3sol
uti
oni
nthev
olumet
ri
cfl
ask.
Mol
esi
n250cm3=0. 0x10-1mol
1 /1. es

(
ii
i)onedeci
met
erofsol
uti
on
Met
hod1
Mol
esi
ndeci
met
ers=Molar
it
y=Mol esx1000cm3/ 1dm3
Volumeofsolut
ion
-
1
=>1.
0x10 mol esx1000cm3=
250cm3

=0.
4M /0. esdm-3
4mol
Method2
250cm3sol
uti
oncont
ai 0x10-1mol
n1. es
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1000cm3sol
uti
on=Molar
it
ycont
ai 0x10-1mol
n1000x1. es
250cm3
=0.
4M /0. esdm-3
4mol

Theor
eti
cal
sampl
epr
act
ice

1.Cal
cul
atet
hemol ar
it
yofasol
uti
oncont
aini
ng:
(i
)4.
0gsodium hy
droxi
dedi
ssol
vedi
n500cm3solut
ion

Mol
armassofNaOH=(
23+16+1)=40g

Mol
es=Mass => 4.
0 = 0. 0x10-1mol
1 /1. es
Mol
armass 40

Met
hod1
Mol
esi
ndeci
met
ers=Molar
it
y=Mol esx1000cm3/ 1dm3
Volumeofsolut
ion
-
1
=>1.
0x10 mol esx1000cm3
500cm3

=0.
2M /0. esdm-3
2mol
Method2
500cm3sol uti
oncont
ain1.0x10-1mol es
1000cm3solut
ion=Molari
tycont
ain1000x1. 0x10-1moles
500cm3
=0.2M /0.2mol esdm-3
(
ii
)5.3ganhy droussodi
um car
bonat
edissolvedin50cm3sol
uti
on
Mol
armassofNa2CO3=(23x2+12+16x3)=106g

Mol
es=Mass => 5.3 05/5.0x10-2 mol
= 0. es
Mol
armass 106

Met
hod1
Mol
esi
ndeci
met
ers=Molar
it
y=Mol esx1000cm3/1dm3
Volumeofsol
uti
on
=>1.
0molesx1000cm3=
50cm3

=1.
0M

Met
hod2
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50cm3solut
ioncont
ai 0x10-2mol
n5. es
1000cm3sol
uti
on=Mol ar
it
ycontai
n1000x5.0x10-2mol
es
50cm3
=1.
0M /1.0molesdm-3

(
ii
i)5.
3ghy
drat
edsodi
um car
bonat
edecahy
drat
edi
ssol
vedi
n50cm3sol
uti
on

Mol
armassofNa2CO3.
10H2O =(
23x2+12+16x3+20x1+10x16)=286g

Mol
es=Mass => 5.
3 = 0. 85x10-2 mol
0185/1. es
Mol
armass 286
Met
hod1
Mol
esi
ndeci
met
ers=Molar
it
y=Mol esx1000cm3/1dm3
Volumeofsol
uti
on
-
2
=>1.
85x10 mol esx1000cm3=
50cm3

=0.
37M/
0. esdm-3
37mol
Method2
50cm3sol uti
oncont ain1.85x10-2mol es
1000cm3sol uti
on=Mol arit
ycontain1000x1.85x10-2mol es
50cm3
-
1
=3. 7x10 M /3. 7x10-1mol
esdm-3
(i
v)7. 1 g ofanhy droussodi um sulphate(
VI)
wasdissolved i
n 20.
0 cm3 sol
uti
on.
Calculatethemol ari
tyoft hesol uti
on.
Met hod1
20.
0cm3sol ution->7.1g
1000cm3sol ution-> 1000 x 71 = 3550gdm-3
20
Mol
armassNa2SO4 =142g
esdm-3 = Mol
Mol ari
ty = Mass 3550=2. esdm-3
5M/mol
Molarmass 142

Met
hod2
MolarmassNa2SO4 =142g
Moles=Mass => 7. 1 = 0.05/5.0x10-2 mol
es
Molarmass 142
Met
hod2(
a)
Molesindecimet
ers=Molari
ty=Molesx1000cm3/
1dm3
Vol
umeofsol
uti
on
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=>5.
0x10-2 molesx1000cm3
20cm3
=2.5M/
2.5molesdm-3
Met
hod2( b)
20cm3solut
ioncont
ai 0x10-2mol
n5. es
1000cm3sol
uti
on=Mol ar
it
ycontai
n1000x5. 0x10-2mol
es
20cm3
=2.5M/2.
5molesdm-3

(
iv)Thedensit
yofsul
phuri
c(VI
)i 84gcm-3Cal
s1. cul
atet
hemolar
ityoft
heaci
d.
Method1
1.
0cm3soluti
on->1.
84g
1000cm3solut
ion-> 1000 x 1.84 = 1840gdm-3
1
Mol
armassH2SO4 =98g
esdm-3 =Mol
Mol ari
ty=Mass =1840
Molarmass 98
=18. esdm-3
7755M/mol
Met
hod2
Mol
armassH2SO4 =98g

Mol
es=Mass => 1.84 = 0. 88x10-2 mol
0188/1. es
Mol
armass 98

Method2(a)
Mol
esi
ndecimeters=Molari
ty=Mol esx1000cm3/ 1dm3
Vol umeofsol ut
ion
-2
=>1.88x10 mol esx1000cm3
1.0cm3
=18.8M/18.8mol esdm-3
Met
hod2( b)
20cm3solut
ioncont
ain1.88x10-2 mol es
1000cm3sol
uti
on=Mol ari
tycont
ain1000x1. 88x10-2 moles
1.0cm3
=18.8M/18.8mol esdm-3

2.Cal
cul
atet
hemassof:
(i
)25cm3of0.2M sodi
um hy
droxi
desol
uti
on(
Na=23.
0.O=16.
0,H=1.
0)

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Mol
armassNaOH=40g
Mol
esin25cm3=Molarit
yxvol
ume =>0.2x 25=0.
005/
5.0x10-3mol
es
1000 1000

MassofNaOH=Mol
esxmol 0x10-3 x 40=0.
armass=5. 2g

(
ii
)20cm3of0.
625M sul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d(S=32.
0.O=16.
0,H=1.
0)

Mol
armassH2SO4=98g

Mol
esi
n20cm3=Mol
ari
tyxvol
ume=>0.625x20=0.
0125/
1. 0x10-3mol
25. es
1000 1000

MassofH2SO4=Mol
esxmol 0x10-3 x 40=0.
armass=>5. 2g

(
ii
i)1.
0cm3of2.
5M Ni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d(N=14.
0.O=16.
0,H=1.
0)

Mol
armassHNO3=63g

Mol
esi
n1cm3=Mol
ari
tyxvol
ume=>2.5x1=0. 5.x10-3mol
0025/2. es
1000 1000

MassofHNO3=Mol
esxmol 5x10-3 x 40=0.
armass=>2. 1g

3.Cal
culat
ethevol
umer equi
redtodissol
ve:
(a)
(i
)0.25mol
esofsodium hydroxi
desoluti
ontofor
m a0.
8M solut
ion
Vol
ume(incm3) = mol esx1000=>0. 25x1000=312. 5cm3
Molari
ty 0.
8

(i
i)100cm3wasaddedt othesodi
um hy
droxi
desol
uti
onabov
e.Cal
cul
atet
he
concent
rat
ionoft
hesol
uti
on.

C1xV1=C2xV2 wher e:
C1 = molar
ity
/concentrati
onbeforedi
luti
ng/addi
ngwater
C2 = molar
it
y/concentrat
ionaft
erdil
uti
ng/addingwat
er
V1 = vol
umebef oredil
uti
ng/addingwater
V2 = vol
umeaf t
erdilut
ing/addi
ngwater
=>0.
8M x312.
5cm3 =C2 x(
312.
5+100)

C2 =0.
8M x312.
5cm3=0.
6061M
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412.
5
(
b)(
ii
)0.
01M sol
uti
oncontai
ning0.01mol
esofsodi
um hy
droxi
desol
uti
on.
Vol
ume( i
ncm3) = mol esx1000=>0.
01x1000=1000cm3
Molari
ty 0.
01

(
ii
)Deter
mi nethequantit
yofwat erwhichmustbeaddedt othesodi
um hy
droxi
de
sol
uti
onabovetoform a0.008M soluti
on.
C1xV1=C2xV2 wher e:
C1 = molar
ity
/concentrati
onbeforedi
luti
ng/addi
ngwater
C2 = molar
it
y/concentrat
ionaft
erdil
uti
ng/addingwat
er
V1 = vol
umebef oredil
uti
ng/addingwater
V2 = vol
umeaf t
erdilut
ing/addi
ngwater
=>0.
01M x1000cm3 =0.
008 xV2

V2 =0.
01M x1000cm3=1250cm3
0.
008
Vol
umeadded=1250-1000= 250cm3

(
c)Vol
umet
ri
canal
ysi
s/Ti
tr
ati
on

Volumetricanaly
sis/Tit
rat
ionistheprocessofdet er
mi ni
ngunknownconcent
rat
ionof
onereactantfrom aknownconcent r
ati
onandv ol
umeofanot her
.
Reacti
onst akeplaceinsimplemolerati
oofr eactant
sandproducts.
Knowingt heconcentrati
on/volumeofoner eactant,t
heothercanbedet
erminedfr
om
therel
ationshi
p:
M1V1 =M2V2 wher e:
n1 n2
M1 =Molari
tyof1str eactant
nd
M2 =Molari
tyof2 r eactant
st
V1 =Volumeof1 r eact ant
nd
V1 =Volumeof2 r eactant
n1 =numberofmol esof1str eact
antf
rom st
oichi
ometr
icequat
ion
nd
n2 =numberofmol esof2 r eact
antfr
om st
oichi
ometri
cequat
ion
Exampl es
1.Calculat
et hemolari
tyofMCO3 i f5.0cm3ofMCO3 r eactwit
h25. 0cm3of0.
5M
hydrochlori
cacid.
(C=12.0, O=16. 0)

St
oichi
omet
ri
cequat
ion:
MCO3(
s)+2HCl
(aq)-
>MCl
2(
aq)+CO2(
g)+H2O(
l)
Method1

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M1V1 =M2V2 -
> M1 x5.
0cm3=0.5M x25.
0cm3
n1 n2 1 2
=>M1 = 0.
5x25.0x1= 1.
25M /1. edm-3
25mol
5.
0x2
Met
hod2
Mol
esofHCl
used=molari
tyxv
olume
1000
=>0.
5 x 25.0=0.0125/
1.25x10-2mol
es
1000
Mol
erat
ioMCO3:
HCl=1: 2
Mol
esMCO3=0.0125/
1.25x10-2mol
es=0. 25x10-3mol
00625/6. es
2
Mol
ari
tyMCO3=mol
esx1000 => 0. 25x10-3 x1000
00625/6.
Volume 5
=1.25M /1.25moledm-3
2.2.0cm3of0.5M hy
drochlor
icaci
dreactwi
th0.
1M ofM2CO3.Cal
cul
atet
hev
olumeof
0.1M M2CO3used.

St
oichi
omet
ri
cequat
ion:
M2CO3(
aq)+2HCl
(aq)-
>2MCl
(aq)+CO2(
g)+H2O(
l)
Method1

M1V1 =M2V2 -
> 0.
5x2.
0cm3=0.
1M xV2cm3
n1 n2 2 1

=>V2 = 0.
5x2. 0x1= 1.
25M /1. edm-3
25mol
0.
1x2
Met
hod2
Mol
esofHCl
used=molar
it
yxv
olume
1000
=>0.
5 x 2. 0= 0.0125/
1.25x10-2mol
es
1000
Mol
erat
ioM2CO3:
HCl=1: 2
Mol
esM2CO3= 0.0125/
1.25 x 10-2mol
es= 0. 25x10-3mol
00625/6. es
2
Mol
ari
tyM2CO3=molesx1000 => 0.
00625/6.25x10-3 x1000
Volume 5
=1.
25M /1. edm-3
25mol

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3.5.
0cm3of0.1M sodi
um iodi
dereactwit
h0.1M ofLead(
II
)ni
tr
ate(
V).Cal
cul
ate(
i)t
he
vol
umeofLead(I
I)
nit
rat
e(V)used.
(i
i)
themassofLead(II
)I
odi
deformed
(
Pb=207.
0,I=127.
0)
St
oichi
omet
ri
cequat
ion: 2NaI
(aq)+Pb(
NO3)
2(aq)-
>2NaNO3(
aq)+PbI
2(
s)
(
i)
Vol
umeofLead(
II
)ni
tr
ate(
V)used
Met
hod1
M1V1 =M2V2 -
> 5x0.
1cm3= 0.
1M xV2cm3
n1 n2 2 1

=>V2 = 0.
1x5. 0x1= 1.
25M /1. edm-3
25mol
0.
1x2

Met
hod2
Mol
esofHCl
used=molar
it
yxv
olume
1000
=>0.
1 x 5. 0= 0.0125/
1.25x10-2mol
es
1000
Mol
erat
ioM2CO3:
HCl=1: 2
Mol
esM2CO3= 0.0125/
1.25 x 10-2mol
es= 0. 25x10-3mol
00625/6. es
2
Mol
ari
tyM2CO3=molesx1000 => 0.
00625/6.25x10-3 x1000
Volume 5
=1.
25M /1. edm-3
25mol

4.0.388g ofamonobasicor ganicacidB r equi

red 46.
5 cm3 of0.095M sodi
um
hydr
oxidef
orcomplet
eneutral
izat
ion.Nameanddr awt hest
ruct
uralf
ormul
aofB
MolesofNaOHused=mol ari
tyxvolume
1000
=>0.095 x 46. 5= 0. 0044175/4.4175x10-3mol
es
1000
Mol
erat
ioB:
NaOH =1:1
Mol
esB= 0.0044175/
4.4175x10-3mol
es

Mol
armassB =mass => 0.
388
moles 0.
0044175/ 4175x10-3mol
4. es
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=87.8324gmole-1
X-
COOH=87. 8324whereXisanal ky
lgroup
X=87.8324-42=42.8324=43
Byeli
minati
on:CH3 =15 CH3CH2 =29 CH3CH2CH2 =43
Molecul
aformula:CH3CH2CH2COOH
Molecul
ename:But an-1-
oicacid
Molecul
arstr
uctur
e
H H H O

H C C C C O H

H H H H

5. 10.
5gofani mpur
esampl econt aini
ngammoni um sulphate(VI
)fert
il
izerwas
warmedwit
h250cm3ofo. 8M sodium hy droxi
desoluti
on.Theexcessofthealkal
iwas
neut
ral
i
zedby85cm3of0. 5M hy drochlori
cacid.Calculat
ethe% ofi mpuri
ti
esinthe
ammonium sul
phat
e(VI
)f
erti
l
izer.(N=14.0,S=32.0,
O=16.0,H=1.0)

Equati
onforneut
rali
zati
on
NaOH(aq)+ HCl (
aq) - > NaOH( aq)+ H2O(l
)
Molerati
oNaOH(aq):HCl(
aq)=1:1
MolesofHCl =Molari
tyxvolume => 0.
5x85= 0.0425mol
es
1000 1000
ExcessmolesofNaOH( aq)
=0. 0425mol
es

Equati
onf orr
eact
ionwi t
hammoni um salt
2NaOH(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(aq) ->Na2SO4(
aq)+2NH3(
g)+ 2H2O(
l)
Molerati
oNaOH( aq):(
NH4)2SO4(aq)=2:1
Total
mol esofNaOH=Mol ari
tyxvolume => 0.
8x250= 0. 2moles
1000 1000

Mol
esofNaOHt hatreactedwit
h(NH4)2SO4 =0.
2-0.0425=0.
1575mol
es
Mol
es(NH4)2SO4 = ½ x0. 1575moles =0.07875moles
-
1
Mol
armass( NH4)2SO4=132gmole

Massofi
nimpuresampl
e=mol esxmolarmass=>0.07875x132=10.
395g
Massofi
mpuri
ti
es= 10.5- 10.
395 = 0.
105g
%impur
it
ies = 0.105 x100= 1.0%
10.
5

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Practi
call
yv ol
umet ri
canal y
sisinvol
vestit
rati
on.
Tit
rati
ongener all
yi nvolv
esf i
ll
ingabur ettewi thknown/unknownconcent r
ati
onofa
soluti
onthenaddi ngthesol ut
iontounknown/ knownconcent r
ati
onofanothersol
uti
on
i
naconi calf l
askunt i
ltherei scompleter eacti
on.Ift hesoluti
onsusedar eboth
colourl
ess,ani ndicatorisaddedt otheconi calfl
ask.Whent hereacti
onisover,a
sli
ght/l
it
tl
eexcessofbur ettecontentschanget hecolouroftheindi
cator
.Thisi
scall
ed
theendpoi nt.
Setupoft i
trati
onappar atus

Thet i
tr
ati
onpr ocessinvolv
ei nv ol
v esdeterminati
onoft i
tre.Thetitr
eisthevolumeof
burett
econt ents/r
eadingbefor eandaf t
ert heendpoi nt .Burett
econtents/
readi
ng
beforetit
rat
ioni susuall
ycalledt heInit
ialburett
er eadi
ng.Bur ett
econtents/
readi
ng
aft
ertit
rati
onisusual l
ycall
edt heFi nalburett
ereading.Thet i
tr
ev al
ueisthusasum of
theFinall
essIniti
alburet
tereadi ngs.
Tor educeerrors,t
it
rati
onprocessshoul dber epeatedatleastoncemor e.
Theresultsofti
trati
onarerecor dedi natit
rati
ontableasbel ow

Sampl
eti
tr
ati
ont
abl
e

Ti
tr
ati
onnumber 1 2 3
Fi
nalburett
ereading(cm3) 20.
0 20.
0 20.
0
I
nit
ialburet
tereading(cm3) 0.
0 0.0 0.0
Vol
umeofsol utionused(cm3) 20.0 20.
0 20.
0
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Asev i
denceofat itr
ati
onact uallydoneexami ningbodyr equir
est hecandidatet o
recor
dtheirburett
er eadi
ngsbef oreandaf t
erthetit
ration.
ForKCSEcandi datesbur et
ter eadingsmustber ecordedinat i
tr
ationt
ablei nt he
formatprovi
dedbyt heKenyaNat ionalExaminati
onCounci l
.
Asev i
denceofal ltitr
ati
onact uall
ydoneKeny aNat i
onalExami nati
onCouncilrequire
thecandi
datet orecordtheirburettereadi
ngsbeforeandaf terthetit
rati
ont
ocompl ete
theti
tr
ati
ont abl
eint heformatpr ovided.

Calculatetheav er
agev olumeofsol uti
onused
24.0+24.0+24. 0 =24. 0cm3
3
Asev idenceofunder standingt hedegr eeofaccur acyofburet
tes, allr
eadingsmustbe
recordedtoadeci mal point .
Asev idenceofaccur acyi ncar ryi
ngt heoutt het i
trat
ion,candidatesv al
ueshouldbe
withi
n0. 2oft heschool value.
Theschoolv alueist het eachersr eadingspr esentedtotheexami ningbody /
counci
l
basedont heconcentrati
onsoft hesolutionss/ hepresent
edtoher /hiscandidat
es.
Bonusmar kisawar dedforav er
agedr eadingwi thi
n0.1schoolvalueasFi nalanswer.

Calculat
ionsinv
olved af
terthetit
rat
ionr
equi
recandi
dat
est
hor
ough pr
act
icaland
theoreti
calpr
act
icemasteryonthe:

(i)
rel
ati
onshi
pamongt hemole,mol armass, molerat
ios,
concent
rat
ion,molar
it
y.
st
(ii
)mathemati
calappli
cat
ionof1 pr inci
ples.
Veryusefuli
nfor
mationwhichcandi datesforgetappear
susuall
yint hebegi
nningof
thequest
ionpaperas:
“Youareprovi
dedwith…”

Allcalculat
ionmustbetothe4th deci
malpoi
ntunl
esstheydiv
ideful
lyt
oal
esser
decimal poi
nt.
Candidatesareexpect
edt
ouseanonpr ogr
ammablesci
ent
if
iccal
cul
ator
.

(
a)Sampl
eTi
tr
ati
onPr
act
ice1(
Simpl
eTi
tr
ati
on)

Youareprovi
dedwi th:
0.1M sodium hydr
oxi
desol
uti
onA
Hy dr
ochlori
cacidsol
uti
onB

Youar
erequi
redt
odet
ermi
net
heconcent
rat
ionofsol
uti
onBi
nmol
esperl
i
tre.

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Procedur
e
Fi
llthebur ettewi
thsol
uti
onB.Pipett
e25.
0cm3ofsoluti
onA i
ntoaconi
calfl
ask.
Tit
ratesolutionA wi
thsolut
ionB usi
ngphenol
pht
hal
eini
ndi
cat
ortocomplet
ethe
ti
tr
ationt
abl e1

Sampleresult
sTi t
rati
ontable1
Ti
tr
ati
onnumber 1 2 3
Fi
nalburett
ereading(cm3) 20.
0 20.
0 20.
0
I
nit
ialburet
tereading(cm3) 0.
0 0.0 0.0
Vol
umeofsol utionBused( cm3) 20.0 20.
0 20.
0

Sampl
ewor
kedquest
ions

1.Cal
culat
etheaver
agevolumeofsolut
ionBused
Averageti
tr
e=Titr
e1+Ti t
re2+Ti
tre3=>(20.0+20.
0+20.
0)=20.
0cm3
3 3
2.Howmanymol esof:
(i
)sol
uti
onAwer epresenti
n25cm3solut
ion.
Mol
esofsol
uti
onA= Mol
ari
tyxv
olume=0. 5x10-3mol
1x25=2. es
1000 1000

(i
i
)sol
uti
onBwer epr
esenti
ntheav
eragev
olume.
Chemicalequat
ion:NaOH(aq)+HCl(
aq)->NaCl(
aq)+H2O(
l)
Mol
erat
io1:
1 =>Mol
esofA=Mol 5x10-3mol
esofB=2. es

(
ii
i)sol
uti
onBinmol
esperli
tr
e.
MolesofBperl
it
re= mol 5x10-3x1000=0.
esx1000 =2. 1M
Volume 20

(
b)Sampl
eTi
tr
ati
onPr
act
ice2(
RedoxTi
tr
ati
on)

Youareprovidedwi th:
Acidif
iedPot assium manganate(VII
)solut
ionA
0.1M ofani ron( I
I)
saltsol
utionB
8.5gofammoni um ir
on(I
I)
sulphate(
VI)cry
stals(NH4)
2S O4FeSO4.xH2O sol
i
dC
Youar
er equiredto
(i
)standardizeacidif
iedpotassi
um manganat e(VII
)
(i
i)det
ermi nethev al
ueofxi ntheformula(NH4)2S O4FeSO4.xH2O.

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Procedure1
Fi
llthebur ettewithsoluti
onA.Pipett
e25.0cm3ofsol ut
ionBint
oaconi
calf
lask.
Ti
tratesoluti
onAwi thsolut
ionBunti
lapinkcol
ourj
ustappear
s.
Recordyourr esul
tstocompl et
etabl
e1.

Tabl
e1:
Sampl
eresul
ts

Ti
tr
ati
onnumber 1 2 3
Fi
nalburett
ereading(cm3) 20.
0 20.
0 20.
0
I
nit
ialburet
tereading(cm3) 0.
0 0.0 0.0
Vol
umeofsol utionAused(cm3) 20.0 20.
0 20.
0

Sampleworkedquestions
1.Cal
culat
etheaveragev ol
umeofsolut
ionAused
Averageti
tr
e=Ti tre1+Ti t
re2+Ti
tre3=>(20.0+20.
0+20.
0)=20.
0cm3
3 3
2.Howmanymol esof :
(i
)sol
uti
onBwer epr esenti
n25cm3solut
ion.
Mol esofsol
uti
onA= Molarit
yxvol
ume=0. 1x25=2. 5x10-3mol
es
1000 1000
(ii
)sol
uti
onAwer epr
esentintheav
eragevol
ume.AssumeonemoleofBr
eact
wi
thf
ivemolesofB

Mol
erat
ioA:B=1:
5
=>MolesofA=MolesofB= 5x10-3mol
2. 0x10-4mol
es = 5. es
5 5
(ii
i
)solutionBinmol esperl i
tr
e.
Mol esofBperl it
re= mol esx1000 =2. 5x10-3x1000
Volume 20
-1
=0.025M / molesperli
tr
e/molesl
Procedure2
Placeallthesol i
dCi ntothe250cm3v olumetr
icfl
askcarefully
.Addabout200cm3of
dist
ill
edwat er.Shaketodi ssol
ve.Makeupt othe250cm3ofsol uti
onbyaddingmore
dist
ill
edwat er.Labelthi
ssol ut
ionC.Pi pet
te25cm3ofsol utionCi ntoaconi
calf
lask,
Titr
atesol ut
ionCwi t
hsol uti
onAunt ilapermanentpi
nkcolourj ustappear
s.Complet
e
table2.

Table2:Sampl
eresul
ts
Ti
trati
onnumber 1 2 3

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Fi
nalburett
ereading(cm3) 20.
0 20.
0 20.
0
I
nit
ialburet
tereading(cm3) 0.
0 0.0 0.0
Vol
umeofsol utionAused(cm3) 20.0 20.
0 20.
0
Sampl
ewor
kedquest
ions
1.Cal
culat
etheaver
agevolumeofsolut
ionAused
Averageti
tr
e=Titr
e1+Ti t
re2+Ti
tre3=>(20.0+20.
0+20.
0)=20.
0cm3
3 3
2.Howmanymol esof:
(i
)sol
uti
onAwer epresenti
nint
heaver
ageti
tr
e.
Mol
esofsol
uti
onA= Mol
ari
tyxv
olume=0. 0x10-4mol
025x20=5. es
1000 1000
(
ii
)sol
uti
onCi
n25cm3sol
uti
ongi
ventheequat
ionf orther
eact
ion:
MnO4-(
aq)+8H+(
aq)+5Fe2+( 2+ 3+
aq)-
> Mn ( aq)+5Fe ( aq)+4H2O(
l)
Molerat
ioMnO4-( :5Fe2+(
aq) aq)=1:
5 => Mol
esof
2+ - -
4
5Fe ( aq)=MolesofMnO4 (aq)=5.
0x10 mol 0x10-4mol
es=1. es
5 5

(
ii
i)sol
uti
onBin250cm3.
MolesofBperl
it
re=mol 0x10-4 x250=1.
esx250 =1. 0x10-3mol
es
Vol
ume 25

3.Calcul
atethemol armassofsolidC andhencet
hev
alueofxi
n t
hechemi
cal
for
mula( NH4)
2SO4FeSO4.
xH2O.
(N=14.0,
S=32.0,Fe=56.
0,H=1.
0O=16.
0)

Mol
armass=massperli
tr
e= 8.
5 = 8500g
-
3
Mol
esperl
i
tre 1.
0x10 mol
es

NH4)
2SO4FeSO4.
xH2O=8500
284+18x=8500
8500-284= 8216 = 18x = 454.
4444
18 18

x=454(
whol
enumber
)

(
c)Sampl
eTi
tr
ati
onPr
act
ice3(
Backt
it
rat
ion)

Youar
epr
ovi
dedwi
th:
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(
i)
ani mpurecal
cium carbonat
elabeledM
(
ii
)Hydrochl
ori
caci dlabel
edsol
uti
onN
(
ii
i)
soluti
onLcont aini
ng20gperli
tresodi
um hy
droxi
de.
Youarer equir
edtodet erminetheconcentr
ati
onofNi nmolesperl
i
treandt
he%of
cal
cium carbonat
einmi xtureM.

Procedure1
Pipet
te25. 0cm3ofsol
uti
onLint
oaconicalfl
ask.Add2-
3dr opsofphenol
pht
halei
n
i
ndicator.Titr
atewi
thdi
lut
ehy
drochl
ori
cacidsolut
ionN andrecor
dy ourr
esul
tsin
tabl
e1( 4mark)
SampleTabl e1

1 2 3
Final burett
e r
eadi
ng 6.
5 6.
5 6.
5
(cm3)
I
nitial bur
ett
e r
eadi
ng 0.
0 0.
0 0.
0
(cm3)
VolumeofNused(
cm3) 6.
5 6.
5 6.
5

Samplequest
ions
(a)Cal
cul
atet
heav er
agev
olumeofsol
uti
onNused
6.
5+6. 5+6.5 = 6. 5cm3
3
(
b)Howmanymol esofsodi
um hy
droxi
dear
econt
ainedi
n25cm3ofsol
uti
onL
Mol
armassNaOH=40g
Mol
ari
tyofL = massperlit
re => 20 = 0. 5M
MolarmassNaOH 40

Mol
esNaOHi
n25cm3=mol
ari
tyxv
olume =>0.
5M x25cm3=0.
0125mol
es
1000 1000
(
c)Calculat
e:
(
i)
the numberofmol es ofhydrochlor
ic aci
dthatreactwi
th sodi
um hy
droxi
de i
n
(
b)above.
Moler ati
oNaOH: HClf
rom st
oichiometri
cequation=1:
1
MolesHCl =Mol
esNaOH=>0. 0125mol es
(
ii
)t
hemolar
it
yofhydrochl
ori
caci
dsolut
ionN.
Mol
ari
ty= molesx1000 =>0.0125molesx1000=1.
9231M/ edm-3
mol
6.
5 6.
5
Pr
ocedur
e2
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Placet he4. 0gofM pr ov i

dedintoaconi calf
laskandadd25. 0cm3oft hedilute
hydr ochlori
caci dtoitusi
ngacl eanpi pet
te.Swi
rlt
hecontentsoft heflaskv i
gorously
untilef fervescence st
op.Using a 100mlmeasur i
ng cyl
i
nderadd 175cm3 di sti
lled
wat erto makeup t hesol ut
ion up to 200cm3.
Labelthi
ssol ut
ion K.Usi ng a cl
ean
pi
pet t
etransfer25.0cm3oft hesol ut
ionintoacleanconicalfl
askandt i
tr
atewi th
solut i
onLf rom theburetteusing2- 3dropsofmet hy
lorangeindi cat
or.Recordy our
obser vationsintabl
e2.
Sampl
eTabl
e2

1 2 3
Final burett
e r
eadi
ng 24.
5 24.
5 24.
5
(cm3)
I
nitial bur
ett
e r
eadi
ng 0.
0 0.
0 0.
0
(cm3)
VolumeofNused(
cm3) 24.
5 24.
5 24.
5
Samplecal
culati
ons
(a)
Cal
culat
etheav er
agevol
umeofsol ut
ionLused(
1mk)
24.5+24. 5+24.5=24. 5cm3
3
(b)
Howmanymol esofsodi
um hy
droxidearepr
esenti
ntheav
eragev
olumeofsol
uti
on
Lused?

Mol
es=mol
ari
tyxaver
agebur
ett
evol
ume=>0.
5x24.
5
1000 1000

=0.
01225/
1.225x10-2mol
es

(c)How manymol
esofhy
drochl
ori
caci
d ar
epr
esenti
ntheor
igi
nal200cm3 of
solut
ionK?

Mol
erat
ioNaOH:
HCl
=1:
1=>mol
esofHCl
=0.
01225/
1.225x10-2mol
es

Mol
esi
n200cm3=200cm3x0.01225/
1.225x10-2mol
es
25cm3(
vol
umepipett
ed)

=0.
49/
4.9x10-1mol
es

(d)
Howmanymol
esofhy
drochl
ori
caci
dwer
econt
ainedi
nor
igi
nal25cm3sol
uti
onN
used

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Or
igi
nal
mol
es=Or
igi
nal
mol
ari
tyxpi
pet
tedv
olume=>
1000cm3

1.
9231M/
mol edm-3x 25 = 0.
04807/
4.807x10-2mol
es
1000

(e)How manymolesofhydr
ochl
ori
caci
dwereusedtoreactwi
thcal
cium car
bonat
e
present
?
Mol est
hatr
eact
ed=origi
nal
moles–mol
esi
naveraget
it
re=>

0.
04807/
4.807x10-2mol
es-0.
01225/
1.225x10-2mol
es

=0.
03582/
3.582x10-2mol
es

(f
)Wri
tetheequat
ionf
ort
hereacti
onbet
weencal
cium carbonat
eandhy
drochl
ori
caci
d.
CaCO3(
s)+2HCl (
aq)-> CaCl2(
aq)+ CO2(
g)+ H2O( l
)

(g)Cal
culat
ethenumberofmolesofcal
cium car
bonat
ethatr
eact
edwi
thhy
drochl
ori
c
acid.
From theequat
ionCaCO3(
s):
2HCl
(aq)=1:
2
=>Mol esCaCO3(s)=1/
2molesHCl
1 -
2
=/ 2x0 .
03582/3.
582x10 mol es
-2
=0.01791/1.791x10 moles

(h)
Calcul
atethe mass ofcal
cium car
bonat
ein 4.
0g ofmi
xtur
eM (
Ca=40.
0,O=
16.
0,C=12.
0)

MolarmassCaCO3=100g
MassCaCO3=mol esxmol
armass =>0.
01791/
1.791x10-2mol
esx100g
=1.
791g

(
i)
Det
ermi
net
he%ofcal
cium car
bonat
epr
esenti
nthemi
xtur
e

%CaCO3=massofpur
ex100% => 1.
791gx100% = 44.
775%
Massofi
mpur
e 4.
0

(
d)Sampl
eti
tr
ati
onpr
act
ice4(
Mul
ti
plet
it
rat
ion)

Youar
epr
ovi
dedwi
th:
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(i
)sodi um Lcontaining5.0gperli
tr
eofadi basi
corgani
cacidH2X.2H2O.
(i
i)soluti
onM whi chi sacidi
fi
edpotassi
um manganate(
VII
)
(i
ii)solut
ionNami xtureofsodium et
hanedioat
eandethanedioi
cacid
(i
v )0.1M sodium hydroxi
desoluti
onP
(v)1.0M sulphuri
c(VI)
Youarer equir
edt o:
(i
)st andardi
zesolutionM usingsolut
ionL
(i
i)usest andardi
zedsol utionM andsol ut
ionPt odeterminethe% ofsodi
um
ethanedi oat
ei nt
hemi xt
ure.

Procedure1
Fil
ltheburett
ewi t
hsolut
ionM.Pipett
e25.0cm3ofsoluti
onLi nt
oaconi
calf
lask.Heat
o
thi
ssolutiontoabout70C( butnottoboil
).Ti
tr
atethehotsoluti
onLwit
hsolutionM
unti
laper manentpinkcolourjustappears.Shakethoroughl
ydur
ingthet i
tr
ati
on.
Repeatthisprocedur
etocompletetabl
e1.

Sampl
eTabl
e1

1 2 3
Final burett
e r
eadi
ng 24.
0 24.
0 24.
0
(cm3)
I
nitial bur
ett
e r
eadi
ng 0.
0 0.
0 0.
0
(cm3)
VolumeofNused(
cm3) 24.
0 24.
0 24.
0

Sampl
ecalcul
ati
ons
(a)
Cal
cul
atetheaver
agev
olumeofsol
uti
onLused(
1mk)

24.
0+24.0+24. 0=24.0cm3
3
(
b)Gi
venthatt
heconcent
rat
ionofthedi
basicacidi
s0. esdm-3.
05mol det
ermi
net
he
v
alueofxi
nthefor
mul
aH2X.2H2O(
H=1.0,
O=16.0)

Mol
armassH2X.
2H2O=massperli
tr
e => 5.
0g/
li
tre =100g
-3
Mol
es/l
it
re 0.
05molesdm

H2X.
2H2O=100
X=100–( (
2x1)+2x(
2x1)+(
2x16)=>100– 34=66

(
c)Cal
cul
atet
henumberofmol
esoft
hedi
basi
caci
dH2X.
2H2O.

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Mol
es=mol
ari
tyxpi
pet
tev
olume=> 0.
5x25 = 0.
0125/
1.25x10-2mol
es
1000 1000

(d)
Giventhemolerati
omanganate(
VII)
(MnO4-)
:aci
dH2Xi
s2:
5,cal
cul
atet
henumber
-
ofmolesofmanganate(
VII
)(MnO4)intheaver
aget i
tr
e.

esH2X = 2/
Mol 5mo lesofMnO4-
=>2/5 x0 .
0125/
1.25x10-2mol
es
-3
=0.005/5.0x10 moles

(
e)Cal
cul
atetheconcentrat
ionofthemanganate(VI
I)
(MnO4-)inmol
esperli
tre.
Molesperli
tr
e/molari
ty=mol es x 1000
aver
ageburettevol
ume
-3 -1
=>0.
005/5.0x10 mol esx1000=0. 2083mol
esl /M
24. 0

Procedure2
Withsoluti
onM sti
l
lintheburette,
pipet
te25.0cm3ofsolut
ionNintoaconi
calf
lask.
o
Heatt heconicalf
laskcontai
ningsoluti
onN t o about70C.Ti
tr
atewhi
lehotwi t
h
solut
ionM.Repeatt
heexperi
mentt ocomplet
et abl
e2.
Sampl eTabl
e2

1 2 3
Final burett
e r
eadi
ng 12.
5 12.
5 12.
5
(cm3)
I
nitial bur
ett
e r
eadi
ng 0.
0 0.
0 0.
0
(cm3)
VolumeofNused(
cm3) 12.
5 12.
5 12.
5

Sampl
ecalcul
ati
ons
(a)
Cal
cul
atetheaver
agev
olumeofsol
uti
onLused(
1mk)

12.5+12.
5+12. 5=12.5cm3
3
(b)
Cal
culat
ions:
(i
)Howmanymol esofmanganate(
VII
)i
onsar
econt
ainedi
ntheav
eragev
olume
ofsol
uti
onM used?

Mol
es=molari
tyofsolut
ionM xav
eragebur
ett
evol
ume
1000
-
1
=> 0.
2083mol esl/M x12.5 = 0. 5x10-3mol
0026/2. es
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1000

(ii
)Thereact
ionbet
weenmanganat
e(VI
I)
ionsandet
hanedi
oat
eionst
hatr
eact
ed
wi
thi
sasi nt
heequati
on:
2MnO4-(
aq)+5C2O42-(
aq)+16H+( >2Mn2+(
aq)- aq)+10CO2(
g)+8H2O(
l)
Cal
cul
atethenumberofmol
esofethanedi
oat
eionst
hatr
eact
edwi
thmanganat
e(VI
I)
i
onsintheaver
agevol
umeofsol
uti
onM.

Fr
om t
hest
oichi
omet
ri
cequat
ion,
mol
erat
ioMnO4-(
aq)
:C2O42-(
aq)=2:
5
esC2O42- = 5/
=>mol 2moesMnO4-=>5/
l 2x0. 5x10-3mol
0026/2. es
=0.
0065/
6.5x10-3mol
es

(i
ii
)Cal
cul
atet
henumberofmol
esofet
hanedi
oat
eionscont
ainedi
n250cm3
sol
uti
onN.

25cm3pipet
tev
olume -> 0.
0065/
6.5x10-3mol
es
250cm3 -
>

0.
0065/
6.5x10-3mol
esx250 = 0. 5x10-2mol
065/6. es
25

Procedur
e3
Remov esolut
ionM from theburetteandr i
nsei twit
hdistil
l
edwater.Fi
l
ltheburett
e
withsodi
um hy dr
oxi
desoluti
onP.Pi pett
e25cm3ofsol ut
ionNint
oaconicalf
laskand
add2-3dropsofphenolphthal
einindicat
or.Tit
ratethi
ssoluti
onNwithsol
uti
onPf rom
theburet
te.Repeatt
heproceduretocompl etetable3.
SampleTable2

1 2 3
Final burett
e r
eadi
ng 24.
9 24.
9 24.
9
(cm3)
I
nitial bur
ett
e r
eadi
ng 0.
0 0.
0 0.
0
(cm3)
VolumeofNused(
cm3) 24.
9 24.
9 24.
9

Sampl
ecalcul
ati
ons
(a)
Cal
cul
atetheaver
agev
olumeofsol
uti
onLused(
1mk)

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24.9+24.
9+24. 9=24.9cm3
3
(b)
Calculat
ions:
(
i)How manymol esofsodi
um hydr
oxi
de sol
uti
on P wer
e cont
ained i
nthe
aver
agev olume?

Mol
es=molari
tyofsol ut
ionP xav
eragebur
ett
ev ol
ume
1000
-
1
=> 0.
1mol esl x24. 9 = 0.00249/2.49x10-3mol
es
1000

(i
i
)Giv
enthatNaOHsol
uti
onPr eact
edwi
tht
heet
hanedi
oat
eionsf
rom t
heaci
d
onl
yandtheequat
ionf
ort
hereact
ioni
s:
2NaOH(
aq)+ H2C2O4(
aq) -
> Na2C2O4(
g) + 2H2O(
l)
Cal
cul
atet
henumberofmol
esofet
hanedi
oicaci
dthatwer
eusedi
nther
eact
ion

Fr
om t
hest
oichi
omet
ri
cequat
ion,
mol
erat
ioNaOH(
aq)
:H2C2O4(
aq)=2:
1
esH2C2O4 = 1/
=>mol 2moesNaOH=>1/
l 2x0. 49x10-3mol
00249/2. es
=0.
001245/
1.245x10-3mol
es.

(
ii
i)
Howmanymol
esofet
hanedi
oicaci
dwer
econt
ainedi
n250cm3ofsol
uti
onN?
25cm3pipett
ev olume ->0.001245/
1.245x10-3moles
250cm3 ->
0.001245/
1.245x10-3mol
esx250 = 0. 01245/ 245x10-2mol
1. es
25
(i
i
i)Det
ermi
net he% bymassofsodi um ethanedi
oateint hemict
ure (
H=
1.
0,O=16.
0,C=12.0andtotal
massofmi xt
ure=2.0gin250cm3sol uti
on)

MolarmassH2C2O4=90.
0g
MassofH2C2O4i
n250cm3=mol esi
n250cm3xmolarmassH2C2O4
-
2
=>0.
01245/
1.245x10 mol
esx90.
0
=1.1205g

%bymassofsodi
um et
hanedi
oate
=(Massofmixt
ure -massofH2C2O4)x100%
Massofmixt
ure

=> 2.
0-1.
1205g =43.
975%
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2.
0

Note
(i
)Lis0.05M Oxali
cacid
(
ii
)M is0.01M KMnO4
(
ii
i)Nis0.03M oxal
icaci
d(wi
thoutsodi
um oxal
ate)

Pract i
ceexampl e5.(Det ermi ni
ngequat i
onf orareacti
on)
Youar eprovidedwi t
h
-0.1M hy dr
ochloricaci dsoluti
onA
-0.5M sodium hy droxi desol ut
ionB
Youar et odeterminet heequat ionforthereactionbetweensol uti
onAandB
Procedur e
Fil
lt hebur et
te wi t
hsol utionA. Usi
ngapi petteandpi pet
tef il
l
ert r
ansf er25.0cm3of
solutionBi ntoaconi calf lask.Add2- 3dropsofphenol phthaleinindicator .
Runsoluti
on
Ai ntosol uti
onBunt ilaper manentpi nkcol ourjustappear s.Recordy ourresul
tsin
Tabl e1. Repeattheexper imentt oobt ai
nt hreeconcordantresultstocompl eteTable1
Tabl e1( Sampl eresult
s)
Titr
at i
on 1 2 3
Finalv olume(cm3) 12.5 25.
0 37.5
Ini
tialv olume(cm3) 0.0 12.
5 25.0
Volumeofsol uti
onAused( cm3) 12.5 12.
5 12.5
Sampl equest i
ons
Calcul atetheav eragev olumeofsol ut i
onAused.
12.5+12. 5+12. 5= 12. 5cm3
3

Theor
eti
cal
Pract
iceexampl
es

1.1.0gofdibasi
cacidHOOC( CH2)
xCOOHwasdi ssol
vedin250cm3sol
uti
on.25.
0cm3
ofthissolut
ionreact
edwi t
h30.0cm3of0.06M sodium hy
droxi
desol
uti
on.Cal
cul
ate
thevalueofxinHOOC( CH2)
xCOOH.(C=12.
0,H=1.
0,O=16.
)

Chemi
calequat
ion
2NaOH(aq)+H2X(
aq)-
>Na2X(
aq)+2H2O(
aq)
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Mol
erat
ioNaOH(
aq):
H2X(
aq)=2:
1

Met
hod1
MaVa=na =>Max25.0 =1=>Ma=0.06x30.
0x1
MbVb=nb 0.
06x30.0 2 25.0x2
-
1
Mol
ari
tyofaci
d=0.
036M/
Mol
el

Massofaci
dperl i
te= 1.
0x1000 = 4. 0g/
l
250
-1
0.
036M/Mol el - >4.
0g/l
1mole=molarmassofHOOC( CH2)
xCOOH= 4.
0x1 =111.
1111g
0.
036

Mol
armass(
CH2)
x=111.
1111–(
HOOCCOOH =90.
0)=21.
1111

(
CH2)
x=14x=21.
1111=1.
5=1(
whol
enumber
)
14

Met
hod2
Mol
esofsodium hydroxi
de= Mol arit
yxvolume=0. 06x30=1.8x10-3mol
es
1000
1
Mol
esofHy dr
ochlori
cacid= / 2 x1 .8x10-3mol
es=9.0x10-4moles
-4
Mol
ari
tyofHydrochl
oricacid=mol esx1000=9. 0x10 molesx1000
Volume 25
-
1
Mol
ari
tyofacid=0.036M/ Molel

Massofaci
dperl i
te= 1.
0x1000 = 4. 0g/
l
250
-1
0.
036M/Mol el - >4.
0g/l
1mole=molarmassofHOOC( CH2)
xCOOH= 4.
0x1 =111.
1111g
0.
036

Mol
armass(
CH2)
x=111.
1111–(
HOOCCOOH =90.
0)=21.
1111

(
CH2)
x=14x=21.
1111=1.
5=1(
whol
enumber
)
14

2.20.0cm3of0. 05M acidi

fi
edpotassi
um manganat e(
VII
)sol
ut i
onoxidi
zed 25.
0cm3
2+ 3+
ofFe ( aq)i
onsin40.0g/
lofimpur
eIron(I
I)
sulphate(
VI)toFe ( aq)i
ons.Cal
cul
atet
he
per
cent ageimpuri
ti
esintheIron(
II
)sul
phat
e(VI).
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MnO4-(
aq)+8H+(aq)+5Fe2+(
aq)
->5Fe3+(
aq)+Mn2+(
aq)+4H2O(
aq)
Fe=56.
0,S=32.
0,O=16.
0).

esofMnO4-(
Mol aq)=Mol
ari
tyxvol
ume= 0.05x20.
0 =0.
001Mol
es
1000 1000

Mol
eratoMnO4-(
i aq)5Fe2+(
: aq)
=1:
5
2+
Mol
es5Fe ( aq) = 5x0.
001 = 0.
005Mol
es

esof5Fe2+(
Mol aq)perl
i
tre/
molari
ty=Molesx1000 = 0005x1000
Vol
ume 25.
0
=0.2M/Moles/l
it
re

Molarmass=FeSO4=152g
Massofinthemixture=Mol
esxmol
armass=>0.
2x152=30.
4g

Massofi
mpur
it
y=40.
0–30.
4=9.
6g

%i
mpur
it
y = 9.
6gx100=24. 0%impur i
ty
40.0
3.
9.7gofami xt
ur eofPotassium hy
droxideandPot assi
um chl
ori
dewasdi ssol
vedto
make one l i
tr
e sol ut
ion.
20.0cm3 of t hi
s solut
ion requi
red 25.0cm3 of 0.12M
hydrochlor
icacidf orcompletedneutral
izat
ion.Calcul
atethepercentagebymassof
Potassium chl
oride.(
K=39.0,
Cl=35.5)

Chemicalequat
ion
KOH(aq)+HCl (aq)->KCl (
aq)+H2O(
l)
MolesofHCl =Molarit
yxv olume=>0.
12x25.0 =0.
003/
3.0x10-3mol
es
1000 1000
Molerati
oKOH( aq):HCl(aq)-=1:1
MolesKOH=0. 003/ 0x10-3mol
3. es
Method1

MolarmassKOH =56.0g
MassKOHi n25cm3=0.003/ 0x10-3mol
3. esx56.
0=0.168g
MassKOHi n1000cm3/1li
tr
e=0. 168x1000=8.4g/l
20
MassofKCl =9.7g-8.4g =1.3g
%ofKCl= 1. 3x100 = 13. 4021%
9.7
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Method2
MolesKOHin1000cm3/1l
i
tre=Molesin20cm3x1000=>0.
003x1000
20 20
=0.15M/Moles/l
it
re
MolarmassKOH =56.
0g
MassKOHi n1000/
1li
tr
e=0.15M/Moles/l
it
rex56.
0=8.4g/l

MassofKCl
=9.7g-8.
4g =1.
3g
%ofKCl= 1.3x100 = 13.4021%
9.7

4.A cert
aincarbonate,GCO3,react
swit
hdi lut
ehydrochl
ori
caci
daccor
dingt
othe
equationgi
v enbel
ow:
GCO3(s)+2HCl(
aq) -
> GCl aq) + C
2( O2(
g)+H2O(l)

I
f1goft hecarbonat
ereact
scompl
etel
ywit
h20cm3of1M hy
drochl
ori
caci
d
,
cal
cul
atet
her
elati
veat
omicmassofG(C=12.
0=16.
0)

Mol
esofHCl=Mol ar
it
yxv ol
ume=>1x20=0. 02mol
es
1000 1000
Mol
erat
ioHCl;GCO3 =2:1
Mol
esofGCO3=0.02mol es=0.01mol
es
2
Mol
armassofGCO3 = mass => 1 = 100g
moles 0.01moles
G=GCO3-CO3=>100g–( 12+16x3=60)=40(nouni
ts)

5.46. 0g ofa met alcar bonate MCO3 was di ssol

ved 160cm3 of0.
1M excess
hydrochlori
caci dandtheresult
antsolutiondil
utedtooneli
tre.
25.
0cm3oft
hissol
uti
on
requir
ed20. 0cm3of0. 1M sodium hy droxi
desol uti
onforcomplet
eneutr
ali
zat
ion.
Calculat
et heatomicmassof‘ M’
Equation
Chemi calequation
NaOH( aq)+HCl (
aq)->KCl (aq)+H2O( l)
MolesofNaOH=Mol ari
tyxvolume=>0. 1x20=0. 002moles
1000 1000
Moler ati
oHCl ;NaOH =1: 1
Excessmol esofHCl =0. 002mol es

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25cm3 - > 0.
002mol es
1000cm3 -
> 1000x0. 002 = 0.08mol
es
25cm3
Or
igi
nal
mol
esofHCl=Molari
tyxv ol
ume=>1M x1li
tr
e=1.
0mol
es

MolesofHCl reactedwi
thMCO3 =1.0-0.08moles=0.92mol
es
Chemicalequation
MCO3(s)+2HCl (
aq) -
> MCl aq) + C
2( O2(
g)+H2O(l)
Molerati
oMCO3(s): HCl
aq)=
( 1:
2

Mol
esofMCO3 = 0.92moles =>0.
46mol
es
2
Mol
armassofMCO3= mass => 46g =100g
moles 0.
46mol
es
M=MCO3-CO3=>100g–(12+16x3=60)=40

6.25.0cm3ofami xt eofFe2+ andFe3+ i

ur onsi nanaqueoussal twasacidi
fi
edwi th
sulphur
ic(VI)
aci dthen ti
tr
ated againstpot assium manganat e(
VI).Thesal
trequi red
15cm3of e0.02M pot assi
um manganat e(VI)f orcomplet
ereaction.
2+ 3+
Asecond25cm3por ti
onoftheFe andFe i onsal
twasr educedbyZi nct
hent i
trated
againstthesameconcent r
ati
onofpot assium manganat e(VI)
.19.0cm3ofpot assium
manganat e(VI)sol
uti
onwasusedf orcompl et ereact
ion.Calcul
atetheconcentr
ationof
2+ 3+
Fe andFe i oninthesoluti
ononmol esperl i
tr
e.

MoleratioFe2+: Mn04-=5: 1
-
MolesMn04 used = 0.02x15 = 0x10-4mol
3. es
1000
2+
MolesFe = 3.0x10-4mol es = 0x10-5mol
6. es
5
2+
0x10-4mol 4x10-3mol -1
Molar
ityofFe = 6. esx1000 = 2. esl
25
3+ 2+
Si
nceZi ncr educesFe t oFe i nthemi xture:
- 2+
MolesMn04 t hatr eact
edwi t
hal lFe = 0. 02x19 = 3. 8x10-4moles
1000
2+ -
4
Molesofal lFe = 3.8x10 mol es = 7. 6x10-5moles
5
3+
MolesofFe = 3.8x10-4-6. 0x10-5 = 1. 6x10-5moles
3+ -5 -
4 -
1
Molar
ityofFe = 1.
6x10 mol esx1000 = 4. 0x10 mol esl
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25

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I
ntr
oduct
iont
oOr
gani
cchemi
str
y

Organi cchemi str

yist hebr anchofchemi strythatstudi
escarboncompoundspr esent
i
nl ivi
ngt hi
ngs, oncel i
vingthi ngsorsy nthetic/man- made.
Compoundst hatmakesupl ivingt hi
ngswhet heral i
veordeadmainlycontai
ncar bon.
Car bonistetravalent.
Itisabl etoform st ablecov alentbondswi thitselfandmanynon-met al
sli
kehy drogen,
ni
tr ogen,oxygenandhal ogenst oform av ari
etyofcompounds.Thisi sbecause:
(i)carbonusesal lthef ourv alenceel ect ronst oformfourstr
ongcov al
entbond.
(i
i)carboncancov alentlybondt of orm asi ngle,doubleortri
plecoval
entbondwi t
h
i
tsel f
.
(i
ii
)carbonat omscancov al
ent lybondt oform av er
ylongchainorr
ing.
Whencar boncov al
entlybondwi thHy drogen, itformsagroupoforganiccompounds
calledHy drocarbons

A.HYDROCARBONS( HCs)
Hydrocarbonsareagr oupoforganiccompoundscont
aini
ng/madeupofhydr
ogen
andcarbonat omsonl y.
Dependingont hetypeofbondt hatexi
stbet
weenthei
ndivi
dual
carbonat
oms,
hydr
ocarbonar eclassi
fiedas:
(i
)Alkanes
(i
i
)Alkenes
(i
i
i)Alkynes

(
i)Al
kanes

(
a)Nomencl
atur
e/Nami
ng

Thesearehydr
ocar
bonswithagener
alf
ormul
aCnH2n+2wherenist
henumberof
Carbonatomsinamolecul
e.
Thecarbonatomsareli
nkedbysi
ngl
ebondtoeachotherandtohydr
ogenat
oms.

Theyi
ncl
ude:

n Gener
al/ St
ruct
ural
for
mul
a Name
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Molecul
ar
for
mula
1 CH4 H Met
hane

H C H

2 C2H6 H H Et
hane

H C C H

H H

3 C3H8 H H H Pr
opane

H C C C H

H H H

4 C4H10 H H H H But
ane

H C C C C H

H H H H

5 C5H12 H H H H H Pent
ane

H C C C C CH CH3(
CH2)6CH3

H H H H H

6 C6H14 H H H H H H Hexane

H C C C C C C H CH3(
CH2)6CH3

H H H H HH

7 C7H16 H H H H H H H Hept
ane

H C C C C C C C H
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H H H H HH H

8 C8H18 H H H H H H H H Oct
ane

H C C C C C C C C H

H H H H HH H H

9 C9H20 H H H H H H H H H Nonane

H C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H HH H H H

10 C10H22 H H H H H H H H H H decane

H C C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H HH H H H H

Note
1.Thegener alformula/mol ecularf ormularofacompoundshowst henumberofeach
atomsofel ement smaki ngt hecompounde. g.
Decanehasagener al/
mol ecularformul aC10H22;thismeanst hereare10car bonat oms
and22hy drogenat omsi namol ecul eofdecane.
2.Thest ructuralformulashowst hear rangement /bondi ngofat omsofeachel ement
makingt hecompounde. g
Decanehast hest r
uctural formulaasi nt hetableabov e; thi
smeanst he1stcarbon
fr
om lef ttor i
ghtisbondedt othreehy drogenat omsandonecar bonat om.
nd
The2 car bonat om isjoined/ bondedt otwoot hercar bonat omsandt woHy drogen
atoms.
3.Si
ncecar boni stetr
av alent,eachat om ofcar boni nt heal kaneMUSTal way sbe
bondedusi ngf ourcovalentbond/ foursharedpai rsofel ectr
ons.
4.SinceHy drogeni smonov al
ent,eachat om ofhy dr ogeni nthealkaneMUSTal way s
bebondedusi ngonecov alentbond/ oneshar edpai rofel ectrons.
5.Onememberoft heal kanedi fferfrom thenext /
pr eviousbyaCH2 gr oup.
e.g
Propanedi ff
erf r
om ethanebyonecar bonandt woHy drogenat omsf orm ethane.
Ethanedi fferfrom met haneal sobyonecar bonandt woHy drogenat oms
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6.Agroupofcompoundst hatdif ferbyaCH2 gr oupf rom t henext/previ

ous
consecut i
vel yi
scalledahomol ogousser ies.
7.Ahomol ogousser ies:
(i
)di fferbyaCH2 gr oupf rom t henext/ previousconsecut i
vel
y
(i
i)hav esimil
archemi calpr oper t
ies
(ii
i)hav esimil
archemi cal formul athatcanber epresentedbyagener alf or
mula
e.
gal kaneshav et hegener al formulaCnH2n+2.
(i
v)thephy sical propert
ies( e. g.melting/
boi l
ingpoi nts)
showst eadygradual
change)
8.The1stf oural kaneshav et hepr efixmet h_,eth_,prop_andbut _torepresent
1,
2, 3and4car bonsi nthecompound.Al l
otheruset henumeral pr
efix
pent _,
Hex_ ,
hept _,etctoshowal sot henumberofcar bonatoms.
9.I
fonehy drogenat om inanal kanei sr
emov ed,anal kylgr
oupi sfor
med. e.
g

Alkanename molecul ar Al
kyl
name Molecul ast
ruct
ure
str
uctur e CnH2n+1
CnH2n+2
met hane CH4 methyl CH3
ethane CH3CH3 ethyl CH3CH2
propane CH3CH2CH3 propyl CH3CH2CH2
butane CH3CH2CH2CH3 butyl CH3CH2CH2CH2

(b)
Isomer sofal kanes
I
somer sar ecompoundswi ththesamemoleculargener alf
ormul abutdi
fferent
molecul arst r
uct uralf
ormula.
I
somer ism i stheexi stenceofacompoundshav ingthesamegener al/molecular
for
mul abutdi fferentstruct
uralf
ormula.
st
The1 t hreeal kanesdonotf ormisomers.
Isomer sarenamedbyusi ngthe
I
UPAC( I
nt ernationalUnionofPur eandAppl
iedChemi st
ry)syst
em of
nomencl ature/nami ng.
TheI UPACsy st em ofnomenclatur
eusesthefollowingbasicrules/gui
deli
nes:

1.I
denti
fythelongestcont inuouscar bonchai ntoget/
det er
minetheparentalkane.
2.Numbert helongestchai nformt heendoft hechai
nthatisneart hebr
anchessoas
thebranchgett helowestnumberpossi ble
3.Determinetheposition, numberandt ypeofbranches.Namet hem asmet hyl,et
hyl
,
propyle.t
c.accor di
ngtot henumberofcar bonchainsattachedtotheparentalkane.
Namet hem f l
uoro-,
chl
oro-,bromo-,i
odo-i ftheyarehal
ogens
4.Useprefi
xdi -
,t
ri-
,
tet
ra-,
pent a-
,hexa-toshowt henumberofbr anchesatt
achedt othe
parental
kane.

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Pract
iceonI
UPACnomencl
atur
eofal
kanes
(a)
Drawthestr
uct
ureof
:

(i
)2-
met hy
lpentane
Procedure
1.I
denti
fythelongestcont
inuouscar
bonchai
ntoget
/det
ermi
net
hepar
ental
kane.
Butaneistheparentname CH3CH2CH2CH3

2.Numberthel
ongestchai
nformtheendofthechai
nthati
sneart
hebr
anchessoas
thebr
anchgetthel
owestnumberpossibl
e
Themethyl
groupisatt
achedtoCarbon“2”

3.Deter
minet heposi
ti
on,numberandty
peofbr anches.Namet hem asmethy
l,et
hyl
,
propyle.
tc.accordi
ngtothenumberofcarbonchainsattachedt
ot hepar
ental
kanei.
e

Posit
ionofthebranchatcarbon“2”
Numberofbr anchesatcarbon“1”
Typeoft hebranch“methyl
”hence
Molecul
arformul
a
CH3

CH3CHCH2CH3 /
/CH3CH(
CH3)CH2CH3

St
ruct
ural
for
mul
a
H H H H

H C C C C H

H H H

H C H

(
ii
)2,
2-di
methyl
pent
ane
Procedur
e

1.I
dent
if
yt hel
ongestcont
inuouscar
bonchai
ntoget
/det
ermi
net
hepar
ental
kane.
Butaneisthepar
entname CH3CH2CH2CH3

2.Numbert
hel
ongestchai
nfor
mtheendoft
hechai
nthati
sneart
hebr
anchessoas
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thebr
anchgetthel
owestnumberpossi
ble
Themethyl
groupisat
tachedt
oCarbon“2”

3.Determi nethepositi
on,numberandty
peofbr anches.Namet hem asmethy
l,et
hyl
,
propyle.tc.accordingtothenumberofcarbonchainsattachedt
ot hepar
ental
kanei.
e
Posit
ionoft hebranchatcarbon“2”
Numberofbr anchesatcarbon“2”
Typeoft hebranchtwo“methyl
”hence
Molecularformular

CH3

CH3CCH2CH3 /
/CH3C (
CH3)
2CH2CH3

CH3
St
ruct
ural
for
mul
a
H

H C H

H H H

H C C C C H

H H H

H C H

(
ii
i)2,
2,
3-t
ri
met
hyl
but
ane

Procedure
1.Ident
if
yt hel
ongestcont
inuouscar
bonchai
ntoget
/det
ermi
net
hepar
ental
kane.
Butaneisthepar
entname CH3CH2CH2CH3

2.Numberthel
ongestchai
nformtheendofthechai
nthati
sneart
hebr
anchessoas
thebr
anchgetthel
owestnumberpossibl
e
Themethyl
groupisatt
achedtoCarbon“2and3”

3.Det
ermi
net
heposi
ti
on,
numberandt
ypeofbr
anches.Namet
hem asmet
hyl
,et
hyl
,
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pr
opyle.tc.accordingtot
henumberofcar bonchai
nsat
tachedt
othepar
ental
kanei
.e
Posit
ionoft hebranchatcarbon“2and3”
Numberofbr anchesatcarbon“3”
Typeoft hebr anchthr
ee“ methy
l”hence
Molecularformular

CH3

CH3 C CHCH3 /
/CH3C (
CH3)
3CH2CH3

CH3CH3
St
ruct
uralf
ormul
a
H

H C H

H H

H C C CH

H H
H

H C C H

H
H C H

H
(
iv)1,
1,1,2,
2,2-
hexabr
omoet
hane
Molecularformul
a

CBr
3CBr
3

St
ructur
alf
ormul
a
Br Br

Br C C Br

Br Br
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(
v)1,
1,
1-t
etr
achl
oro-
2,2-
dimet
hyl
but
ane
CH3

CCl
3 C CH3 /
/CCl
3C (
CH3)
2CH3

CH3
St
ruct
uralf
ormul
a
Cl

Cl C Cl

H H

H C C CH

H H
H C H

(
c)Occur
renceandext
ract
ion

Crudeoil,
nat
ural
gasandbiogasaret
hemainsourcesofal
kanes:
(i
)Natur
algasisf
oundontopofcrudeoi
ldeposi
tsandconsi
stsmainl
yofmet
hane.

(i
i)
Biogasisformedfr
om thedecayofwasteorgani
cproduct
slikeani
maldungand
cel
lulose.Whenthedecaytakespl
aceinabsenceofoxygen,60-75%byv
olumeofthe
gaseousmi xt
ureofmethanegasisproduced.

(i
i
i)Crudeoili
sami xt
ureofmanyf l
ammablehydrocar
bons/
substances.Usi
ng
fr
actionaldi
sti
ll
ati
on,eachhy drocarbonf
ract
ioncanbeseparat
edfrom theother
.The
hydrocarbonwithl
ower/ smal l
ernumberofcarbonatomsinthechainhavelower
boil
ingpointandthuscollect
edf ir
st.

Ast hecarbonchaini
ncrease,
theboil
i
ngpoint
,vi
scosit
y(easeoff
low)andcol
our
i
ntensit
yincreaseasfl
ammabili
tydecr
ease.Hydr
ocarbonsincr
udeoil
arenotpur
e.
Theythushav enosharpfi
xedboil
i
ngpoint.

Usesofdi
ffer
entcr
udeoi
lfr
act
ions
Carbonat
omsi na Commonnameof Usesoff
ract
ion
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molecul
e fr
act
ion
1-
4 Gas L.P.Ggasf or
domest i
cuse
5-
12 Pet
rol Fuelf orpetrol
engines
9-
16 Ker
osene/
Par
aff
in Jetfuel and
domest i
c
l
ighting/cooking
15-
18 Li
ghtdi
esel Heav ydiesel engine
fuel
18-
25 Di
esel
oil Lightdiesel engine
fuel
20-
70 Lubr
icat
ingoi
l Lubricatingoilto
reducef rict
ion.
Ov
er70 Bi
tumen/
Asphal
t Tarmacki ngroads

(
d)School
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
onofal
kanes

Inaschool labor
atory
,al
kanesmaybeprepar
edfr
om t
her
eact
ionofasodi
um
alkanoatewi t
hsoli
dsodi
um hydr
oxi
de/
sodalime.
Chemi calequati
on:

Sodium alkanoat
e + sodal
i
me- > al
kane + Sodi
um car
bonat
e
CnH2n+1COONa(s) + NaOH(
s) -> CnH2n+2 + Na2CO3(s)

The“ H”i
nNaOHi
str
ansf
err
ed/
mov
est
otheCnH2n+1i
nCnH2n+1COONa(
s)t
ofor
m Cn
H2n+2.

Exampl
es

1.Methaneispreparedfr
om theheati
ngofami
xtur
eofsodi
um ethanoat
eandsoda
l
imeandcol lect
ingoverwat
er
Sodi
um ethanoat e + sodal
ime-> methane + Sodi um carbonat
e
CH3COONa( s) + NaOH(s) -
> CH4 + Na2CO3( s)

The“
H”i
nNaOHi
str
ansf
err
ed/
mov
est
otheCH3i
nCH3COONa(
s)t
ofor
m CH4.

2.Et
hanei
sprepar
edfrom t
heheat
ingofami
xtur
eofsodi
um pr
opanoat
eandsoda
l
i
meandcoll
ecti
ngoverwater

Sodi
um pr
opanoat
e + sodal
i
me-
> et
hane + Sodi
um car
bonat
e
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CH3CH2COONa(
s) + NaOH(
s) -
> CH3CH3 + Na2CO3(
s)

The“
H”inNaOHi
str
ansf
err
ed/
mov
est
otheCH3CH2i
nCH3CH2COONa(
s)t
ofor
m
CH3CH3

3.Pr
opanei
sprepar
edfrom t
heheat
ingofami
xtur
eofsodi
um but
anoat
eandsoda
l
i
meandcoll
ect
ingoverwater

Sodi
um but
anoat
e + sodal
i
me- > pr
opane + Sodi um carbonat
e
CH3CH2CH2COONa(
s)+ NaOH(s) -
> CH3CH2CH3 +Na2CO3(s)

The“H”i
nNaOHi st
ransf
err
ed/
mov
est
otheCH3CH2CH2i
nCH3CH2CH2COONa(
s)t
o
for
m CH3CH2CH3

4.Butanei
sprepar
edfrom theheati
ngofamixt
ureofsodium pent
anoat
eandsoda
l
imeandcoll
ecti
ngoverwater
Sodi
um pent
anoate + sodali
me-> butane + Sodi um car
bonat
e
CH3CH2CH2CH2COONa( s)
+NaOH( s)-> CH3CH2CH2CH3 +Na2CO3(s)

The“H”i
nNaOHistr
ansfer
red/movest
otheCH3CH2CH2CH2i
n CH3
CH2CH2CH2COONa(
s)toform CH3CH2CH2CH3

Labor
ator
ysetupf
ort
hepr
epar
ati
onofal
kanes

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(
d)Pr
opert
iesofal
kanes
I
.Physi
calpr
opert
ies

Alkanesar ecolourlessgases, soli

dsandl iqui
dst hatar enotpoi sonous.
Theyar esl i
ghtlysolublei nwat er.
Thesol ubili
tydecreaseast hecar bonchai nandthust hemol armassi ncr
ease
Themel t
ingandboi l
i
ngpoi nti
ncr easeast hecarbonchai nincrease.
Thisisbecauseoft hei ncreasei nvan-der-waal
s/ intermolecularforcesasthecarbon
chainincrease.
st
The1 f ourst r
aightchai nalkanes( met hane,
ethane, propaneandbut ane)ar
etherefor
e
gases,thenectsi x(pent ane,hexane, heptane,
octane, nonane,anddecane)ar el
iquids
whilether estfr
om uni decane( 11car bonat oms)ar esol i
ds.

Thedensityofstr
aightchainal
kanesi
ncr
easewi
thi
ncr
easi
ngcar
bonchai
nast
he
i
ntermolecul
arforcesincr
eases.
Thisreducesthevolumeoccupiedbyagi
venmassoft
hecompound.

Summar
yofphy
sical
proper
ti
esofal
kanes

Al
kane Gener
al Melt
ing Boili
ng Densi ty Stat
eatroom(298K)
-
3
for
mula poi
nt(K) poi
nt(
K) gcm temperat
ureandpressur
e
atmosphere(
101300Pa)
Met hane CH4 90 112 0.424 gas
Ethane CH3CH3 91 184 0.546 gas
Propane CH3CH2CH3 105 231 0.501 gas
Butane CH3(CH2)
2CH3 138 275 0.579 gas
Pent ane CH3(CH2)
3CH3 143 309 0.626 l iqui
d
Hexane CH3(CH2)
4CH3 178 342 0.657 l iqui
d
Hept ane CH3(CH2)
5CH3 182 372 0.684 l iqui
d
Octane CH3(CH2)
6CH3 216 399 0.703 l iqui
d
Nonane CH3(CH2)
7CH3 219 424 0.708 l iqui
d
Octane CH3(CH2)
8CH3 243 447 0.730 l iqui
d

I
I.
Chemical
proper
ti
es
(
i)
Burni
ng.

Alkanesburnwit
hablue/
non-
luminousnon-soot
y/non-
smokyflameinexcessai
rto
form car
bon(I
V)oxi
deandwater
.
Alkane + Ai
r -> car bon(IV)oxi
de+ wat
er(excessai
r/oxy
gen)

Al
kanesbur
nwi
thabl
ue/
non-
lumi
nousno-
soot
y/non-
smokyf
lamei
nli
mit
edai
rto
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form car
bon(
II
)oxi
deandwat
er.
Alkane + Air -> carbon(
II
)oxi
de + wat
er(
li
mit
edai
r)

Exampl es
1.(
a)Met hanewhenigni
tedburnswit
habl uenonsoot
yflameinexcessairtofor
m
carbon(IV)oxideandwater.
Met hane + Air -> car bon(
IV)oxide+ water(excessair
/oxygen)
CH4( g) + 2O2(g) -> CO2( g) + 2H2O(l
/g)

(b)Met hanewhenignit
edburnswit
habl uenonsoot
yfl
amei nli
mit
edairtof
orm
carbon(II
)oxideandwater.
Met hane + Ai
r - > car bon(
II)oxi
de + wat
er(excessair
/oxy
gen)
2CH4( g) + 3O2(
g) -
> 2CO( g) + 4H2O(l
/g)

2.(
a)Ethanewhenigni
tedburnswit
habluenonsoot
yfl
amei nexcessairt
of or
m
carbon(I
V)oxi
deandwat er
.
Ethane + Air - > car bon(I
V)oxi
de+ water(excessair
/oxygen)
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) -
> 4CO2( g) + 6H2O(l
/g)

(b)Ethanewhenigni
tedburnswi
thabluenonsoot
yflameinlimit
edairtoform
carbon(I
I)oxi
deandwater.
Ethane + Air -> car bon(
II
)oxide + water(excessair
/oxygen)
2C2H6(g) + 5O2(
g) -> 4CO( g) + 6H2O(l
/g)

3.(
a)Propanewhenigni
tedburnswit
habl uenonsootyf
lameinexcessairtofor
m
carbon(
IV)oxi
deandwat er
.
Propane + Air -> car bon(
IV)oxide+ wat
er(excessair
/oxygen)
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) -
> 3CO2( g) + 4H2O(l
/g)

(b)Ethanewhenigni
tedburnswi
thabluenonsoot
yflameinlimit
edairtoform
carbon(I
I)oxi
deandwater.
Ethane + Air -> car bon(
II
)oxide + water(excessair
/oxygen)
2C3H8(g) + 7O2(
g) -> 6CO( g) + 8H2O(l
/g)

i
i)
Subst i
tution
Substit
utionreact ioni
sonei nwhi chahydrogenat om isrepl
acedbyahalogenin
presenceoful traviol
etli
ght.
Alkanesr eactwi thhal
ogensinpr esenceofult
ravioletli
ghttofor
m hal
ogenoalkanes.
Duringsubst i
tution:
(i
)thehal ogenmol ecul
ei sspli
tint
ofreeatom/ r
adical
s.
(i
i)
onef reehal ogenradical
/atomsknock/ remov eonehy dr
ogenfrom t
heal kane
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leavinganal kylr
adical
.
(ii
i)thealkylradi
calcombi
newi tht heotherfr
eehal ogenatom/ r
adical
toform
halogenoal kane.
(iv)t
hechl ori
neatomssubstit
uter epeatedl
yintheal kane.Eachsubsti
tut
ion
remov esahy drogenatom fr
om t
heal kaneandf orm hydrogenhal i
de.
(v)subst i
tuti
onstopswhenallthehy drogeninalkanesar erepl
acedwith
halogens.

Subst
it
uti
onreact
ionisahi
ghl
yexpl
osi
ver
eact
ioni
npr
esenceofsunl
i
ght/ul
tr
avi
olet
l
ightt
hatactascatal
yst
.

Examplesofsubsti
tut
ionreacti
ons
Methanehasnoef f
ectonbr omineorchlori
neindi
ff
usedl i
ght
/dar
k.Insunli
ght,a
mixt
ureofchlor
ineandmet haneexpl odetofor
m colourl
essmixt
ureof
chl
oromethaneandhy dr
ogenchl or
idegas.Thepal
egr eencol
ourofchl
orinegasfades.
Chemicalequat
ion

1.
(a)
Met
hane +chl
ori
ne -
> Chl
oromet
hane + Hy
drogenchl
ori
de

CH4(
g) + Cl
2(
g)-
> CH3Cl
(g) + HCl
(g)

H H

H C H +Cl Cl -
> H C Cl +H Cl

H H

(b)Chlor
omet
hane+chl
ori
ne -
> di
chl
oromet
hane + Hy
drogen
chlor
ide

CH3Cl
(g) + Cl
2(
g) -
> CH2Cl
2(g) + HCl
(g)

H H

H C Cl+Cl Cl -
> H C Cl +H Cl

H Cl

(c)di
chlor
omet
hane+chl
ori
ne -
> t
ri
chl
oromet
hane + Hy
drogen
chlor
ide

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CH2Cl
2(g) + Cl
2(
g) -
> CHCl
3(g) + HCl
(g)

Cl H

H C Cl+Cl Cl -
> Cl C Cl +H Cl

H Cl

(
c)t
ri
chl
oromet
hane+chl
ori
ne-
>tet
rachl
oromet
hane+Hy
drogenchl
ori
de

CHCl
3(g) + Cl
2(
g) -
> CCl
4(g) + HCl
(g)
H Cl

Cl C Cl+Cl Cl -
> Cl C Cl +H Cl

Cl Cl

Ethanehasnoeffectonbromineorchlor
ineindif
fusedlight/
dark.I
nsunli
ght,
a
mixtur
eofbromineandet haneexpl
odetof orm colour
lessmi xt
ureofbr
omoethane
andhydrogenchlor
idegas.Thered/
browncol ourofbromi negasfades.
Chemicalequat
ion

(
a)Et
hane +chl
ori
ne -
> Chl
oroet
hane + Hy
drogenchl
ori
de

CH3CH3(
g)+ Br
2(g) -
> CH3CH2Br(
g) + HBr(
g)

H H H H

H C C H +Br Br-
>H C C H+H Br

H H H Br
Br
omoet
hane

H H H Br

H C C H +Br Br-
>H C C H+H Br

H Br H Br
1,
1-di
bromoethane

H Br H Br
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H C C H +Br Br-
>H C C Br+H Br

H Br H Br
1,
1,
1-t
ri
bromoet
hane

H Br H Br

H C C Br+Br Br-
>H C C Br+H Br

H Br Br Br
1,
1,
1,
2-t
etrabr
omoet
hane

H Br H Br

H C C Br+Br Br-
>Br C C Br+H Br

Br Br Br Br
1,
1,
1,
2,2-
pent
abromoet
hane

H Br Br Br

Br C C Br+Br Br-
>Br C C Br+H Br

Br Br Br Br
1,
1,
1,
2,2,
2-hexabr
omoet
hane

Usesofal kanes
1.Mostalkanesareusedasf uele.
g.Met hanei
susedasbi ogasinhomes.But
anei
s
usedast heLaborator
ygas.
2.Oncracking,al
kanesareamaj orsourceofHy drogenf
orthemanufact
ureof
ammoni a/Haberprocess.
3.I
nmanuf act
ureofCarbonblackwhi chi
sacomponenti npri
ntersi
nk.
4.I
nmanuf act
ureofuseful
industr
ialchemical
slikemethanol
,methanol
,and
chlor
omet hane.

(
ii
)Al
kenes

(
a)Nomencl
atur
e/Nami
ng

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Thesear ehydrocar
bonswithagener
alfor
mulaCnH2n and C C doubl ebond
asthefunctionalgr
oup.nisthenumberofCarbonatomsinthemolecul
e.
Thecar bonat omsareli
nkedbyatl
eastonedoubl
ebondt oeachot
herandsi
ngl
e
bondstohy drogenatoms.
Theyinclude:

n General
/ St ruct
uralf
ormul
a Name
Molecular
for
mul a
1 Doesnotexi
st

2 C2H6 H H Et
hene

H C C H

CH2CH2

3 C3H8 H H H Pr
open
e
H C C C H

CH2CHCH3

4 C4H10 H H H H But
ene

H C C C C H

H H

CH2CHCH2CH3

5 C5H12 H H H H H Pent
en
e
H C C C C CH

H H H
CH2CH(
CH2)
2CH3

6 C6H14 H H H H H H Hexene
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H C C C C CC H

H H HH

CH2CH(
CH2)
3CH3

7 C7H16 H H H H H H H Hept
en
e
H C C C C C C C H

H H H H HH H

CH2CH(
CH2)
4CH3

8 C8H18 H H H H H H H H Oct
ene

H C C C C C C C C H

H H HH H H

CH2CH(
CH2)
5CH3

9 C9H20 H H H H H H H H H Nonene

H C C C C C C C C C H

H H HH H H H

CH2CH(
CH2)
6CH3

10 C10H22 H H H H H H H H H H decene

H C C C C C C C C C C H

H H HH H H H H

CH2CH(
CH2)
7CH3

Note
1.
Sincecar
boni
stet
rav
alent,
eachat
om ofcar
boni
ntheal
keneMUSTal
way
sbe
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bondedusi ngf ourcov alentbond/ fourshar edpai rsofel ectronsincludingatt he

doublebond.
2.SinceHy drogeni smonov alent,eachat om ofhy dr ogeni nthealkeneMUSTal way s
bebondedusi ngonecov alentbond/ oneshar edpai rofelectrons.
3.Onememberoft heal kene, l
ikeal kanes,di
f ferfrom t henext /
previousbyaCH2
group.Theyal sofor m ahomol ogousser ies.
e.g
Propenedi f
ferf r
om et henebyonecar bonandt woHy drogenat omsf rom ethene.4.A
homol ogousser iesofal kenesl i
ket hatofal kanes:
(
i)differbyaCH2 gr oupf r
om t henext/ previousconsecut i
vely
(
ii)
hav esimi larchemi cal proper t
ies
(ii
i
)hav esimi larchemi calfor mularepr esent edbyt hegener alf ormulaCnH2n
(
iv)thephy sical pr oper t
iesal soshowst eadygr adual change
5.The =C=C=doubl ebondi nal kenei sthef unctional group.Af unct i
onalgroupi sthe
reacti
ngsi t
eofamol ecul e/ compound.
6.The =C=C=doubl ebondi nalkenecaneasi l
ybebr okent oaccommodat emor e
twomor emonov alentat oms.The =C=C=doubl ebondi nal kenesmakei tthus
unsaturated.
7.Anunsat uratedhy drocar boni sonewi t
hadoubl e=C=C=ort ri
ple–C C–car bon
bondsi nt heirmol ecul arst ructure.Unsat uratedhy dr ocarboneasi lyreactstobe
saturated.
8.Asat uratedhy drocar boni sonewi t
houtadoubl e=C=C=ort ri
ple–C C–car bon
bondsi nt heirmol ecul arst ructure.
Mostoft her eactionsofal kenest akepl aceatt he=C=C=bond.

(b)I
somer sofal kenes
I
somer sar ealkenesl i
ealkaneshavethesamemol ecul
argeneralformulabutdi
ffer
ent
molecularstruct ur
alfor
mul a.
Etheneandpr openedonotf or
misomers.Isomer
sofalkenesareal sonamedbyusi ng
theIUPAC( I
nter nat
ionalUnionofPureandAppli
edChemi st
ry)syst
em of
nomencl at
ure/ naming.
TheI UPACsy stem ofnomencl at
ureofnamingal
kenesusest hefollowi
ngbasic
rul
es/guideli
nes:

1.I
denti
fythelongestconti
nuous/straightcarbonchainwhi
chcontai
nst he=C=C=
doublebondget /
det ermi
netheparental kene.
2.Numbert hel
ongestchainformt heendoft hechainwhi
chcontai
nsthe=C=C=
doublebondsohe=C=C=doubl ebondl owestnumberpossible.
3I ndi
catethepositionsbyspl
it
ti
ng“ alk-posit
ions-
ene”e.
g.but
-2-
ene,pent-
1,3-di
ene.
4.Theposit
ionindicatedmustbefort hecar bonatom att
helowerposi
ti
oni nthe=C=
C=doublebond. i
.e
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But-
2-enemeansthedoubl
e=C=C=isbetweenCar
bon“2”
and“
3”
Pent-
1,3-
dienemeansther
earet
wodoubl
ebondonebet
weencar
bon“
1”and“
2”and
anot
herbetweencar
bon“3”and“
4”

5.Deter
mi netheposition, numberandt ypeofbr anches.Namethem asmethyl
,et
hyl
,
propyle.t
c.accor di
ngtot henumberofal kylcarbonchainsatt
achedt
ot heal
kene.
Namet hem fluoro-,
chl
oro-,bromo-,i
odo-iftheyarehalogens
6.Useprefi
xdi-,
tri-
,
tet
ra-,
pent a-,
hexa-t
oshowt henumberofdoubl eC=C bondsand
branchesattachedt ot
heal kene.

7.Positi
onisomer
scanbefor
medwhent he=C=C=doublebondisshi
ft
edbet
ween
carbonatomse.g.
But-2-
enemeansthedoubl
e=C=C=i sbetweenCar
bon“2”and“
3”
But-1-
enemeansthedoubl
e=C=C=i sbetweenCar
bon“1”and“
2”
BothBut-1-
eneandBut
-2-
eneareposi
ti
oni
somersofBut
ene

8.Posit
ionisomersaremol ecul
es/compoundshavingthesamegener
alfor
mul
arbut
di
f f
erentposit
ionoft
hef uncti
onalgroup.
i.
e.
Butenehast hemolecular
/generalfor
mularC4H8posit
ionbutcanf
orm bot
hBut
-1-
ene
andBut -2-
eneaspositi
onisomer s.

9.Likealkanes,analkylgr
oupcanbeatt
achedtotheal
kene.Chai
n/br
anchisomersare
thusformed.
10.Chain/br
anchi somersaremol
ecul
es/compoundshavi
ngthesamegeneral f
ormul
a
butdiff
erentstructur
alfor
mulae.
g
Buteneand2- met hyl
propenebot
hhavethesamegeneralf
ormual
rbutdif
ferent
branchi
ngchai n.

Pr
act
iceonIUPACnomencl
atur
eofal kenes
Namethefol
lowi
ngi
somersofalkene

H H H H

H C C C C H But
-1-
ene

H H
H H H H

H C C C C H But
-2-
ene

H H
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H H H H H H

H C C C C CC H 4-
met
hyl
hex-
1-ene

H H H
H C H

H C H

H H H H H

H C C C C CC H 4,
4-di
met
hyl
hex-
1-ene

H H H
H C H

3. H

H C H

H H H H

H C C C C CH 4,
4-di
met
hyl
pent-
1-ene

H H
H C H

4. H

H C H

H H H H
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H C C C C CH 5,
5-di
met
hyl
hex-
2-ene

H C H H H
H C H
H
H

5. H

H C H

H H H

H C C C C H 2,
2-di
met
hyl
but-
2-ene

H H
H C H

8.
H2CCHCH2CH2CH3 pent-
1-ene

9.
H2CC(
CH3)
CH2CH2CH3 2-
met
hyl
pent-
1-ene

10.
H2CC(
CH3)
C(CH3)
2CH2CH3 2,
3,
3-t
ri
met
hyl
pent-
1-ene

11.
H2CC(
CH3)
C(CH3)
2C(
CH3)
2CH3 2,
3,
3,
4,
4-pent
amet
hyl
pent-
1-ene

12.
H3CC(
CH3)
C(CH3)C(
CH3)
2CH3 2,
3,
4,
4-t
etr
amet
hyl
pent-
2-ene

13.H2CC(
CH3)
C(CH3)C(
CH3)CH3 2,
3,
4-t
ri
met
hyl
pent-
1,3-di
ene

14.H2CCBr
CBrCBrCH3 2,
3,
4-t
ri
bromopent-
1,3-di
ene

15.H2CCHCHCH2 But-
1,3-di
ene

16.Br
2CCBr
CBrCBr
2 1,
1,
2,
3,
4,
4-hexabr
omobut-
1,3-di
ene

17.I
2CCI
CICI
2 1,
1,
2,
3,
4,
4-hexai
odobut-
1,3-di
ene

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18.H2CC(
CH3)
C(CH3)CH2 2,
3-di
met
hyl
but-
1,3-di
ene

(
c)Occur
renceandext
ract
ion

Atindusri
all
evel,
al
kenesareobtainedfrom thecr
ackingofalkanes.Cr
ackingi
sthe
pr
ocessofbr eaki
nglongchainalkanestosmal l
er/
shorteral
kanes,analkeneand
hydrogengasathightemperatur
es.
Crackingi
samaj orsour
ceofusef ulhydrogengasf ormanufactureof
ammoni a/ni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d/HCli.
e.

Longchai
nal
kane -
>smal
l
er/
shor
teral
kane+Al
kene+Hy
drogengas

Examples
1.Whenir
radiatedwi t
hhi
ghenergyr
adiat
ion,
Propaneundergocr
acki
ngt
ofor
m
methanegas, etheneandhy
drogengas.
Chemicalequation
CH3CH2CH3(g) - > CH4(
g) + CH2=CH2( g) +H2( g)

2.
Octaneunder
gocracki
ngtofor
m hydrogengas,
but
eneandbutanegases
Chemical
equati
on
CH3(
CH2)6CH3(g) - >CH3CH2CH2CH3(g) + CH3CH2CH=CH2(g)+H2(g)

(
d)School
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
onofal
kenes

I
naschool
laborat
ory,
alkenesmaybepr eparedfr
om dehy
drat
ionofal
kanol
susi
ng:
(
i)concent
ratedsulphuri
c(VI)
aci
d(H2SO4)
.
(
a)alumini
um( I
II
)oxide(
Al2O3)i
.e

Al
kanol -
-Conc.H2SO4-->Al
kene + Wat
er
Al
kanol -
-Al
2O3--
>Al kene + Wat
ere.
g.

1.( Atabout180oC,
a) concent
rat
edsulphur
ic(
VI)aciddehydr
ates/r
emov eswaterfr
om
ethanoltoform ethene.
Thegaspr oducedcont ai
ntr
acesofcarbon(I
V)oxideandsulphur(
IV)oxi
degasas
i
mpur iti
es.
Iti
sthuspassedt hroughconcentr
atedsodium/ potassi
um hydr
oxidesolut
ionto
remov etheimpuriti
es.
Chemi calequati
on

CH3CH2OH(
l) -
- 180oC-
concH2SO4/ -> CH2=CH2(
g) +H2O(
l)
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(b)Onheat i
ngst ronglyalumini
um(I
II
)oxi
de(Al2O3)
,i
tdehydr
ates/r
emov eswat erfr
om
ethanol t
of orm ethene.
Et hanolvapourpassest hr
oughthehotaluminium (I
II
)oxi
dewhichcat al
ysest he
dehy drat
ion.
Act i
vatedaluminium( I
II)
oxidehasaveryhighaffi
nit
yforwatermolecules/
element sof
wat erandt husdehy drat
es/removeswaterfrom ethanolt
of or
m ethene.

Chemical
equat
ion
CH3CH2OH(l
) - -
(Al
2O3/
str
ongheat
--
> CH2=CH2(
g) +H2O(
l)

2(a)Propan-
1-olandPr
opan-
2-ol
(posi
ti
onisomersofpropanol
)aredehydr
atedby
o
concH2SO4atabout180C topropene(
propenehasnopositi
onisomer
s).
Chemicalequati
on
CH3CH2CH2OH( l
) - 180oC-
-concH2SO4/ -
> CH3CH2=CH2(g) +H2O( l
)
Propan-1-
ol Pr
op-
1-ene

CH3CHOHCH3(
l) - 180oC-
-concH2SO4/ -> CH3CH2=CH2(
g) +H2O(
l)
Pr
opan-2-
ol Prop-
1-ene

(b)Propan-1-
olandPropan-
2-ol(
posit
ionisomersofpr opanol
)aredehy
drat
edby
heati
ngstrongl
yalumi
nium(I
II
)oxi
de(Al2O3)f
orm propene
Chemicalequati
on
CH3CH2CH2OH( l) --Heat/
Al2O3--
> CH3CH2=CH2( g) +H2O( l
)
Propan-
1-ol Prop-1-ene

CH3CHOHCH3(
l) -
-Heat
/Al
2O3-
-> CH3CH2=CH2(
g) +H2O(
l)
Pr
opan-2-
ol Pr
op-
1-ene

3(a)But
an-1-
olandBut an-
2-ol(
posi
ti
onisomer sofbutanol
)ar edehy
drat
edbyconc
o
H2SO4atabout180C t oBut-1-
eneandBut -
2-enerespect
ivel
y
Chemicalequat
ion
CH3CH2CH2CH2OH( l
)--concH2SO4/180oC--
>CH3CH2CH2=CH2( g)+H2O(l)
Butan-
1-ol But
-1-
ene

CH3CHOHCH2CH3(
l)
- 180oC-
-concH2SO4/ ->CH3CH=CHCH2(
g)+H2O(
l)
But
an-2-
ol But-
2-ene

(b)Butan-
1-olandButan-
2-olaredehydr
atedbyheat
ingst
rongl
yal
umi
nium (
II
I)oxi
de
(Al
2O3)for
m But-
1-eneandBut-
2-ener
especti
vel
y.
Chemicalequat
ion
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CH3CH2CH2CH2OH(
l)-
-Heat
/Al
2O3-
->CH3CH2CH2=CH2(
g) +H2O(
l)
But
an-1-
ol But-
1-ene

CH3CHOHCH2CH3(
l)-
-Heat
/Al
2O3-
->CH3CH=CHCH2(g)+H2O(
l)
But
an-2-
ol But
-2-
ene

Labor
ator
ysetupf
ort
hepr
epar
ati
onofal
kenes/
ethene

Caution
(i
)Ethanol
ishi
ghlyinfl
ammabl e
(i
i
)ConcH2SO4ishighlycorrosi
veonskincont
act
.
(i
i
i)Commonschool t
hermomet erhasmaxi
mum cal
i
brat
ionof110oCandt
huscannot
beused.Itbr
eaks/cracks.

(
i)
Usi
ngconent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d

Somebrokenporcel
ainorsandshoul
dbeputinthefl
askwhenheat
ingt
o:
(
i)
preventbumpingwhichmaybreakthefl
ask.
(
ii
)ensureuni
for
m andsmoot hboi
li
ngofthemixt
ure

Thetemper
atur
esshouldbemaint
ainedatabove160oC.
Atl
owertemperat
uresanot
hercompound-etheri
spredomi
nant
lyf
ormedi
nst
eadof
et
henegas.

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(
ii
)Usi
ngal
umi
nium(
II
I)
oxi
de

(
e)Propert
iesofalkenes
I.Physi
calproperti
es

Li
keal kanes, alkenesar ecol ourlesgases, soli
dsandl i
quidst hatarenotpoi sonous.
Theyar esli
ght lysolublei nwat er.
Thesol ubili
tyinwat erdecr easeast hecarbonchai nandast hemol armassi ncrease
butverysol ublei nor ganicsol vent sliketet
rachloromet haneandmet hyl
benzene.
Themel t
ingandboi lingpoi ntincr easeast hecar bonchai nincr ease.
Thisisbecauseoft hei ncreasei nv an-der-
waals/ i
ntermolecul arforcesast hecarbon
chainincrease.
st
The1 f ourst r
aightchai nal kenes( ethene,pr
opane, but-
1-eneandpent -1-ene)aregases
atroom t emper atureandpr essur e.
Thedensi t
yofst r
aightchai nal kenes, li
kealkanes,increasewi thincreasingcar bon
chainast hei ntermol ecularf orcesi ncreasesreducingt hev ol
umeoccupi edbyagi ven
massoft heal kene.

Summar
yofphy
sical
proper
ti he1stf
esoft iveal
kenes

Al
kene Gener
al Melt
ing Boili
ng St ateatroom(298K)
o
for
mula poi
nt(C) poi
nt(
K) temperatureand
pressur
eat mospher
e
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(101300Pa)
Ethene CH2CH2 -
169 -
104 gas
Propene CH3CHCH2 -
145 -
47 gas
Butene CH3CH2 -
141 -
26 gas
CHCH2
Pent-1- CH3(
CH2 -
138 30 l
i
qui
d
ene CHCH2
Hex-1- CH3(CH2) -
98 64 l
i
qui
d
ene CHCH2

I
I.Chemicalpr
oper
ti
es
(
a)Burni
ng/combust
ion

Alkenesburnwit
hay el
l
ow/l umi
noussooty
/smokyf
lameinexcessai
rtof
orm
carbon(I
V)oxi
deandwat er
.
Alkene + Ai
r - > car bon(
IV)oxi
de+ water(excessai
r/
oxy
gen)

Alkenesburnwit
hay el
l
ow/lumi
noussoot
y/smokyf
lameinl
imi
tedai
rtof
orm
carbon(I
I)oxi
deandwater
.
Alkene + Ai
r - > carbon(
II
)oxi
de + water(l
i
mit
edair
)

Burningofal keneswit
hay el
l
ow/luminoussoot
y/smokyflameisaconf i
rmator
ytest
forthepr esenceofthe=C=C=doublebondbecausetheyhavehigherC:Hrat
io.
Ahomol ogousser i
eswith C=C doubl eor C C t ri
plebondissaidtobe
unsaturated.
Ahomol ogousser i
eswith C C si ngl
ebondissai
dt obesatur
ated.
Mostofthe
reacti
onsoft heunsat
urat
edcompoundinvol
vetr
yingtobesatur
atedtoforma

C C si
ngl
ebond.

Exampl
esofbur
ningal
kenes

1.(
a)Ethenewhenigni
tedburnswit
hay ell
owsoot
yfl
ameinexcessairt
oform
carbon(
IV)oxi
deandwat er
.
Ethene + Air - > car bon(I
V)oxide+ wat
er(excessair
/oxy
gen)
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) -
> 2CO2( g) + 2H2O(l
/g)

(b)Ethenewhenigni
tedburnswi
thayel
lowsootyf
lamei
nli
mit
edairt
ofor
m
carbon(I
I)oxi
deandwater.
Ethene + Air -> car bon(
II
)oxide + wat
er(l
i
mitedai
r)
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C2H4(
g) + 3O2(
g) -
> 2CO2(
g) + 2H2O(
l/
g)

2.(
a)Propenewhenigni
tedburnswit
hay el
l
owsoot
yflameinexcessairtoform
carbon(
IV)oxi
deandwat er
.
Propene + Air -> car bon(
IV)oxi
de+ water(excessair
/oxygen)
2C3H6(g) + 9O2(g) -
> 6CO2( g) + 6H2O(l
/g)

(a)Propenewhenignit
edbur
nswithay el
l
owsoot
yflamei nlimit
edairtofor
m
carbon(I
I)oxi
deandwat er
.
Propene + Ai
r - > car bon(
IV)oxide+ water( excessair
/oxy
gen)
C3H6(g) + 3O2(g) -
> 3CO( g) + 3H2O( l
/g)

(b)
Addit
ionreact
ions
Anaddit
ionreacti
onisonewhichanunsaturatedcompoundreactstoform asat
urat
ed
compound.Addit
ionreact
ionsofal
kenesarenamedf r
om thereagentusedtocause
theaddt
ion/conver
tthedouble=C=C=tosi ngleC-
Cbond.

(i
)Hy drogenat i
on
Hydr ogenationisanaddi ti
onr eactioninwhichhy dr
ogeni npresenceof
Pall
adi um/ Nickelcatalystathight emperaturesreactwithalkenestof orm al
kanes.
Exampl es
1.WhenHy drogengasi spassedt hroughli
quidv eget
ableandani mal oilatabout180oC
i
npr esenceofNi ckel cataly
st,sol
idf ati
sformed.
Hydr ogenationist hususedt ohardenoi l
stosol i
dfatespeciall
ymar garine.
Duringhy drogenat ion,onehy drogenat om i
nt hehydrogenmol ecul
eat tachitsel
ftoone
carbonandt heot herhy drogent othesecondcar bonbr eaki
ngt hedoubl ebondto
si
ngl ebond.

Chemi
calequat
ion
H2C=CH2 + H2 -
Ni/
Pa-
> H3C -CH3

H H H H

C =C + H–H -Ni
/Pa-
> H-C–C-H

H H H H

2.
Propeneunder
gohy
drogenat
iont
ofor
m Pr
opane

Chemi
calequat
ion
H3CCH=CH2 + H2 -
Ni/
Pa-
> H3CCH-CH3
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H H H H H H

H C C =C + H–H -Ni
/Pa-
> H-C– C-C-H

H H H H H

3.
BothBut-1-
eneandBut
-2-
eneunder
gohy dr
ogenat
iont
ofor
m But
ane
Chemical
equati
on
But-
1-ene + Hy drogen –Ni/Pa-
> But ane
H3CCH2CH=CH2 + H2 - Ni/
Pa-> H3CCH2CH-CH3

H H H H H H H H

H C C-C =C + H–H -Ni

/Pa-
> H-C-C– C-C-H

H H H H H H H

But
-2-
ene + Hydr
ogen –Ni/Pa-
> Butane
H3CCH2=CHCH2 + H2 -
Ni/
Pa-> H3CCH2CH-CH3

H H H H H H H H

H C C= C-C-
H + H–H -Ni
/Pa-
> H-C-C– C-C-H

H H H H H H

4.But
-1,
3-di
eneshouldundergohy dr
ogenati
ontofor
m But
ane.Thereact
ionusestwo
molesofhydrogenmolecul
es/fourhydrogenatomstobr
eakthetwodoublebonds.
But-
1,3-
diene + Hy drogen –Ni /
Pa-> Butane
H2CCHCH=CH2 + 2H2 - Ni/
Pa-> H3CCH2CH-CH3

H H H H H H H H

H C C-C=C-
H + 2(
H–H)-Ni
/Pa-
>H-C-C– C-C-H

H H H H

(
ii
)Hal
ogenat
ion.
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Halogenat i
onisanaddi t
ionreacti
oni nwhi
chahalogen(Fl
uori
ne,chl
ori
ne,br
omine,
i
odine)r eactswit
hanal kenetoform analkane.
Thedoubl ebondintheal kenebreakandform asi
nglebond.
Thecol ourofthehalogenf adesast henumberofmolesofthehal
ogensremaini
ng
unreacteddecreases/reduces.
Onebr omi neatom bondatt he1stcarboni
nthedoubl
ebondwhi l
etheothergoesto
nd
the2 car bon.

Exampl es
1Ethenereactswit
hbr
ominet
ofor
m 1,
2-di
bromoet
hane.
Chemi calequat
ion
H2C=CH2 + Br 2 H2BrC -CH2Br

H H H H

C =C + Br–Br Br-C–C-Br

H H H H
Et
hene +Br
omi
ne 1,
2-di
bromoet
hane

2.
Propenereact
swi t
hchl
ori
netof
orm 1,
2-dichl
oropropane.
Chemicalequat
ion
H3CCH=CH2 + Cl 2 H3CCHCl -CH2Cl
Propene + Chl
ori
ne 1,2-
dichl
oropropane
H H H H H H

H C C =C +Cl
–Cl H-C– C-C-Cl

H H H Cl H

H H H H H H H H

H C C-C =C + I–I H-C-C– C-C-I

H H H H H H H H

3.
Bot
hBut-1-
eneandBut-
2-eneunder
gohal
ogenat
ionwi
thi
odi
net
ofor
m 1,
2-
di
i
odobut
aneand2,3-
dii
odobutane
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Chemi
calequat
ion
But
-1-
ene + iodi
ne 1,
2di
iodobut
ane
H3CCH2CH=CH2 + I2 H3CCH2CHI-CH2I

But
-2-
ene + Iodi
ne 2,
3-di
i
odobut
ane
H3CCH=CH-
CH2 + F2 H3CCHICHI-CH3

H H H H H H H H

H C C= C-C-
H + I–I H-C-C– C-C-H

H H H IIH
4.But
-1,
3-di
eneshouldundergohal ogenat
iontoform Butane.Thereact
ionusest
wo
molesofiodinemolecul
es/fouriodi
neatomst obreakthetwodoubl ebonds.
But-
1,3-
diene + iodine 1,
2,3,
4-t
etr
aiodobutane
H2C=CHCH=CH2 + 2I 2 H2CICHICHI-CHI

H H H H H H H H

H C C-C=C-
H + 2(
I–I
) H-C-C– C-C-H

II I I

(i
ii
)React ionwi thhydrogenhali
des.
Hydrogenhal idesreactswithal
kenetoform ahalogenoalkane.Thedoubl
ebondi
nthe
al
kenebr eakandf orm asinglebond.
Themai ncompoundi sonewhi chthehydrogenatom bondatt hecarbonwit
hmor
e
hydrogen.
Exampl es
1.Ethener eactswithhydrogenbromidetoform bromoethane.
Chemi cal equation

H2C=CH2 + HBr H3C -CH2Br

H H H H

C =C + H–Br H-C–C-Br

H H H H
Et
hene + Br
omi
ne br
omoet
hane

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2.Pr
opener eact
swit
hhydr
ogeniodi
det
ofor
m 2-i
odopropane.
Chemicalequati
on
H3CCH=CH2 + HI H3CCHI-CH3
Propene + Chl
ori
ne 2-chl
oropr
opane
Car
bonat
om wi
th
H H H H H H
moreHy
drogen
at
omsgetsext
ra
H C C =C +H–Cl H-C– C-C-H

H H H Cl H

3.BothBut-
1-eneandBut-
2-enereact
swi
thhy
drogenbr
omidetofor
m 2-br
omobut
ane
Chemicalequati
on
But-
1-ene +hy dr
ogenbr
omi de 2-
bromobut
ane
H3CCH2CH=CH2 + HBr H3CCH2CHBr-CH3

H H H H H H H H

H C C-C =C +H–Br H-C-C– C-C-H

H H H H H Br H

But
-2-
ene +Hydr
ogenbr
omi
de 2-
bromobut
ane
H3CCH=CH-
CH2 +HBr H3CCHBrCH2-CH3

H H H H H H H H

H C C= C-C-
H + Br–H H-C-C– C-C-H

H H H Br H H
4.But
-1,
3-di
ener eactwit
hhy drogeni
odidetoform 2,3-dii
odobut
ane.Ther
eacti
on
usest
womol esofhydrogeniodidemol
ecules/t
woi odineatomsandtwohydrogen
atomstobreakthetwodoubl ebonds.
But-
1,3-di
ene + iodine 2,3-di
i
odobut ane
H2C=CHCH=CH2 + 2HI 2 H3CCHICHI-CH3

H H H H H H H H

H C C-C=C-
H + 2(
H–I
) H-C-C– C-C-H

H I I H

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(i
v)Reactionwithbromine/chlori
newat er.
Chlori
neandbr ominewat eri
sf ormedwhent hehalogenisdi ssol
vedi ndisti
l
led
water.Chl
orinewaterhasthefor mularHOCl(hypochlorous/chlori
c(I
)acid).Br
omine
waterhast hefor
mul arHOBr(hydrobromic(I
)acid).
Duringtheadditi
onreacti
on.thehalogenmov et oonecar bonandt heOHt otheot
her
carboninthealkeneatt he=C=C=doubl ebondt oform ahalogenoal kanol.

Brominewat
er+Alkene-
>bromoalkanol
Chlor
inewat
er+Al
kene->br
omoalkanol
Exampl
es

1Et
henereact
swithbr
omi
newat
ert
ofor
m br
omoethanol
.
Chemical
equati
on
H2C=CH2 + HOBr H2BrC -CH2OH

H H H H

C =C + Br–OH Br-C–C-OH

H H H H
Et
hene +Br
omi
newat
er br
omoet
hanol

2.
Propenereact
swi t
hchl
ori
newat
ert
ofor
m chl
oropr
opan-
2-ol
/2-
chl
oropr
opan-
1-ol
.
Chemicalequat
ion

I
.H3CCH=CH2 + HOCl H3CCHCl
-CH2OH
Propene +Chl
ori
newat
er 2-chl
oropr
opane
H H H H H H

H C C =C +HO–Cl H-C– C-C-OH

H H H Cl H

I
I.
H3CCH=CH2 + HOCl H3CCHOH-CH2Cl
Pr
opene + Chl
ori
ne chl
oropr
opan-
2-ol
H H H H H H

H C C =C +HO–Cl H-C– C-C-Cl

H H H OH H

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3.BothBut
-1-
eneandBut-
2-ener
eactwi
thbr
omi
newat
ert
ofor
m 2-
bromobut
an-
1-ol
/3
-bromobut
an-2-
olr
espect
ivel
y

Chemi
calequat
ion
I
.But
-1-
ene + br
omi
newat
er 2-
bromobut
an-
1-ol

H3CCH2CH=CH2 + HOBr H3CCH2CHBr-CH2OH

H H H H H H H H

H C C-C =C +HO–Br H-C-C– C-C-OH

H H H H H Br H

I
I.
But-
2-ene + br
ominewat
er 3-
bromobut
an-
2-ol
H3CCH=CHCH3 + HOBr H3CCH2OHCHBrCH3

H H H H H H H H

H C C-C =C +HO–Br H-C-C– C-C-OH

H H H H H Br H

4.But-
1,3-
diener eact
swi
thbromi
newat ert
of orm Butan-
1,3-
diol.
Thereacti
onusest womolesofbrominewatermol eculestobr eakthetwodoubl
e
bonds.
But-
1,3-
diene+ brominewater 2,4-
dibr
omobut an-1,3-
diol

H2C=CHCH=CH2 +2HOBr H2COHCHBr

CHOHCHBr
H H H H H H H H

H C C-C=C-
H +2(
HO–Br
) H-C-C– C-C-H

HO BrHO Br

(v)Oxi dati
on.
Al kenesar eoxidi
zedtoalkanol
swithduo/ doubl
efunctional gr
oupsbyoxidi
zi
ng
agent s.
Whenanal keneisbubbl
edintoorangeacidifi
edpotassium/ sodium di
chr
omate(VI
)
soluti
on, t
hecolouroftheoxidi
zi
ngagentchangest ogr een.
Whenanal keneisbubbl
edintopurpl
eacidifi
edpotassium/ sodium manganat
e(VI
I)
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sol
uti
on,theoxi
dizi
ngagenti
sdecol
ori
zed.
Examples

1Et
heneisoxidizedtoet han-1,
2-di
ol byacidif
iedpotassi
um/ sodi
um manganat e(
VII
)
sol
uti
on/acidif
iedpotassium/ sodium dichromate(
VI)solut
ion.
Thepurpl
eacidifi
edpot assium/sodium manganat e(VII
)sol
ut i
onisdecolor
ized.
Theorangeacidif
iedpot assium/sodium dichromate(VI
)sol
ut i
onturnstogreen.
Chemicalequati
on
H2C=CH2 [O]inH+/ K2Cr2O7 HOCH2 -CH2OH

H H H H

C = C+[
O]i
nH+/
KMnO4 H-C–C-H

H H OH OH
Et
hene +[
O]i
nH+/
KMnO4 et
han-
1,2-
diol

2.Pr
openei soxidizedtopropan-1,2-
diolbyacidi
fi
edpot assium/sodium manganat
e(VI
I)
sol
uti
on/acidif
iedpot assi
um/ sodium di
chromate(VI)solut
ion.
Thepurpl
eacidifiedpotassium/sodium manganat e(VII
)soluti
onisdecolor
ized.
Theorangeacidifiedpotassium/sodium di
chromat e(VI
)soluti
onturnstogreen.
Chemicalequati
on

H3CCH=CH2 [
O]inH+/
KMnO4 H3CCHOH-CH2OH
Propene [O]i
nH+/KMnO4 propan-
1,2-
diol
H H H H H H

H C C =C [
O]i
nH+/
KMnO4 H-C– C-C-OH

H H H OH H

3.
BothBut-1-eneandBut
-2-
ener
eactwi
thbr
omi
newat
ert
ofor
m but
an-
1,2-
diol
and
but
an-2,
3-diol

Chemi
calequat
ion
I
.But
-1-
ene +[O]i
nH+/
KMnO4 but
an-
1,2-
diol

H3CCH2CH=CH2 + [
O] H3CCH2CHOH-CH2OH

H H H H H H H H
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H C C-C =C +[
O] H-C-C– C-C-OH

H H H H H OH H

(v
)Hy drol
ysis.
Hy drolysi
sisthereacti
onofacompoundwi t
hwat er/
addit
ionofH-OHtoacompound.
Alkenesunder gohy dr
olysistoform al
kanols.
Thist akesplaceintwost eps:
(i
)Alkenesr eactwit
hconcent rat
edsul phuri
c(VI
)acidatroom temper
atur
eand
pressur etoform al
kyl
hydr ogensulphate(VI
).

Al
kenes+concent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d->al
kyl
hydr
ogensul
phat
e(VI
)

(i
i)
Onaddi ngwat ertoalky
lhydr
ogensulphate(VI
)thenwarming,analkanoli
sformed.
alkyl
hydrogensulphate(
VI)+water-warm- >Alkanol
.
Exampl es
(i
)Ethenereactswithcoldconcentr
atedsulphuri
c(VI
)acidt
oform et
hy lhy
drogen
sulphate(
VII)
Chemi calequati
on
H2C=CH2 + H2SO4 CH3 -CH2OSO3H

H H H O-
SO3H

C =C + H2SO4 H-C–C-H

H H H H
Et
hene + H2SO4 et
hyl
hydr
ogensul
phat
e(VI
)

(i
i
)Ethyl
hydrogensul
phat
e(VI
)ishy
drol
ysedbywatertoet
hanol
Chemicalequati
on
CH3 -CH2OSO3H + H2O CH3 -CH2OH +H2SO4

H OSO3H H OH

H-C - C-H +H2O H-C–C-H +H2SO4

H H H H
et
hyl
hydr
ogensul
phat
e(VI
)+H2O Et
hanol

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2.Pr
opener eact
swit
hcol
dconcent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
dtoform propy
lhydr
ogen
sul
phate(
VII)
Chemicalequati
on
CH3H2C=CH2 + H2SO4 CH3CH2 -CH2OSO3H

H H H H H O-
SO3H

C = C-C-H +H2SO4 H-C-C–C-H

H H H H H H
Pr
opene + H2SO4 pr
opy
lhy
drogensul
phat
e(VI
)

(i
i
)Propyl
hydr
ogensul
phat
e(VI
)ishy
drol
ysedbywatert
opropanol
Chemical
equati
on
CH3 -CH2OSO3H + H2O CH3 -CH2OH +H2SO4

H H OSO3H H H OH

H-C-C - C-H +H2O H-C-C–C-H +H2SO4

H H H H H H
pr
opy
lhy
drogensul
phat
e(VI
)+H2O propanol

(
vi)Pol
ymer
izat
ion/
sel
faddi
ti
on

Additi
onpolymerizationistheprocesswher easmallunsat
urat
edmonomer(
alkene)
moleculejoi
ntoget hertoform alargesaturat
edmolecul
e.
Onlyalkenesunder goadditi
onpol y
mer i
zati
on.
Addi t
ionpoly
mer sar enamedf rom thealkene/monomermakingt
hepol
ymerand
addingtheprefi
x“ poly”bef
orethenameofmonomert ofor
m apol
yal
kene

Duri
ngadditi
onpol ymerizati
on
(
i)
thedoublebondi nalkenesbr
eak
(
ii
)f
reeradical
sar eformed
(
ii
i)
thefr
eer adical
scol l
idewit
heachotherandj
oint
ofor
m al
argermol
ecul
e.
Themor ecol
li
sionst helargerthemolecul
e.

Exampl
esofaddi
ti
onpol
ymer
izat
ion

1.
FormationofPol
yet
hene
Pol
yetheneisanaddi
ti
onpol
ymerf
ormedwhenet
henemol
ecul
e/monomerj
oin
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togethert
of orm alargemolecul
e/poly
merathightemperat
uresandpressur
e.
Duringpolymerizat
ion:
(i
)manymol eculesarebroughtnearertoeachotherbyt
hehighpressur
e(whi
ch
reducesthev ol
umeoccupi edbyreacti
ngpaticl
es)

H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H H H H H H H H

Et
hene + Et
hene + Et
hene + Et
hene +…

(
ii
)t
hedoubl
ebondj
oini
ngt
heet
hanemol
ecul
ebr
eakt
ofr
eer
eadi
cal
s

H H H H H H H H

•
C–C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + …

H H H H H H H H

Et
hener
adi
cal +Et
hener
adi
cal + Et
hener
adi
cal + Et
hener
adi
cal +…

(
ii
i)
thef
reer
adi
cal
scol
l
idewi
theachot
herandj
oint
ofor
m al
argermol
ecul
e

H H H HH H H H l
onepai
rofel
ect
rons

•
C–C-C–C-C–C-C-C• + …

H H H HH H H H
Lonepairofel
ectr
onscanbeusedt oj
oinmoremonomer
stof
orml
ongerpol
yet
hene.
Poly
ethenemoleculecanber
epresent
edas:

H H H HH H H H ext
ensi
onof
molecul
e/pol
ymer
-C–C-C–C-C–C-C–C-

H H H HH H H H
Si
ncet
hemol
ecul
eisar
epet
it
ionofonemonomer
,thent
hepol
ymeri
s:
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H H

(C–C )
n

H H
Wherenisthenumberofmonomer sinthepol
ymer.Thenumberofmonomersi
nthe
poly
mercanbedeterminedfr
om themolarmassofthepolymerandmonomerfr
om
therel
ati
onshi
p:
Numberofmonomers/repeat
ingunit
sinmonomer=Mol armasspol
ymer
Mol
armassmonomer

Examples
Polyt
henehasamolarmassof4760.
Cal
cul
atet
henumberofet
henemol
ecul
esi
nthe
poly
mer (
C=12.
0,H=1.
0)

Numberofmonomers/
repeat
inguni
tsinpol
yomer=Mol armasspol
ymer
Molarmassmonomer
=>Molarmasset
hene(C2H4)
=28Mol armasspol
yethene=4760

Subst
it
uti
ng 4760 = 170et
henemol
ecul
es
28
Thecommer cialnameofpol yet
heneispol
ythene.
I
tisanelasti
c,tough,transparentanddur
ableplast
ic.
Pol
ytheneisused:
(
i)
inmaki ngplasti
cbag
(
ii
)bowlsandpl asticbags
(
ii
i)
packagingmat eri
als

2.Format i
onofPol ychlorethene
Polychloroethenei sanaddi t
ionpolymerformedwhenchloroethene
mol ecule/monomerj oint ogethertofor
m alar
gemol ecul
e/pol
ymerathigh
temper aturesandpr essure.
Duringpol ymer i
zati
on:
(i
)manymol eculesar ebroughtnear ert
oeachotherbythehighpressur
e(whi
ch
reducest hev olumeoccupi edbyr eacti
ngpart
icl
es)

H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
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chl
oroet
hene + chl
oroet
hene + chl
oroet
hene+ chl
oroet
hene +…

(
ii
)t
hedoubl
ebondj
oini
ngt
hechl
oroet
henemol
ecul
ebr
eakt
ofr
eer
adi
cal
s

H H H H H H H H

•
C–C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + …

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl

(
ii
i)
thef
reer
adi
cal
scol
l
idewi
theachot
herandj
oint
ofor
m al
argermol
ecul
e

H H H HH H H H l
onepai
rofel
ect
rons

•
C–C-C–C-C–C-C-C• + …

H Cl H ClH ClH Cl
Lonepairofelect
ronscanbeusedt
ojoinmoremonomer
stof
orml
onger
pol
ychlor
oethene.
Poly
chloroet
henemol ecul
ecanber
epresent
edas:

H H H HH H H H ext
ensi
onof
molecul
e/pol
ymer
-C–C-C–C-C–C-C–C- + …

H Cl H ClH ClH Cl

Si
ncet
hemol
ecul
eisar
epet
it
ionofonemonomer
,thent
hepol
ymeri
s:
H H

(C–C )
n

H Cl

Examples
Poly
chlorot
henehasamolarmassof4760.Cal
cul
atet
henumberofchl
oret
hene
moleculesi
nthepol
ymer
(C=12.
0,H=1.0,
Cl=35.
5)

Numberofmonomer
s/r
epeat
inguni
tsi
nmonomer=Molarmasspol
ymer
Mol
armassmonomer
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=>Mol
armasset
hene(
C2H3Cl
)=62.
5Mol
armasspol
yet
hene=4760

Subst
ituti
ng 4760 =77.16 =>77pol y
chlor
oethenemolecul
es(whol
enumber )
62.5
Thecommer ci
alnameofpoly
chloroet
heneispoly
vinyl
chl
ori
de(PVC).I
tisatough,
non-
tr
ansparentanddurablepl
ast
ic.PVCisused:
(
i)i
nmaki ngplast
icr
ope
(
ii
)waterpipes
(
ii
i)
cratesandboxes

3.Format i
onofPol ypheny l
ethene
Polypheny l
et heneisanaddi t
ionpol ymerfor
medwhenpheny let
hene
mol ecule/monomerj ointoget hertoform al
argemol ecul
e/poly
merathigh
temper aturesandpr essure.
Duringpol ymer i
zati
on:
(i
)manymol eculesar ebroughtnear ert
oeachot herbythehighpressur
e(whi
ch
reducest hev olumeoccupi edbyr eacti
ngparti
cl
es)

H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

pheny
let
hene + pheny
let
hene+ pheny
let
hene+ pheny
let
hene +…

(
ii
)t
hedoubl
ebondj
oini
ngt
hepheny
let
henemol
ecul
ebr
eakt
ofr
eer
adi
cal
s

H H H H H H H H

•
C–C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + …

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

(
ii
i)
thef
reer
adi
cal
scol
l
idewi
theachot
herandj
oint
ofor
m al
argermol
ecul
e

H H H H H H H H l
onepai
rofel
ect
rons

•C – C -C – C -C – C -C -C • + …

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H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

Lonepairofelect
ronscanbeusedt
ojoinmoremonomer
stof
orml
onger
pol
yphenylet
hene.
Poly
phenylet
henemol ecul
ecanber
epresent
edas:
H H H H H H H H

-C – C - C – C -C – C -C -C -

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

Si
ncet
hemol
ecul
eisar
epet
it
ionofonemonomer
,thent
hepol
ymeri
s:
H H

(C–C )
n

H C6H5

Examples
Poly
phenyl
thenehasamolarmassof4760.
Cal
cul
atet
henumberofpheny
let
hene
molecul
esinthepol
ymer
(C=12.
0,H=1.
0,)

Numberofmonomer
s/r
epeat
inguni
tsi
nmonomer=Molarmasspol
ymer
Mol
armassmonomer

=>Mol
armasset
hene(
C8H8)
=104Mol
armasspol
yet
hene=4760

Subst i
tut
ing 4760=45.7692=>45pol yphenyl
ethenemolecul
es(wholenumber)
104
Thecommer cial nameofpol yphenylet
heneispolyst
yrene.I
tisaveryl
ightdurable
plasti
c.Polysty renei sused:
(
i)i
nmaki ngpackagi ngmat er
ialforcar
ryi
ngdeli
cateit
emslikecomput ers,
radion,
calculator s.
(
ii
)ceil
i
ngt iles
(
ii
i)
clothel inings

4.FormationofPol
ypropene
Polypropeneisanaddit
ionpolymerfor
medwhenpr
openemolecul
e/monomerj
oin
togethertofor
m alar
gemol ecule/
poly
merathi
ght
emperat
uresandpr
essur
e.

Duri
ngpol
ymer i
zat
ion:
(i
)manymolecul
esarebroughtnear
ert
oeachot
herbyt
hehi
ghpr
essur
e(whi
ch
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r
educest
hev
olumeoccupi
edbyr
eact
ingpar
ti
cl
es)

H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

pr
opene + pr
opene+ pr
opene + pr
opene +…

(
ii
)t
hedoubl
ebondj
oini
ngt
hepheny
let
henemol
ecul
ebr
eakt
ofr
eer
adi
cal
s

H H H H H H H H

•
C–C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + …

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

(
ii
i)
thef
reer
adi
cal
scol
l
idewi
theachot
herandj
oint
ofor
m al
argermol
ecul
e

H H H H H H H H l
onepai
rofel
ect
rons

•C – C -C – C -C – C -C -C • + …

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

Lonepairofel
ectr
onscanbeusedtoj
oinmor
emonomer
stof
orml
ongerpr
opene.
propenemolecul
ecanberepr
esent
edas:
H H H H H H H H

-C – C - C – C -C – C -C -C -

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

Si
ncet
hemol
ecul
eisar
epet
it
ionofonemonomer
,thent
hepol
ymeri
s:
H H

(C–C )
n

H CH3
Exampl
es
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Poly
propenehasamolarmassof4760.
Cal
cul
atet
henumberofpr
openemol
ecul
esi
n
thepol
ymer(C=12.
0,H=1.
0,)

Numberofmonomers/
repeat
inguni
tsi
nmonomer=Molarmasspol
ymer
Mol
armassmonomer
=>Molarmasspr
opene(C3H8)=44Mol
armasspol
yet
hene=4760

Subst i
tut
ing 4760=108. 1818=>108pr openemolecules(
whol enumber )
44
Thecommer ci
al nameofpol yphenylet
heneispol y
sty
rene.I
tisav eryli
ghtdurable
plasti
c.Polystyrenei sused:
(
i)i
nmaki ngpackagi ngmat er
ialforcar
ryingdel
icat
eitemslikecomput ers,
radion,
calculat
or s.
(
ii
)ceil
i
ngt iles
(
ii
i)
clothelinings

5.Format i
onofPol yt
etraf
luor
othene
Polytetr
af l
uorothenei sanaddit
ionpolymerf
ormedwhent etraf
luoroethene
mol ecule/monomerj oint
ogethertofor
m alar
gemol ecul
e/poly
merathi gh
temper aturesandpr essure.
Duringpol ymer i
zati
on:
(i
)manymol eculesarebroughtnearert
oeachotherbythehighpr essure(whi
ch
reducest hev olumeoccupi edbyreacti
ngpart
icl
es)

F F F F F F F F

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

F F F F F F F F

t
etr
afl
uor
oet
hene+t
etr
afl
uor
oet
hene+t
etr
afl
uor
oet
hene+t
etr
afl
uor
oet
hene+…

(
ii
)t
hedoubl
ebondj
oini
ngt
het
etr
afl
uor
oet
henemol
ecul
ebr
eakt
ofr
eer
adi
cal
s

F F F F F F F F

•
C–C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + …

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F F F F F F F F

(
ii
i)
thef
reer
adi
cal
scol
l
idewi
theachot
herandj
oint
ofor
m al
argermol
ecul
e

F F F FF FF F l
onepai
rofel
ect
rons

•
C–C-C–C-C–C-C-C• + …

F F F FF F F F
Lonepairofelectr
onscanbeusedtojoi
nmoremonomerst
ofor
mlonger
pol
ytet
rafl
uoroethene.
pol
ytet
rafl
uoroethenemolecul
ecanberepr
esent
edas:

F F F FF FF F ext
ensi
onof
mol
ecul
e/pol
ymer
-C–C-C–C-C–C-C–C- + …

F F F FF F F F

Si
ncet
hemol
ecul
eisar
epet
it
ionofonemonomer
,thent
hepol
ymeri
s:
F F

(C–C )
n

F F
Exampl es
Polyt
etrafluorothenehasamol armassof4760.Cal
culat
ethenumberof
tet
rafl
uor oethenemol eculesi
nt hepol
ymer(C=12.
0,,
F=19)
Numberofmonomer s/repeat
ingunit
sinmonomer=Mol armasspoly
mer
Molarmassmonomer
=>Mol armasset hene(C2F4)=62. 5Molarmasspolyet
hene=4760

Subst
it
uti
ng 4760 =77. 16 =>77pol ychloroethenemolecul
es(whol
enumber)
62.5
Thecommer cialnameofpol ytet
rafl
uoret
hene(P.T.F.
E)isTef
lon(P.
T.F.
E).I
tisat
ough,
non-
tr
ansparentanddur ableplast
ic.PVCisused:
(i
)i
nmaki ngplast
icrope
(i
i)
waterpi pes
(i
ii
)cr
atesandboxes

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6.For
mat ionofr ubberfrom Latex
Naturalrubberisobt ai
nedf r
om rubbertr
ees.
Dur i
nghar vesti
ngani ncisi
onismadeont her ubbertreetopr
oduceami
l
kywhi
te
substancecal l
edl at
ex.
Latexisami xt
ureofr ubberandlotsofwater.
Thelatexi sthenaddedanaci dtocoagulat
et her ubber.
Naturalrubberisapol ymerof2- methyl
but-
1,3-diene;

H CH3 H H

CH2=C(
CH3)CH=CH2 H -C = C – C = C -H

Duri
ngnat
uralpol
y mer
izat
iontorubber
,onedoubl
eC=Cbondbreaktosel
faddt
o
anot
hermolecul
e.Thedoublebondremaini
ngmovetocar
bon“
2”thus;

H CH3 H H H CH3 H H

-C - C = C - C -C - C = C - C -

H H H H
Gener
all
ythest
ruct
ureofrubberi
sthus;

H CH3 H H

-
(-C - C = C - C -
)n-

H H
Pur
er ubberissoftandst icky.
Iti
susedtomakeer aser
s,cartyr
es.Mostofiti
s
vul
canized.Vul
canizationistheprocessofheat
ingrubberwit
hsulphurtomakeit
har
der/tougher.
Duri
ngv ulcani
zat
iont hesulphuratomsf or
m acrossli
nkbetweenchainsofrubber
molecules/pol
ymer s.ThisdecreasesthenumberofC=Cdoubl ebondsinthepolymer
.

H CH3 H H H CH3 H H
Sul
phuratoms
-C - C -C - C -C - C - C - C - makecrossli
nk
bet
weenpolymers
H S H H S H

H CH3 S H H CH3 S H
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-C - C - C - C -C - C - C - C -

H H H H H H
Vul
cani
zedr
ubberi
susedtomakety
res,
shoesandv
alves.

7.Formati
onofsyntheti
crubber
Synthet
icrubberi
sabletoresistact
ionofoi
l
,abrasi
onandor gani
csol
vent
swhi
ch
rubbercannot.
Commonsy nt
het
icrubberi
sapol ymerof2-
chlorobut
-1,
3-di
ene;
H Cl H H

CH2=C(
ClCH=CH2 H -C = C – C = C -H

Duri
ngpoly
meri
zati
ontosynt
heti
crubber,
onedoubl
eC=Cbondi
sbr
okentosel
fadd
toanot
hermol
ecul
e.Thedoubl
ebondr emaini
ngmovet
ocar
bon“
2”t
hus;

H Cl H H H Cl H H

-C - C = C - C -C - C = C - C -

H H H H
Gener
all
ythest
ruct
ureofrubberi
sthus;

H Cl H H

-
(-C - C = C - C -
)n-

H H
Rubberist
husstr
engt
henedt
hroughvul
cani
zat
ionandmanuf
act
ureofsy
nthet
ic
rubber
.

(
c)Testf
ort
hepr
esenceof –C=C–doubl
ebond.

(
i)
Bur
ning/
combust
ion

Allunsatur
atedhy
drocar
bonswi
tha –C=C–or–C =C–bondbur
nwi
thay
ell
ow
sootyflame.

Exper
iment
Scoopasampl
eoft
hesubst
ancepr
ovi
dedi
nacl
eanmet
all
i
cspat
ula.I
ntr
oducei
ton
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aBunsenbur
ner
.

Obser
vati
on I
nfer
ence
Sol
idmeltt
henburnswi
tha –C=C–,
yel
l
owsootyfl
ame
–C =C–bond

(
ii
)Oxi
dat
ionbyaci
dif
iedKMnO4/
K2Cr
2O7

Bromi
newater,
Chl
ori
newat erandOxi
dizi
ngagent
saci
dif
iedKMnO4/
K2Cr
2O7change
touni
quecol
ouri
npresenceof–C=C–

or–C=C–bond.

Experiment
Scoopasampl eofthesubstanceprov
idedi
ntoacleant
esttube.Add10cm3of
disti
l
ledwater
.Shake.Takeaporti
onofthesol
uti
onmixt
ure.Addthreedr
opsof
acidi
fiedKMnO4/
K2Cr2O7.

Obser
vat
ion I
nfer
ence
Aci
dif
iedKMnO4decol
ori
zed –C=C–

Orangecol
ourofaci
dif
iedK2Cr
2O7 –C=C–bond
t
urnsgreen

Br
omi
newat
eri
sdecol
ori
zed

Chl
ori
newat
eri
sdecol
ori
zed

(d)
SomeusesofAl kenes
1.I
nthemanufactureofplast
ic
2.Hydrol
ysi
sofetheneisusedini
ndust
ri
almanuf
act
ureofet
hanol
.
3.I
nripeni
ngoffr
uits.
4.I
nthemanufactureofdeter
gent
s.

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(
ii
i)Al
kynes

(
a)Nomencl
atur
e/Nami
ng

Thesearehydrocar
bonswithagener
alfor
mulaCnH2n-2 and C C doubl ebond
asthefunct
ionalgr
oup.nisthenumberofCarbonatomsi nthemolecul
e.
Thecarbonat omsarel
inkedbyatl
eastonet
ripl
ebondt oeachot
herandsi
ngl
ebonds
tohydr
ogenat oms.

Theyi
ncl
ude:
n General
/ St ruct
uralf
ormul
a Name
Molecular
for
mul a
1 Doesnotexi
st -

2 C2H2 Et
hyne

H C C H
CHCH

3 C3H4 H Pr
opy
ne

H C C C H

H
CH C CH3

4 C4H6 H H But
yne

H C C C C H

H H
CH C CH2CH3
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5 C5H8 H H H Pent
yne

H C C C C CH

H H H
CH C (
CH2)
2CH3

6 C6H10 H H H H Hexy
ne

H C C C C CC H

H H HH
CH C (
CH2)
3CH3

7 C7H12 H H H H H Hept
yn
e
H C C C C C C C H

H H H H HH H
CH C (
CH2)
4CH3
8 C8H14 H H H H H H Oct
yne

H C C C C C C C C H

H H HH H H
CH C (
CH2)
5CH3
9 C9H16 H H H H H H H Nony
ne

H C C C C C C C C C H

H H HH H H H
CH C (
CH2)
6CH3
10 C10H18 H H H H H H H H Decy
ne

H C C C C C C C C C C H

H H HH H H H H
CH C (
CH2)
7CH3

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Note
1.Sincecar boni st etravalent, eachat om ofcar boni nt heal kyneMUSTal waysbe
bondedusi ngf ourcov al
entbond/ foursharedpai r
sofel ectronsincludi
ngatt hetr
ipl
e
bond.
2.SinceHy drogeni smonov alent, eachat om ofhy dr ogeni nt healkyneMUSTal ways
bebondedusi ngonecov alentbond/ oneshar edpai rofel ect r
ons.
3.Onememberoft heal kyne, likeal kenesandal kanes, di
fferfrom thenext/previ
ousby
aCH2 gr oup( mol armassof14at omi cmassuni ts).Theyt husf or
m ahomol ogous
seri
es.
e.g
Propynedi fferfrom et hy neby( 14a. m.u)onecar bonandt woHy drogenatomsf rom
ethyne.
4.Ahomol ogousser iesofal kenesl i
ket hatofalkanes:
(i
)di fferbyaCH2 gr oupf rom t henext/ prev i
ousconsecut i
vely
(i
i)hav esimilarchemi cal pr operties
(
ii
i)hav esimi larchemi cal for mulawi t
hgener alf ormul aCnH2n-2
(i
v)thephy sical propertiesal soshowst eadygr adual change

5.The -C=C-t ri
plebondinal
kynei
sthefuncti
onalgr oup.Thefunct
ionalgr
oupisthe
reacti
ngsiteofthealkynes.
6.The -C=C-t ri
plebondinalky
necaneasil
ybebr okent oaccommodat emore/four
mor emonov al
entatoms.The -C=C-t r
ipl
ebondi nal kynesmakeitthusunsat
urated
l
ikealkenes.
7.Mostoft hereacti
onsofalky
nesli
keal
kenestakepl aceatthe-C=C-t r
ipl
ebond.

(b)Isomer sofal kynes

Isomer sofal kyneshav ethesamemoleculargeneral
for
mulabutdiff
erentmolecul
ar
structuralformul a.
Isomer sofal kynesarealsonamedbyusi ngtheIUPAC(I
nter
nati
onalUnionofPureand
Appl i
edChemi stry)syst
em ofnomenclat
ure/naming.
TheI UPACsy stem ofnomenclat
ureofnamingalkynesusesthefol
l
owi ngbasi
c
rules/guideli
nes:

1.I
dent
if
ythelongestconti
nuous/strai
ghtcarbonchainwhichcontainsthe-C=C-
t
ripl
ebondtoget/deter
minet heparentalkene.
2.Numberthelongestchai
nf or
mt heendoft hechainwhichcontainsthe-C =C-
t
ripl
ebondsoas-C=C-t ri
plebondgetl owestnumberpossibl
e.

3Indi
cat
et heposi
tionsbyspl
i
tti
ng“alk-
posit
ions-
yne”e.
g.but
-2-
yne,pent-
1,3-
diy
ne.
4.
Theposit
ionindi
catedmustbeforthecarbonatom att
helowerposit
ioninthe
-C=C-tr
ipl
ebond.i.e
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But-
2-ynemeansthetr
ipl
e-C=C-isbet
weenCarbon“2”
and“3”
Pent-
1,3-
diy
nemeanst her
earet
wotri
plebonds;
onebetweencar
bon“
1”and“
2”and
anot
herbetweencar
bon“3”and“
4”

5.Deter
minet heposi
ti
on, numberandt
ypeofbranches.Namethem asmethyl
,et
hyl
,
propyle.
tc.accordi
ngtothenumberofalkylcar
bonchainsatt
achedt
ot heal
kyne.
Namet hem fl
uoro-,
chl
oro-
,bromo-,
i
odo-i
ftheyarehal
ogens

6.Usepref
ixdi-,
tr
i-
,t
etr
a-,
penta-,
hexa-t
oshowthenumberoft r
iple-C=C-bondsand
branchesattachedtothealkyne.
7.Positi
onisomerscanbef or
medwhent he-C=C-t r
ipl
ebondi sshi
ft
edbet
ween
carbonatomse. g.
But-2-
ynemeanst hedouble-C=C-i sbet
weenCarbon“2”and“3”
But-1-
ynemeanst hedouble-C=C-i sbet
weenCarbon“1”and“2”
BothBut-1-
yneandBut -2-
ynear eposi
ti
oni
somersofButyne.

9.Likealkanesandalkynes,anal
kylgr
oupcanbeattachedtot
healkyne.
Chain/branchisomersarethusf
ormed.
Butyneand2- methyl
propynebothhavethesamegeneralf
ormul
arbutdif
fer
ent
branchingchain.

(
Mor
eonpower
poi
nt)

(
c)Pr
epar
ati
onofAl
kynes.

Ethynei
spr epar
edfrom thereacti
onofwateroncal ci
um car
bide.Thereacti
oni s
hi
ghlyexothermicandthusal ayerofsandshouldbeputabovet hecal
cium carbideto
absorbexcessheattopreventthereacti
onflaskfr
om breaki
ng.Copper(I
I)
sulphate(VI
)
i
susedt ocataly
zethereacti
on

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Chemi
calequat
ion
CaC2(
s) +2H2O(
l)-
> Ca(
OH)2(
aq)+C2H2(
g)

(
d)Pr
opert
iesofal
kynes
I
.Physi
calpr
opert
ies

Likeal kanesandal kenes,alkynesar ecolour lesgases, solidsandl i

quidsthatar enot
poisonous.
Theyar esl i
ghtl
ysolubleinwat er .Thesol ubi l
ityinwat erdecr easeast hecarbonchain
andast hemol armassi ncreasebutv erysol ubl einorganicsol v entslike
tetrachloromethaneandmet hy lbenzene.Et hy nehasapl easantt astewhenpur e.
Themel tingandboi l
ingpoi ntincr easeast hecar bonchai nincr ease.
Thi sisbecauseoft hei ncreasei nv an-der
-waal s/ i
nter
mol ecul arf orcesast hecarbon
st
chai nincrease.The1 t hr
eest r aightchainal ky nes(et
hy ne,propy neandbut -1-
yne)are
gasesatr oom temper atureandpr essure.
Thedensi tyofstr
aightchai nal kynesi ncreasewi thi
ncreasingcar bonchainast he
i
nt ermol ecul
arforcesincreasesr educi ngthev olumeoccupi edbyagi venmassoft he
alkyne.

Summaryofphysi
cal
propert
i he1stf
esoft i
vealkenes
Al
ky ne General Melti
ng Boi li
ng St ateatroom(298K)
o o
formula point
(C) point(C) temperatureand
pressur
e
atmosphere
(101300Pa)
Ethyne CHCH -82 -
84 gas
Propyne CH3CCH -103 -
23 gas
Butyne CH3CH2CCH -122 8 gas
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Pent
-1-
yne CH3(
CH2)2CCH -
119 39 l
i
qui
d
Hex-
1-y
ne CH3(CH2)3C -
132 71 l
i
qui
d
CH

I
I.Chemicalpr
oper
ti
es
(
a)Burni
ng/combust
ion

Alkynesbur
nwithayel
l
ow/lumi
nousver
ysoot
y/smokyfl
amei nexcessai
rtof
orm
carbon(I
V)oxi
deandwater
.
Alkyne + Ai
r -> carbon(
IV)oxi
de+ water(excessair
/oxy
gen)

Alkenesburnwi t
hay ell
ow/l
umi
nousv er
ysoot
y/smokyflameinli
mitedai
rtoform
carbon(I
I)oxide/
car
bonandwater.
Alkyne + Ai
r - > carbon(I
I)oxi
de/car
bon + water(l
imit
edair
)
Burningofalkyneswithayel
l
ow/l
uminoussooty/smokyf l
ameisaconfir
matorytest
forthepresenceofthe-C=C–t ri
plebondbecausetheyhaveveryhigh C:
Hr at
io.

Exampl esofburningalkynes
1.(
a)Ethy newheni gni
tedburnswit
hay ell
owver
ysootyfl
amei nexcessai
rtof
orm
carbon(IV)oxi
deandwat er.
Ethyne + Air - > car bon(I
V)oxide+ water(excessair/
oxy
gen)
2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) -> 4CO2( g) + 2H2O(l
/g)

(b)Ethynewhenignit
edbur
nswithayell
owsootyfl
amei nli
mit
edairtofor
ma
mi xt
ureofunbur
ntcarbonandcar
bon(I
I)oxi
deandwat er.
Ethyne + Air - > carbon(
II
)oxide + wat er(l
imi
tedair)
C2H2(g) + O2(g)-> 2CO2(g) + C + 2H2O(l
/g)

2.(
a)Propynewheni
gnit
edburnswit
hay el
l
owsoot
yfl
amei nexcessairt
of or
m
carbon(
IV)oxi
deandwater
.
Propyne + Air -> car bon(
IV)oxi
de+ water(excessair
/oxygen)
C3H4(g) + 4O2(
g) -
> 3CO2( g) + 2H2O(l
/g)

(a)Propynewhenignit
edbur
nswithayell
owsoot
yflamei nlimit
edairtof
orm
carbon(I
I)oxi
deandwat er
.
Propene + Ai
r - > car bon(I
V)oxi
de+ water( excessair
/oxy
gen)
2C3H4(g) + 5O2(g) -
> 6CO( g) + 4H2O( l
/g)

(b)
Addi
ti
onreacti
ons
Anaddi
ti
onr eact
ioni
sonewhichanunsatur
atedcompoundreact
st oform asat
urat
ed
compound.Addit
ionr
eact
ionsofal
kynesarealsonamedfr
om thereagentusedto
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causet
headdi
ti
on/
conv
ertt
het
ri
ple -C =C-t
osi
ngl
eC-Cbond.

(i
)Hy drogenat i
on
Hy drogenat i
onisanaddi t
ionr
eacti
oninwhichhydrogeninpresenceof
o
Palladium/ Nickel cataly
stat150Ct emperatur
esreactwithal
kynestofor m al
kenes
thenal kanes.
Exampl es
1.Dur i
nghy drogenat i
on, twohydr
ogenatom inthehydrogenmol ecul
eat
t achitsel
fto
onecar bonandt heot hertwohydrogentothesecondcarbonbr eaki
ngthet ri
plebond
todoubl ethesingl e.
Chemi cal equation
HC=CH +H2 - Ni/Pa->H2C=CH2+H2 - Ni/
Pa->H2C -CH2

H H H H H H

C =C+H–H -Ni
/Pa-
>H-C=C–H+H–H -Ni
/Pa-
>H-C -C–H

H H H H H H

2.
Propy
neunder
gohy
drogenat
iont
ofor
m Pr
opane

Chemi
calequat
ion
H3CCH=CH2 + 2H2 -
Ni/
Pa-
> H3CCH-CH3

H H H H H H

H C C =C + 2H–H -Ni
/Pa-
> H-C– C-C-H

H H H H H

3(
a)But-
1-yneunder
gohydrogenati
ontoform But
ane
Chemi
calequati
on
But-
1-yne + Hy dr
ogen –Ni /Pa-
> But ane
H3CCH2C=CH + 2H2 - Ni/
Pa-> H3CCH2CH-CH3

H H H H H H H

H C C-C =C +2H–H -Ni

/Pa-
> H-C-C– C-C-H

H H H H H H
(
b)But
-2-
yneunder
gohy
drogenat
iont
ofor
m But
ane
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Chemi
calequat
ion
But
-2-
yne + Hy
drogen –Ni/
Pa-
> Butane
H3CC=CCH2 + 2H2 -Ni
/Pa-
> H3CCH2CH-CH3

H H H H H H

H C C= C -C H + 2H–H-Ni
/Pa-
>H-C-C– C-C-H

H H H H H H

(i
i)Halogenat ion.
Halogenat ionisanaddi t
ionreactioninwhichahal ogen( Fluor i
ne,chl
ori
ne,br
omine,
i
odine)r eactswi t
hanal kynetof orm anal
kenet henalkane.
Ther eact ionofal ky neswi thhalogenswithalkynesisf astert hanwithal
kenes.The
tr
iplebondi ntheal ky nebreakandf orm adoublet hensingl ebond.
Thecol ouroft hehal ogenf adesast henumberofmol esoft hehalogensremaini
ng
unreact eddecr eases.
Twobr omi neat omsbondatt he1stcarboninthet ri
plebondwhi l
etheothert
wogoes
nd
tothe2 car bon.

Examples
1Ethy
nereactswit
hbrownbr
omi
nev
apourt
ofor
m 1,
1,2,
2-t
etr
abr
omoet
hane.
Chemicalequat
ion
HC=CH + 2Br 2 HBr2C -CHBr2

H H H H

C =C + 2Br–Br Br-C–C-Br

Br Br
Et
hyne +Br
omi
ne 1,
1,
2,
1-t
etr
abromoet
hane

2.
Propynereact
swi t
hchl
orinetof
orm 1,
1,
2,
2-t
etrachl
oropropane.
Chemicalequat
ion
H3CC=CH + 2Cl 2 H3CCHCl 2-C HCl2
Propyne + Chlori
ne 1,
1,
2,2-tet
rachl
oropropane
H H Cl H

H C C =C +2Cl
–Cl H-C– C-C-Cl

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H H H Cl Cl
Propy
ne + Iodine 1,
1,
2,
2-t
etr
aiodopr
opane
H3CC=CH + 2I2 H3CCHI
2-C HI2

H H H H H I H

H C C-C =C + 2I–I H-C-C– C-C-I

H H H H I I

3(
a)But-
1-yneundergohalogenat
iont
ofor
m 1,1,2,2-t
etraiodobut
anewi
thi
odi
ne
Chemicalequat
ion
But-1-y
ne + i odi
ne 1,1,2,2-t
etrabromobut
ane
H3CCH2C=CH + 2I 2 H3CCH2CI 2-C HI
2
H H H H I I

H C C-C=C-
H + 2I–I H-C-C– C-C-H

H H H H H I I

(
b)But-
2-yneundergohalogenat
iont
ofor
m 2,
2,
3,3-
tetr
afl
uor
obut
anewi
thf
luor
ine
But-
2-yne + Fl uorine 2,
2,3,
3-t
etr
afl
uor
obut
ane
H3CC=C- CH2 + 2F2 H3CCF2CF2-CH3

H H H H H H H H

H C C= C-C-
H + F–F H-C-C– C-C-H

H H H H H H
4.But-
1,3-di
yneshouldundergohalogenat
iontof orm 1,1,2,
3,3,
4,
4octai
odobutane.
Thereactionusesfourmolesofiodi
nemol ecules/eightiodineatomstobreakthe
two(2)tr
ipledoubl
ebondsatcarbon“1”and“2”.
But-1,
3-di
ene + iodi
ne 1,
2,3,4-tetr
aiodobutane
HC=C C=CH + 4I 2 HCI 2CI 2CI 2CHI 2

II I I

H C C-C=C-
H + 4(
I–I
) H-C-C– C-C-H

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II I I

(i
ii
)React i
onwi thhydrogenhalides.
Hydrogenhal idesreactswithalkynetof
orm ahalogenoalkenethenhalogenoal
kane.
Thet r
iplebondi nthealkynebreakandform adoublethensinglebond.
Themai ncompoundi sonewhi cht hehy
drogenatom bondatt hecarbonwi t
hmor e
hydrogen.
Exampl es
1.Ethyner eactswithhydrogenbr omi
detoform bromoethane.
Chemi calequation

HC=CH + 2HBr H3C -CHBr

2

H H H H

C =C + 2H–Br H-C–C-Br

H Br
Et
hyne + Br
omi
ne 1,
1-di
bromoet
hane

2.Pr
opy nereact
swit
hhydr
ogeniodi
det
oform 2,
2-dii
odopropane(ast hemainpr
oduct
)
Chemicalequati
on
H3CC=CH + 2HI H3CCHI2-C H3
Propene + Chl
ori
ne 2,
2-di
chlor
opropane
Car
bonat
om wi
th
H H IH
moreHy
drogen
at
omsgetsext
ra
H C C =C +2H–I H-C– C-C-H

H H H I H

3.Bot
hBut-
1-y
neandBut
-2-
yner
eact
swi
thhy
drogenbr
omi
det
ofor
m 2,
2-
di
bromobut
ane

Chemicalequat
ion
But-
1-ene +hy dr
ogenbr
omi
de 2,
2-di
bromobut
ane

H3CCH2C=CH +2HBr H3CCH2CHBr-

CH3

H H H H Br H

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H C C-C =C +2H–Br H-C-C– C-C-H

H H H H H Br H

But
-2-
yne +Hy
drogenbr
omi
de 2,
2-di
bromobut
ane

H3CC=C-
CH3 +2HBr H3CCBr
2CH2-CH3

H H H Br H H

H C C= C-C-
H + 2Br–H H-C-C– C-C-H

H H H Br H H

4.But
-1,3-
diener eactwithhydrogeni
odidetoform 2,
3-diiodobutane.Ther
eacti
on
usesfourmol esofhy dr
ogeniodidemolecul
es/f
ouriodineatomsandt wohydr
ogen
atomstobr eakthetwodoubl ebonds.
But -
1,3-di
yne + iodi
ne 2,2,
3,
3-tet
raiodobutane
HC=CC=CH + 4HI H3CCI 2CI2C H3

H H H I I H

H C C-C=C-
H + 4(
H–I
) H-C-C– C-C-H

H I I H

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B.
ALKANOLS(
Alcohol
s)

(
A)I
NTRODUCTI
ON.

Alkanol
sbel ongt
oahomol ogousseriesoforganiccompoundswi t
hagener alf
ormul
a
st
CnH2n+1OHandt hus-OH ast hefuncti
onalgroup.The1 t enal
kanolsi
nclude
n Gener al/ Str
ucturalf
ormula I
UPAC
molecular name
for
mul ar
1 CH3OH
H–C–O-H Methanol
│
H

2 CH3CH2OH H H Et
hanol
C2H5OH
H C –C–O-H
│
H H

3 CH3(CH2)
2OH H H H Pr
opanol
C3H7OH
H C –C -C–O-H
│
H H H

4 CH3(CH2)
3OH H H H H But
anol
C4H9OH
H C –C-C-C–O-H
│
H H H H
5 CH3(CH2)
4OH H H HH H Pent
anol
C5H11OH
H C –C-C-C-C–O-H
│
H H H H H

6 CH3(CH2)
5OH H H HH H H Hexanol
C6H13OH
H C –C-C-C-C– C-O-H
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│
H H H H H H

7 CH3(CH2)
6OH H H HH H H H Hept
anol
C7H15OH
H C –C-C-C-C– C–C-O-H
│
H H H H H H H

8 CH3(CH2)
7OH H H HH H H HH Oct
anol
C8H17OH
H C –C-C-C-C– C–C-C-
O-H
│
H H H H H H HH

9 CH3(CH2)
8OH H H HH H H HHH Nonanol
C9H19OH
H C –C-C-C-C– C–C-C–C-O-H
│
H H H H H H HH H

10 CH3(CH2)
9OH H H HH H H HHHH Decanol
C10H21OH
H C –C-C-C-C– C–C-C–C-C-
O-H
│
H H H H H H HH HH

Alkanolsl
ikeHy drocarbons(alkanes/alkenes/al
kynes)f
orm ahomol ogousseri
es
wher e:
(i
)generalnamei sder i
vedfrom thealkanenamet henendingwith“-ol”
(i
i
) t
hemember shav e–OHast hefuct
ional gr
oup
(i
i
i)theyhavethesamegener alfor
mular epresent
edbyR- OHwher eRi sanalkylgr
oup.
(i
v)eachmemberdi ff
erby–CH2gr oupf r
om thenext/pr
evious.
(v
) t
heyshowasi mi l
arandgr adualchangei nthei
rphysi
cal pr
operti
ese.g.boil
i
ngand
meltingpoint
s.
(v
i)theyshowsi milarandgradual changei nthei
rchemicalpropert
ies.

B.ISOMERSOFALKANOLS.
Alkanolsexhi
bitbot
hstr
uctural
andposi
ti
oni
somer
ism.Thei
somer
sar
enamedby
usingthefoll
owingbasi
cguidel
ines:
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(i
)Li
kealkanes, i
dent
if
ythelongestcar
bonchaintobet heparentname.
(i
i
)Identi
fytheposi
ti
onofthe-OHf unct
ional
groupt ogi
veitthesmall
est/l
owest
positi
on.
(i
i
i)Ident
ifythet
ypeandpositi
onofthesidebranches.

Pr
act
iceexampl
esofi
somer
sofal
kanol
s

(i
)I
somersofpr
opanolC3H7OH
CH3CH2CH2OH -Pr
opan-1-
ol
OH

CH3CHCH3 -Pr
opan-
2-ol

Propan-2-
olandPr
opan-1-
olar
eposi
ti
oni
somer
sbecauseonl
ytheposi
ti
onoft
he–OH
funct
ionalgr
oupchanges.

(
ii
)I
somer
sofBut
anolC4H9OH

CH3CH2CH3CH2OH But
an-
1-ol

CH3CH2CHCH3

OH But
an-
2-ol

CH3

CH3CH3CH3

OH 2-methyl
propan-2-
ol
Butan-2-
olandButan-1-
olarepositi
onisomersbecauseonlytheposit
ionoft
he -
OHf uncti
onalgr
oupchanges.
2-methyl
propan-
2-oli
sbot hastruct
uralandposi
ti
onisomer sbecausebotht
he
posit
ionofthefunct
ionalgroupandt hearr
angementoftheatomsi nthemol
ecul
e
changes.

(
ii
i)
Isomer
sofPent
anolC5H11OH

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH Pent
an-
1-ol
(Posi
ti
oni
somer
)

CH3CH2CHCH3

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OH Pent
an-
2-ol
(Posi
ti
oni
somer
)

CH3CH2CHCH2CH3

OH Pent
an-
3-ol
(Posi
ti
oni
somer
)

CH3

CH3CH2CH2CCH3

OH 2-
met
hyl
but
an-
2-ol
(Posi
ti
on/
str
uct
ural
isomer
)

CH3

CH3CH2CH2CCHOH

CH3 2,
2-di
met
hyl
but
an-
1-ol
(Posi
ti
on/
str
uct
ural
isomer
)

CH3

CH3CH2CH CCH3

CH3 OH 2,
3-di
met
hyl
but
an-
1-ol
(Posi
ti
on/
str
uct
ural
isomer
)

(
iv)
1,2-
dichl
oropr
opan-
2-ol

CCl
H2CCl
CH3

OH
(
v)1,
2-di
chl
oropropan-
1-ol

CCl
H2CHCl
CH2

OH

(
vi)Et
han1,
2-di
ol
H H

HOCH2CH2OH H-
O-C-C–O-
H
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H H

(
vii
)Pr
opan1,
2,
3-t
ri
ol H OHH

HOCH2CHOHCH2OH H-O-C-C–C–O-
H
HH H
C.LABORATORYPREPARATI
ONOFALKANOLS.

Fordecadest hewor ldov er,peoplehavebeenf ermenti

nggr apesjuice, sugar,
car bohy dratesandst archt oproduceet hanolasasocial drugforr elaxati
on.
Inlar geamount ,dr
inkingofet hanolbymammal s/humanbei ngscausesment al
and
phy sical l
ackofcoor dination.
Prol ongedi ntakeofet hanol causespermanentment al
andphy sical lackof
coor dinationbecausei tdamagesv i
talorgansli
ketheliver.
Fer ment ationisthereact i
onwher esugarisconv er
tedtoal cohol
/ alkanol usi
ng
biological catal
yst/enzy mesi nyeast.
Itinv ol
vest hreeprocesses:
(i)
Conv ersionofstarcht omal toseusingt heenzymediast ase.

(
C6H10O5)
n(s)+H2O(
l)-
-di
ast
aseenzy
me-
->C12H22O11(
aq)
(
Star
ch) (
Maltose)

(
ii
)Hy
drol
ysi
sofMal
toset
ogl
ucoseusi
ngt
heenzy
memal
tase.

C12H22O11(
aq)
+H2O(
l)-
-mal
taseenzy
me-
->2C6H12O6(
aq)
(Maltose) (glucose)

(i
i
i)Conv
ersi
onofgl
ucoset
oet
hanol
andcar
bon(
IV)
oxi
degasusi
ngt
heenzy
me
zymase.

C6H12O6(
aq) -
-zy
maseenzy
me-
->2C2H5OH(
aq)+2CO2(
g)
(gl
ucose) (Et
hanol
)

Atconcentr
ati
ongr eatert
han15%byv olume,t
heethanolproducedkil
lstheyeast
enzymestoppingthereacti
on.
Toincr
easestheconcent r
at i
on,fr
acti
onaldi
sti
ll
ati
onisdonet oproducespiri
ts(e.
g.
Brandy
=40%et hanol).
Methanoli
smuchmor epoisonous/toxi
cthanethanol
.
Takenlar
gequant i
tyinsmal lquant
it
yitcausesi
nstantbl
indnessandl i
ver,
kil
li
ngthe
consumervict
im withi
nhour s.
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Schooll
aborator
ypr eparati
onofet hanol f
rom ferment
ati
onofgl
ucose
Measure100cm3ofpur ewat erint
oaconi cal
flask.
Addaboutfi
v espatulaendf ullofglucose.
Stirt
hemixturetodi ssolv
e.
Addaboutonespat ulaendf ullofyeast
.
Setuptheapparatusasbel ow.

Pr
eser
vet
hemi
xtur
eforaboutt
hreeday
s.

D.PHYSICALANDCHEMI CALPROPERTIESOFALKANOLS
Usetheprepar
edsampleabovef
ort
hefol
lowi
ngexper
iment
sthatshowst
he
charact
eri
sti
cproper
ti
esofal
kanol
s

(a)Rol
eofy east
Yeastisasingl
ecellfunguswhichcont
ainst
heenzy
memal
taseandzy
maset
hat
cat
alysethefermentati
onprocess.

(
b)Observat
ionsinl
imewater.
Awhit
eprecipi
tatei
sformedthatdi
ssol
vet oacolour
lesssoluti
onl
ater
.Li
me
wat
er/
Calcium hydr
oxi
dereact
swi t
hcarbon(I
V)0xi
depr oduceddur
ingt
he
f
ermentat
iontoforminsol
ubl
ecalci
um carbonateandwat er
.
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Morecarbon(
IV)
0xi
deproducedduri
ngfermentati
onreactwiththei
nsol
ubl
ecal
ci
um
car
bonat
eandwatert
oform sol
ubl
ecalci
um hydrogencarbonat
e.

Ca(OH)2(
aq) + CO2(g) - > CaCO3(
s)
H2O(l
) + CO2(
g)+ CaCO3(
s)-
> Ca(HCO3)2(
aq)

(c)
Effect
sonlit
muspaper
Experi
ment
Taketheprepar
edsampleandtestwit
hbot
hblueandredli
tmuspaper
s.
Repeatthesamewithpureet
hanolandmet
hyl
atedspi
ri
t.
SampleObservat
iontabl
e

Substance/al
kanol Eff
ectonl
it
muspaper
Preparedsample Bl
uelit
muspaperremai
nblue
Redli
tmuspaperr
emainred
Absol
uteet
hanol Bl
uelit
muspaperremai
nblue
Redli
tmuspaperr
emainred
Met
hyl
atedspi
ri
t Bl
uelit
muspaperremai
nblue
Redli
tmuspaperr
emainred
Explanat
ion
Alkanolsareneutr
alcompounds/
sol
uti
onthathav
echar
act
eri
sti
csweetsmel
land
taste.
Theyhav enoeffectonbot
hblueandredl
i
tmuspapers.

(d)Solubil
ityinwat er.
Experiment
Placeabout5cm3ofpr eparedsampl eintoacl eantestt
ubeAddequal amountof
disti
ll
edwat er.
Repeatt hesamewi thpureethanolandmet hyl
atedspiri
t.
Obser vati
on
Nol ayersf ormedbet weent hetwoliquids.
Explanation
Ethanol i
smi scibl
einwat er.
Bothethanol andwat erarepolarcompounds.
Thesol ubilityofalkanolsdecreasewithincreasei nt
healkylchai
n/molecularmass.
Theal kylgr oupisinsolubl
einwat erwhile–OHf uncti
onalgroupissol
ubleinwater.
Ast hemol ecularchainbecomesl onger,theeffectofthealkylgr
oupincreasesasthe
effectoft hef unct
ionalgroupdecreases.

e)Melt
ing/boi
li
ngpoint
.
Experi
ment
Placepureethanol
inalongboi
l
ingt
ube.
Det
ermi
nei
tsboi
l
ingpoi
nt.
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Observati
on
Pureethanol hasaboili
ngpointof78oCatsealevel/
oneatmospher epressure.
Explanati
on
Themel ti
ngandboi li
ngpointofal
kanolsincr
easewi thi
ncreaseinmolecular
chain/mass.
Thisisbecauset heint
ermolecul
ar/
van-der-
waalsforcesofattr
acti
onbetweent he
moleculesincrease.
Mor eheatener gyi
sthusrequir
edtoweakent helongerchainduri
ngmel t
ingandbreak
duri
ngboi l
ing.

f)
Density
Densi
tyofalkanolsincr
easewithincreaseintheintermolecul
ar/
van-
der-
waalsfor
ces
ofatt
racti
onbetweent hemolecul
e, makingitveryclosetoeachother
.
Thisr
educest hevolumeoccupiedbyt hemol ecul
eandt husincr
easethethei
rmass
perunitvol
ume( densit
y).

Summar
ytabl
eshowi
ngt
het
rendi
nphy
sical
proper
ti
esofal
kanol
s

Al
kanol Mel
ti
ngpoi
nt Boil
i
ngpoi
nt Density Sol
ubi
l
ityi
nwat
er
o o -
3
(C) (C) gcm
Met hanol -
98 65 0.791 solubl
e
Ethanol -
117 78 0.789 solubl
e
Propanol -
103 97 0.803 solubl
e
Butanol -
89 117 0.810 Sli
ghtl
ysol
ubl
e
Pent anol -
78 138 0.814 Sli
ghtl
ysol
ubl
e
Hexanol -
52 157 0.815 Sli
ghtl
ysol
ubl
e
Hept anol -
34 176 0.822 Sli
ghtl
ysol
ubl
e
Octanol -
15 195 0.824 Sli
ghtl
ysol
ubl
e
Nonanol -
7 212 0.827 Sli
ghtl
ysol
ubl
e
Decanol 6 228 0.827 Sli
ghtl
ysol
ubl
e

g)
Bur
ning

Experi
ment
Placethepreparedsampl einawat chgl ass.Igni
te.Repeatwithpur
eet hanoland
met hy
lat
edspi r
it.
Observati
on/Explanation
Fermentati
onpr oduceet hanol wi
thal otofwat er(
aboutar at
ioof1:3)
whi chprev
entt
he
al
cohol f
rom ignit
ing.
Pureethanolandmet hyl
atedspi r
iteasil
ycat chfir
e/highlyfl
ammabl e.
Theyburnwi t
hanal mostcol ourl
essnon- sooty/non-
smokybl uefl
amet of or
m
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carbon(I
V)oxide(i
nexcessair
/oxygen)
orcarbon(
II
)oxide(l
i
mi t
edair
)andwat
er.
Ethanolist
husasat ur
atedcompoundlikeal
kanes.
Chemi caequati
on
C2H5OH( l) + 3O2(g) - >3H2O(l)+ 2CO2(g)(excessai
r)
C2H5OH( l
) +2O2( g) - >3H2O(l)+ 2CO(g)(limit
edair
)

2CH3OH(
l) + 3O2(
g) -
>4H2O(
l)+ 2CO2(g)(excessai
r)
2CH3OH(l
) +2O2(g) -
>4H2O(
l)+ 2CO(g)(li
mitedair
)

2C3H7OH(l
) + 9O2(
g) -
>8H2O(
l)+ 6CO2(g)(excessai
r)
C3H7OH(
l) +3O2(
g) -
>4H2O(
l)+ 3CO(g)(li
mitedair
)

2C4H9OH(l
) + 13O2(g) ->20H2O(l
) + 8CO2(g)(excessai
r)
C4H9OH(
l) +3O2(g) ->4H2O(l
)+ 3CO(g)(li
mitedair
)

Duet
oitsf
lammabi
li
ty,
ethanoli
sused;
(
i) asafueli
nspiri
tlamps
(
ii
) asgasoholwhenblendedwi
thgasol
i
ne

(h)Formationofal koxides
Experiment
Cutav erysmal lpieceofsodi um.Putitinabeakercont ai ningabout20cm3oft he
preparedsampl ei nabeaker .
Testt heproduct swi t
hlit
muspaper s.Repeatwi thabsolut eet hanolandmethy
lat
ed
spir
it
.
Sampl eobservations
Substance/alkanol Effectofaddi ngsodi um
Fermentationprepar edsampl e (i
)ef fervescence/ fi
zzi ng/bubbles
(i
i)col ourl
essgaspr oducedt hat
extingui shbur ni
ngspl i
ntwith
expl osion/“ Pop”sound
(i
ii
)col ourlesssol utionf ormed
(i
v)bl uel i
tmuspaper sremai nblue
(v)redl i
tmuspaper st urnblue
Pure/absoluteethanol /
met hylat
ed (i
)slow
spir
it efferv escence/ f
izzing/ bubbles
(i
i)col ourl
essgassl owlypr oduced
thatext i
nguishbur ningsplintwith
expl osion/“ Pop”sound
(i
ii
)col ourlesssol utionf ormed
(i
v)bl uel i
tmuspaper sremai nblue
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(
v)r
edl
i
tmuspaper
stur
nbl
ue
Expl
anations
Sodi
um/ potassi
um react
sslowl
ywi
thalkanolstoform basi
csolut
ioncal
l
edal koxides
andproducinghydrogengas.
Ifthealkanolhassomewat ert
hemetalsreactf
asterwiththewatert
oform soluble
hydr
oxides/al
kali
si.e.

Sodium + Al
kanol -> Sodi
um alkoxi
des +Hydrogengas
Potassi
um + Al
kanol -
> Potassi
um alkoxi
des +Hydr
ogengas

Sodium + Wat
er -> Sodi
um hydroxi
des +Hy
drogengas
Potassi
um + Wat
er -
> Potassi
um hydroxi
des +Hydr
ogengas

Examples
1.Sodi
um metalreact
swithethanol
toform sodi
um ethoxide
Sodium met
alreactswit
hwat ertof
orm sodi
um Hydroxide
2CH3CH2OH(l
) + 2Na(s) - > 2CH3CH2ONa( aq) +H2(
s)
2H2O(l
) + 2Na(
s) - > 2NaOH( aq) +H2( s)

2.
Pot assi
um metalreactswit
hethanol
toform Pot
assium ethoxi
de
Potassium metal
reactswithwatertof
orm Pot
assium Hydroxide
2CH3CH2OH( l
) + 2K(s) -
> 2CH3CH2OK( aq) +H2( s)
2H2O( l
) + 2K(s) -
> 2KOH( aq) +H2( s)

3.
Sodium met
alreact
swithpr
opanoltof
orm sodi
um pr
opoxide
Sodi
um metalr
eactswit
hwatert
of or
m sodi
um Hydr
oxide
2CH3CH2CH2OH(l) + 2Na(s)-
>2CH3CH2CH2ONa( aq) +H2(
s)
2H2O(l
) + 2Na(
s) - > 2NaOH( aq) +H2(s)

4.
Pot assi
um metalreact
swithpr
opanoltofor
m Potassi
um pr
opoxi
de
Potassium met
alreactswit
hwatert
of or
m Potassi
um Hydr
oxide
2CH3CH2CH2OH( l) + 2K(
s) ->2CH3CH2CH2OK( aq) +H2(
s)
2H2O( l
) + 2K(s) -> 2KOH( aq) +H2(s)

5.
Sodium met
alreact
swi t
hbut
anoltofor
m sodi
um butoxi
de
Sodi
um metalr
eactswithwat
ertofor
m sodi
um Hydroxide
2CH3CH2CH2CH2OH( l
)+2Na(s)->2CH3CH2CH2CH2ONa( aq) +H2(
s)
2H2O(l
) + 2Na(
s) - > 2NaOH( aq) +H2( s)

6.
Sodium met
alreact
swithpent
anolt
oform sodi
um pent
oxi
de
Sodi
um metalr
eactswit
hwatertofor
m sodi
um Hydr
oxide
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2CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH(
l)
+2Na(
s)-
>2CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2ONa(
aq)+H2(
s)
2H2O(l
) + 2Na(
s) - > 2NaOH( aq) +H2(s)

(i
)Formati
onofEst er
s/Ester
if
icat
ion
Experiment
Place2cm3ofet hanolinaboi l
i
ngtube.
Addequal amountofethanoicacid.Tothemixt
ureaddcar
eful
ly2dropsof
concentrat
edsulphuri
c(VI)
acid.
War m/Heatgentl
y .
Pourthemi xt
ureintoabeakercontaini
ngabout50cm3ofcoldwater.
Smel l
theproducts.
Repeatwi t
hmet hanol
Sampl eobser
vati
ons

Subst
ance/
alkanol Ef
fectonaddingequalamountof
et
hanol/
concentr
atedsul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
d
Absoluteethanol Sweetfr
uit
ysmell
Methanol Sweetfr
uit
ysmell
Explanati
on
Alkanolsreactwithal
kanoicaci
dst of
orm agroupofhomologousseri
esofsweet
smel l
i
ngcompoundscal l
edestersandwater
.Thisreact
ioni
scatal
yzedby
concentratedsulphur
ic(
VI)
acidinthel
aborat
ory.

Al
kanol + Al
kanoi
caci
d –Conc.H2SO4-
> Est
er+wat
er

Nat ural
lyesteri
ficat
ioniscatal
yzedbysunl i
ght.Eachesterhasacharacteri
sticsmel
l
derivedfrom themanypossi blecombinationsofalkanolsandalkanoi
cacidst hat
createav ari
etyofknownnat ural(
mostlyinfrui
ts)andsy nt
heti
c(mostl
yinjuices)
esters.
Estersder i
vetheirnamesf r
om thealkanol f
ir
stthenalkanoi
cacids.Thealkanol
“becomes”anal kylgroupandthealkanoicacid“becomes”alkanoatehence
alkyl
alkanoate.e.g.

Et
hanol + Ethanoicaci
d -
> Et
hy l
ethanoate + Water
Et
hanol + Propanoicaci
d -
> Et
hy l
propanoate + Water
Et
hanol + Met hanoi
cacid -
> Et
hy l
met hanoat
e + Water
Et
hanol + butanoicaci
d -
> Et
hy l
butanoate + Wat er
Propanol + Ethanoicaci
d -
> Propyl
ethanoate+ Water
Methanol + Ethanoicaci
d -
> Methyethanoate+ Water
Methanol + Decanoicacid -
> Methyldecanoat
e + Water
Decanol + Met hanoi
cacid -
> Decyl
met hanoate + Water
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Duri
ngthef ormati
onoft heester,t
he“ O”j
oiningthealkanolandalkanoi
cacidcomes
fr
om thealkanol.
R1 -
COOH + R2–OH - > R1 -COO–R2 +H2O
e.
g.
1.Et
hanol react
swithethanoicacidt ofor
mt heest eret
hylethanoat
eandwat er
.
Et
hanol +Et hanoicacid --Conc.H2SO4-->Ethyl
ethanoate+Water
C2H5OH( l) +CH3COOH( l)--
Conc.H2SO4- -
>CH3COOC2H5( aq)+H2O(l
)
CH3CH2OH( l
)+CH3COOH( l)-
-Conc.H2SO4- -
>CH3COOCH2CH3( aq)+H2O(l
)

2.Ethanolreact
swit
hpropanoi
cacidt ofor
mt heesteret
hy l
propanoateandwat
er.
Ethanol +Pr opanoi
cacid--Conc.H2SO4-
->Ethyl
ethanoat e+Water
C2H5OH( l)
+CH3CH2COOH( l
)--
Conc.H2SO4- -
>CH3CH2COOC2H5( aq)+H2O(l
)
CH3CH2OH( l
)+CH3CH2COOH(l
)--Conc.H2SO4--
>
CH3CH2COOCH2CH3( aq)+H2O(l)

3.Methanolreact
swi
thethanoicaci
dtoformtheestermethylethanoat
eandwat
er.
Met hanol +Et
hanoicacid --
Conc.H2SO4-
->Methy
lethanoate+Water
CH3OH( l) +CH3COOH(l)--
Conc.H2SO4-
->CH3COOCH3( aq)+H2O(l
)

4.Met
hanolreact
swi
thpropanoicaci
dt of
ormtheestermethy
lpropanoat
eandwat
er.
Methanol +pr
opanoicacid--
Conc.H2SO4-
->Methy
lpr
opanoate+Wat er
CH3OH(l)
+CH3CH2COOH( l
)--Conc.H2SO4-
->CH3CH2COOCH3( aq)+H2O(l
)

5.Propanolreact
swit
hpropanoicacidtoformtheesterpropyl
propanoateandwat
er.
Propanol +Propanoi
cacid--Conc.H2SO4--
>Ethyl
ethanoate+Wat er
C3H7OH( l
)+CH3CH2COOH( l
)--
Conc.H2SO4- -
>CH3CH2COOC3H7( aq)+H2O(l)
CH3CH2CH2OH( l
)+CH3CH2COOH( l
)--Conc.H2SO4--
>
CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH3( aq)+H2O(l)

(j
)Oxidati
on
Experi
ment
Place5cm3ofabsol uteet hanoli
nat esttube.
Addt hreedropsofaci di
fiedpotassi
um
manganat e(VII
).
Shaket horoughl
yf oronemi nute/
war m.Testthesol ut
ionmi xt
ureusi
ng
pHpaper .Repeatbyaddi ngacidi
fiedpot assi
um dichromate(VII)
.
Sampleobser vati
ontabl e
Substance/alkanolAddi ngacidi
f i
ed pHofr esult
ing Natureof
KMnO4/ K2Cr
2O7 solut
ion/mixtur
e r esult
ing
soluti
on/mi xt
ure
Pureethanol (i
)Purplecol
ourof pH=4/ 5/6 Weakl yacidic
KMnO4decol orized
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(i
i
)Or angecolour pH=4/
5/6 Weakl
yaci
dic
ofK2Cr2O7t
urns
green.
Explanat
ion
Bothacidif
iedKMnO4andK2Cr 2O7ar
eoxi di
zingagents(addoxygentoother
compounds.Theyox idizealkanolstoagr oupofhomol ogousseri
escall
edalkanal
s
thenfurt
heroxi di
zet
hem t oalkanoicacids.Theoxi
dizingagentsarethemsel
v es
reducedhencechangingt heircolour:
(i
)PurpleKMnO4i sreducedt ocolour essMn2+
l
3+
(i
i)
OrangeK2Cr2O7isreducedt ogreenCr
ThepHofal kanoi
cacidsshowt heyhavef ewH+becauset heyar
eweakacidsi .
e

Al
kanol + [
O] -
> Al
kanal + [
O] -
> al
kanoi
caci
d

NBThe[ O]comesf
rom t
heoxi
dizi
ngagent
saci
difi
edKMnO4orK2Cr2O7
Examples
1.Whenethanoli
swarmedwit
hthr
eedropsofaci
dif
iedKMnO4t
hereisdecol
ori
zat
ion
ofKMnO4

Ethanol + [
O] -> Ethanal + [O] -
> Ethanoi
caci
d
CH3CH2OH + [O] -
> CH3CH2O + [O] -> CH3COOH

2.Whenmet hanoliswarmedwit
hthreedr
opsofaci
dif
iedK2Cr2O7,
theor
angecol
ourof
aci
dif
iedK2Cr2O7changest
ogreen.
met hanol + [ O] -> methanal + [ O] -
> met hanoicaci
d
CH3OH + [ O] - > CH3O + [
O] -> HCOOH

3.Whenpropanoliswarmedwit
hthreedropsofacidifi
edK2Cr2O7,t
heorangecol
ourof
acidi
fi
edK2Cr2O7changest
ogreen.
Propanol + [ O] -> Propanal + [ O] -> Pr opanoicaci
d
CH3CH2CH2OH + [ O] ->CH3CH2CH2O +[ O]- >CH3CH2COOH
4.Whenbutanoliswarmedwit
hthreedropsofaci
difiedK2Cr2O7,
theorangecol
ourof
acidi
fi
edK2Cr2O7changest
ogreen.
Butanol + [ O] -> Butanal + [ O] -> But anoi
cacid
CH3CH2CH2CH2OH +[ O]-
>CH3CH2CH2CH2O+[O]- >CH3CH2COOH

Airsl
owl
yoxidi
zesethanoltodil
uteethanoi
caci
dcommonlycal
l
edvi
negar
.Ifbeeris
notti
ght
lycor
ked,alotofcarbon(
IV)oxi
deescapesandt
her
eissl
owoxi
dati
onoft he
beermakingi
t“f
lat
”.

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(k)Hydrolysis/Hydrati
onandDehy drat i
on
I.Hydrolysis/Hydrat
ioni sther eactionofacompound/ subst ancewi thwat er.
Alkenesr eactwi t
hwat erv apour /steam athi ghtemper aturesandhi ghpr essuresin
presenceofphosphor icaci dcat alysttof orm al
kanols.i
.e.
Alkenes + Wat er -H3PO4cat alyst
-> Alkanol
Exampl es
(i)
Ethenei smi xedwithst eam ov eraphosphor i
cacidcat alystat300oCt emper atur
e
and60at mospher epr essur etof or
m et hanol
o
Ethene +wat er - --
60at m/ 300C/H3PO4 - ->Et hanol
o
H2C=CH2( g)+H2O( l
)- -60at m/ 300C/H3PO4 - -
> CH3CH2OH( l
)
Thisist hemai nmet hodofpr oduci ngl argequant i
ti
esofet hanolinsteadof
ferment at
ion
(ii
)Propene +wat er - --60at m/ 300oC/H3PO4 - ->Pr opanol
o
CH3C=CH2( g)+H2O( l
)- -
60at m/ 300C/H3PO4 - -
> CH3CH2CH2OH( l)
o
(ii
i
)But ene +water - -
-60at m/ 300C/H3PO4 - -
>But anol
o
CH3CH2C=CH2( g)+H2O( l
)- -60atm/ 300C/H3PO4 - -
>CH3CH2CH2CH2OH( l
)

II
.Dehy drationisthepr ocesswhi chconcent r
at edsulphuric(VI)
acid(dehy drati
ngagent)
remov eswat erfr
om acompound/ subst ances.
Concent ratedsulphuri
c( VI)
aci ddehy dr
atesal kanolstot hecor r
espondingal kenesat
o
about180C.i .
e
Alkanol- -Conc.H2SO4/ 180oC- -
>Al kene+Wat er
Exampl es
1.At180oCandi npresenceofConcent ratedsul phuri
c(VI)acid,et
hanol undergoes
dehydrationt oform ethene.
Ethanol ---180oC/H2SO4 - -> Et hene + Water
o
CH3CH2OH( l) - -180C/H2SO4 - -> H2C=CH2( g)+H2O( l
)
2.Propanol undergoesdehy drati
ont oform propene.
o
Propanol ---
180C/H2SO4 - -> Propene + Wat er
o
CH3CH2CH2OH( l
)- -180C/H2SO4 - -> CH3CH=CH2( g)+H2O( l)
3.Butanol undergoesdehy drati
ont oform But ene.
o
Butanol ---180C/H2SO4 - -> But ene + Wat er
o
CH3CH2CH2CH2OH( l) - -
180C/H2SO4 - -
> CH3CH2C=CH2( g)+H2O( l)
3.Pent anol undergoesdehy drati
ont of orm Pent ene.
o
Pentanol ---
180C/H2SO4 - -> Pent ene + Wat er
o
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH( l)-
-180C/H2SO4- ->CH3CH2CH2C=CH2( g)+H2O( l
)

(l
)Si
milari
ti
esofalkanolswit
hHy dr
ocar
bons
I.Simi
lari
tywithal
kanes
Bothalkanolsandalkanesburnwit
habluenon-
sootyf
lametoform car
bon(I
V)oxi
de(
in
excessair/
oxygen)/
carbon(I
I)
oxi
de(inl
i
mitedai
r)andwater
.Thisshowstheyare
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sat
urat
edwithhighC:Hrati
o.e.
g.
Bot
hethanolandethaneigni
teandburnsi
nairwit
habl uenon-soot
yfl
ametoform
car
bon(I
V)oxi
de(i
nexcessair/
oxygen)
/car
bon(I
I)
oxide(
inli
mitedair
)andwater
.

CH2CH2OH(
l)+3O2(
g)-
Excessai
r-
> 2CO2(g)+3H2O(
l)
CH2CH2OH(
l)+2O2(
g)-
Limit
edai
r-> 2CO(
g)+3H2O(l
)

CH3CH3(
g) + 3O2(
g)-
Excessai
r-
> 2CO2(g)+3H2O(
l)
2CH3CH3(
g) +5O2(
g)-
Limit
edai
r-> 4CO(
g)+6H2O(l
)

I
I.Simil
arit
ywi thalkenes/ alkynes
Bothalkanols(R-OH)andal kenes/ alkynes(with=C=C=doubl eand–C=C-t r
ipl
e)
bond:
(i
)decolorizeacidif
iedKMnO4
(i
i)
turnsOr angeaci difiedK2Cr 2O7 togreen.
Alkanol
s(R-OH)ar eoxidi
zedt oalkanals( R-
O)antthenal kanoicacids(R-
OOH) .
Alkenesareoxi dizedtoal kanolswi thduo/ doublefunctionalgroups.
Examples
1.Whenet hanol iswarmedwi t
ht hreedr opsofacidif
iedK2Cr 2O7theorangeofacidi
fi
ed
K2Cr2O7turnstogr een.Ethanol i
soxi dizedtoethanol andthent oethanoicaci
d.

Et
hanol + [O] -
> Et hanal + [O] -
> Ethanoi
caci
d
CH3CH2OH + [
O] -> CH3CH2O + [O] -> CH3COOH

2.Whenet heneisbubbledi
nat esttubecontainingaci
difi
edK2Cr2O7,
theor
angeof
acidi
fi
edK2Cr 2O7t
urnstogreen.Etheneisoxidizedtoethan-
1,2-
diol
.
Ethene + [ O] - > Et han-
1,2-
diol.
H2C=CH2 + [ O] - > HOCH2- CH2OH

I
II
.Di f
ferenceswithal
kenes/alkynes
Alkanolsdonotdecolori
zebr omineandchl ori
newater.
Alkenesdecolori
zesbromineandchl or
inewatertofor
m halogenoal
kanol
s
Exampl e
Whenet heneisbubbledinat esttubecontaini
ngbrominewat er
,t
hebrominewat
eri
s
decolori
zed.Etheneisoxi
dizedtobr omoethanol.
Ethene + Br ominewat er -
> Br omoethanol.
H2C=CH2 + HOBr -
> Br CH2-CH2OH

I
V.Di f
fer
encesi
nmel t
ingandboi
li
ngpoi
ntwit
hHy dr
ocar
bons
Alkanoshavehi
ghermelti
ngpoi
ntthant
hecorr
espondi
nghydr
ocar
bon
(al
kane/al
kene/
alky
ne)
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Thisisbecausemostal kanolsexistasdi mer.Adimerisamol eculemadeupoft wo

othermol eculesjoinedusual l
ybyv an-der -waalsf
orces/hydrogenbondordat ive
bonding.
Twoal kanol molecul esform adimerj oinedbyhy drogenbondi ng.
Exampl e
I
nEt hanol theoxy genat om at
tracts/pullsthesharedelectronsint hecovalentbond
mor etoitselfthanHy dr
ogen.
δ- δ+
Thiscr eatesapar t
ialnegati
vechar ge( )onoxy genandpar tialpositi
vecharge( )on
hydrogen.
Twoet hanol mol eculesattr
acteachot heratt hepart
ialchargest hroughHy dr
ogen
bondingf ormingadi mmer .

H H H Hy
drogenbonds

H C C O H H Cov
alent

H H H O C C H

H H
Dimeri
zat
ionofal
kanol
smeansmor eener
gyisneededtobreak/weakent
heHy drogen
bondsbefor
ebreaki
ng/
weakeni
ngtheint
ermolecul
arf
orcesjoi
ningthemolecul
esof
al
lorgani
ccompoundsdur
ingboi
li
ng/melt
ing.

E.USESOFSOMEALKANOLS
(a)Methanolisusedasi ndust
rialalcoholandmakingmethylat
edspir
it
(b)Et
hanol i
sused:
1.asalcohol i
nalcoholi
cdrinkse. gBeer
,winesandspiri
ts.
2.asantisepti
ctowashwoul ds
3.i
nmanuf act
ureofvanishes, i
nk,gl
ueandpaintbecauseiti
svolat
il
eandt
hus
easil
yev apor
at e
4.asafuel whenblendedwi thpetroltomakegasohol.

B.
ALKANOI
CACI
DS(
Car
boxy
li
caci
ds)

(
A)I
NTRODUCTI
ON.

Al
kanoi
caci
dsbel
ongt
oahomol
ogousser
iesofor
gani
ccompoundswi
thagener
al
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for
mul
aCnH2n+1COOHandt
hus-
COOH ast
hef
unct
ional
gr The1stt
oup. enal
kanoi
c
aci
dsi
ncl
ude:

n Gener
al/mol
ecul
ar St
ruct
ural
for
mul
a IUPAC
formul
ar name
0 HCOOH Methanoi
c
H–C–O-H acid
│
O
1 CH3COOH H Ethanoi
c
acid
H–C –C–O-H
│
H O
2 CH3CH2COOH H H Propanoi
c
C2H5COOH acid
H-
C–C –C–O–
H

H H O
3 CH3CH2CH2COOH H H H But
anoi
c
C3H7COOH aci
d
H-C-C–C –C–O–
H

H H H O
4 CH3CH2CH2CH2 H H H H Pent
anoi
c
COOH aci
d
C4H9COOH H-C–C-C–C –C–O–
H

H H H H O
5 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2 H H H H H Hexanoi
c
COOH aci
d
C5H11COOH H C-C–C-C–C –C–O–
H

H H H H H O

6 CH3CH2CH2 H H H H H H Pentanoi
c
CHN
2C
o H
ve
ls
2C
,
UpH
daC
2t
edO
KOH
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C6H13COOH H C C-C–C-C–C–C–O–
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H H H H H H O

Alkanoicacidsli
kealkanol
s/al
kanes/al
kenes/alky
nesform ahomologousser
ies
wher e:
(
i)
thegeneral
nameofanal kanoicaci
dsi sderi
vedfr
om theal
kanenamet hen
endingwi t
h“ –oi
c”acidasthetabl
eabov eshows.
(
ii
)themember shaveR-COOH/R C- O-H ast hefuncti
onalgroup.

O
(i
i
i)theyhavet hesamegeneralfor
mularepresentedbyR- COOHwher eRisan
al
kyl
group.
(i
v)eachmemberdi f
ferby–CH2-groupfrom thenext/previ
ous.
(v
)theyshowasi mil
arandgradualchangeintheirphysi
calproperti
ese.g.boi
l
ing
andmelt
ingpoi nt.
(v
i)theyshowsi mil
arandgradualchangeintheirchemicalpropert
ies.
(v
ii
)si ncetheyareacidst
heyshowsi mil
arproperti
eswi thmineralaci
ds.

(
B)I
SOMERSOFALKANOI
CACI
DS.

Alkanoicacidsexhi
bitbothstructur
alandpositi
onisomeri
sm.Thei somersarenamed
byusingt hefoll
owingbasicguideli
nes
(i
)Likealkanes.i
denti
fythelongestcarbonchaintobetheparentname.
(i
i
) I
denti
fythepositi
onofthe - C-O-
H f unct
ionalgrouptogivei
tt hesmal
lest

O
/
lowestposi
ti
on.
(i
ii
)I
denti
fyt
hety
peandposi
ti
onoft
hesi
degr
oupbr
anches.

Pract
iceexamplesonisomer
sofalkanoi
caci
ds
1.
Isomer sofbut
anoi
cacidC3H7COOH
CH3CH2CH2COOH
Butan-1-oi
caci
d
CH3

H2C C COOH 2-
met
hyl
propan-
1-oi
caci
d

2-met
hylpropan-
1-oi
cacidandButan-
1-oi
cacidar
estr
uct
urali
somersbecausethe
posi
ti
onoft hefunct
ional
groupdoesnotchangebutt
hearr
angementoftheatomsin
themoleculedoes.

2.
Isomer
sofpent
anoi
caci
dC4H9COOH
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CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH pent
an-
1-oi
caci
d

CH3

CH3CH2CHCOOH 2-
met
hyl
but
an-
1-oi
caci
d

CH3

H3C C COOH 2,
2-di
met
hyl
propan-
1-oi
caci
d

CH3

3.
Ethan-
1,2-
dioi
caci
d
O O

HOOC-COOH /
/ H-O–C-C–O–H

4.
Propan-
1,3-
dioi
caci
d
O H O

HOOC-CH2COOH /
/ H-O–C–C-C–O–H

5.
But
an-
1,4-
dioi
caci
d
O H H O

HOOCCH2CH2COOH H-O–C–C-C–C–O–H

H H

6.
2,2-
dichl
oroet
han-
1,2-
dioi
caci
d
HOOCCHCl 2 Cl

H–O-C–C–Cl

O H

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(
C)LABORATORYANDI
NDUSTRI
ALPREPARATI
ONOFALKANOI
CACI
DS.

I
naschool l
aborator
y, al
kanoicacidscanbepreparedbyaddi nganoxi di
zi
ngagent
+ +
(H/ KMnO4orH / K2Cr2O7)
tothecor r
espondi
ngalkanolthenwar ming.
Theoxi dati
onconv ert
st healkanolfi
rstt
oanalkanalthealkanoicacid.
NBAci di
fi
edKMnO4i sast r
ongeroxidizi
ngagentthanacidif
iedK2Cr2O7
Gener alequati
on:
R-CH2–OH +[O] -H+/
- KMnO4--> R-CH–O + H2O(l)
(alkanol) (
alkanal)

R-CH–O + [O] -
-H+/
KMnO4-
-> R-C–OOH
(al
kanal
) (al
kanoi
caci
d)

Examples
1.Et
hanolonwar
mingi
naci
dif
iedKMnO4i
soxi
dizedt
oet
hanal
thenet
hanoi
caci
d.

CH3-CH2–OH +[
O] -
-H+/
KMnO4-
-> CH3-CH–O + H2O(
l)
(et
hanol
) (et
hanal
)

CH3-CH–O + [
O] -
-H+/
KMnO4-
-> CH3-C–OOH
(et
hanal
) (et
hanoi
caci
d)

2Pr
opanolonwar
mingi
nacidi
fi
edKMnO4isoxi
dizedtopropanal
thenpropanoi
caci
d
+
CH3-CH2CH2–OH +[ O]--
H/ KMnO4-
-> CH3-CH2CH–O + H2O(l
)
(pr
opanol
) (propanal
)

CH3-CH–O + [
O] -
-H+/
KMnO4-
-> CH3-C–OOH
(pr
opanal
) (pr
opanoi
caci
d)

I
ndustri
all
y,
largescal
emanuf act
ureofalkanoicaci
dli
keethanoicacidisobtai
nedfr
om:
(a)
Alkenesreacti
ngwithst
eam athightemper at
uresandpressureinpresenceof
phosphori
c(V)aci
dcatal
ystandundergohy drol
ysi
stoform al
kanols.i
.e.

Alkenes+Steam/ water -
-H2PO4Cat alyst
--
>Alkanol
Thealkanoli
st henoxidi
zedbyairat5at mospherepressur
ewi t
hManganese
(I
I)sul
phat
e(VI)catal
ysttofor
mt healkanoicacid.
Alkanol+Ai r - -MnSO4Cat al
yst/
5at m pressur
e--
>Alkanoi
cacid

Example
Ethenei
smi
xedwi
thst
eam ov
eraphosphor
ic(
V)aci
dcat
aly
st,
300oCt
emper
atur
eand
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60at
mospher
epr
essur
etof
orm et
hanol
.

CH2=CH2 + H2O -
>CH3CH2OH
(Et
hene) (
Ethanol
)

Thisistheindust
ri
al l
argescalemethodofmanufact
uri
nget
hanol
Ethanolisthenoxi
dizedbyai rat5atmospher
epressur
ewit
hManganese
(I
I)sul
phate(VI
)catal
ysttoformt heet
hanoi
cacid.

CH3CH2OH + [
O]-
-MnSO4Cat
aly
st/
5at
m pr
essur
e--
>CH3COOH
(Et
hanol
) (Ethanoi
caci
d)

(b)Alky
nesr eactwit
hl i
quidwaterathi
ghtemper
aturesandpressur
einpr
esenceof
Mer cury(
II
)sulphat
e(VI)
catal
ystand30%concentr
atedsulphur
ic(
VI)
aci
dtofor
m
alkanals.
Alkyne + Water--Mer
cury(I
I)
sul
phat
e(VI
)catal
yst
-->Al
kanal

Theal kanali
sthenoxi di
zedbyairat5atmospherepressurewit
hManganese(I
I)
sulphate(VI
)cataly
sttoformthealkanoi
cacid.
Alkanal +ai r/oxygen--Manganese(
II
)sul
phate(VI
)catal
yst
--
>Alkanoi
caci
d

Example
Ethynereactwit
hliqui
dwaterathi
ght
emper
atur
eandpressur
ewit
hMercur
y(I
I)
sulphat
e( VI
)cat
aly
stand30%concent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)
acidt
ofor
m et
hanal
.

CH = CH + H2O -
-HgSO4-
->CH3CH2O
(Et
hyne) (Et
hanal
)

Thisi
sanot herindustri
allar
gescalemethodofmanufactur
inget
hanolfrom l
arge
quanti
ti
esofet hynefoundi nnatur
algas.
Ethanalisthenoxidizedbyai rat5atmospher
epressurewithManganese
(I
I)
sulphate(
VI)catalysttoformtheethanoi
caci
d.

CH3CH2O + [
O]--MnSO4Cat
aly
st/
5at
m pr
essur
e-->CH3COOH
(Et
hanal
)(Oxy
genfr
om ai
r) (Ethanoi
caci
d)

(
D)PHYSI
CALANDCHEMI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFALKANOI
CACI
DS.

I
.Phy
sical
proper
ti
esofal
kanoi
caci
ds
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Thet ablebel
owshowssomephy
sicalpr
opert
iesofalkanoicaci
ds
-
3
Alkanol Melt
ing Boili
ng Densit
y(gcm ) Sol ubil
it
yin
o o
poi
nt(C) point(C) wat er
Met hanoic 18.
4 101 1.22 soluble
acid
Ethanoicacid 16.
6 118 1.05 soluble
Propanoi c -
2.8 141 0.992 soluble
acid
Butanoicacid -
8.0 164 0.964 soluble
Pent anoic -
9.0 187 0.939 Sli
ghtlysol
ubl
e
acid
Hexanoi c -
11 205 0.927 Sli
ghtlysol
ubl
e
acid
Hept anoic -
3 223 0.920 Sli
ghtlysol
ubl
e
acid
Octanoi caci
d 11 239 0.910 Sli
ghtlysol
ubl
e
Nonanoi c 16 253 0.907 Sli
ghtlysol
ubl
e
acid
Decanoi c 31 269 0.905 Sli
ghtlysol
ubl
e
acid

Fr
om thetablenot
ethefol
lowing:
(i
) Mel ti
ngandboi
li
ngpoi ntdecreaseast
hecarbonchai
nincr
easesduet
o
increasei
nint
ermolecularfor
cesofatt
racti
onbet
weenthemolecul
es
requiri
ngmoreenergytosepar atet
hemolecul
es.

(
ii
) Thedensit
ydecreasesasthecar
bonchaini
ncr
easesast
heint
ermol
ecular
for
cesofattr
acti
onincr
easesbetweenthemol
ecul
esmakingt
hemolecule
ver
yclosereduci
ngthei
rvolumeinuni
tmass.

(
ii
i) Sol
ubil
itydecr
easesast hecarbonchai nincr
easesasthesoluble–COOHend
i
sshiel
dedbyi ncreasi
nginsolublealky
l/hydr
ocarbonchai
n.
(
iv) Li
kealkanols,
alkanoicacidsexistasdimmer sduetothehydrogenbonds
wit
hinthemolecule.i.
e..

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IIChemi cal pr
operti
esofalkanoicacids
Thef oll
owi ngexperimentsshowst hemai nchemi calproperti
esofethanoic(al
kanoi
c)
acid.
(
a)Effectonlit
muspaper s
Experiment
Dipbot hblueandr edlit
muspaper sinet hanoicacid.Repeatwi t
hasol ut
ionofsucci
nic
acid,ci
tricacid,oxal
icacid,t
art
aricacidanddi l
utenitri
c(V)aci
d.
Sampl eobser vati
ons
Soluti
on/ acid Observat
ions/eff
ectonl i
tmus I
nference
papers
Ethanoicaci d Bluel
itmuspapert urnred H3O+/H+(
aq)i
on
Redli
tmuspaperr emai nred
Succinicaci d Bluel
itmuspapert urnred H3O+/H+(
aq)i
on
Redli
tmuspaperr emai nred
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Ci
tr
icaci
d Bl
uel
itmuspapert
urnr
ed H3O+/
H+(
aq)
ion
Redl
i
tmuspaperremai
nred
Oxal
i
caci
d Bl
uel
itmuspapert
urnr
ed H3O+/
H+(
aq)
ion
Redl
i
tmuspaperremai
nred
Tar
tar
icaci
d Bl
uel
itmuspapert
urnr
ed H3O+/
H+(
aq)
ion
Redl
i
tmuspaperremai
nred
Ni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d Bl
uel
itmuspapert
urnr
ed H3O+/
H+(
aq)
ion
Redl
i
tmuspaperremai
nred

Explanat i
on
Allacidicsol ut
ionscont nsH+/
ai H3O+( aq)i ons.TheH+/ H3O+( aq)i onsisresponsible
fortur ni
ngbl uelitmuspaper /solut i
ont or ed
(b)pH
Exper iment
Place2cm3ofet haoi cacidi nat estt ube.Add2dr opsofuni v
ersal i
ndi
catorsoluti
on
anddet ermi nei t
spH.Repeatwi thasol utionofsucci nicaci d,ci
tricacid,oxali
cacid,
tart
ar i
caci danddi lut esulphur ic( VI)acid.
Sampl eobser vati
ons
Solution/ acid pH Inference
Ethanoi caci d 4/ 5/6 Weakl yacidic
Succi nicaci d 4/ 5/6 Weakl yacidic
Citr
icaci d 4/ 5/6 Weakl yacidic
Oxalicaci d 4/ 5/6 Weakl yacidic
Tartaricaci d 4/ 5/6 Weakl yacidic
Sulphur ic(VI)acid 1/ 2/3 Strongl yacidi c
Explanat i
ons
Alkanoi caci dsar eweakaci dst hatpar ti
al l
y/par t
lydissoci atetor eleasefewH+i onsi n
solution.ThepHoft heirsolutioni st hus4/ 5/6showi ngt heyform weakl yacidic
solutionswhendi ssol vedi nwat er.
Allalkanoi caci ddissoci at
et or eleasest he“ H”att hef unct i
onal groupi n-COOHt o
-
formt heal kanoat ei on;–COO
Miner al acids(Sulphur ic(VI)
aci d,Ni t
ric(V) acidandHy drochl ori
caci d)arestr
ongaci ds
+
thatwhol ly/ful
lydissoci atetor eleasemanyH i onsinsol ution.ThepHoft heirsolut
ion
i
st hus1/ 2/ 3showi ngt heyfor m st r
ongl yaci dicsol uti
onswhendi ssolvedinwat er
.i.
e
Exampl es
1.CH3COOH( aq) CH3COO-( aq) + H+(aq)
(ethanoi caci d) (ethanoat eion) (
fewH+i on)

2.CH3CH2COOH(aq) CH3CH2COO-(aq)+ H+(

aq)
(pr
opanoi
caci
d) (pr
opanoat
eion) (fewH+i
on)

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3.CH3CH2CH2COOH(
aq) CH3CH2CH2COO-(
aq)+H+(
aq)
(But
anoi
caci
d) (but
anoat
eion) (ewH+i
f on)

4.HOOH(aq) HOO-(
aq) + H+(
aq)
(
methanoi
caci
d) (
methanoat
eion) (
fewH+i
on)

5.H2SO4(aq) SO42-(
aq) + 2H+(
aq)
(
sulphur
ic(
VI)aci
d) (
sul
phate(VI
)ion) (manyH+i
on)

6.HNO3(aq) NO3-(
aq) + H+(
aq)
(
nit
ri
c(V)aci
d) (
nit
rat
e(V)i
on) (manyH+i
on)

(c)Reacti
onwi t
hmet als
Experiment
Placeabout4cm3ofet hanoicacidinat estt ube.Putabout1cm l engthofpoli
shed
magnesi um r i
bbon.Testanygaspr oducedusi ngabur ni
ngspli
nt.Repeatwi t
ha
soluti
onofsucci nicacid,ci
tri
cacid, oxali
caci d,tartari
cacidanddi l
utesulphuri
c(VI
)
acid.
Sampl eobser vations
Soluti
on/ aci
d Observati
ons I
nference
+ +
Ethanoicacid (i
)eff
ervescence, f
izzing,bubbl es H3O /H( aq)i
on
(i
i)
colourl
essgaspr oducedt hat
burnwi t
h“pop”sound/ explosi on
Succinicacid (i
)eff
ervescence, f
izzing,bubbl es H3O+/H+(aq)i
on
(i
i)
colourl
essgaspr oducedt hat
burnwi t
h“pop”sound/ explosi on
Citr
icacid (i
)eff
ervescence, f
izzing,bubbl es H3O+/H+(aq)i
on
(i
i)
colourl
essgaspr oducedt hat
burnwi t
h“pop”sound/ explosi on
Oxalicacid (i
)eff
ervescence, f
izzing,bubbl es H3O+/H+(aq)i
on
(i
i)
colourl
essgaspr oducedt hat
burnwi t
h“pop”sound/ explosi on
Tartari
caci d (i
)eff
ervescence, f
izzing,bubbl es H3O+/H+(aq)i
on
(i
i)
colourl
essgaspr oducedt hat
burnwi t
h“pop”sound/ explosi on
Nitri
c(V)acid (i
)eff
ervescence, f
izzing,bubbl es H3O+/H+(aq)i
on
(i
i)
colourl
essgaspr oducedt hat
burnwi t
h“pop”sound/ explosi on
Explanation
Met al
shi gherint hereactiv
ityseri
esdi splacet hehy drogeninallacidsto
evolve/producehy dr
ogengasandf orm asal t.Alkanoicacidsreactwi t
hmet al
swith
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metalst
oform al
kanoatessal
tandpr
oduce/ev
olvehy drogengas.Hydr
ogen
exti
ngui
shesaburni
ngspl i
ntwi
thapopsound/explosi
on.Onlythe“H”i
nthef
unct
ional
group-COOHis/aredispl
acedandnoti
nthealkylhydrocarbonchai
n.

Alkanoi
caci
d+Met al-> Al
kanoat
e + Hydrogengas.i
.e.
Examples
1.Foramonoval
entmet
alwit
hmonobasi
cacid
2R–COOH +2M -
> 2R-COOM + 2H2(g)

2.
Foradi valentmet al
withmonobasi cacid
2R–COOH + M ->( R-COO)2M + H2( g)
3.Foradi v
alentmet alwi
thdibasicacid
HOOC- R-COOH+ M -
>MOOC- R-COOM + H2( g)
4.Foramonov alentmetalwithdi
basicacid
HOOC- R-COOH+ 2M -
>MOOC- R-COOM + H2( g)
5Formi neralacids
(
i)Sul
phuric(VI)
acidisadibasicaci
d
H2SO4( aq)+2M - >M2SO4( aq)+H2(
g)
H2SO4( aq)+M - > MSO4( aq) +H2( g)

(
ii
)Nit
ri
c(V)andhy
drochl
ori
cacidaremonobasicaci
d
HNO3(aq)+2M - >2MNO3( aq)+H2(g)
HNO3(aq)+M - > M( NO3)2(aq)+H2(
g)

Examples
1.Sodi
um reactswi t
hethanoicaci
dtofor
m sodium ethanoat
eandpr
oduce.hy
drogen
gas.
Cauti
on:Thisreacti
onisexplosi
ve.
CH3COOH( aq) + Na(s)->CH3COONa( aq)+H2( g)
(
Ethanoi
caci d) (
Sodi
um ethanoate)

2.
Calci
um react
swi t
het
hanoi
cacidt
of or
m calci
um ethanoat
eandpr
oduce.hy
drogen
gas.
2CH3COOH( aq) + Ca(
s)->(CH3COO)2Ca(aq)+H2( g)
(
Ethanoi
cacid) (Cal
cium et
hanoate)

3.Sodium reactswi
thet
han-
1,2-
dioicaci
dtoform sodi
um et
han-
1,2-
dioat
eandpr
oduce.
hydrogengas.
HOOC- COOH+ 2Na - >NaOOC-COONa+ H2( g)
(ethan-1,
2-di
oicaci
d) (sodium et
han-
1,2-
dioat
e)

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Commer
cial
nameofet
han-
1,2-
dioi
caci
disoxal
i
caci
d.Thesal
tissodi
um oxal
ate.

4.
Magnesium r
eact
swithet
han-
1,2-
dioi
caci
dtof
orm magnesi
um et
han-
1,2-
dioat
eand
pr
oduce.hydr
ogengas.

HOOC-R-COOH+ Mg -
>(OOC-COO)Mg+ H2( g)
(
ethan-
1,2-
dioi
caci
d) (
magnesi
um et
han-
1,2-
dioat
e)

5.
Magnesium react
swi
th
(i
)Sul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
dtof
orm Magnesi
um sul
phate(
VI)
H2SO4(aq)+Mg - >MgSO4( aq)+H2(g)

(
ii
)Ni
tr
ic(
V)andhydrochl
ori
caci
daremonobasi
cacid
2HNO3(aq) +Mg - > M(NO3)2(
aq)+H2(
g)

(d)React i
onwi t
hhy dr
ogencar bonatesandcar bonates
Exper iment
Placeabout3cm3ofet hanoicaci dinat esttube.Addabout0. 5g/½spat ul
aendf ul
l
ofsodi um hydrogencar bonat e/sodi
um car bonate.Testthegaspr oducedusi
nglime
wat er.Repeatwithasol utionofsucci nicacid,cit
ricacid,
oxali
cacid,tar
tar
icaci
dand
dil
ut esulphuri
c(VI)acid.
Sampl eobservati
ons
Solution/acid Obser vati
ons Infer
ence
+ +
Ethanoi cacid (
i)effervescence, f
izzi
ng, bubbles H3O /H( aq)i
on
(
ii)colourl
essgaspr oducedt hat
formsawhi t
epr ecipi
tat
ewi thlime
wat er
Succi nicacid (
i)effervescence, f
izzi
ng, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)i
on
(
ii)colourl
essgaspr oducedt hat
formsawhi t
epr ecipi
tat
ewi thlime
wat er
Citr
icaci d (
i)effervescence, f
izzi
ng, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)i
on
(
ii)colourl
essgaspr oducedt hat
formsawhi t
epr ecipi
tat
ewi thlime
wat er
Oxal i
caci d (
i)effervescence, f
izzi
ng, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)i
on
(
ii)colourl
essgaspr oducedt hat
formsawhi t
epr ecipi
tat
ewi thlime
wat er
Tartaricacid (
i)effervescence, f
izzi
ng, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)i
on
(
ii)colourl
essgaspr oducedt hat
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f
ormsawhi teprecipi
tat
ewithlime
water
Ni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d (
i)
effervescence,f
izzi
ng,bubbles H3O+/
H+(
aq)
ion
(
ii
)colourl
essgaspr oducedthat
f
ormsawhi teprecipi
tat
ewithlime
water

Allacidsreactwithhydrogencarbonate/car
bonatetoform sal
t,wat
erand
evolve/producebubblesofcarbon(IV)
oxideandwat er
.
Carbon( I
V)oxidef
ormsawhi t
epr eci
pit
atewhenbubbledinl i
mewat er
/ext
ingui
shesa
burningsplint
.
Alkanoicacidsreactwithhydrogencarbonate/car
bonatetoform al
kanoat
es,water
andev olve/pr
oducebubbl esofcarbon(I
V)oxideandwater.

Al
kanoi
caci
d+hy
drogencar
bonat
e->al
kanoat
e+wat
er+car
bon(
IV)
oxi
de

Alkanoicacid+ car bonat

e - > al kanoat
e + wat er+carbon(
IV)oxi
de
Exampl es
1.Sodium hy dr
ogencarbonatereact
swithethanoi
caci
dtoform sodi
um et
hanoat
e
,
wat erandcarbon(I
V)oxi
degas.
CH3COOH( aq) + NaHCO3( s)->CH3COONa( aq)+H2O(
l)+CO2( g)
(Ethanoicacid) (Sodium et
hanoate)

2.Sodi
um carbonatereact
swit
hethanoi
cacidtoform sodi
um ethanoate,
wat
erand
carbon(I
V)oxidegas.
2CH3COOH( aq) + Na2CO3(
s)->2CH3COONa( aq)+H2O( l)+CO2( g)
(
Ethanoicacid) (
Sodium et
hanoat
e)

3.Sodium carbonat
ereactswithet
han-1,
2-dioicacidt
oform sodium et
hanoat
e
,
wat erandcarbon(
IV)
oxidegas.
HOOC- COOH+ Na2CO3( s) - >NaOOC-COONa+H2O( l
)+CO2( g)
(
ethan-1,2-
dioi
cacid) (sodi
um et
han-1,2-di
oate)

4.Sodium hydr
ogencarbonat ereactswithethan-1,
2-di
oicaci
dtof
orm sodi
um
ethanoate,waterandcarbon(IV)oxi
degas.
HOOC- COOH+ 2NaHCO3( s) - >NaOOC-COONa+H2O( l
)+2CO2(g)
(
ethan-1,
2-di
oicacid) (sodium ethan-
1,2-di
oate)

(
e)Est
eri
fi
cat
ion

Exper
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Place4cm3ofet hanol
acidinaboil
ingtube.
Addequal v olumeofethanoi
cacid.Tothemi xt
ure,
add2dr opsofconcent
rated
sulphuric(
VI)acidcaref
ull
y.Warm/heatgentl
yonBunsenf lame.
Pourt hemi xtureint
oabeakercontaini
ng50cm3ofwat er
.Smell
theproducts.Repeat
withasol uti
onofsucci ni
cacid,
cit
ri
cacid,oxali
cacid,
tart
ari
cacidanddil
utesulphuri
c
(VI)acid.

Sampl eobservati
ons
Soluti
on/acid Obser
vati
ons
Ethanoicacid Sweetfr
uit
ysmell
Succinicacid Sweetfr
uit
ysmell
Citr
icacid Sweetfr
uit
ysmell
Oxalicacid Sweetfr
uit
ysmell
Tartari
cacid Sweetfr
uit
ysmell
Dil
utesulphuric(
VI)aci
d Nosweetfrui
tysmel
l

Explanati
on
Alkanolsreactwit
hal kanoi
cacidtof ormthesweetsmelli
nghomol ogousseri
esof
estersandwat er
.Ther eact
ioni
scatal y
sedbyconcentrat
edsulphuri
c(VI)
aci
dinthe
l
abor ator
ybutnaturallybysunl
ight/heat.
Eachesterhasacharacter
ist
icsmellder
ived
fr
om t hemanypossi blecombinati
onsofal kanol
sandalkanoi
cacids.

Alkanol + Al
kanoi
caci
ds - > Est er+ wat er
Estersderiv
et heirnamesfrom t
healkanolfi
rstt
henal
kanoi
cacids.Thealkanol
“becomes”anal kylgr
oupandthealkanoicacid“
becomes”al
kanoatehence
alkyl
alkanoate.e.g.

Et
hanol + Ethanoicaci
d -
> Et
hy l
ethanoate + Water
Et
hanol + Propanoicaci
d -
> Et
hy l
propanoate + Water
Et
hanol + Met hanoi
cacid -
> Et
hy l
met hanoat
e + Water
Et
hanol + butanoicaci
d -
> Et
hy l
butanoate + Wat er
Propanol + Ethanoicaci
d -
> Propyl
ethanoate+ Water
Methanol + Ethanoicaci
d -
> Methyethanoate+ Water
Methanol + Decanoicacid -
> Methyldecanoat
e + Water
Decanol + Met hanoi
cacid -
> Decyl
met hanoate + Water

Duri
ngthef or
mationoft
heest
er,
the“O”j
oini
ngt
heal
kanol
andal
kanoi
caci
dcomes
fr
om thealkanol
.
R1 -
COOH + R2–OH - > R1 -
COO–R2 +H2O

Exampl
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1.Et
hanolreact
swithethanoi
cacidtofor
mt heesteret
hylethanoat
eandwat er
.
Ethanol +Et hanoi
cacid --
Conc.H2SO4--
>Ethyl
ethanoate+Water
C2H5OH(l) +CH3COOH( l
)--
Conc.H2SO4-
->CH3COOC2H5( aq)+H2O(l
)
CH3CH2OH( l
)+CH3COOH( l
)--
Conc.H2SO4--
>CH3COOCH2CH3( aq)+H2O(l
)

2.Ethanolreact
swit
hpropanoi
cacidt ofor
mt heesteret
hy l
propanoateandwat
er.
Ethanol +Pr opanoi
cacid--Conc.H2SO4-
->Ethyl
ethanoat e+Water
C2H5OH( l)
+CH3CH2COOH( l
)--
Conc.H2SO4- -
>CH3CH2COOC2H5( aq)+H2O(l
)
CH3CH2OH( l
)+CH3CH2COOH(l
)--Conc.H2SO4--
>
CH3CH2COOCH2CH3( aq)+H2O(l)

3.Methanolreact
swi
thethanoicaci
dtoformtheestermethylethanoat
eandwat
er.
Met hanol +Et
hanoicacid --
Conc.H2SO4-
->Methy
lethanoate+Water
CH3OH( l) +CH3COOH(l)--
Conc.H2SO4-
->CH3COOCH3( aq)+H2O(l
)

4.Met
hanolreact
swi
thpropanoicaci
dt of
ormtheestermethy
lpropanoat
eandwat
er.
Methanol +pr
opanoicacid--
Conc.H2SO4-
->Methy
lpr
opanoate+Wat er
CH3OH(l)
+CH3CH2COOH( l
)--Conc.H2SO4-
->CH3CH2COOCH3( aq)+H2O(l
)

5.Propanolreact
swit
hpropanoicacidtoformtheesterpropyl
propanoateandwat
er.
Propanol +Propanoi
cacid--Conc.H2SO4--
>Ethyl
ethanoate+Wat er
C3H7OH( l
)+CH3CH2COOH( l
)--
Conc.H2SO4- -
>CH3CH2COOC3H7( aq)+H2O(l)
CH3CH2CH2OH( l
)+CH3CH2COOH( l
)--Conc.H2SO4--
>
CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH3( aq)+H2O(l)

C.DETERGENTS
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Deter
gentsarecleaningagentsthatimprovethecleani
ngpower/ pr
oper
ti
esofwat
er.
A
deter
gentther
eforeshoul dbeableto:
(
i)
dissol
vesubst anceswhichwat ercannote.ggrease,
oil
,fat
(
ii
)bewashedawayaf tercl
eaning.
Therearetwotypesofdet ergent
s:
(
a)Soapydetergents
(
b)Soapl
essdet ergents

(a)SOAPYDETERGENTS
Soapydet ergent susuallycal l
edsoapi sl ongchai nsaltofor ganicalkanoic
acids.Commonsoapi ssodi um octadecanoat e.Itisderivedf r
om r eacti
ng
concent ratedsodi um hy droxidesol uti
onwi thoctadecanoi caci d(18carbonalkanoic
acid)i.
e.
Sodi um hy dr oxide+oct adecanoi cacid- > Sodi um octadecanoat e + wat er
– +
NaOH( aq)+CH3( CH2)16COOH( aq) ->CH3(CH2)16COO Na ( aq)+H2O( l
)
Commonl y,soapcant husber epresented;
– +
R- COO Na wher e;
Risal ongchai nalkylgroupand - COO– Na+ i st healkanoat eion.
Inaschool l
abor atoryandati ndust ri
alanddomest i
clevel,
soapi smadebyr eacti
ng
concent ratedsodi um hy droxidesol uti
onwi thester sfr
om ( animal )f
atandoil.The
processofmaki ngsoapi scal l
edsaponi ficati
on.Dur i
ngsaponi fi
cation,
theesteris
hydrolyzedbyt healkali
tof orm sodi um salt/soapandgl ycerol/propan-
1,2,
3-tr
iol
is
produced.

Fat
/oi
l
(est
er)
+sodi
um/
pot
assi
um hy
droxi
de-
>sodi
um/
pot
assi
um sal
t(
soap)
+gl
ycer
ol

Fat
s/Oi
l
sar
eest
erswithfatt
yacidsandgl
ycer
olpar
tsi
nthei
rst
ruct
ure;
C17H35COOCH2

C17H35COOCH

C17H35COOCH2

Whenboi ledwithconcent r
atedsodium hy droxi
desol uti
onNaOH;
+ -
(i)
NaOHi onizes/ di
ssociatesi
nt oNa andOH i ons
-
(ii
)f
at/oi
lsplitintothreeC17H35COO andoneCH2CH CH2
+
(ii
i
)thethreeNa combi newiththethr eeC17H35COO-toformthesal
t
- +
C17H35COO Na
(iv
)thet eeOH-i
hr onscombi newi t
htheCH2CH CH2t oform anal
kanol
wit
hthr
ee
functi
onalgr oupsCH2OHCHOH CH2OH( propan-1,2,
3-t
ri
ol)
C17H35COOCH2 CH2OH
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>3C17H35COO-Na+ +
C17H35COOCH +NaOH- CHOH

C17H35COOCH2 CH2OH
Ester Al
kal
iSoap gl
ycer
ol

Gener al
ly
:
CnH2n+1COOCH2 CH2OH

>3CnH2n+1COO-Na+ +
CnH2n+1COOCH +NaOH- CHOH

CnH2n+1COOCH2 CH2OH
Ester Al
kal
iSoap gl
ycer
ol

R-COOCH2 CH2OH

R-COOCH +NaOH- COO-Na+

>3R- + CHOH

R-COOCH2 CH2OH
Est
er Al
kal
i Soap gl
ycer
ol

Duri
ngthi
spr ocessali
tt
lesodi
um chl
ori
deisaddedt
opreci
pit
atethesoapbyr
educi
ng
i
tssolubi
l
ity
.Thisiscal
ledsal
ti
ngout.
Thesoapisthenaddedcolouri
ngagents,
perf
umesandherbsofchoice.

School l
aboratoryprepar ationofsoap
Placeabout40goff atty(animal fat)beef /meati n100cm3beaker. Addabout15cm3
of4. 0M sodi um hydroxidesol ution.Boi l themi xtur
ef orabout15mi nutes.Stirthe
mi xture. Addabout5. 0cm3ofdi stil
ledwat erasy ouboi ltomakeupf orev aporati
on.
Boi l
f oraboutanot her15mi nutes. Addaboutf ourspatulaendf ul
lofpur esodi um
chloridecr ystal
s.Cont i
nuest irri
ngf oranot herfi
vemi nutes.All
owtocool .Fil
terof
/decantandwashof fther esiduewi thdi stil
ledwater. Tr
ansferthecleanr esidueintoa
drybeaker .Preser
v e.
Theact i
onofsoap
Soapydet er
gents:
(i
)actbyreducingt hesur facet ensionofwat erbyf ormingathinlay eront opof
thewat er.
(i
i
)ismadeofanon- polaral kyl /hydr ocarbontailandapol ar-COO-Na+head.The
non- polaralkyl/hydrocarbont ail i
shy drophobi c(waterhat i
ng)andt husdoesnot
dissol veinwat er.
Itdissolvesi nnon- polarsol ventli
kegr ease,oi
landf at.Thepol ar-
- +
COONa headi shy drophil
ic(wat erlov i
ng) andt husdissolveinwater.Whenwashi ng
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withsoapydet ergent,thenon- polartailofthesoapydet er

gentsurround/ dissolvei
nthe
dir
tont hegar ment/gr ease/ oilwhilethepol arheaddi ssolveinwater.
Throughmechani calagitation/ st
irr
ing/sqeezing/rubbing/beati
ng/kneadi ng,some
greaseisdislodged/li
ftedoft hesur faceoft hegar ment.Iti
si mmedi atel
ysur rounded
bymor esoapmol eculesI tfloatandspr eadi nthewaterast inydropletsthatscat t
er
l
ightinform ofemul sionmaki ngt hewat ercloudyandshi nny.Iti
sr emov edfrom the
garmentbyr insi
ngwi thf reshwat er.
Ther epul
sionofthesoapheadpr event/ ensure
thedropletsdonotmi x.Oncer emov ed, t
hedi rtmoleculescannotber edepositedback
becausei ti
ssurroundedbysoapmol ecules.

Adv ant agesanddi sadvant agesofusi ngsoapydet ergent s

Soapydet ergentsar ebiodegr adable.Theyar eacteduponbybact eri
aandr ot.They
thusdonotcauseenv i
ronment al poll
ution.
Soapydet ergentshav et hediadv atagei nthat:
(i)t
heyar emadef rom fatandoi l
swhi char ebet tereat enasf oodthanmakesoap.
(ii
)formsani nsol
ublepr ecipitat
ewi thhardwat ercal l
edscum.Scum i sinsolubl
e
calci
um oct adecanoat eandMagnesi um oct adecanoat ef ormedwhensoapr eacts
2+ 2+
withCa andMg pr esentinhar dwat er.
Chemi cal equat i
on
- +
2C17H35COO Na ( aq)+ Ca2+( aq) - > ( C17H35COO-) Ca2+( s)+ 2Na+( aq)
(i
nsolubleCal ci
um oct adecanot e/scum)
- + 2+ - 2+
2C17H35COO Na ( aq)+ Mg ( aq) - >( C17H35COO ) Mg ( s)+ 2Na+( aq)
(i
nsolubleMagnesi um oct adecanot e/scum)
Thiscauseswast ageofsoap.
Potassium soapsar ebet t
erthanSodi um soap.Pot assium ismor eexpensivet han
sodium andt husi tssoapi salsomor eexpensi ve.

(b)SOAPLESSDETERGENTS
Soaplessdetergentusual l
ycalleddetergentisal ongchainsaltf
romedfrom by-
productsoffractional di
stil
l
ationofcr udeoil
.Commonl yusedsoapsi ncl
ude:
(i
)washingagent s
(i
i)
toothpast e
(i
ii
)emulsifi
er s/wetti
ngagent s/shampoo
Soaplessdet ergent sarederivedfrom reacti
ng:
(i
)concentratedsul phuri
c( VI
)acidwit
hal ongchai
nal kanole.
g.Oct
adecanol(
18
carbonalkanol)tof orm alkylhydrogensulphat e(VI
)
Alkanol+Concsul phuri
c(VI)acid->al kyl
hy drogensulphate(
VI)+Water
R–OH + H2SO4 ->R–O- SO3H + H2O

(i
i
)theal
kylhydrogensul
phat
e(VI)ist
henneut
ral
izedwithsodi
um/
pot
assi
um
hy
droxi
detoform sodium/pot
assi
um alkyl
hydr
ogensulphat
e(VI)
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Sodi
um/
pot
assi
um al
kyl
hydr
ogensul
phat
e(VI
)ist
hesoapl
essdet
ergent
.

al
kylhydrogen + Pot
assium/sodi
um -> Sodium/pot
assi
um + Wat
er
sulphate(
VI) hydr
oxide al
kyl
hydrogensul
phat
e(VI
)
- +
R–O- SO3H + NaOH -> R–O-SO3 Na + H2O

Example
StepI:Reacti
onofOct
adecanol
wit
hConc. H2SO4
C17H35CH2OH(aq)+H2SO4 - >C17H35CH2-O-SO3-H+(
aq)+ H2O(
l)

oct
adecanol
+sul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d->Oct
adecy
lhy
drogensul
phat
e(VI
)+wat
er

St
epI I
:Neutr
ali
zat
ionbyanalkal
i
- +
C17H35CH2-
O-SO3 H (aq)+NaOH - O-SO3-Na+(
>C17H35CH2- aq)+ H2O(
l)

Oct
adecylhydr
ogen+sodi
um/potassi
um -
> sodi
um/pot
assi
um oct
adecy
l+Wat
er
sul
phat
e(VI) hy
droxi
de hydr
ogensul
phat
e(VI
)

School l
aborator
ypreparati
onofsoapl
essdetergent
Placeabout20gofol i
veoi
lina100cm3beaker .Putitinatr
oughcontai
ningi
cecol
d
wat er
.
Adddr opwisecarefull
y18M concent
rat
edsulphuri
c(VI)
aci
dstir
ri
ngconti
nuousl
yint
o
theoliveoi
luntilt
heoiltur
nsbr own.
Add30cm3of6M sodi um hydr
oxi
de
soluti
on.St
ir.
Thisisasoaplessdeter
gent.

Theact
ionofsoapl
essdet
ergent
s

Theacti
onofsoapl
essdetergentsi
ssi
mil
art
ot hatofsoapydet
ergents.
Thesoapl
ess
det
ergent
scontai
nthehydrophil
i
cheadandalonghydrophobi
ctail
.i
.e.

v
vvv
vvv
vvv
vvv
vvv
vvv
vvv
vvv
vvv
vvv
vvv
vvv
vvv
vvv
vvv
-COO-Na+

v
vvv
vvvvvvv
vvvvvv
vvvv
vvvv
vvvvv
v v
vvvvv
vvvvvv
vvvv-
O-SO3-Na+
(
longhydr
ophobi
c/non-
polaral
kylt
ail
) ( hy
drophi
lic/
polar
/i
oni
chead)

Thetail
dissol
vesinf at/
grease/ oi
lwhil
et heionic/
polar/i
onicheaddissolvesi
nwater.
Thetail
st i
ckt
ot hedirtwhichisr emovedbyt heat t
racti
onofwat ermoleculesandthe
polar
/i
onic/hy
drophili
cheadbymechani calagit
ati
on/ squeezing/
kneading/
beati
ng/rubbi
ng/scrubbing/scatchi
ng.
Thesuspendeddi r
tisthensur roundedbydet ergentmol ecul
esandrepulsionofthe
ani
onheadpr eventi
ngt hedirtfrom st
ickingont hemat eri
algarment
.
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Thet
inydr
opl
etsofdi
rtemul
sionmakest
hewat
ercl
oudy
.Onr
insi
ngt
hecl
oudy
emul
sioni
swashedaway.

Adv antagesanddi sadvantagesofusi ngsoaplessdet

ergents
Soaplessdet er
gentsarenon- bi
odegr adableunli
kesoapydeter
gents.
Theypersisti
nwat erduringsewaget reatmentbycausingf
oami ngi
nriv
ers,l
akesand
st
reamsl eadingtomar i
ne/ aquaticdeat h.
Soapl
essdet ergentshavetheadv ant
agei nthatt
hey:
(i)
donotf or
m scum wi t
hhar dwat er
.
(ii
)arecheapt omanuf acture/buy i
ng
(ii
i
)aremadef rom pet
roleum product sbutsoapismadefrom f
ats/
oilf
or human
consumpt i
on.

Sampl
erev
isi
onquest
ions

1.St
udyt
heschemebel
ow
Fat
/oi
l KOH

Boi
l
ing Sodium
Chlori
de

Fi
l
trat
ion

Fi
lt
rat
eY
ResidueX
(
a)I
denti
fytheprocess
Saponifi
cat
ion
(
b)Fat
sandoi l
sar eesters.Wr
it
ethef
ormul
aoft
heacommonst
ruct
ureofest
er
C17H35COOCH2

C17H35COOCH

C17H35COOCH2

(c)Writ
eabalancedequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
iont
aki
ngplacedur
ingboi
l
ing
C17H35COOCH2 CH2OH
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>3C17H35COO-Na+ +
C17H35COOCH +3NaOH - CHOH

C17H35COOCH2 CH2OH
Ester Al
kal
i Soap gl
ycer
ol

(
d)Gi
vetheIUPACnameof :
(
i)
ResidueX
Potassi
um octadecanoat
e
(
ii
)Fi
lt
rateY
Propan-
1,2,
3-t
riol

(
e)Gi
veoneuseoff
it
rat
eY
Maki
ngpai
nt

(
f)Whati
sthefuncti
onofsodi
um chl
ori
de
Toreducethesol
ubi
li
tyoft
hesoaphencehel
pingi
npr
eci
pit
ati
ngi
tout

(g)
Explainhowr esi
dueXhel psinwashi ng.
Hasanon- polarhydr
ophobict ai
lthatdissolv
esi ndi
rt
/gr
ease/oil
/fat
Hasapol ar/i
onichydrophil
icheadt hatdissolv
esinwater.
From mechanicalagi
tation,
thedir
tispluckedoutoft hegarmentandsur
rounded
bythetailendpreventi
ngitfrom bei
ngdeposi tedbackont hegarment.

(
h)Stat
eone:
(
i)advantageofcont i
nueduseofr esi
dueXont heenvir
onment
Isbiodegradableandt husdonotpoll
ut etheenv
ironment
(
ii
)disadvantageofusi ngresidueX
Usesf at/
oilduri
ngpr eparat
ion/
manuf act
urewhicharebett
erusedf
or
humanconsumpt i
on.
(
i)
ResidueXwasaddeddr opwiset osomewat er
.Thenumberofdr opsusedbef
ore
l
atherformsi sasi nthetablebelow.

Wat
ersampl
e

A B C
Dr
opsofr
esi
dueX 15 2 15
Dr
opsofr
esi
dueXi
nboi
l
edwat
er 2 2 15

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(
i)
Stat
eandexplainwhi chsampl eofwat eri
s:
I
.Sof t
SampleB. Veryli
ttl
esoapi susedandnoef fectonamountofsoapev enon
boi
li
ng/heating.
I
I.Permanenthar d
SampleC.Al otofsoapi susedandnoef f
ectonamountofsoapev enon
boi
li
ng/heating.Boil
ingdoesnotremov epermanenthar dnessofwater.
I
II.Temporar
yhar d
SampleA.Al otofsoapi susedbefor
eboili
ng.Ver yl
it
tl
esoapi susedon
boi
li
ng/heating.Boil
ingremov et
emporaryhar dnessofwater.

(
ii
)Wr
it
etheequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
ionatwat
ersampl
eC.

Chemi calequation
- +
2C17H35COO K ( aq)+ CaSO4(aq) ->( C17H35COO-)Ca2+(s)+ K2SO4( aq)
(i
nsol
ubleCalcium oct
adecanot e/
scum)
I
onicequat i
on
2C17H35COO-K+( aq)+ Ca2+(
aq) -> ( C17H35COO-)Ca2+(s)+ 2K+( aq)
(i
nsol
ubleCalcium oct
adecanot e/
scum)
Chemi calequation
- +
2C17H35COO K ( aq)+ MgSO4( aq) -
>( C17H35COO-)Mg2+(s)+ K2SO4( aq)
(i
nsol
ubleCalcium oct
adecanot e/
scum)
I
onicequat i
on
2C17H35COO-K+( aq)+ Mg2+(aq) -> ( C17H35COO-)Mg2+(s)+ 2K+( aq)
(i
nsol
ubleMagnesi um octadecanote/
scum)

(i
i
i)Writet
heequat i
onf
ort
her eacti
onatwat ersampleAbef oreboili
ng.
Chemi calequation
- +
2C17H35COO K ( aq)+Ca(HCO3) (
aq)- >(C17H35COO-)Ca2+(s)+2KHCO3( aq)
(i
nsolubleCal ci
um oct
adecanot e/
scum)
I
onicequat i
on
2C17H35COO-K+( aq)+ Ca2+(
aq) - > ( C17H35COO-)Ca2+(s)+ 2K+( aq)
(i
nsolubleCal ci
um oct
adecanot e/
scum)
Chemi calequation
- +
2C17H35COO K ( aq)+Mg( HCO3)(aq)->(C17H35COO-)Mg2+(s)+2KHCO3( aq)
(i
nsolubleCal ci
um oct
adecanot e/
scum)
I
onicequat i
on
2C17H35COO-K+( aq)+ Mg2+(aq) -> ( C17H35COO-)Mg2+(s)+ 2K+( aq)
(i
nsolubleMagnesi um octadecanote/scum)

(
iv)
Expl
ainhowwat
erbecomeshar
d
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Naturalorrainwaterfl
owi ng/passi
ngthr
oughr ockscontai
ningcal
ci
um (chal
k,
gypsum, l
imestone)andmagnesi um compounds( dol
omite)
dissol
vethem t
oform
2+ 2+
solubl
eCa andMg i onsthatcauseswaterhardness.

(
v)St
atetwousef ul
benef
it
sofhardwat er
-Usedinboneandteethfor
mation
-Coralpol
ypsusehardwatert
of orm cor
alr
eef
s
-Snail
susehardwatertomaketheirshel
ls

2.
Studyt
heschemebel
owandusei
ttoanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow.

Ol
i
veoi
l Conc.H2SO4

I
cecol
d
wat
er

6M sodium
Br
ownsol
i
dA
hy
droxide

SubstanceB
(
a)I
denti
fy:
(i
)brownsol i
dA
Alkylhydr
ogensulphat
e(VI)
(i
i
)substanceB
Sodium al
kylhydr
ogensulphat
e(VI
)
(
b)Wri
teagener alfor
mulaof:
(i
)SubstanceA.
O

R-
O-SO3 H /
/R-O-S-O -H

O
(
ii
)Subst
anceB O

R-
O-SO3-Na+ R-O-S-O-Na+

O
(
c)St
ateone
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(
i)adv
antageofconti
nueduseofsubst
anceB
-Doesnotfor
m scum wit
hhardwater
-I
scheaptomake
-Doesnotusefoodforhumanasar awmat
eri
al.

(
ii
)di
sadvant
ageofconti
nueduseofsubst
anceB.
Isnon-
biodegr
adabl
ether
efor
edonotpoll
utet
heenv
ironment

(d)Expl
aintheact i
onofBdur i
ngwashi ng.
Hasanon- polarhy dr ocar
bonl ongt ail
thatdissolvesindi r
t/grease/oi
l
/fat.
Hasapol ar /i
onichy drophil
i
cheadt hatdissolvesinwat er
Throughmechani cal agit
ati
ont hedi r
tisplucked/ remov edf r
om thegar mentand
surroundedbyt het ailendprev enti
ngi tf
rom beingdeposi tedbackont he
garment .
(e)Ethenewassubst itutedf oroli
veoi lintheabov eprocess.Wr itetheequationand
nameoft henewpr oduct sAandB.
ProductA
Ethene + Sulphur i
c( VI
)acid -
> Et hylhydrogensul phat
e(VI)
H2C=CH2 + H2SO4 –> H3C–CH2–O- SO3H

Pr
oductB
Et
hylhy
drogensul
phat
e(VI
)+sodi
um hy
droxi
de->sodi
um Ethyl+ Wat
er
hydr
ogensul
phate(
VI)

H3C–CH2–O- SO3H + NaOH - > H3C–CH2–O- SO3-Na+ +H2O

(f
)Ethanolcanalsoundergosimil
arr
eacti
onsformingnewpr oduct
sAandB. Showthi
s
usingachemi calequat
ion.
ProductA
Ethanol + Sul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
d ->Et
hylhydr
ogensul phat
e(VI
)+water
H3C-CH2OH + H2SO4 –> H3C–CH2–O- SO3H +H2O

Pr
oductB
Et
hylhy
drogensul
phat
e(VI
)+sodi
um hy
droxi
de->sodi
um Ethyl+ Wat
er
hydr
ogensul
phate(
VI)

H3C–CH2–O-
SO3H + NaOH - SO3-Na+ +H2O
> H3C–CH2–O-

3.Bel
owispartofadeter
gent
H3C –(CH2)16 – O -SO3 -K+
(a)Wr
itet
heformularoft
hepolarandnon-pol
arend
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Polarend
H3C –( CH2)16 –
Non-polarend
– O -SO3 -K+
(
b)Isthemol eculeasoapyorsaoplessdeter
gent?
Soaplessdetergent
(
c)Stateoneadv antageofusingtheabovedeter
gent
-
doesnotf orm scum withhar
dwater
-
ischeapt omanuf actur
e

4.
Thest
ruct
ureofadet
ergenti
s

H H H HH H H H H H H H H

H-C-C-C-
C-C-C-C-C-C-C- C-COO-Na+
C-C--

H H H H H H H H H HH H H

a) Wri
tethemol ecul
arfor
mul
aoft
hedet
ergent
. (
1mk)
- +
CH3(
CH2)12COONa

b) Whatt y
peofdet ergentisrepresentedbyt heformula? (1mk)
Soapydet ergent
c) Whent hist ypeofdetergentisusedt owashlineni
nhar dwater
,spot
s(marks)
areleftont helinen.Wr it
ethef or
mul aoft hesubstanceresponsi
blef
orthespot
s
- 2+ - 2+
(CH3(CH2)12COO) 2Ca /CH3( CH2)12COO) 2Mg

D.POLYMERSANDFI BRES
Pol
ymer sandfibr
esaregi
antmolecul
esoforgani
ccompounds.Pol y
mer sandfi
bres
ar
ef ormedwhensmall mol
ecul
escall
edmonomer sj
ointogethertofor
ml ar
ge
moleculescal
l
edpolymersathi
ghtemperat
uresandpressures.Thi
sprocessiscal
led
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pol
ymerization.
Pol
ymer sandf i
bresareei t
her:
(a)Natur alpol
y mersandf i
bres
(b)Synt heti
cpolymer sandf i
bres
Nat
uralpolymer sandf i
bresarefoundi nli
vi
ngthi
ngs(pl
ant
sandani
mal
s)Nat
ural
pol
ymers/fibresinclude:
-proteins/polypepti
desmaki ngami noaci
dsinanimal
s
-cell
uloset hatmakecot ton,wool,
paperandsil
k
-Starcht hatcomef rom glucose
-Fatsandoi l
s
-Rubberf r
om latexinrubbertrees.

Syntheti
cpol ymer sandf i
bresar eman- made.Theyinclude:
-polyethene
-polychloroethene
-polypheny l
ethene(polystyr
ene)
-Terylene(Dacron)
-Nylon-6,6
-Perspex(artif
ici
alglass)
Syntheti
cpol ymer sandf i
breshav ethef ol
l
owingcharacteri
sti
cadvant
agesov
er
naturalpolymer s
1.Theyar el i
ghtandpor table
2.Theyar eeasyt omanuf acture.
3.Theycaneasi lybemol dedi ntoshapeofchoice.
4.Theyar er esi
stanttocor r
osion, water
,ai
r,aci
ds,basesandsal t
s.
5.Theyar ecompar ati
vel
ycheap, aff
ordabl
e,col
ourf
ul andaesthet
ic

Synthet i
cpol ymersandf i
breshowev erhavet hefoll
owingdisadvantagesov ernat ur
al
polymer s
1.Theyar enon- biodegr adableandhencecauseenv ir
onmental polluti
ondur i
ng
disposal
2.Theygi veouthi ghlypoi sonousgaseswhenbur ntli
kechlori
ne/ carbon( I
I)oxi
de
3.Someonbur ningpr oduceCar bon(I
V)oxide.Carbon(I
V)oxi
dei sagr eenhouse
gast hatcausegl obal warming.
4.Compar edt osomemet als,theyarepoorconduct orsofheat ,
electri
cityandhav e
l
owert ensilest rength.
5.
Tor educeenv ir
onment alpolluti
onf rom syntheti
cpolymersandf ibres,thef ol
lowitn
met hodsofdi sposal shouldbeused:
1.Recy cli
ng:Oncepr oducedal lsyntheti
cpoly mersandf i
bresshouldber ecycledtoa
newpr oduct.Thispr ev entsaccumul ati
onoft hesyntheti
cpolymer sandf ibresi nthe
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envi
ronment.
2.Pr
oduct
ionofbi
odegr
adabl
esy
nthet
icpol
ymer
sandf
ibr
est
hatr
otaway
.

Ther
earetwotypesofpol
ymeri
zat
ion:
(a)
addi
ti
onpolymeri
zat
ion
(b)
condensat
ionpol
ymeri
zat
ion

(a)
addit
ionpol ymerizat
ion
Addit
ionpolymerizationistheprocesswhereasmallunsat
uratedmonomer( al
kene)
moleculejoi
ntoget hertoform alar
gesaturat
edmolecul
e.Onlyalkenesunder
go
addi
ti
onpol ymeri
zat i
on.
Additi
onpolymer sar enamedf rom theal
kene/monomermakingt hepol
ymerand
addi
ngt heprefi
x“ poly”befor
ethenameofmonomert ofor
m apol yal
kene

Duri
ngadditi
onpol ymerizati
on
(
i)
thedoublebondi nalkenesbr
eak
(
ii
)f
reeradical
sar eformed
(
ii
i)
thefr
eer adical
scol l
idewit
heachotherandj
oint
ofor
m al
argermol
ecul
e.
Themor ecol
li
sionst helargerthemolecul
e.

Exampl
esofaddi
ti
onpol
ymer
izat
ion

1.FormationofPol yet
hene
Polyetheneisanaddi ti
onpol y
merf or
medwhenet henemolecul
e/monomerjoin
togethertoform alargemol ecul
e/poly
merathight emper
aturesandpressur
e.
Duringpol y
mer i
zati
on:
(i
)manymol eculesarebroughtnearertoeachotherbythehighpressur
e(whi
ch
reducest hevolumeoccupi edbyreacti
ngpaticl
es)

H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H H H H H H H H

Et
hene + Et
hene + Et
hene + Et
hene +…

(
ii
)t
hedoubl
ebondj
oini
ngt
heet
hanemol
ecul
ebr
eakt
ofr
eer
eadi
cal
s

H H H H H H H H

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•
C–C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + …

H H H H H H H H

Et
hener
adi
cal +Et
hener
adi
cal + Et
hener
adi
cal + Et
hener
adi
cal +…

(
ii
i)
thef
reer
adi
cal
scol
l
idewi
theachot
herandj
oint
ofor
m al
argermol
ecul
e

H H H HH H H H l
onepai
rofel
ect
rons

•
C–C-C–C-C–C-C-C• + …

H H H HH H H H
Lonepairofel
ectr
onscanbeusedt oj
oinmoremonomer
stof
orml
ongerpol
yet
hene.
Poly
ethenemoleculecanber
epresent
edas:

H H H HH H H H ext
ensi
onof
molecul
e/pol
ymer
-C–C-C–C-C–C-C–C- + …

H H H HH H H H
Si
ncet
hemol
ecul
eisar
epet
it
ionofonemonomer
,thent
hepol
ymeri
s:
H H

(C–C )
n

H H
Wherenisthenumberofmonomer sint
hepoly
mer.Thenumberofmonomersi
nthe
poly
mercanbedeterminedfr
om themolarmassofthepol
ymerandmonomerfr
om
therel
ati
onshi
p:
Numberofmonomers/repeat
ingunit
sinmonomer=Mol armasspol
ymer
Molarmassmonomer

Exampl es
Polyt
henehasamol armassof4760.Calcul
atet
henumberofethenemol
ecul
esi
nthe
poly
mer (
C=12.
0,H=1.0)
Numberofmonomer s/r
epeat
inguni
tsinpoly
omer=Mol armasspoly
mer
Molarmassmonomer
=>Mol armassethene(C2H4)
=28Mol armasspoly
ethene=4760
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Subst
it
uti
ng 4760 = 170et
henemol
ecul
es
28
Thecommer cialnameofpol yet
heneispol
ythene.I
tisanel
ast
ic,
tough,
transpar
ent
anddur
ablepl ast
ic.Polyt
heneisused:
(i
)i
nmaki ngplasti
cbag
(i
i
)bowl sandpl ast
icbags
(i
i
i)packagingmat eri
als

2.Format i
onofPol ychlorethene
Polychloroethenei sanaddi t
ionpolymerformedwhenchloroethene
mol ecule/monomerj oint ogethertofor
m alar
gemol ecul
e/pol
ymerathigh
temper aturesandpr essure.
Duringpol ymer i
zati
on:
(i
)manymol eculesar ebroughtnear ert
oeachotherbythehighpressur
e(whi
ch
reducest hev olumeoccupi edbyr eacti
ngpart
icl
es)

H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl

chl
oroet
hene + chl
oroet
hene + chl
oroet
hene+ chl
oroet
hene +…

(
ii
)t
hedoubl
ebondj
oini
ngt
hechl
oroet
henemol
ecul
ebr
eakt
ofr
eer
adi
cal
s

H H H H H H H H

•
C–C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + …

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl

(
ii
i)
thef
reer
adi
cal
scol
l
idewi
theachot
herandj
oint
ofor
m al
argermol
ecul
e

H H H HH H H H l
onepai
rofel
ect
rons

•
C–C-C–C-C–C-C-C• + …

H Cl H ClH ClH Cl
Lonepai
rofel
ect
ronscanbeusedt
ojoi
nmor
emonomer
stof
orml
onger
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pol
ychl
oroet
hene.
Pol
ychl
oroet
henemol
ecul
ecanber
epr
esent
edas:

H H H HH H H H ext
ensi
onof
molecul
e/pol
ymer
-C–C-C–C-C–C-C–C- + …

H Cl H ClH ClH Cl

Si
ncet
hemol
ecul
eisar
epet
it
ionofonemonomer
,thent
hepol
ymeri
s:
H H

(C–C )
n

H Cl

Examples
Poly
chlorot
henehasamolarmassof4760.Cal
cul
atethenumberofchlor
ethene
moleculesi
nthepol
ymer(C=12.
0,H=1.
0,Cl
=35.
5)
Numberofmonomer s/
repeati
nguni
tsi
nmonomer=Mol armasspol
ymer
Molarmassmonomer
=>Molarmassethene(C2H3Cl)
=62.5Molarmasspolyet
hene=4760

Subst
ituti
ng 4760 =77.16 =>77pol y
chlor
oethenemolecul
es(whol
enumber )
62.5
Thecommer ci
alnameofpoly
chloroet
heneispoly
vinyl
chl
ori
de(PVC).I
tisatough,
non-
tr
ansparentanddurablepl
ast
ic.PVCisused:
(
i)i
nmaki ngplast
icr
ope
(
ii
)waterpipes
(
ii
i)
cratesandboxes

3.Format i
onofPol ypheny l
ethene
Polypheny l
et heneisanaddi t
ionpol ymerfor
medwhenpheny let
hene
mol ecule/monomerj ointoget hertoform al
argemol ecul
e/poly
merathigh
temper aturesandpr essure.
Duringpol ymer i
zati
on:
(i
)manymol eculesar ebroughtnear ert
oeachot herbythehighpressur
e(whi
ch
reducest hev olumeoccupi edbyr eacti
ngparti
cl
es)

H H H H H H H H
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C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

pheny
let
hene + pheny
let
hene+ pheny
let
hene+ pheny
let
hene +…

(
ii
)t
hedoubl
ebondj
oini
ngt
hepheny
let
henemol
ecul
ebr
eakt
ofr
eer
adi
cal
s

H H H H H H H H

•
C–C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + …

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

(
ii
i)
thef
reer
adi
cal
scol
l
idewi
theachot
herandj
oint
ofor
m al
argermol
ecul
e

H H H H H H H H l
onepai
rofel
ect
rons

•C – C -C – C -C – C -C -C • + …

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

Lonepairofelect
ronscanbeusedt
ojoinmoremonomer
stof
orml
onger
pol
yphenylet
hene.
Poly
phenylet
henemol ecul
ecanber
epresent
edas:
H H H H H H H H

-C – C - C – C -C – C -C -C -

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

Si
ncet
hemol
ecul
eisar
epet
it
ionofonemonomer
,thent
hepol
ymeri
s:
H H

(C–C )
n

H C6H5

Examples
Poly
phenyl
thenehasamolarmassof4760.
Cal
cul
atet
henumberofpheny
let
hene
molecul
esinthepol
ymer
(C=12.
0,H=1.
0,)
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Numberofmonomers/
repeat
inguni
tsi
nmonomer=Mol armasspol
ymer
Mol
armassmonomer
=>Molarmasset
hene(C8H8)
=104Molarmasspol
yet
hene=4760

Subst i
tut
ing 4760=45.7692=>45pol yphenyl
ethenemolecul
es(wholenumber)
104
Thecommer cial nameofpol yphenylet
heneispolyst
yrene.I
tisaveryl
ightdurable
plasti
c.Polysty renei sused:
(
i)i
nmaki ngpackagi ngmat er
ialforcar
ryi
ngdeli
cateit
emslikecomput ers,
radion,
calculator s.
(
ii
)ceil
i
ngt iles
(
ii
i)
clothel inings

4.FormationofPol ypr
opene
Polypropeneisanaddi ti
onpol ymerf or
medwhenpr openemolecule/
monomerjoi
n
togethertoform alargemol ecule/poly
merathightemper at
uresandpressur
e.
Duringpolymer i
zati
on:
(i
)manymol eculesarebroughtnear ertoeachotherbythehighpressur
e(whi
ch
reducesthev olumeoccupi edbyr eacti
ngparti
cl
es)

H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

pr
opene + pr
opene+ pr
opene + pr
opene +…

(
ii
)t
hedoubl
ebondj
oini
ngt
hepheny
let
henemol
ecul
ebr
eakt
ofr
eer
adi
cal
s

H H H H H H H H

•
C–C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + …

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

(
ii
i)
thef
reer
adi
cal
scol
l
idewi
theachot
herandj
oint
ofor
m al
argermol
ecul
e

H H H H H H H H l
onepai
rofel
ect
rons

•C – C -C – C -C – C -C -C • + …
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H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

Lonepairofel
ectr
onscanbeusedt oj
oinmor
emonomer
stof
orml
ongerpr
opene.
propenemolecul
ecanberepresent
edas:
H H H H H H H H

-C – C - C – C -C – C -C -C -

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

Si
ncet
hemol
ecul
eisar
epet
it
ionofonemonomer
,thent
hepol
ymeri
s:
H H

(C–C )
n

H CH3
Examples
Poly
propenehasamol armassof4760.Cal
cul
atet
henumberofpr
openemol
ecul
esi
n
thepolymer
(C=12.0,H=1.0,
)
Numberofmonomer s/r
epeati
nguni
tsi
nmonomer=Mol armasspol
ymer
Mol
armassmonomer
=>Mol armasspropene(C3H8)=44Mol
armasspolyet
hene=4760

Subst i
tut
ing 4760=108. 1818=>108pr openemolecules(
whol enumber )
44
Thecommer ci
al nameofpol yphenylet
heneispol y
sty
rene.I
tisav eryli
ghtdurable
plasti
c.Polystyrenei sused:
(
i)i
nmaki ngpackagi ngmat er
ialforcar
ryingdel
icat
eitemslikecomput ers,
radion,
calculat
or s.
(
ii
)ceil
i
ngt iles
(
ii
i)
clothelinings

5.Format i
onofPol ytetr
afluor
othene
Polytetr
af l
uorotheneisanaddi t
ionpoly
merformedwhent etraf
luoroethene
mol ecule/monomerj ointogethertofor
m alar
gemol ecul
e/poly
merathi gh
temper aturesandpr essure.
Duringpol ymer i
zati
on:
(i
)manymol ecul
esar ebroughtnearert
oeachotherbythehighpr essure(whi
ch
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r
educest
hev
olumeoccupi
edbyr
eact
ingpar
ti
cl
es)

F F F F F F F F

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

F F F F F F F F

t
etr
afl
uor
oet
hene+t
etr
afl
uor
oet
hene+t
etr
afl
uor
oet
hene+t
etr
afl
uor
oet
hene+…

(
ii
)t
hedoubl
ebondj
oini
ngt
het
etr
afl
uor
oet
henemol
ecul
ebr
eakt
ofr
eer
adi
cal
s

F F F F F F F F

•
C–C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + •
C-C• + …

F F F F F F F F

(
ii
i)
thef
reer
adi
cal
scol
l
idewi
theachot
herandj
oint
ofor
m al
argermol
ecul
e

F F F FF FF F l
onepai
rofel
ect
rons

•
C–C-C–C-C–C-C-C• + …

F F F FF F F F
Lonepairofelectr
onscanbeusedtojoi
nmoremonomerst
ofor
mlonger
pol
ytet
rafl
uoroethene.
pol
ytet
rafl
uoroethenemolecul
ecanberepr
esent
edas:

F F F FF FF F ext
ensi
onof
mol
ecul
e/pol
ymer
-C–C-C–C-C–C-C–C- + …

F F F FF F F F

Si
ncet
hemol
ecul
eisar
epet
it
ionofonemonomer
,thent
hepol
ymeri
s:
F F

(C–C )
n

F F
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Exampl es
Polyt
etrafl
uorothenehasamol armassof4760.Cal
culat
ethenumberof
tet
rafl
uoroethenemol eculesi
nt hepol
ymer(C=12.
0,,
F=19)
Numberofmonomer s/repeat
ingunit
sinmonomer=Mol armasspoly
mer
Molarmassmonomer
=>Mol armasset hene(C2F4)=62. 5Molarmasspolyet
hene=4760

Subst
it
uti
ng 4760 =77. 16 =>77pol ychloroethenemolecul
es(whol
enumber)
62.5
Thecommer cialnameofpol ytet
rafl
uoret
hene(P.T.F.
E)isTef
lon(P.
T.F.
E).I
tisat
ough,
non-
tr
ansparentanddur ableplast
ic.PVCisused:
(i
)i
nmaki ngplast
icrope
(i
i)
waterpi pes
(i
ii
)cr
atesandboxes

5.For
mat ionofr ubberfrom Latex
Naturalrubberisobt ai
nedf r
om rubbertr
ees.
Dur i
nghar vesti
ngani ncisi
onismadeont her ubbertreetopr
oduceami
l
kywhi
te
substancecal l
edl at
ex.
Latexisami xt
ureofr ubberandlotsofwater.
Thelatexi sthenaddedanaci dtocoagulat
et her ubber.
Naturalrubberisapol ymerof2- methyl
but-
1,3-diene;

H CH3 H H

CH2=C(
CH3)CH=CH2 H -C = C – C = C -H

Duri
ngnat
uralpol
y mer
izat
iontorubber
,onedoubl
eC=Cbondbreaktosel
faddt
o
anot
hermolecul
e.Thedoublebondremaini
ngmovetocar
bon“
2”thus;

H CH3 H H H CH3 H H

-C - C = C - C -C - C = C - C -

H H H H
Gener
all
ythest
ruct
ureofrubberi
sthus;

H CH3 H H

-
(-C - C = C - C -
)n-

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H H
Pur
er ubberissoftandst icky.
Iti
susedtomakeer aser
s,cartyr
es.Mostofiti
s
vul
canized.Vul
canizationistheprocessofheat
ingrubberwit
hsulphurtomakeit
har
der/tougher.
Duri
ngv ulcani
zat
iont hesulphuratomsf or
m acrossli
nkbetweenchainsofrubber
molecules/pol
ymer s.ThisdecreasesthenumberofC=Cdoubl ebondsinthepolymer
.

H CH3 H H H CH3 H H
Sul
phuratoms
-C - C -C - C -C - C - C - C - makecrossli
nk
bet
weenpolymers
H S H H S H

H CH3 S H H CH3 S H

-C - C - C - C -C - C - C - C -

H H H H H H
Vul
cani
zedr
ubberi
susedtomakety
res,
shoesandv
alves.

6.Formati
onofsyntheti
crubber
Synthet
icrubberi
sabletoresistact
ionofoi
l
,abrasi
onandor gani
csol
vent
swhi
ch
rubbercannot.
Commonsy nt
het
icrubberi
sapol ymerof2-
chlorobut
-1,
3-di
ene;
H Cl H H

CH2=C(
ClCH=CH2 H -C = C – C = C -H

Duri
ngpoly
meri
zati
ontosynt
heti
crubber,
onedoubl
eC=Cbondi
sbr
okentosel
fadd
toanot
hermol
ecul
e.Thedoubl
ebondr emaini
ngmovet
ocar
bon“
2”t
hus;

H Cl H H H Cl H H

-C - C = C - C -C - C = C - C -

H H H H
Gener
all
ythest
ruct
ureofrubberi
sthus;

H Cl H H
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-
(-C - C = C - C -
)n-

H H
Rubberist
husstr
engt
henedt
hroughvul
cani
zat
ionandmanuf
act
ureofsy
nthet
ic
rubber
.

(b)Condensat ionpol ymer i

zat i
on
Condensat ionpolymer i
zati
oni sthepr ocesswher etwoormor esmallmonomersj oi
n
toget hertof orm alar germol eculebyelimi nat
ion/r
emov alofasimpl
emol ecul
e.
(usual l
ywat er).
Condensat i
onpol ymer sacqui readi ff
erentnamef rom themonomer sbecausethe
twomonomer saret wodi fferentcompounds
Dur ingcondensat i
onpol ymer i
zation:
(i)
thet womonomer sar ebroughtt ogetherbyhighpressuret
oreducedistance
betweent hem.
(ii
)monomer sr eali
gnt hemsel vesatt hefunct
ionalgroup.
(ii
i
)from eachf unct i
onal groupanel ementisremov edsoastoform simpl
e
mol ecule( ofusuallyH2O/ HCl )
(iv
)thet womonomer sj oinwi t
houtthesi mplemoleculeofH2O/HCl

Exampl
esofcondensat
ionpol
ymer
izat
ion

1.
Format ionofNy l
on-6,
6
Method1: Ny l
on-
6,6canbemadef rom t
hecondensat ionpol ymeri
zat
ionofhexan-
1,6-
di
oicacidwi t
hhexan-1,
6-di
ami ne.
Aminesareagr oupofhomol ogousseri
eswitha
generalformul aR-
NH2andt hus-NH2asthefunct i
onalgroup.
Duri
ngt hef ormati
onofNy lon-6,
6:
(i
)thet womonomer sar ebr
oughttogetherbyhighpr essur
etoreducedist
ance
betweent hem andr eal
ignthemselvesatthef uncti
onalgroups.
O O H H

H-O-C– (
CH2)4–C–O-H + H–N–(
CH2)6–N–H

(
ii
i)
from eachf
unct
ional
groupanel
ementi
sremov
edsoast
ofor
m amol
ecul
e
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ofH2Oandt
hetwomonomer
sjoi
natt
hel
i
nkage.
O O H H

H-O-C– (
CH2)4– C – N –(
CH2)6–N–H +H2O

.
Pol
ymerbondl
i
nkage

Ny
lon-
6,6der
ivei
tsnamef
rom t
het
womonomer
seachwi
thsi
xcar
bonchai
n

Met hod2: Nyl

on- 6,6canbemadef r
om thecondensat i
onpolymeri
zat
ionofhexan-1,
6-
dioyldichl
ori
dewi thhexan-
1,6-
diamine.
Hexan- 1,
6-di
oyl dichl
ori
debelongtoagr oupofhomol ogousseri
eswit
hagener al
formul aR-OClandt hus- OClasthefuncti
onalgroup.
TheR- OCl i
sformedwhent he“
OH”i nR-OOH/alkanoi
cacidisrepl
acedby
Cl/chlori
ne/Halogen

Dur
ingtheformati
onofNylon-
6,6:
(i
)thetwomonomer sarebroughtt
ogetherbyhighpressur
etor
educedi
stance
bet
weent hem andreal
i
gnthemselvesatthefunct
ionalgr
oups.
O O H H

Cl
- C– (
CH2)4 –C–Cl+H–N–(
CH2)6–N–H

(
ii
i)
from eachf
unct
ionalgroupanel
ementisremov
edsoast
ofor
m amol
ecul
e
ofHCl
andt hetwomonomer sjoi
natthel
inkage.
O O H H

Cl
-C– (
CH2)4– C – N –(
CH2)6–N–H +HCl

.
Polymerbondli
nkage
Thetwomonomerseachhassixcarbonchai
nhencet hename“ ny
lon-
6,6”
Thecommerci
alnameofNy l
on-
6,6isNylonI
tisaat ough,
elast
icanddurabl
epl
ast
ic.
I
tisusedt
omakeclothes,
plast
icropesandcarpet
s.

2.
FormationofTer yl
ene
Method1: Tery
lenecanbemadef rom t
hecondensati
onpoly
merizat
ionofethan-
1,2-
di
olwithbenzene-1,4-
dicar
boxyl
i
cacid.
Benzene-
1,4-di
carboxyl
icacidagroupofhomologousser
ieswit
hageneralformulaR-
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COOHwher eRi sari

ngofsi
xcarbonatom cal
ledBenzenering.Thefuncti
onal
groupis
-COOH.
Duri
ngtheformati
onofTery
lene:
(
i)
thetwomonomer sarebroughtt
ogetherbyhighpressuret
or educedi
stance
betweenthem andreal
i
gnthemselvesatthefunct
ionalgr
oups.
O O

H-O-C– C6H5 –C–O-H + H–O– CH2CH2–O–H

(i
i
i)f
rom eachf
unct
ionalgroupanel
ementisremov
edsoast
ofor
m amol
ecul
e
ofH2Oandthetwomonomer sjoinatt
hel
inkage.
O O

H-O-C– C6H5 – C – O –(
CH2)6–N–H + H2O

.
Pol
ymerbondl
i
nkageoft
ery
lene

Met
hod2:
Ter
ylenecanbemadef
rom t
hecondensat
ionpol
ymer
izat
ionofbenzene-
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1,4-
dioyldi
chloridewi t
hethan-
1,2-di
ol.
Benzene-1,
4-dioy l
dichlor
idebel
ongt oagroupofhomol ogousseri
eswit
hageneral
formulaR-OCl andt hus-OClast hefuncti
onal
groupandRasabenzener i
ng.
TheR- OCli
sf ormedwhent he“OH”inR- OOH i
sreplacedbyCl/chl
ori
ne/
Halogen

Dur
ingtheformati
onofTery
lene
(i
)thetwomonomer sarebroughtt
ogetherbyhighpressur
etor
educedi
stance
bet
weent hem andreal
i
gnthemselvesatthefunct
ionalgr
oups.
O O

Cl- C– C5H5 – C–Cl+H–O–CH2CH2–O-H

(
ii
i)
from eachf
unct
ionalgroupanel
ementisremov
edsoast
ofor
m amol
ecul
e
ofHCl
andt hetwomonomer sjoi
natthel
inkage.
O O

Cl
-C– C5H5 – C – O – CH2CH2–O–H + HCl

.
Pol
ymerbondl
i
nkageoft
ery
lene

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Thecommercial
nameoftery
lenei
sPoly
ester/
polyst
erI
tisaatough,
elast
icand
durabl
epl
ast
ic.I
tisusedt
omakeclot
hes,pl
asti
cropesandsai
l
sandpl ast
icmodel
ki
ts.

Pr
act
icequest
ionsOr
gani
cchemi
str
y

1. Astudentmixedequalvol
umesofEt
hanolandbut
anoi
cacid.Headdedaf
ew
dr
opsofconcent
rat
edSulphur
ic(VI
)aci
dandwarmedthemixt
ure

(
i)Nameandwr
it
ethef
ormul
aoft
hemai
npr
oduct
s

Name………………………………….

For
mul
a…………………………………….
.

(
ii
)Whi
chhomol
ogousser
iesdoest
hepr
oductnamedi
n(i
)abov
ebel
ong?

2. Thest
ruct
ureoft
hemonomerpheny
let
henei
sgi
venbel
ow:
-
HC=CH2

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a)Gi
vet hest
ruct
ureoft
hepol
ymerf
ormedwhenf
ouroft
hemonomer
sar
e
added t
ogether

b)Gi
vet
henameoft
hepol
ymerf
ormedi
n(a)abov
e

3. Expl
aint
heenv
ironment
alef
fect
sofbur
ningpl
ast
icsi
nai
rasadi
sposal
met
hod

4. Wr
it
echemi
cal
equat
iont
orepr
esentt
heef
fectofheatonammoni
um car
bonat
e

5. Sodi um oct
adecanoat
ehasachemi
cal
for
mul
aCH3(
CH2)
6COO-Na+,
whi
chi
s
usedassoap.

Expl
ainwhyal
otofsoapi
sneededwhenwashi
ngwi
thhar
dwat
er

6. Anat
ural
pol
ymeri
smadeupoft
hemonomer
:
O

CH3CH2CH C OH

(
a)Wr
it
ethest
ruct
ural
for
mul
aoft
her
epeatuni
toft
hepol
ymer

( 0x10-5mol
b)When5. esoft
hepol
ymerwer
ehy
drol
ysed,
0.515goft
he
monomer

wer
eobt
ained.

Det
ermi
net
henumberoft
hemonomermol
ecul
esi
nthi
spol
ymer
.

(
C=12;
H=1;
N=14;
O=16)

7. Thef
ormul
abel
owr
epr
esent
sact
ivei
ngr
edi
ent
soft
wocl
eansi
ngagent
sAandB

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Whichoneoft
hecleansi
ngagentswoul
dbesui t
abl
etobeusedi
nwat
er
cont
aini
ngmagnesi
um hydr
ogencarbonat
e?Expl
ain

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8. St
udyt
hepol
ymerbel
owandusei
ttoanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow:
H H H H

C C C C

(
a)Gi
vet
henameoft
hemonomeranddr
awi
tsst
ruct
ures

(
b)I
dent
if
ythet
ypeofpol
ymer
izat
iont
hatt
akespl
ace

(
c)St
ateoneadv
ant
ageofsy
nthet
icpol
ymer
s

9. Et hanol
andPent
anear
emi
sci
blel
i
qui
ds.Expl
ainhowwat
ercanbeusedt
o
separ
ateamixtur
e

ofet
hanol
andpent
ane

10. GLUCOSE G CRUDE H 95% ABSOLUTE

SOLUTI
ON ETHANOL ETHANOL ETHANOL

(
a)Whati
sabsol
uteet
hanol
?

(
b)St
atet
wocondi
ti
onsr
equi
redf
orpr
ocessGt
otakepl
aceef
fi
ci
ent
ly

11. (a)(
i)Thet
abl
ebel
owshowst
hev
olumeofoxy
genobt
ainedperuni
tti
mewhen
hydr
ogen
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per
oxi
dewasdecomposedi
nthepr
esenceofmanganese(
IV)Oxi
de.Use
i
ttoanswer

t
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow:
-

Ti
mei
nseconds VolumeofOxy
gen
3
evol
ved(
cm )

0 0

30 10

60 19

90 27

120 34

150 38

180 43

210 45

240 45

270 45

300 45

(
i)Pl
otagr
aphofv
olumeofoxy
gengasagai
nstt
ime

(
ii
)Det
ermi
net
her
ateofr
eact
ionatt
ime156seconds

(
ii
i)Fr
om t
hegr
aph,
findt
het
imet or18cm3ofoxy
akenf gent
obepr
oduced

(i
v)Wri
teachemi
cal
equat
iont
oshowhowhy
drogenper
oxi
dedecomposesi
n
t
hepr
esence

ofmanganese(
IV)Oxi
de

(
b)Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowshowaLe’
cl
anche(
Drycel
l
)appear
s:-

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(
i)Whati
sthef
unct
ionofMnO2i
nthecel
labov
e?

(
ii
)Wr
it
etheequat
ionofar
eact
iont
hatoccur
satt
hecat
hode

(i
i
i)Cal
cul
atet
hemassofZi
nct
hati
sconsumedwhenacur
rentof0.
1amper
es
f
lows

t
hrought
heabov
ecel
lfor30mi
nut
es(
1F=96500cZn=65)

12. (
a)Gi
vet
heI
UPACnamesoft
hef
oll
owi
ngcompounds:

(
i)CH3COOCH2CH3 *

CH2=C–
CHCH3
(
ii
)

(b)Thest
ruct
urebel
owshowssomer
eact
ionsst
art
ingwi
thet
hanol
.St
udyi
tand
answer

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t
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow: ReagentR
NaOH(aq)
S CH3COOH CH3COONa Heat
NaMet
al St
epI
I

CH3CH2OH CH3COOH CH4

P
St
epI Excess
Cl2/
U.V
CH2 CH2 CH2=CH2 St
epI
II CH3CH3 T
n
CompoundU

(
i)Wr
it
ethef
ormul
aoft
heor
gani
ccompoundsPandS
*

(i
i
)Namethety
peofr
eact
ion,
ther
eagent
(s)andcondi
ti
onf
ort
her
eact
ionsi
n
t
hef
oll
owingst
eps:
-

(
I)St
epI *

(
II
)St
epI
I *

(
II
I)St
epI
II *

(
ii
i)Namer
eagentR……………………………………………………………*

(
iv)Dr
awt
hest
ruct
ural
for
mul
aofTandgi
vei
tsname
*

(
v)(
I)NamecompoundU……………………………………………………….
.

(I
I)I
fther
elat
ivemol
ecul
armassofUi
s42000,
det
ermi
net
hev
alueofn
(
C=12,
H=1)
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(
c)St
atewhyC2H4bur
nswi
thamor
esmokyf
lamet
hanC2H6
*

13. a)St
atet
wof
act
orst
hataf
fectt
hepr
oper
ti
esofapol
ymer

b)Namet
hecompoundwi
tht
hef
ormul
abel
ow:

CH3CH2CH2ONa

c)St
udyt
heschemebel
owandusei
ttoanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow:
-
H H
St
ep St
ep
CH3CH2CH3 CH3CH=CH2

P C– C n
K
CH3CH2CH2OH

St
epR
K2CO3 NaOH
GasF CH3CH2COOH CH3CH2COONa

NaOH
St
epX
Heat
CH3CH2COOCH3 Pr
oductT

G +Na2CO3

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i
)Namet
hef
oll
owi
ngcompounds:
-

I
.Pr
oductT ………………………… I
I.K ………

i
i
)St
ateonecommonphy
sical
proper
tyofsubst
anceG

i
i
i)St
atet
het
ypeofr
eact
iont
hatoccur
redi
nst
epJ

i
v)Gi
veoneuseofsubst
anceK

v
)Wr
it
eanequat
ionf
ort
hecombust
ionofcompoundP

vi
)Expl
ainhowcompoundsCH3CH2COOH andCH3CH2CH2OHcanbedi
sti
ngui
shed
chemi
call
y

vi
i
)Ifapol
ymerKhasr
elat
ivemol
ecul
armassof12,
600,
cal
cul
atet
hev
alueofn
(
H=1C=12)

14. St
udyt
heschemegi
venbel
owandanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow:
-

Pol
ymer
izat
ion StepIII
Pol
ymerQ CompoundP CH3CH2CH3
H2(g) Ni

H
Conc.H2SO4180o
i
Cght
emp
Na(
s) St
epI
CH3CH2CH2ONa+H2 Pr
opan-
l-
ol Pr
opy
let
hanoat
e

St
epI
I

CH3CH2COOH

Na2CO3(aq)

Sol
uti
onT+CO2(g)

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(
a)(
i)NamecompoundP……………………………………………………………………

(
ii
)Wr
it
eanequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
ionbet
weenCH3CH2COOHandNa2CO3

(
b)St
ateoneuseofpol
ymerQ

(
c)Nameoneoxi
disi
ngagentt
hatcanbeusedi
nst
epI
I………………………………….
.

(d)Asampl
eofpol
ymerQi
sfoundt
ohav
eamol
ecul
armassof4200.Det
ermi
net
he
numberof

monomer
sint
hepol
ymer (
H=1,
C=12)

(
e)Namet
het
ypeofr
eact
ioni
nst
epI………………………………………………………….
.

(
f)St
ateonei
ndust
ri
alappl
i
cat
ionofst
epI
II

(g)
Statehowbur
ningcanbeusedt
odi
sti
ngui
shbet
weenpr
opaneandpr
opy
ne.
Expl
ainyour

answer

h)1000cm3ofet
( hene(
C2H4)bur
nti
noxy
gent
opr
oduceCar
bon(
II
)Oxi
deandwat
er
v
apour.

Cal
cul
atet
hemi
nimum v
olumeofai
rneededf
ort
hecompl
etecombust
ionof
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et
hene

(
Aircont
ains20%byv
olumeofoxy
gen)

15. (
a)St
udyt
heschemat
icdi
agr
am bel
owandanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow:
-

CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH3
X

Ni H2 St
ep1 R

St
ep3 CH3CH2CH2OH Na
CH3CHCH2 CH3CH2CH2ONa+GasP

H+ MnO-4 St
ep2
HCl
Step5

V St
ep4
Q+H2O

(
i)I
dent
if
ythef
oll
owi
ng:

SubstanceQ
.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.

Substance
R.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Gas
P.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.

(
ii
)Name:

St
ep1.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

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St
ep4.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

(
ii
i)Dr
awt
hest
ruct
ural
for
mul
aoft
hemaj
orpr
oductofst
ep5

(
iv)St
atet
hecondi
ti
onandr
eagenti
nst
ep3

16. St
udyt
hef
lowchar
tbel
owandanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow

CO2(g)

H+
KMnO4/

Ni
/H2(g) J
CH2CH2
St
ep4
ReagentP K
STEP2

Et
hyl CH2CH2OH H+(aq)
KMnO4/
ReagentQ
Et
hanoat
e
St
ep3 L

(
a)(
i)Namet
hef
oll
owi
ngor
gani
ccompounds:

M…………………………………………………………….
.…….
.

L………………………………………………………………….
.

(
ii
)Namet
hepr
ocessi
nst
ep:

St
ep2………………………………………………………….
….

St
ep4………………………………………………………….
…

(
ii
i)I
dent
if
yther
eagentPandQ

(
iv)Wr
it
eanequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
ionbet
weenCH3CH2CH2OHandsodi
um

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17. a)Gi
vet
henamesoft
hef
oll
owi
ngcompounds:

i
)CH3CH2CH2CH2OH……………………………………………………………………

i
i
)CH3CH2COOH …………………………………………………………………

i
i
i)CH3C–O-CH2CH3……………………………………………………………………

18. St
udyt
heschemegi
venbel
owandanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow;
St
epI

Pr
oduct
s St
epV CHCH C2H5COONa

Compl
etecombust
ion
St
epI
I
St
epI
V+Heat

CH2=CH2

C2H6
St
epI
II

CH2=CHCl n

i
)Namet
her
eagent
susedi
n:

St
epI
: ………………………………………………………………………

St
epI
I ……………………………………………………………………

St
epI
II ………………………………………………………………………

ii
)Wr
it
eanequat
iont
oshowpr
oduct
sfor
medf
ort
hecompl
etecombust
ionof
CH=CH

i
ii
)Explai
nonedi
sadv
ant
ageofcont
inueduseofi
temsmadef
ormt
he
compoundformed

i
nst
epI
II

19. Ahy
drat
edsal
thast
hef
oll
owi
ngcomposi
ti
onbymass.I
ron20.
2%,
oxy
gen

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23.
0%,

sul
phur11.
5%,
wat
er45.
3%

i
)Det
ermi
net
hef
ormul
aoft
hehy
drat
edsal
t(Fe=56,
S=32,
O=16,
H=11)

ii
)6.95goft
hehy
drat
edsal
tinc(
i)abov
ewer
edi
ssol
vedi
ndi
sti
l
ledwat
erand
t
het
otal

v
olumemadet o250cm3ofsol
uti
on.Cal
cul
atet
heconcent
rat
ionoft
he
r
esul
ti
ngsaltsol
uti
on

i
nmol
esperl
i
tre.(
Giv
ent
hatt
hemol
ecul
amassoft
hesal
tis278)

20.Wr
it
eanequat
iont
oshowpr
oduct
sfor
medf
ort
hecompl
etecombust
ionofCH=
CH

i
ii
)Explai
nonedi
sadv
ant
ageofcont
inueduseofi
temsmadef
ormt
he
compoundformed

i
nst
epI
II

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21. Gi
vet
heI
UPACnamef
oreachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngor
gani
ccompounds;

i
)CH3-CH-CH2-CH3

OH

i
i
)CH3–CH–CH2–CH2-CH3

C2H5

i
i
i)CH3COOCH2CH2CH3

22. Thest
ruct
urebel
owr
epr
esent
sacl
eansi
ngagent
.

R–S–O-Na+

a)St
atet
het
ypeofcl
eansi
ngagentr
epr
esent
edabov
e

b)St
ateoneadv
ant
ageandonedi
sadv
ant
ageofusi
ngt
heabov
ecl
eansi
ngagent
.

23. Thestruct
urebel
ow showspar
tofpol
ymer.
Usei
ttoanswert
hequest
ions
thatf
oll
ow.

CH3 CH3 CH3

  

―CH -CH2–CH-CH2-CH–CH2―
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a)Der
ivet
hest
ruct
ureoft
hemonomer

b)Namet
het
ypeofpol
ymer
izat
ionr
epr
esent
edabov
e

24. Thef
lowchar
tbel
owr
epr
esent
saser
iesofr
eact
ionsst
art
ingwi
thet
hanoi
caci
d:
-

Et
hanol B Ethanoi
c Na2CO3 Sal
tA+CO2+H2O
acid
pr
ocessI

(
a)I
dent
if
ysubst
ancesAandB

(
b)Namet
hepr
ocessI

25. a)Wr
it
eanequat
ionshowi
nghowammoni
um ni
tr
atemaybepr
epar
edst
art
ing
wit
h

ammoni
agas

(
b)Cal
cul
atet
hemaxi
mum massofammoni
um ni
tr
atet
hatcanbepr
epar
ed
usi
ng5.
3kgof

ammoni
a(H=1,
N=14,
O=16)

26. (
a)Whati
smeantbyt
het
erm,
est
eri
fi
cat
ion?

(b)Drawthest
ruct
ural
for
mul
aeoft
wocompoundst
hatmayber
eact
edt
ofor
m
et
hyl
propanoat
e

27. (
a)Dr
awt
hest
ruct
ureofpent
anoi
caci
d

(b)Dr
awt
hest
ruct
ureandgi
vet
henameoft
heor
gani
ccompoundf
ormedwhen
et
hanol

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r
eact
swi
th pent
anoi
caci
dinpr
esenceofconcent
rat
edsul
phur
icaci
d

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28. Theschemebelowshowssomer
eact
ionsst
art
ingwi
thet
hanol
.St
udyi
tand
answert
hequest
ions

t
hatf
oll
ow:
- Q

St
ep4 CH3CH2OH/
H2SO4

St
ep3
P CH3COONa

2-
St
ep2 Cr
2O7(
aq)/H+(aq)

H2SO4(l)
Et
hanol C

Na(s)

CH3CH2ONa

(
i)Nameanddr
awt
hest
ruct
ureofsubst
anceQ

(
ii
)Gi
vet
henamesoft
her
eact
ionst
hatt
akepl
acei
nst
eps2and4

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(
ii
i)Whatr
eagenti
snecessar
yforr
eact
iont
hatt
akespl
acei
nst
ep3

29. Subst ancesAandBar

erepr
esent
edbyt
hef
ormul
aeROHandRCOOH
respect
ivel
y.

Theybel
ongt
otwodi
ff
erenthomol
ogousser
iesofor
gani
ccompounds.I
fbot
h
AandB

r
eactwi
thpot
assi
um met
al:

(
a)Namet
hecommonpr
oductpr
oducedbybot
h

(
b)Stat
etheobser
vat
ionmadewheneachoft
hesampl
esAandBar
ereact
ed
wi
thsodi
um

hy
drogencar
bonat
e

(
i)A

(
ii
)B

30. Bel
owar
est
ruct
uresofpar
ti
cles.Usei
ttoanswerquest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow.I
neach
caseonl
y

el
ect
ronsi
ntheout
ermostener
gyl
evel
areshown

key

P=Pr
oton 19P

N=Neut
ron
U
X=El
ect
ron V W

Y Z

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(
a)I
dent
if
ythepar
ti
clewhi
chi
sanani
on

31. Pl
ast
icsandr
ubberar
eext
ensi
vel
yusedt
ocov
erel
ect
ri
cal
wir
es.

(
a)Whatt
ermi
susedt
odescr
ibepl
ast
icandr
ubber
susedi
nthi
sway
?

(
b)Expl
ainwhypl
ast
icsandr
ubber
sar
eusedt
hisway

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32. Theschemebel
owr
epr
esent
sthemanuf
act
ureofacl
eani
ngagentX

R Conc. R Cleani
ng
SO3H agentX

(
a)Dr
awt
hest
ruct
ureofXandst
atet
het
ypeofcl
eani
ngagentt
owhi
chX
bel
ong

(
b)St
ateonedi
sadv
ant
ageofusi
ngXasacl
eani
ngagent

33. Ygr
amsofar
adi
oact
ivei
sot
opet
ake120day
stodecayt
o3.
5gr
ams.Thehal
f-
li
fe
per
iod

oft
hei
sot
opei
s20day
s

(
a)Fi
ndt
hei
nit
ial
massoft
hei
sot
ope

(
b)Gi
veoneappl
i
cat
ionofr
adi
oact
ivi
tyi
nagr
icul
tur
e

34. Thest
ruct
urebel
owr
epresent
sapol
ymer
.St
udyandanswert
hequest
ionst
hat
fol
l
ow:- H H

-
C–C- n

(
i)Namet
hepol
ymerabov
e..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

(
ii
)Det
ermi
net
hev
alueofni
fgi
antmol
ecul
ehadr
elat
ivemol
ecul
armassof
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4956

35. RCOO-Na+andRCH2OSO3-Na+ar
etwot
ypesofcl
eansi
ngagent
s;

i
)Namet
hecl
assofcl
eansi
ngagent
stowhi
cheachbel
ongs

i
i)Whichoneoft
heseagent
sin(
i)abov
ewoul
dbemor
esui
tabl
ewhenwashi
ng
wi
thwater

f
rom t
heI
ndi
anocean.Expl
ain

i
ii
)Bothsul
phur(
IV)oxi
deandchl
ori
near
eusedbl
eachi
ngagent
s.Expl
aint
he
di
ff
erence

i
nthei
rbl
eachi
ngpr
oper
ti
es

36. Thef
ormul
agi
venbel
owr
epr
esent
sapor
ti
onofapol
ymer
H H H H

C C C C

n
O H O H

(
a)Gi
vet
henameoft
hepol
ymer

(
b)Dr
awt
hest
ruct
ureoft
hemonomerusedt
omanuf
act
uret
hepol
ymer

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ls,
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e,Hi
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chool
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es&Re
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ionKi
ts 0714497530 196
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ah@g
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Cont
ent
s

ANI
TROGEN………………………………………………………. .
.………….3
Occurrence………………………………………………………. .…….
.….
.3
I
solati
onf r
om air……………………………………………………………. 3
Fr
actionaldist
il
lat
ion……………………………………………………. ….4
Preparati
onofNi t
rogen…………………………………………………. .….6
Properti
esofNi tr
ogen…………………..
.……………..
.…………..
.….….
.6

B.
OXI
DESOFNITROGEN………………………………………………. …….
.7
Nit
rogen(
I)Oxi
de………………………..
…………………...
………………7
Nit
rogen(
II
)oxide……………………….
…………………………………. .
9
Nit
rogen(
IV)oxide………………………..
.………………………………11

C.
AMMONI A…..………………………….…………………………….…….
.13
Occurr
ence…………………………………………………………………15
Prepar
ati
on………………………………………………………………. .
..
15
Proper
ti
es…………………………………………………………………. .
.16
Haberprocess……………………………….……………………………. .
.12

D.NI
TRIC(V)ACID………. .
………………………….
………………………28
Preparati
on…………………………………….…………………………..
.13
Properti
es…………………………………………………………………..33
Ostwaldsprocess…………………………………………………………..
12

NO3-andNO2-sal
E. ts……………………….
…………………….
..
……….
…..
.27

F.COMPREHENSI
VEREVI
SIONQUESTI
ONS……….
..
………….
..
…..
…32

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A.
NITROGEN

a)Occur
rence:

Ni
tr
ogenisf
oundintheat
mosphereoccupyi
ngabout78%byv ol
umeofai
r.
Pr
otei
ns,
aminoaci
ds,pol
ypept
idesi
nli
vingt
hingscont
ainni
tr
ogen.

b)I
sol
ati
onofni
tr
ogenf
rom t
heai
r.

Nit
rogencanbeisol
atedf
rom othergasespresenti
nairli
keoxygen,wat
er(
vapour)
,
car
bon(IV)oxi
deandnoblegasesasi ntheschooll
aborator
yasinthefl
owchart
bel
ow:
j
gthungu@gmai
l
.com

Waterisaddedslowlyint
oan“emptyfl
ask”whichforcestheairoutint
oanotherf
lask
cont
ainingconcent
ratedsul
phuri
c(VI
)acid.Concentr
atedsulphuri
c(VI)aci
dis
hygr
oscopic.I
tther
eforeabsor
b/removewaterpresentintheairsample.

Morewat erf
orcestheairi
ntothefl
askcontai
ningeitherconcent
ratedsodium
hydr
oxideorpotassium hy
droxi
desolut
ion.Thesealkali
sreactwit
hcar bonIV)oxi
det
o
for
mt hecarbonatesandthusabsorbs/
remov ecar
bonI V)oxidepresentintheai
r
sample.
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Chemi
cal
equat
ion2NaOH(aq) +CO2(
g) -
> Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(
l)
Chemi
cal
equat
ion2KOH(aq) +CO2(
g) -
> K2CO3(aq)+ H2O(
l)

Morewat
erfor
cestheai
rthroughaglasst
ubepackedwithcoppert
urni
ngs.Heat
ed
br
owncoppert
urni
ngsreactwithoxy
gentofor
m blackcopper(
II
)oxi
de.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion 2Cu(
s) + O2(
g)-
> CuO( s)
(
brown) (
black)

Theremaini
nggasmixturei
scoll
ect
edbyupwarddel
i
ver
y/downwarddispl
acementof
water
/overwat
er.I
tcontai
nsabout99%ni
tr
ogenand1%noblegases.

Onal
argescal
efori
ndust
ri
alpur
poses,
nit
rogeni
sgotf
rom f
ract
ional
dist
il
lat
ionofai
r.

c)
Nit
rogenf
rom f
ract
ional
dist
il
lat
ionofai
r.

Forcommer ci
alpurposesni
tr
ogenisgotfr
om thefracti
onal
ofair
.
Airi
sfi
rstpassedthroughadustpr
ecipi
tat
or/
fi
ltert
or emovedustpar
ti
cl
es.

Theairist
henbubbl
edthr
ougheit
herconcent
rat
edsodi
um hy
droxi
deorpot
assi
um
hydr
oxidesol
uti
ontoremove/
absorbCar
bon(I
V)oxi
degas.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion 2NaOH(aq) +CO2(g)
-> Na2CO3(aq) +H2O(
l)
Chemi
cal
equat
ion 2KOH(aq)+CO2(g) -> K2CO3(aq)+H2O(
l)

Airmixt
ureisthecool
edto-25oC.
Atthi
stemper
atur
e,wat
er(
vapour)l
i
qui
dif
iesand
thensol
idi
fytoiceandthusremoved.

Theai
risf
urt
hercool
edt
o-200oCdur
ingwhi
chi
tfor
msabl
uel
i
qui
d.

Theli
quidi
sthenheated.Ni
tr
ogenwit
haboi
li
ngpoi 196oCdi
ntof- sti
l
sfi
rstt
henAr
gon
o o
at
-186Candt henf
inall
yOxygenat-
183Cboi
lsl
ast
.

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c)School
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
onofNi
tr
ogen.

Thediagr
am bel
owshowst
hesetupoft
heschool
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
onofni
tr
ogen
gas.

d.
Proper
ti
esofNi
tr
ogengas(
Quest
ions)

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1.
Writet
heequat
ionf
orthereact
ionf
ortheschool
laborat
oryprepar
ati
onofni
tr
ogen
gas.
Chemical
equati
on NH4Cl(s)+NaNO2(s)
->NaCl(g)
+NH4NO2(s)
Chemical
equati
on NH4NO2(s) -
> N2( g) + H2O(l
)

2.Stat
ethr
eephysi
cal pr
opert
iesofnit
rogengas.
-col
our
less,odour
less,
lessdensethanai
r,neut
ral
andsl
i
ght
lysol
ubl
ein
water

3.St
ateandexpl
aintheobser
vat
ionmadewhenabur
ningmagnesi
um r
ibboni
s
l
oweredinagasjarcont
aini
ngni
trogengas.

Observ at
ion;Itconti
nuesburningwi t
habl i
ghtblindeningfl
amef or
mingwhi
te
ash.
Explanati
onMagnesi um burnstopr oduceenoughheat/ ener
gytoreact
swit
h
ni
trogentof orm whi t
emagnesi um nit
ri
de.
Chemi calequat i
on3Mg( s) + N2(g) -
> Mg3N2( s)
( whiteash/sol
id)
4.Statetwomai nusesofni t
rogengas
-
manuf actureofammoni af r
om Haberpr ocess
-Asar efr
igeranti
nstorageofsemenf orArtif
ici
alinseminat
ion.

j
gthungu@gmai
l
.com

B.OXI
DESOFNI
TROGEN
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Ni
tr
ogenformst hreemainoxides:
i
)Nit
rogen(I)oxi
de(N2O)
i
i)Ni
trogen(II
)oxide(NO)
i
ii
)Nitr
ogen( IV)oxi
de(NO2)

i
)Ni
tr
ogen(
I)oxi
de(
N2O)

a)Occurr
ence
Nit
rogen(I
)oxi
dedoesnotoccurnat
ural
l
ybutpr
epar
edi
nal
abor
ator
y.

b)Pr
eparat
ion
Thesetupbelowshowst
hesetupofappar
atust
hatcanbeusedt
opr
epar
eNi
tr
ogen
(I
)oxi
deinaschooll
abor
ator
y.

j
gthungu@gmai
l
.com

c)Pr
oper
ti
esofni
tr
ogen(
I)oxi
de(
Quest
ions)

1.Wri
tet
heequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
ionf
ort
heschool
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
onofNi
tr
ogen
(I
)oxi
de.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion NH4NO2(
s)-
> H2O(
l) +N2O(
g)

2.
a)St
ateandexpl
aint
hreeer
ror
smadei
ntheabov
esetup
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-Oxygeni sbei nggener atedinsteadofNitrogen(I)oxide.

Ammoni um Ni trate(V)shouldbeusedi nsteadofpot assium manganate(VI
)and
manganese( IV)oxide.
b)Statethreephy sical properti
esofNi tr
ogen( I
)oxide.
-
sli
ghtlysol ubleinwat er.
-
colourless
-
odour l
ess
-
lessdenset hanai r
-
sli
ghtlysweetsmel l
3.Stateandexpl aint heobser vati
onmadewhenabur ningmagnesi um r
ibbonis
l
ower edinagasj arcont ai
ningNitrogen(I)oxi
de.
Observ at
ion-Cont inuest oburnwi t
habr i
ghtflame
-Whitesol id/resi
dueisf ormed
Explanati
on-Magnesi um bur nsinairtoproduceenoughheat /energyspl
i
t/break
Nit
rogen( I)oxidegasi ntofreeNitrogenandoxy genthencont inuestoburninoxygen
toform whi t
esol i
d/ ashofMagnesi um oxide.
Chemi calequat i
on
Mg( s) +N2O( g)-
>MgO( s) +N2( g)

4.Stateandexpl
aint
heobser
vati
onmadewhenthefol
l
owi
ngnonmet
alsar
ebur
nt
thenloweredi
nagasjarcont
aini
ngNi
tr
ogen(
I)oxi
de.

a)Car bon/char coal

Observ at
ion-Cont i
nuest obur nwithanor angeglow
-
colorlessgasi sf or
medt hatfor
mswhi tepreci
pit
atewithl
i
mewat er.
Explanati
on-Carbon/ char coalburnsinairtoproduceenoughheat /
energyspl
it
/br
eak
Nit
rogen( I)oxi
degasi ntof reeNitrogenandoxy genthenconti
nuestoburninoxygen
toform carbon( IV)oxidegas.Car bon( I
V)oxidegasreactstofor
m awhi t
epreci
pit
ate
wit
hl i
mewat er.
Chemi calequation C( s) +2N2O( g)-
> CO2(g) +2N2( g)

b)sul
phurpowder

Observati
on-Cont inuestobur nwithabl ueflame
-colorl
essgasi sformedt hattur
nor angeaci di
fi
edpotassi
um dichr
omat e
(VI)togr een.
Explanat i
on-Sulphurbur nsinairtoproduceenoughheat /energyspl
it
/break Ni
trogen
(I
)oxi degasi nt
of r
eeNi tr
ogenandoxy genthencont inuestoburninoxygentoform
sulphur( IV)oxidegas.Sulphur( I
V)oxidegast urnsorangeacidifi
edpotassi
um
dichromat e(VI)togreen.
Chemi calequat i
onS(s) +2N2O( g) -
> SO2(g) +2N2( g)
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5.St
atetwousesofni tr
ogen( I
)oxide
-Aslaughinggasbecauseasanesthesi
athepat
ientr
egai
nconsci
ousness
l
aughinghyster
ical
l
yaf t
ersurgery
.
-improvesengineeff
ici
ency.

6.St
atethreedif
ferencesbetweennitrogen(I)oxi
deandoxy gen
-Oxygenisodour l
esswhileni
trogen(I)oxidehasfaintsweetsmell
-Bothrel
ight/
rekindl
eagl owi
ngwoodenspl i
ntbutOxy gencanrel
ightafeebl
e
glowingspli
ntwhi l
enitr
ogen(I)oxidereli
ghtswel
l l
i
tsplint
.
-Botharesli
ghtlysolubl
einwaterbutni t
rogen(I
)oxideismor esolubl
e.

i
i
)Ni
tr
ogen(
II
)oxi
de(
NO)

a)Occurr
ence
Nit
rogen(I
I)oxi
dedoesnotoccurnat
ural
l
ybutpr
epar
edi
nal
abor
ator
y.

b)
Prepar
ati
on

Thesetupbel
owshowsthesetupofappar
atust
hatcanbeusedt
opr
epar
eNi
tr
ogen
(I
I)oxi
dei
naschooll
abor
ator
y.

c)Pr
oper
ti
esofni
tr
ogen(
II
)oxi
de(
Quest
ions)

1.Wri
tet
heequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
ionf
ort
heschool
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
onof
Ni
tr
ogen(
II
)oxi
de.

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Chemi
cal
equat
ion3Cu(
s)+8HNO3(aq)- >4H2O(
l)
+2NO(g)+2Cu(
NO3)
2(aq)
Chemi
cal
equat
ion3Zn(
s)+8HNO3(aq)- >4H2O(
l)
+2NO(g)+2Zn(
NO3)
2(aq)
Chemi
cal
equat
ion3Mg(s)+8HNO3(aq) -
>4H2O(l
)+2NO(g)
+2Mg(
NO3)
2(aq)

2.St
atet
hreephy sicalpr
opert
iesofNit
rogen(
II
)oxi
de.
-
insol
ubl ei
nwat er
.
-
colourl
ess
-
odourless
-
denserdenset hanair
-
hasnoef f
ectonbothblueandredl
it
muspaper
s

2.St
ateandexpl
aintheobserv
ati
onmadewhenaburni
ngmagnesi
um r
ibboni
s
l
oweredi
nagasj arcont
aini
ngNit
rogen(
II
)oxi
de.

Observ at
ion-Conti
nuest oburnwit
habr ightf
lame
-
Whitesoli
d/resi
dueisformed
Explanati
on-Magnesium burnsinai
rtoproduceenoughheat/ener
gyspl
it
/break
Nit
rogen( II
)oxi
degasi ntofreeNi
tr
ogenandoxy gent
henconti
nuestobur
ni noxy
gen
toform whitesoli
d/ashofMagnesium ox i
de.
Chemi calequat
ion2Mg( s) +2NO( g)
->2MgO( s) +N2(g)

3.Stat
eandexpl
aint
heobservati
onmadewhenthefoll
owingnonmet
alsar
ebur
nt
thenl
ower
edinagasjarcontai
ningNi
tr
ogen(
II
)oxide.

a)Car bon/char coal

Observ at
ion-Cont i
nuest obur nwit
hanor angegl ow
-colorlessgasi sformedt hatformswhi t
eprecipi
tat
ewi t
hli
mewater.
Explanati
on-Carbon/ char coalbur
nsi nairtoproduceenoughheat/ener
gyspl
i
t/break
Nit
rogen( II
)oxidegasi ntofreeNitrogenandoxy genthenconti
nuestoburni
noxy gen
toform carbon( IV)oxidegas. Carbon( I
V)oxidegasreactstoform awhit
epr
ecipit
ate
wit
hl i
mewat er.
Chemi calequation C( s) +2NO( g)-> CO2(g) +N2( g)

b)sul
phurpowder

Observati
on-Continuestoburnwithabluef l
ame
-color
lessgasisformedt hatt
urnorangeacidifi
edpot assi
um di chromate
(VI)togreen.
Explanati
on-Sulphurburnsinairtoproduceenoughheat /energysplit
/break Ni tr
ogen
(I
I)oxidegasi ntofreeNit
rogenandoxy genthencontinuestobur ninoxy gent oform
sulphur(IV)oxidegas.Sul
phur( I
V)oxidegasturnsorangeacidifi
edpot assium
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di
chromate(
VI)togr
een.
Chemical
equati
on S( s) +N2O(
g)-
>SO2(
g) +N2(
g)

c)Phosphorus
Observ at
ion-Conti
nuestoproducedensewhi t
ef umes
Explanati
on-Phosphorusbur
nsinairtoproduceenoughheat/ener
gyspl
i
t/br
eak
Nit
rogen( II
)oxi
degasi nt
ofreeNit
rogenandoxy genthenconti
nuest
oburninoxy
gen
toform densewhi t
efumesofphosphorus( V)oxi
degas.
Chemi calequat
ion 4P( s)+10NO( g)-
> 2P2O5(
g) +5N2( g)

5.St
ateoneuseofni
tr
ogen(I
I)oxi
de
Asanint
ermedi
ategasint
heOstwaldspr
ocessf
ormanuf
act
ureofni
tr
ic(
V)gas.

6.Stateandexplaintheobservati
onmadewhenni t
rogen(I
I)oxi
deisexposedtothe
atmospher e.
Observ at
ion–br
ownf umespr oduced/
evolv
edt hatt
urnblueli
tmuspaperred.
Explanati
on-Nit
rogen(II
)oxidegasonexposur etoairi
squickl
yoxi
dizedbytheair/
oxygent obrownnitr
ogen( I
V)oxidegas.Nit
rogen(IV)oxi
degasisanacidicgas.
Chemi calequat
ion2NO( g)+ O2( g)-
> 2NO2( g)
(
colorl
ess) (brown)

i
i
)Ni
tr
ogen(
IV)oxi
de(
NO2)

a)Occurr
ence
Nit
rogen(I
V)oxi
deoccurs-natur
all
yfrom acti
vevolcani
careas.
-formedfrom incomplet
ecombust i
onoft
hei
nter
nal
combusti
onengineofmot orvehicl
eexhaustfumes.
-from l
i
ghtening

b)Pr
eparat
ion
Thesetupbelowshowsthesetupofappar
atust
hatcanbeusedt
opr
epar
eNi
tr
ogen
(I
V)oxi
deinaschooll
aborat
ory.

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c)Pr
oper
ti
esofni
tr
ogen(
IV)
oxi
de(
Quest
ions)

1.Writ
etheequati
onfort
her
eact
ionfortheschooll
abor
ator
ypreparat
ionofNi
tr
ogen
(I
I)oxi
de.
Chemicalequat
ionCu(
s)+4HNO3(aq)->2H2O( l)
+2NO2(g)+Cu(NO3)2(
aq)
Chemicalequat
ionZn(
s)+4HNO3(aq) -
>2H2O( l)
+2NO2(g)+Zn(NO3)2(
aq)
Chemicalequat
ionFe(
s)+4HNO3(aq)->2H2O( l)
+2NO2(g)+Fe(NO3)
2(aq)

2.St
atet
hreephy sical
propert
iesofNit
rogen(I
V)oxi
de.
-
soluble/di
ssolv
esinwater.
-
browni ncolour
-
haspungenti rr
it
ati
ngpoisonousodour
/smel
l
-
denserdenset hanair
-
turnsblueli
tmuspaperstor ed

3.Stat
eandexpl aintheobser vati
onmadewhenNi trogen(IV)oxi
degasisbubbledi
n
water.
Observat
ion–Thegasdi ssolvesandt husbrowncolourofthegasf ades
-Acolourlesssol utioni
sf ormed
-sol
uti
onf ormedt urnsbluelit
muspaperst ored
-sol
uti
onf ormedhasnoef f
ectonred
Expl
anation-Magnesium bur nsi nairtoproduceenoughheat /
energyspli
t/br
eak
Nit
rogen( I
V)oxidegasdi ssol v
esthenr eactwit
hwat ert
of or
m anaci di
cmixtur
eof
ni
tri
c(V)acidandnitr
ic(I
II)acid.

Chemi
cal
equat
ionH2O(
l)+2NO2(
g)-
>HNO3(
aq) +HNO2(
aq)
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(
nit
ri
c(V)aci
d) (
nit
ri
c(I
II
)aci
d)

4.St
ateandexpl
aint
heobser
vat
ionmadewhenatestt
ubecont
aini
ngNi
tr
ogen(
IV)
oxi
deiscool
edthenheat
edgent
lyt
henst
rongl
y.

Observationoncool ing
-Browncol ourf ades
-Yell
owl i
quidf ormed
Observationongent l
eheat i
ng
-Browncol ourr eappears
-Yell
owliquidf ormedchangestobr ownfumes/ gas
Observationongent l
eheat i
ng
-Browncol ourf ades
-brownfumes/ gaschangest oacolourl
essgas
Explanati
on-Brownni tr
ogen( I
V)oxi
degaseasi l
yli
quefiestoyell
owdi ni
trogen
tet
raoxideliqui
d.Whent heyel
l
owdinit
rogentetr
aoxideliquidi
sgentlyheatedit
changesbackt othebr ownnitr
ogen(I
V)oxidegas.
Whent hebrownnitrogen(IV)oxi
de
gasisst r
onglyheat edi tdecomposestocolourl
essmi xtureofNit
rogen( I
I)oxi
degas
andOxy gen.

Chemi
cal
equat
ionO2(s)+2NO( g)=====2NO2(g)=====N2O4(
l)
(
col
ourlessgases) (br
owngas) (
yel
l
owl
i
qui
d)

5.Stateandexplaintheobser vati
onmadewhenabur ni
ngmagnesium r
ibbonis
l
ower edinagasj arcontai
ningNi tr
ogen( I
V)oxide.
Observati
on-Cont i
nuest obur nwithabr i
ghtfl
ame
-Whitesoli
d/residueisf or
med
-
Brownf umes/ colourfades
Explanat
ion-
Magnesi um burnsi nairtoproduceenoughheat/
ener
gyspli
t/break
brownNi t
rogen(IV)oxidegasi ntofreecolourl
essNit
rogenandoxygenthenconti
nues
toburninoxygent oform whi t
esolid/ashofMagnesium oxi
de.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion 4Mg(
s) +2NO2(
g)-
> 4MgO(
s) +N2(
g)

4.Stateandexplaintheobser
vati
onmadewhent hefol
l
owingnonmetalsar
eburnt
thenloweredinagasj arcont
aini
ngNitr
ogen(IV)oxi
de.
a)Carbon/charcoal
Observati
on-Cont i
nuestoburnwithanorangeglow
-
Brownf umes/col
ourfades
-
colorl
essgasisformedthatformswhitepr
eci
pit
atewit
hli
mewat er.
Explanat
ion-
Carbon/charcoal
burnsinairt
oproduceenoughheat
/ener
gyspli
t/br
eak
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brownNitr
ogen( I
V)oxi
degasintofreecol
ourl
essNitr
ogenandoxy
genthenconti
nues
toburni
noxy gentofor
m car
bon( I
V)oxidegas.
Carbon(I
V)oxi
degasreact
stoforma
whitepr
ecipi
tatewit
hli
mewat er
.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion2C(
s) +2NO2(
g)-
> 2CO2(
g) +N2(
g)

b)sul phurpowder
Obser vat
ion-Cont i
nuest obur nwit
habl uefl
ame
-
Brownf umes/ col
ourfades
-
colorl
essgasi sformedt hatturnorangeacidi
fi
edpotassium dichr
omate
(VI
)t ogreen.
Explanati
on- Sulphurburnsi nairtoproduceenoughheat /
energyspl
it
/break brown
Nit
rogen( IV)oxi degasi ntofreecolourlessNitr
ogenandoxy genthencontinuesto
burninoxy gent of or
m sul phur(I
V)oxi degas.Sulphur(
IV)oxi
degast urnsorange
aci
difiedpot assium dichromat e(VI
)togr een.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion2S(
s) +2NO2(
g)-
> 2SO2(
g) +N2(
g)

c)Phosphor us
Observ at
ion-Cont i
nuestopr oducedensewhitefumes
-Brownfumes/ colourf
ades
Explanation-Phosphorusbur nsinai
rtoproduceenoughheat/ener
gyspl
it/
break
brownNi trogen( I
V)oxidegasi ntof
reecolour
lessNi
trogenandoxygenthenconti
nues
toburni noxy gentoform densewhi t
efumesofphosphor us(
V)oxidegas.
Chemi cal equati
on 8P( s)+10NO2( g)
-> 4P2O5( g) +5N2( g)

5.Statetwousesofni t
rogen( I
V)oxide
-Int heOstwaldprocessf ori
ndustr
ialmanuf actureofni t
ri
c(V)gas.
-Int hemanuf actureofT. N.Texpl
osives
6.Stateandexpl ai
nt heobser vati
onmadewhenni trogen( I
I)oxi
deisexposedtothe
atmospher e.
Observ at
ion–br ownf umespr oduced/ev
olvedt hatturnbluel i
tmuspaperred.
Explanation-Nitrogen(II)oxidegasonexposur etoai ri
squi ckl
yoxidi
zedbytheair/
oxygent obr ownni tr
ogen( I
V)oxidegas.Nitrogen( I
V)oxi degasisanacidicgas.
Chemi cal equati
on 2NO( g)+ O2( g)-> 2NO2( g)
(
colourless) (brown)

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j
gthungu@gmai
l
.com

C.AMMONI
A(NH3)

Ammoniaisacompoundofnit
rogenandhydrogenonl
y.I
tist
her
eforeahy
dri
deof
ni
tr
ogen.
a)Occur
rence
Ammoniagasoccur
s-nat
ural
lyfr
om uri
neofmammal sandexcr
eti
onofbi
rds
-
for
medi ntheki
dneyofhumanbeings
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b)Pr
eparat
ion
Thesetupbelowshowsthesetupofappar
atust
hatcanbeusedt
opr
epar
edr
y
Ammoniagasi naschool
labor
ator
y.
Setupmethod1

c)P
1.Wri
tetheequati
onf
ort
her
eact
iont
aki
ng
pl
acein:
a)Met hod1

Chemicalequat
ion
Ca(OH)2(
s)+NH4Cl (
s)-
>CaCl
2(aq)+H2O(
l)
+2NH3(g)

b)
Method2
Chemi
calequat
ion
NaOH(aq)+NH4Cl (
aq)-
>NaCl
(aq)+H2O(
l) +NH3(
g)
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2.St
atethreephysi
calpr
operti
esofammoni a.
-hasapungentchokingsmellofuri
ne
-Colourl
ess
-Lessdensethanairhencecol
lect
edbyupwarddel
iver
y
-Turnsblueli
tmuspaperbluet
husistheonl
ynatur
all
yoccur
ri
ngbasi
cgas (
at
thislev
el)

3.Calci
um oxi deisusedasthedr
yingagent
.Expl
ainwhycalci
um chl
ori
deand
concentr
atedsul phuri
c(VI
)aci
dcannotbeusedtodrythegas.
-Calcium chl
orider
eact
swithammoniaformingthecompl
excompound
CaCl 2.
8H2O.

Chemi
cal
equat
ionCaCl
2(s)+8NH3(
g) -
>CaCl
2.8NH3(
g)

-Concentr
atedsulphur
ic(
VI)aci
dreact
swi
thammoni
afor
mingammoni
um
sulphat
e(VI)sal
tcompound

Chemi
cal
equat
ion2NH3(
g)+H2SO4(
l)-
>(NH4)
2SO4(
aq)

4.Descr
ibethet
estfort
hepr esenceofammoni agas.
Usingli
tmuspaper:
Di
pmoi st
/damp/wetblueandr edli
tmuspapersinagasjarcont
aini
ngagas
suspectedtobeammoni a.
Thebl uel
itmuspaperremai
nblueandtheredli
tmuspaper
turnsbl
ue.Ammoniaistheonlybasicgas.(
Atthi
slevel
)

Usi
nghydrogenchlori
degas
Dipagl assrodinconcentr
atedhydr
ochl
ori
cacid.Bri
ngt
heglassr
odneart
he
mout hofagasj arsuspect
edt obeammonia.Whitef
umes(ofammoni
um
chlori
de)areproduced/
evolved.

5.Descr
ibet
hef
ount
ainexper
imentt
oshowt
hesol
ubi
l
ityofammoni
a.

Ammoni
aisv
erysol
ubl
einwat
er.

Whenadropofwaterisint
roducedintofl
askcontai
ningammonia,i
tdi
ssolvesal
lthe
ammoniai
nthefl
ask.Ifwaterissubsequentl
yall
owedintot
heflaskt
hroughasmal l
i
nlet
,at
mospher
icpressurefor
cesitveryfastt
ooccupythevacuum f
ormingafountai
n.
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Ifthewat ercontainsthree/fewdr opsofl i

tmussol ut
ion,
theli
tmussol ut
ionturnsblue
becauseammoni aisanal kali
ne/basi cgas.Ifthewatercontai
nsthree/fewdropsof
phenol phthal
einindicator,
theindicatortur
nspi nkbecauseammoni aisan
alkali
ne/basicgas.Sul phur(I
V)oxideandhy drogenchlor
idegasarealsocapabl eofthe
fountainexperiment.I fthewat ercont ai
nsthree/f
ewdr opsofphenol phthal
ein
i
ndi cator,
theindicatorturnscolourlessbecausebot hSulphur(
IV)oxideandhy drogen
chloridegasar eacidicgases.

6.
Stat
eandexplai
ntheobser
vat
ionmadewhenhotplat
inum /
nichr
omewir
eispl
aced
ov
erconcent
rat
edammoni asol
uti
onwit
hOxygengasbubbledint
othemi
xtur
e.

Obser
vat
ions

Hotpl
ati
num /
nichr
omewi
recont
inuest
ogl
owr
edhot
.

Br
ownf
umesofagasar
epr
oduced.

Expl
anat
ion
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Ammoni areactswithOxy genont hesurfaceofthewi r

e.Thisreact
ioni
sexothermi
c
producingal otofheat/energythatenablesplati
num wiret
ogl owredhot.Ammoniais
oxidizedtoNi t
rogen(
II)
oxidegasandwat er.Hotplat
inum /ni
chromewireactsas
catalystt
ospeedupt hereaction.Nit
rogen(II
)oxi
degasi sf
urtheroxidi
zedtobrown
Nitrogen(I
V)oxidegasonexposur etoair
.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion

(
i)
4NH3(
g)+ 5O2(
g)-
Pt-
>4NO(
g)+6H2O(
l)

(
ii
)2NO(
g) + O2(
g) -
> 2NO2(
g)

7.Ammoniagaswasi
gni
tedi
nai
renr
ichedwi
thOxy
gengas.St
ateandexpl
aint
he
obser
vat
ionsmade

Obser
vat
ions

-Ammoni
agasbur
nswi
thagr
eenf
lame

-
Col
our
lessgaspr
oduced

Expl
anat
ion

Ammoniagasbur
nswi
thagr
eenf
lamei
nai
renr
ichedwi
thOxy
gent
ofr
om Ni
tr
ogen
gasandwater
.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion

2NH3(
g) + O2(
g)-
>N2(
g)+3H2O(
l)

8.Dr
yammoni
awaspassedt
hroughheat
edcopper
(I
I)
Oxi
deasi
nthesetupbel
ow.

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(
a)St
atet
heobser
vat
ionsmadei
ntubeK

-
Col
ourchangesf
rom bl
ackt
obr
own

-
Col
our
lessl
i
qui
ddr
opl
etf
orm ont
hecool
erpar
tsoft
ubeK

(
b)(
i)
Ident
if
yli
qui
dL.

-
Wat
er/H2O(
l)

(
ii
)Expl
ainachemi
cal
andphy
sical
testt
hatcanbeusedt
oident
if
yli
qui
dL.

Chemi
cal
test

(
i)Addt
hree/
fewdr
opsofl
i
qui
dLi
ntoanhy
drouscopper
(I
I)
sul
phat
e(VI
).

Col
ourchangesf
rom whi
tet
obl
ue.

Expl
anati
on-
Waterchangeswhit
eanhy
drouscopper
(I
I)
sul
phat
e(VI
)tobl
ue
hydr
atedcopper
(I
I)
sulphat
e(VI
)

(
ii
)Addt
hree/
fewdr
opsofl
i
qui
dLi
ntoanhy
drouscobal
t(
II
)Chl
ori
de.

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Col
ourchangesf
rom bl
uet
opi
nk.

Expl
anati
on-
Waterchangesbl
ueanhy
drouscobal
t(
II
)Chl
ori
det
opi
nk
hydr
atedcobal
t(
II
)Chl
ori
de.

Phy
sical
test

(i
)Heattheli
qui
d.I
tboi
lsat100oCatseal
evel(1at
mospher
e
-
2
pr
essure/760mmHgpressur
e,101300Pa,
101300Nm ) .

(
ii
)Cool
thel
i
qui
d.I
tfr 0oC.
eezesat0.

(
ii
i)
Det
ermi
net
hedensi
ty.I
ti 0gcm-3
s1.

(
c)Wr
it
etheequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
iont
hatt
akepl
ace.

2NH3(
g) + 3CuO(
s) -
>N2(
g)+3H2O(
l)+3Cu(
s)

(
black) (
brown)

2NH3(
g) + 3PbO(
s) -
>N2(
g)+3H2O(
l)+3Pb(
s)

(
brownwhenhot
) (
grey
)

8.
(a)
Whati
saqueousammoni
a

Aqueousammoni
aisf
ormedwhenammoni
agasi
sdi
ssol
vedi
nwat
er.

NH3(
g)+(
aq) -
> NH3(
aq)

Al
i
ttl
eNH3(
aq)r
eact
swi
thammoni
awat
ert
ofor
m ammoni
asol
uti
on(
NH4OH)

NH3(
aq)+H2O(
l) OH-(
aq)+NH4+(
aq)

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Thismakesasol
uti
onofaqueousammoni
aisaweakbase/
alkal
iunl
i
keot
hert
wo
al
kal
i
s.

9.
Usi
ngdotandcr
osst
orepr
esentout
erel
ect
ronsshowt
hebondi
ngi
n:

(
a)NH3

b)NH4+
(

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(
c)NH4Cl

10.
Namef
ourusesofammoni
a

(
i)
Int
hemanuf
act
ureofni
tr
ogenousf
ert
il
izer
s.

(
ii
)Int
hemanuf
act
ureofni
tr
ic(
V)aci
dfr
om Ost
wal
dspr
ocess.

(
ii
i)
Asar
efr
iger
anti
nshi
psandwar
ehouses.

(
iv)
Insof
teni
nghar
dwat
er.

(
v)I
nthesol
vaypr
ocessf
ort
hemanuf
act
ureofsodi
um car
bonat
e.

(
vi)
Int
her
emov
alofgr
easeandst
ains.

11.
(a)
Cal
cul
atet
heper
cent
ageofNi
tr
ogeni
nthef
oll
owi
ngf
ert
il
izer
s:

(
i)(
NH4)
2SO4

Mol
armassof(
NH4)
2SO4=132g

MassofNi
n(NH4)
2SO4=28g

% ofN=>28x100 =21.
2121%

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132

(
ii
)(NH4)
3PO4

Mol
armassof(
NH4)
3PO4=149g

MassofNi
n(NH4)
3PO4=42g

% ofN=>42x100 =28.
1879%

149

(
b)St
atet
woadv
ant
agesoff
ert
il
izera(
i)ov
era(
ii
)abov
e.

(
i)
Hashi
gher%ofNi
tr
ogen

(
ii
)Hasphosphor
uswhi
chi
snecessar
yforpl
antgr
owt
h.

(
c)Cal
cul
atet
hemassofNi
tr
ogeni
na50kgbagof
:

(
i)(
NH4)
2SO4

%ofNi
n(NH4)
2SO4=21.
2121%

MassofNi
n50kg(
NH4)
2SO4=21.
2121x50=10.
6kg

100

(
ii
)NH4NO3

Mol
armassofNH4NO3=80g

MassofNi
n(NH4)
3PO4=28g

% ofN=>28x100 =35%

80

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%ofNi
nNH4NO3=35%

MassofNi
n50kg(
NH4)
2SO4=35x50=17.
5kg

100

NH4NO3t
her
efor
ehasahi
ghermassofNi
tr
ogent
han(
NH4)
2SO4

d)
.Manuf
act
ureofAmmoni
a/Haberpr
ocess

MostoftheAmmoni
apr
oducedforindust
ri
alpur
posesusest
heHaberpr
ocess
dev
elopedbyt
heGer
manScient
istFit
zHaber.

(
i)
Rawmat
eri
als

Ther
awmat
eri
alsi
ncl
ude:

(
i)
Nit
rogenf
rom Fr
act
ional
dist
il
lat
ionofai
rfr
om t
heat
mospher
e.

(
ii
)Hy
drogenf
rom:

I
.Wat
ergas-
passi
ngst
eam t
hroughheat
edchar
coal

C(
s)+H2O(
l)-
>CO(
g)+H2(
g)

I
I.Passi
ngnat
ural
gas/
met
hanet
hroughst
eam.

CH4(
g)+H2O(
l)-
>CO(
g)+3H2(
g)

(
ii
)Chemi
cal
process

HydrogenandNitr
ogenarepassedthr
oughapuri
fi
ert
oremov
eunwant
edgasesl
i
ke
Carbon(I
V)oxi
de,
Oxygen,
sul
phur(
IV)
oxide,
dust
,smokewhi
chwoul
dpoi
sont
hecatal
yst
.

Hy
drogenandNi
tr
ogenar
ethenmi
xedi
nther
ati
oof3:
1respect
ivel
y.Themi
xtur
eis

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compr essedto200-250atmosher
epr essur
et ol
i
quidi
fy.Thel
iqui
dmixt
ureisthen
o
heatedt o400-450C.Thehotcompr essedgasesarethenpassedov
erfi
nelydivi
ded
Ir
oncat aly
stpromoted/i
mpregnatedwi t
hAl2O3/K2O.
Promotersi
ncr
easethe
eff
iciencyofthecatal
yst.

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Opti
mum condi
ti
onsi
nHaberpr
ocesss
Chemical
equat
ion

N2(
g)+ 3H2(
g)===Fe/
Pt===2NH3(
g) ΔH=-
92kJ

Equilibr
ium/ React
ionrateconsiderat
ions
(i)Remov i
ngammoni agasoncef ormedshi f
ttheequil
ibrium forwar
dt otheri
ghtto
replacet heammoni a.More/higheryiel
dofammoni aisattained.
(i
i)Incr
easei npressureshif
ttheequi l
i
brium f
orwardtot her i
ghtwherethereisless
volume/ mol ecul
es.Mor e/hi
gheryiel
dofammoni aisattained.Veryhighpressures
rai
sest hecostofpr oducti
onbecauset heyareexpensivet oproduceandmai ntai
n.An
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opt
imum pr
essur
eofabout200at
mospher
esi
snor
mal
l
yused.

(i
ii
)Increaseintemper at
ureshifttheequil
i
brium backwardtothelef
tbecausethe
reactionisexothermic(ΔH=- 92kJ).Ammoni aformeddecomposesbackt oNitr
ogen
andHy drogentoremov eexcessheatt her
eforeal essyi
eldofammoniaisattai
ned.
Verylowt emperat
uredecr easethecoll
isi
onf r
equencyofNitrogenandHydrogenand
thust herateofreacti
ont ooslowanduneconomi cal.
o
Anopt i
mum t emperatureofabout450Ci snormal l
yused.

(i
v)I
ronandpl at
inum canbeusedascat al
y st
.Pl at
inum i
sabettercat
alystbutmor e
expensiv
eandeasi lypoisonedbyi mpuri
ti
est hanIron.I
ronispromoted/ i
mpregnated
withAlumini
umOxi de(Al
2O3) t
oi ncr
easeit
ssur facearea/ar
eaofcontactwithreactant
s
andthusef f
ici
ency.Thecatalystdoesnotincreaset heyi
eldofammoniabuti tspeed
upitsrat
eoff ormation.

e)Ni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d(HNO3)

a)
Int
roduct
ion.

Nitri
c(V)
acidisoneoft
hemi ner
alaci
ds.Ther
earethr
eeminer
alacids;Nit
ric(
V)aci
d,
sulphuri
c(VI
)aci
dandhydr
ochlori
cacid.
Miner
alaci
dsdonotoccurnatural
lybutare
preparedinaschooll
abor
atoryandmanufact
uredati
ndust
ri
all
evel.

b)School
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
on

Nit
ri
c(V)
acidisprepar
edi
naschoollaborat
oryfr
om t
her
eact
ionofConcent
rat
ed
sul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
dandpotassi
um ni
tr
ate(V)bel
ow.

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(
c)Pr
oper
ti
esofConcent
rat
edNi
tr
ic(
V)aci
d(Quest
ions)

1.
Wri
teanequat
ionf
ort
heschool
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
onofni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d.

KNO3(
s)+H2SO4(
l) -
>KHSO4(
s)+HNO3(
l)

2.
Sodium nit
rate(V)canal
sobeusedtoprepar
enitr
ic(
V)aci
d.St
atet
wor
easonswhy
pot
assium nit
rate(V)ispr
efer
redov
erSodium ni
tr
ate(
V).

(i
)Potassi
um ni
tr
ate(V)i
smorevolat
il
ethansodium nit
rat
e(V)andt
her
efor
ereadi
l
y
di
splacedfr
om t
hel essv
olat
il
econcent
ratedsul
phuric(
VI)
acid

(i
i)Sodi
um nit
rate(
V)ishygr
oscopi
candthusabsorbwat
er.Concent
rated
sulphur
ic(
VI)
aciddissol
vesi
nwater.Thedi
ssol
uti
onisahighl
yexot
hermicpr
ocess.

3.Anal
lgl
assappar
atus/
ret
orti
suseddur
ingt
hepr
epar
ati
onofni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d.Expl
ain.

Hotconcentr
atednit
ri
c(V)aci
dvapouri
shi
ghl
ycor
rosi
veandat
tacksr
ubbercor
k
appar
atusifused.

4.Concent
ratednit
ri
c(V)aci
discol
our
less.Expl
ainwhyt
hepr
epar
edsampl
eint
he
schooll
aborator
yappearsyel
low.

Hotconcent
rat
ed ni
tr
ic(
V)aci
ddecomposest
obr
ownni
tr
ogen(
IV)
oxi
deandOxy
gen
gases.

4HNO3(
l/
g) -
>4NO2(
g)+H2O(
l)+O2(
g)

Oncef
ormedt
hebr
ownni
tr
ogen(
IV)
oxi
dedi
ssol
vesi
ntheaci
dfor
mingay
ell
ow
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sol
uti
on.

5.St
ateandexpl
aint
heobser
vat
ionmadewhenconcent
rat
edni
tr
ic(
V)aci
disheat
ed.

Obser
vat
ion

Br
ownf
umesar
epr
oduced.

Col
our
lessgast
hatr
eli
ght
s/r
eki
ndl
esgl
owi
ngspl
i
nt

Expl
anat
ion

Hotconcent
rated nit
ri
c(V)aci
ddecomposest
owater
,br
ownnit
rogen(I
V)oxi
deand
Oxygengases.Oxygengasisnotvi
sibl
eint
hebrownf
umesofni
trogen(I
V)oxide.

4HNO3(
g) -
>4NO2(
g)+H2O(
l)+O2(
g)

6.Expl
aint
heobser
vat
ionsmadewhen:

(a)About2cm3ofIron(
II
)sul
phate(
VI)sol
uti
onisaddedabout5dr
opsof
concent
rat
ed nit
ri
c(V)aci
dandt hemixtur
ethenheated/
warmedinatestt
ube.

Obser
vat
ion

(
i)
Col
ourchangesf
rom gr
eent
obr
own.

(
ii
)br
ownf
umes/
gaspr
oducedont
heupperpar
tsoft
het
estt
ube.

Expl
anat
ion

Concentrat
ed nit
ri
c(V)aci
disapower f
ul/
str
ongoxidi
zingagent
.Itoxidi
zes
2+ 3+
gr
eenFe i onsinFeSO4t
obr own/
yel
lowFe . Theaci
disreducedtocol
ourless
Ni
trogen(I
I)oxi
de.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion:

6FeSO4(
aq)+3H2SO4(
aq)+2HNO3(
aq)-
>3Fe2(
SO4)3(
aq)
+4H2O+2NO(
g)
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Col
our
lessNit
rogen(
II
)oxi
dei
srapi
dlyf
urt
heroxi
dizedt
obr
ownNi
tr
ogen(
IV)
oxi
deby
at
mospheri
coxygen.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion:

2NO(
g) + O(
g)-
> 2NO2(
g)

(
col
our
less) (
brown)

(b)Aspatul
aful
lofsul
phurpowderi
naclaendr
ybeakerwasaddedt
o10cm3
concent
rat
ednit
ri
c(V)aci
dandthenheat
edgentl
y/war
med.

Obser
vat
ion

(
i)
Yel
l
owcol
ourofsul
phurf
ades.

(
ii
)br
ownf
umes/
gaspr
oduced.

Expl
anat
ion

Concentrat
ed nitri
c(V)aci
disapowerful
/st
rongoxidi
zi
ngagent
.Itoxidi
zes
yell
owsulphurtocolourl
essconcentr
atedsul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
d.Theaci
disreducedto
brownNitrogen(
IV)oxi
degas.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion:

S(
s)+6HNO3(
l) -
>4NO2(
g)+H2O(
l)+H2SO4(
l)

(c)Afew/about1.
0gpi
ecesofcoppertur
nings/
Zincgr
anules/Magnesi
um r
ibbonar
e
added10cm3ofconcentr
ated ni
tr
ic(
V)acidinabeaker.

Obser
vat
ion

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(
i)br
ownf
umes/
gaspr
oduced.

(
ii
)bl
uesol
uti
onf
ormedwi
thcoppert
urni
ngs

(
ii
i)col
our
lesssol
uti
onf
ormedwi
thZi
ncgr
anul
es/
Magnesi
um r
ibbon

Expl
anat
ion

Concent
rat
ed ni
tr
ic(
V)acidisapowerful
/st
rongoxi
dizingagent.I
toxi
dizes
metal
stotheirmet
alni
tr
ate(
VI)sal
ts.Theaci
disreducedt
obr ownNi t
rogen(I
V)oxide
gas.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion:

Cu(
s) +4HNO3(
l) -
>2NO2(
g) +H2O(
l)+ Cu(
NO3)2(
aq)

Zn(
s)+4HNO3(
l) -
>2NO2(
g) +H2O(
l)+ Zn(
NO3)2(
aq)

Mg(
s)+4HNO3(
l) -
>2NO2(
g)+H2O(
l)+ Mg(
NO3)2(
aq)

Pb(
s) +4HNO3(
l) -
>2NO2(
g) + H2O(
l)+ Pb(
NO3)2(
aq)

Ag(
s)+2HNO3(
l) -
>NO2(
g) + H2O(
l)+ AgNO3(
aq)

(
d)Pr
oper
ti
esofDi
l
uteNi
tr
ic(
V)aci
d(Quest
ions)

(
i)
Whati
sdi
l
uteni
tr
ic(
v)aci
d

Whenconcent r
atednitr
ic(
v)acidisaddedt
oov erhal
fporti
onofwater,i
tis
rel
ati
velysaidtobedil
ute.Adil
utesolutioni
sonewhi chhasmor esolv
ent/
wat erthan
solut
e/acid.Thenumberofmol esoft heaci
darepresentinalargeamount/volumeof
thesolvent.
Thismakesthemol ar
it
y/ numberofmolespr esenti
nonecubicdeci meter
ofthesolutiontobel
owe. g.0.
02M.

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Ifmorewateri
saddedtotheaci
dunt
ilt
heaci
dist
oodi
l
utet
obedi
l
utedf
urt
hert
hen
aninf
ini
tedi
lut
esol
uti
oniffor
med.

(ii
))
1cm l
engthofpoli
shedMagnesi
um r
ibbonwasputi
satestt
ubecont
aini
ng0.
2M
di
l
utenit
ri
c(v)
acid.St
ateandexpl
aint
heobserv
ati
onmade.

Obser
vat
ion

-
Eff
erv
escence/
bubbl
i
ng/
fizzi
ng

-
Col
our
lessgaspr
oducedt
hatext
ingui
shbur
ningspl
i
ntwi
thanexpl
osi
on/
popsound

-
Col
our
lesssol
uti
onf
ormed

-
Magnesi
um r
ibbondi
ssol
ves/
decr
easei
nsi
ze

Expl
anat
ion

Di
l
utedi
l
uteni
tr
ic(
v)aci
dreact
swi
thMagnesi
um t
ofor
m hy
drogengas.

Mg(
s)+2HNO3(
aq) -
> H2(
g)+ Mg(
NO3)2(
aq)

Wit
hotherr
eact
iveheav
ymet
als,
thehy
drogengaspr
oducedi
srapi
dlyoxi
dizedt
o
wat
er.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion3Pb(
s)+8HNO3(
aq)-
>4H2O(
l)
+2NO(
g)+2Pb(
NO3)
2(aq)

Chemi
cal
equat
ion3Zn(
s)+8HNO3(
aq)-
>4H2O(
l)
+2NO(
g)+2Zn(
NO3)
2(aq)
Chemi
cal
equat
ion3Fe(
s)+8HNO3(
aq)-
>4H2O(
l)
+2NO(
g)+2Fe(
NO3)
2(aq)

Hydrogengast
her
efor
eisusual
l
ynotpr
epar
edi
naschool
labor
ator
yusi
ngdi
l
uteni
tr
ic
(
v)acid.

(
ii
i)
Ahal
fspat
ulaf
ull
ofsodi
um hy
drogencar
bonat
eandCopper
(I
I)car
bonat
ewer
e
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separ
atel
ytosepar
atet
estt
ubescont
aini
ng10cm3of0.
2M di
l
uteni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d.
Obser
vati
on

-
Eff
erv
escence/
bubbl
i
ng/
fizzi
ng

-
Col
our
lessgaspr
oducedt
hatf
ormsawhi
tepr
eci
pit
atewi
thl
i
mewat
er.

-
Col
our
lesssol
uti
onf
ormedwi
thsodi
um hy
drogencar
bonat
e.

-Bl
uesol
uti
onf
ormedwi
thCopper
(I
I)car
bonat
e.

Expl
anat
ion

Di
lutedi
lut
eni
tri
c(v)
aci
dreact
swithCar
bonat
esandhy
drogencar
bonat
est
ofor
m
Carbon(
IV)
oxi
de,wat
erandnit
rat
e(V)
sal
t

CuCO3(
s)+2HNO3(
aq) -
> H2O(
l)+ Cu(
NO3)2(
aq)+CO2(
g)

ZnCO3(
s)+2HNO3(
aq) -
> H2O(
l)+ Zn(
NO3)2(
aq)+CO2(
g)

CaCO3(
s)+2HNO3(
aq) -
> H2O(
l)+ Ca(
NO3)2(
aq)+CO2(
g)

PbCO3(
s)+2HNO3(
aq) -
> H2O(
l)+ Pb(
NO3)2(
aq)+CO2(
g)

FeCO3(
s)+2HNO3(
aq) -
> H2O(
l) + Fe(
NO3)2(
aq)+CO2(
g)

NaHCO3(
s)+HNO3(
aq) -
> H2O(
l)+ NaNO3(
aq)+CO2(
g)

KHCO3(
s)+HNO3(
aq) -
> H2O(
l)+ KNO3(
aq)+CO2(
g)

NH4HCO3(
aq)+HNO3(
aq) -
> H2O(
l) + NH4NO3(
aq)+CO2(
g)

Ca(
HCO3)2(
aq)+2HNO3(
aq) -
> 2H2O(
l)+ Ca(
NO3)2(
aq)+2CO2(
g)

Mg(
HCO3)2(
aq)+2HNO3(
aq) -
> 2H2O(
l)+ Mg(
NO3)2(
aq)+2CO2(
g)

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(i
ii
)25.0cm3of0.
1M Nit
ric(
V)aci
dwasti
trat
edwi
thexcess0.
2M sodi
um hy
droxi
de
solut
ionusi
ngphenol
phthal
eini
ndi
cat
or.

I
.St
atet
hecol
ourchangeatt
heendpoi
nt

Col
our
less

I
I.Whatwast
hepHoft
hesol
uti
onatt
heendpoi
nt.Expl
ain.

pH1/
2/3

Al i
tt
leoftheaci
dwhenaddedtot hebasechangesthecol
ouroft
he
i
ndi
catort
oshowt heendpoint
.Theendpointther
efor
eisacidi
cwithl
owpHof
Ni
tr
ic(
V)acid.Nit
ri
c(V)aci
disast
rongaci
dwi thpH1/2/3.

I
II
.Cal
cul
atet
henumberofmol
esofaci
dused.

Numberofmol
es = mol
ari
tyxv
olume => 0. 5x10-3mol
1x25 = 2. es

1000 1000

I
V.Cal
cul
atet
hev
olumeofsodi
um hy
droxi
deused

Vol
umeofsodi
um hy
droxi
dei
ncm3

=1000xNumberofmol
es=> 5x10-3
1000x2. = 12.
5cm3

Mol
ari
ty 0.
2

(
e)I
ndust
ri
all
argescal
emanuf
act
ureofNi
tr
ic(
V)aci
d

(
i)
Rawmat
eri
als

1.Ai
r/
Oxy
gen

Oxy
geni
sgotf
rom f
ract
ional
dist
il
lat
ionofai
r

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Ammoni
afr
om Haberpr
ocess.

2.Chemi
cal
processes

Airfr
om theat
mospherei spassest hr
oughel
ectr
ostat
icpr
eci
pit
ators/
fi
lt
erstoremov
e
unwantedgasesli
keNitrogen,Carbon(
IV)
oxi
de,
dust,
smokewhichmaypoi sonthe
catal
yst
.Theammoni a-
airmi xtur
ei scompr
essedto9atmospherestoreducethe
dist
ancebetweenreact
inggases.

Themixt
urei
spassedthr
ought
heheatex
changer
swher
eat
emper
at eof850oC-
ur
900oCi
smaint
ained.

Thefi
rstreact
iontakeplacei
nthecatal
yti
cchamberwher
eAmmoni
areact
swi
tht
he
ai
rtoform Nit
rogen(I
I)
Oxideandwater.

Opt
imum condi
ti
oni
nOst
wal
dspr
ocess

Chemi
cal
equat
ion

4NH3(
g)+5O2(
g)===Pt
/Rh===4NO(
g)+6H2O(
g)ΔH=-
950kJ

Thereact
ionisr ever
sibl
eandexi
stindynamicequi
l
ibr
ium wher
etheproduct
srefor
m
backthereactants.Thefol
l
owingfact
orsareusedt
oincreaset
heyi
eld/amountof
Notr
ogen(II
)oxide:

(i
)Removi
ngNit
rogen(
II)
oxidegasoncef
ormedshi
ftt
heequi
l
ibr
ium f
orwar
dtot
he
r
ightt
orepl
acet
heNi t
rogen(I
I)oxi
de.

More/hi
gheryi
eldofNi
tr
ogen(
II
)oxi
dei
sat
tai
nedasr
eact
ant
str
ytor
etur
nthe
equi
l
ibr
ium bal
ance.

(
ii
)I
ncr
easeinpressur
eshi
ftt
heequi
l
ibr
ium backwar
dtot
hel
eftwher
ether
eisl
ess
v
olume/molecul
es.

Less/
lowery
iel
dofNi
tr
ogen(
II
)oxi
dei
sat
tai
ned.

Ver
ylowpr
essur
esi
ncr
easest
hedi
stancebet
weenr
eact
ingNH3andO2mol
ecul
es.

Anopt
imum pr
essur
eofabout9at
mospher
esi
snor
mal
l
yused.
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Cool
i
ngt
hemi
xtur
econdensest
hewat
erv
apourt
oli
qui
dwat
er

(
ii
i)
Increaseint
emperat
ureshi
ftt
heequi
l
ibr
ium backwar
dtot
hel
eftbecauset
he
r
eactionisexot
her
mic(ΔH=-950kJ)
.

Nit
rogen(I
I)oxi
deandwat ervapourformeddecomposesbacktoAmmoni
aand
Oxy
gent oremov eexcessheattheref
orealessyi
eldofNi
tr
ogen(I
I)
oxi
dei
sat
tai
ned.

Ver
ylowtemper
atur
edecreasethecol
l
isi
onfrequencyofAmmoni
aand
Oxy
genandthust
herat
eofreact
iontooslowanduneconomical.

Anopt
imum t
emper
at eofabout900oCi
ur snor
mal
l
yused.

(
iv)
Plat
inum canbeusedascat
aly
st.

Pl
ati
num i
sver
yexpensi
ve.I
tis:

-
promot
edwi
thRhodi
um t
oincr
easet
hesur
facear
ea/
areaofcont
act
.

-added/
coatedonthesur
faceofasbest
ost
ofor
m pl
ati
nized–asbest
ost
oreducet
he
amount/quant
it
yused.

Thecat
aly
stdoesnoti
ncr
easet
hey
iel
dofNi
tr
ogen(
II
)Oxi
debuti
tspeedupi
tsr
ateof
for
mati
on.

Ni
trogen(
II
)oxi
def
ormedispassedt
hroughanoxi
dat
ionr
eact
ionchamberwher
emor
e
ai
roxidi
zestheNi
tr
ogen(
II
)Oxi
de toNitr
ogen(
IV)
Oxi
degas.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion

2NO(
g) + O2(
g) -
> 2NO2(
g)

Nit
rogen(I
V)Oxidegasi
spassedupt omeetadownwar
dfl
owofwateri
nthe
absorpt
ionchamber.Thegasreactwit
hwatert
ofor
m ami
xtur
eofNit
ri
c(V)and
Nit
ri
c(II
I)
acids

Chemi
cal
equat
ion.

2NO2(
g) + H2O(
l)-
> HNO2(
aq)+HNO3(
aq)

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Excessai
risbubbl
edt
hrought
hemi
xtur
etooxi
dizeNi
tr
ic(
II
I)
/HNO2(
aq)t
o
Nit
ric(
V)/
HNO3(aq)

Chemi
cal
equat
ion.

O2(
g) + 2HNO2(
aq)-
> 2HNO3(
aq)

Ov
eral
lchemi
cal
equat
ioni
ntheabsor
pti
onchamber
.

O2(
g) + 4NO2(
g)+ 2H2O(
l)-
> 4HNO3(
aq)

Theaci
dis65%concent
rat
ed.
Iti
smade100%concent
rat
edbyei
ther
:

(
i)
fract
ional
dist
il
lat
ionor

(
ii
)addedt
oconcent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
dtor
emov
ethe35%ofwat
er.

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Afactor
yuses63.0kgof68%pur eni
tr
ic(
V)aci
dperdayt
oproduceanammonium
-
3
f
erti
l
izerforanagr
icul
tur
alcount
y.I
fthedensi
tyoft
heaci
dis1.42gcm ,cal
cul
ate:

(
i)
theconcent
rat
ionoft
heaci
dusedi
nmol
esperl
i
tre.

Mol
armassHNO3 =63

Met
hod1

Mol
esofHNO3i
n1cm3=Massi
n1cm31.
42 => 1.
42 =0.
0225mol
es

Mol
armassHNO3 63

Mol
ari
ty=Mol
esx1000=>0.
0225mol
esx10000=22. esdm-3/
5mol M

1cm3

100% = 22. esdm-3/

5mol M

68% = 68x22.
5 =15. esdm-3
3M/mol

100

Met
hod2

Mol
esofHNO3i
n1000cm3=Massi
n1000cm3=>1.
42x1000

Mol
armassHNO3 63

=22. esdm-3/
5397mol M

100% = 22. esdm-3/

5397mol M

68% = 68x22.
5397 =15. esdm-3
327mol

100
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(i
i
)thevol
umeofammoni
agasatr
.t
.pused.(
H=1.
0,N=14.
0,O=16.
0,onemol
eofgas=
-
3
24dm atr .
t.
p)

Chemi
cal
equat
ion

HNO3(
aq) +NH3(
g) -
> NH4NO3(
aq)

Mol
erat
ioHNO3(
aq):NH3(
g)=1:
1

1mol
eHNO3(
aq)-
>24dm3NH3(
g)

15.
327mol
eHNO3(
aq)-
>15.
327mol
ex24dm3=367.
848dm3

1dm3

(
ii
i)
thenumberofcr
opswhi
chcanbeappl
i
edt
hef
ert
il
izeri
feachcr
opr
equi
re4.
0g.

HNO3(
aq) +NH3(
g) -
> NH4NO3(
aq)

Mol
armassNH4NO3=80g

Mol
erat
ioHNO3 :
NH4NO3 =1:
1

MassofHNO3i
n63.
0kg=68%x63=42.
84kg

1mol
eHNO3(
aq)
=63g -
>80gNH4NO3

(
42.
84x1000)
gHNO3(
aq)-
>(42.
84x1000)
gx80

63

=54400g

Massoff
ert
il
izer= 54400g =13600cr
ops

Masspercr
op 4.
0

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E.NI V)NO3-andNI
TRATE( TRATE(
II
I)NO2-Sal
ts

Ni
tr
ate(
V)/ NO3-andNitrat
e(I
II
)/NO2- ar
esal
tsder
ivedf
rom Ni
tr
ic(
V)/HNO3and
Ni
tr
ic(
II
I)/
HNO2aci ds.BothHNO3andHNO2ar emonobasicaci
dswithonl
yone
i
oni
zablehydrogeninamol ecul
e.

Onl
yKNO2,
NaNO2 andNH4NO2exi
st.Al
lmet
all
i
cni
tr
ate(
V)sal
tsexi
st.

Al
lNi
tr
ate( NO3-andNi
V)/ tr
ate(
II
I NO2- ar
)/ esol
ubl
e/di
ssol
vei
nwat
er.

(
a)Eff
ectofheatonNitr
ate( NO3-andNi
V)/ tr
ate(
II
I NO2-sal
)/ ts(
Testf
orpr
esenceof
-
Ni
trat
e(V)/NO3 ionsi
nsoli
dst
ate)

1.Al
lNi
tr
ate(
II
I NO2- sal
)/ tsar
enotaf
fect
edbygent
leorst
rongheat
ingexcept
ammoni
um nit
rat
e(I
II
)NH4NO2.

Ammonium ni
tr
ate(
II
I)NH4NO2 i
sacol
our
lesssol
i
dthatdecomposet
ofor
m Ni
tr
ogen
gasandwater
.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion

NH4NO2(
s)-
> H2O(
l) +N2(
g)

Thi
sreact
ioni
susedt
opr
epar
esmal
lamount
sofNi
tr
ogeni
naschool
labor
ator
y.

2.Al
lNi
tr
ate( NO3- sal
V)/ tsdecomposeonst
rongheat
ing:

Exper
iment

Put½spatul
aful
lofsodium ni
tr
ate(
V)i
ntoaat estt
ube.Placemoistbl
ue/redl
i
tmus
papersont
hemouthoft hetestt
ube.Heatst
ronglywhentesttubei
sslanted.

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Testt
hegasespr
oducedusi
nggl
owi
ngspl
i
nt

Caut
ion(
i)Wearsaf
etygasmaskandhandgl
oves

(i
i
)Lead(
II
)ni
tr
ate(
V)decomposest
oLead(
II
)oxi
det
hatr
eactandf
useswi
tht
he
t
estt
ubepermanent
ly.

Repeatwit
hpotassium ni
tr
ate(
V),
copper(I
I)ni
trat
e(V)
,Lead(
II)
nit
rate(
V),si
l
ver
ni
trat
e(V)
,Zincni
trate(
V),
Magnesium ni
tr
ate(V)andAmmoni um nit
rate(
V).

Obser
vat
ions

Cr
acki
ngsound

Br
ownf
umes/
gaspr
oducedexcepti
npot
assi
um ni
tr
ate(
V)andSodi
um ni
tr
ate(
V)

Gl
owi
ngspl
i
ntr
eli
ght
s/r
eki
ndl
esbutf
eebl
yinAmmoni
um ni
tr
ate(
V).

Bl
acksol
i
dresi
duewi
thcopper
(I
I)ni
tr
ate(
V)

Whi
teresi
due/
soli
dwit
hsodi
um ni
tr
ate(
V),
pot
assi
um ni
tr
ate(
V),
si
lv
erni
tr
ate(
V),
Magnesi
um ni
tr
ate(
V)

Yel
l
owr
esi
due/
sol
i
dwhenhotbutwhi
teoncool
i
ngwi
thZi
ncni
tr
ate(
V)

Br
ownr
esi
due/
sol
i
dwhenhotbuty
ell
owoncool
i
ngwi
thLead(
II
)ni
tr
ate(
V)

Expl
anat
ion

1.Potassium nitrat
e(V)andSodium nit
rat
e(V)decomposesonst
rongheat
ingt
ofor
m
potassium nit
rate(I
II
)andSodium ni
trate(
II
I)pr
oduci
ngOxygengas.Oxy
gengas
rel
i
ght s/r
ekindlesaglowingspli
nt.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion.

2KNO3(
s) -
> 2KNO2(
s) + O2(
g)

2NaNO3(
s)-
> 2NaNO2(
s)+ O2(
g)

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2.Heav
ymet alni
tr
ate(
V)sal
tsdecomposest
ofor
mtheoxi
de,
brownni
tr
ogen(
IV)oxi
de
andOxy gengas.

Copper(
II
)oxi
dei
sblack.
Zincoxi
deisyell
owwhenhotandwhi
tewhencool
/col
d.
Lead(
II
)oxi
deisy
ell
owwhencol d/cool
andbrownwhenhot
/heat
ed.

Hydr
atedcopper(I
I)ni
trat
ei sbl
ue.Onheat i
ngitmeltsanddissol
vesi
nitswaterof
cr
yst
all
izati
ontoform agr eensolut
ion.Whenall t
hewaterofcry
stal
l
izat
ionhas
ev
aporated,
thenit
rate(V)
saltdecomposest oblackCopper(
II)
oxi
deandami xtur
eof
br
ownni t
rogen(
IV)oxidegasandcol ourl
essOxy gengas.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion

2Cu(
NO3)
2(s) -
> 2CuO(
s) + 4NO2(
g) + O2(
s)

2Ca(
NO3)
2(s) -
> 2CaO(
s) + 4NO2(
g) + O2(
s)

2Zn(
NO3)
2(s) -
> 2ZnO(
s) + 4NO2(
g) + O2(
s)

2Mg(
NO3)
2(s) -
> 2MgO(
s) + 4NO2(
g) + O2(
s)

2Pb(
NO3)
2(s) -
> 2PbO(
s) + 4NO2(
g) + O2(
s)

2Fe(
NO3)
2(s) -
> 2FeO(
s) + 4NO2(
g) + O2(
s)

Si
l
v erni
tr
ate(
V)andMercur
y(I
I)
nitr
atedecomposestothecorr
espondi
ngmet
alanda
mixtur
eofbrownnit
rogen(
IV)
oxidegasandcolour
lessOxygengas.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion

2AgNO3(
s) -
> 2Ag(
s) + 2NO2(
g) + O2(
s)

Hg(
NO3)
2(s) -
> Hg(
l) + 2NO2(
g) + O2(
s)

Thepr
oduct
ion/
evoluti
onofbrownfumesofNi t
rogen(I
V)oxi
degasonheat
inga
-
sal
tisaconfi
rmat
orytestforpr
esenceofNO3 ionsofheavymetal
s

(b)Brownr
ingt
est(
Testf
orpr
esenceofNi
tr
ate( NO3- i
V)/ onsi
naqueous/sol
uti
on
state)

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Exper
iment

Place5cm3ofPot
assi
um ni
trate(
V)sol
uti
onontoacleantestt
ube.Add8dr
opsof
fr
eshlypr
epar
edIr
on(I
I)
sul
phate(VI
)sol
uti
on.Swir
l/shake.

Usingatesttubeholdertofir
mlysl
antandholdt
hetestt
ube,car
eful
l
yadd5cm3of
Concentr
atedsulphuri
c(VI)aci
ddownalongthesi
deoftestt
ube.
Donotshaket
het
est
tubecontent
s.

Caut
ion:
Concent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
dishi
ghl
ycor
rosi
ve.

Obser
vat
ion.

Bot
hPot
assi
um ni
tr
ate(
V)andf
reshl
ypr
epar
edI
ron(
II
)sul
phat
e(VI
)donotf
orml
ayer
s

Onaddi
ngConcent
rat
edSul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d,t
wol
ayer
sar
efor
med.

Abr
ownr
ingi
sfor
medbet
weent
hel
ayer
s.

Expl
anat
ion

Allni
tr
ate(V)sal
tsaresolubl
e.Theyf orm amisci
blemixt
urewhenaddedfreshl
y
prepar
edI r
on(II
)sul
phate(VI
)solut
ion.Concentr
atedsul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
disdensert
han
themiscibl
emi xtur
ethussettleatthebottom.

Atthejunct
ionoft
helayer
s,t
heacidreact
swi t
hnitr
ate(
V)sal
tst
oform
Nit
ric(
V)aci
d/HNO3.Ni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d/HNO3isr educedtoNit
rogen(
II
)oxi
debyt
he
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I
ron(
II)
sulphate(
VI)salttofor
mthecompl excompoundNi troso-
i
ron(
II)
sulphate(
VI)/FeSO4.
NO.Nitr
oso-i
ron(I
I)sul
phate(
VI)i
sbr ownincolour
.I
tfor
msa
t
hinlayeratthejuncti
onbetweenconcentrat
edsulphuri
c(VI)acidandthemisci
ble
mixt
ureoff r
eshlypreparedIr
on(
II
)sul
phat e(
VI)andthenitr
ate(V)sal
tsasabrownring.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion

FeSO4(
aq) + NO(
g) -
> FeSO4.
NO(
aq)

(
Nit
roso-
ir
on(
II
)sul
phat
e(VI
)compl
ex)

Thebrownri
ngdisappeari
fshakenbecauseconcentr
atedsul
phur
ic(VI
)acidmixes
wit
htheaqueoussolut
iongenerat
ingalotofheatwhi
chdecomposesNitroso-
i
ron(I
I)
sul
phat
e(VI)
/FeSO4.
NOt oir
on(I
I)
sulphat
e(VI
)andNitr
ogen(
II
)oxi
de.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion

FeSO4.
NO(
aq) -
>FeSO4(
aq) + NO(
g) -
>

Ir
on(II
)sulphat
e(VI)solut
ioni
seasil
y/r
eadi
lyoxidi
zedtoir
on(I
II
)sul
phat
e(VI
)on
exposur etoai
r/oxygen.Thebrownri
ngtestthusrequi
refr
eshl
yprepar
edIron(
II
)
sulphate(VI
)soluti
on

(c)Devar
dasal
l
oyt
est(
Testf
orpr
esenceofNi
tr
ate( NO3- i
V)/ onsi
naqueous/sol
uti
on
state)

Exper
iment

Place5cm3ofPot assi
um ni
tr
ate(V)sol
uti
onontoacleant
esttube.Add5dropsof
sodium hy
droxi
desoluti
on.Swirl
/shake.Addapieceofal
uminium foi
ltot
he
mixtur
e.Heat
.Testanygasesproducedusingbot
hblueandredlit
muspapers.

Obser
vat
ion. I
nfer
ence
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Ef
fer
vescence/
bubbl
es/
fizzi
ng

col
our
lessgast
hathasapungentsmel
lofur
ine NO3-

Bl
uel
i
muspaperr
emai
nbl
ue

Redl
i
tmuspapert
urnr
ed.

Expl
anat
ion

TheDevar
dasall
oytestforNO3-i
onsi
nsol
uti
onwasdev
elopedbyt
heI
tal
i
ansci
ent
ist
Art
uloDev
arda(
1859-1944)

WhenaNO3-sal
tisaddedsodi
um hydroxi
deandalumi
nium f
oil
,ef
fer
vescenceof
-
ammoni
agasi saconfir
mator
ytestforNO3 i
ons.

G.ENVI
RONMENTALEFFECTSOFNI
TROGENOUSCOMPOUNDS

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A.
SULPHUR(
S)
Sul
phuri
sanelementinGroupVIGr
oup16)oft
hePeri
odi
ctabl
e.Ithasat
omicnumber
16andel
ect
ronicconf
igur
ati
on16andval
ency2/di
val
entandthusfor
mstheionS2-
A.Occur
rence.
Sul
phurmai nlyoccurs:
(i
)asf reeelementinTexasandLoui si
anainUSAandSi cil
yinItal
y.
(i
i)
Hy drogensulphidegasinactiv
ev ol
canicarease.g.Olkar
ianear Nai
vasha
i
nKenya
(i
ii
)ascopperpy ri
tes(CuFeS2),
Galena(PbS,Zi
ncblende(ZnS))andir
on
pyri
tes(FeS2)inotherpart
soft heworld.
B.Ext
ract
ionofSul
phurf
rom Fr
aschspr
ocess
Suphuroccur
sabout200metr
esunder
ground.Thesoi
lst
ruct
urei
nthesear
easi
s
usual
l
yweakandcaneasil
ycavei
n.

Diggi
ngoftunnel
sist
husdiscouragedi
ntry
ingtoext
ractthemineral
.
Sul
phurisext
ract
edbydr
il
li
ngt hr
eeconcent
ric/
roundpipesofdiameterofr
ati
os2:
8:
18centi
meter
s.

Superheat
edwaterat170oCand10at
mospher
epr
essur
eisf
orcedt
hrought
he
outer
mostpipe.

Thehi
ghpr
essur
esensur
ethewat
err
emai
nsasl
i
qui
dathi
ght
emper
atur
esi
nst
eadof
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v
apourofv
apour/
gas.

Thesuperheat
edwatermeltst
hesul
phurbecauset
hemel
ti
ngpoi
ntofsul
phuri
s
o
l
owerataboutatabout115C.

Acompr
essedai
rat15at
mospher
esi
sfor
ced/
pumpedt
hrought
hei
nner
mostpi
pe.

Thehotai
rfor
cesthemoltensul
phurupt
hemi
ddl
epi
pewher
eiti
scol
l
ect
edand
sol
idi
fi
esi
nalargetank.

I
tisabout99%pur
e.

Di
agr
am showi
ngext
ract
ionofSul
phurf
rom Fr
aschsPr
ocess

C.Al
l
otr
opesofSul
phur
.

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1.Sulphurexistastwocr
yst
all
i
neal
l
otr
opi
cfor
ms:
(i
)Rhombicsul phur
(i
i)
Monocl i
nicsulphur

Rhombi csulphur Monocli

nicsul
phur
Brightyel
lowcry stal
li
nesolid Paleyel
l
owcr yst
all
inesoli
d
o
Hasamel ti
ngpoi ntof113C Hasamel ti
ngpointof119oC
Hasadensi tyof2. 06gcm-3 Hasadensityof1.96gcm-3
Stablebelow96oC Stabl
eabove96oC
Hasoct ahedralstruct
ure Hasaneedle-l
i
kest ruct
ure

Rhombi
csulphurandMonocl
i
nicsulphurhav
eatr
ansi
ti
ontemper
at eof96oC.
ur Thi
sis
t
hetemper
atureatwhi
choneall
otr
opechangest
otheother
.

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2.Sulphurexi stsinnon-cr
ystall
i
neformsas:
(
i)
Plasticsulphur-
Plasti
csulphurisprepar
edfrom heati
ngpowderedsulphurt
oboilt
hen
pour i
ngat hincont i
nuousstream i
nabeakerwi t
hcoldwater.Alongthi
nel
asti
cy el
l
ow
threadofpl asti
csulphurisformed.Ifl
eftf
orlongitt
urnt
obr ightyel
l
owcry
stall
i
ne
rhombi csulphur .
(i
i)
Col
loi
dalsul
phur-
Coll
oidal
sulphurisfor
medwhensodium t
hiosul
phat
e(Na2S2O3)i
sadded
hy
drochl
ori
cacidtofor
m ay el
lowpreci
pit
ate.

D.Heat
ingSul
phur
.

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Amolecul
eofsul
phurexi
stsaspucker
edr
ingofei
ghtat
omsj
oinedbycov
alent
bondsasS8.

Onheat i
ngthey el
lowsul phurpowdermel tsat113oCtoclearamberli
qui
dwi t
hl ow
viscosityandthusf l
owseasi ly
.
o
Onf urtherheati
ngt o160Ct hemol t
enliqui
ddar kenstoabrownveryvi
scousliquid
thatdoesnotf l
oweasi l
y.
Thi sisbecauset heS8ringsbr eaki
ntoS8chai nthatj
oint
ogethert
oformv er
ylong
chainsmadeofov er100000at omsofSul phur.
Thel ongchai nsentangleeachot herreducingtheirmobi
li
ty/f
lowandhenceincr eases
theirvi
scosity.

Oncont
inuedf
urtherheati
ngtoabove160oC,
thevi
scousl
i
qui
ddar
kensbutbecomes
moremobil
e/f
lowseasilyandthusl
essvi
scous.

Thisisbecauset hel
ongchainsbreaktosmaller
/short
erchains.
o
At444C, thel
i
quidboil
sandformsbr ownvapourofami xtureofS8,
S6,
S2mol
ecul
es
thatsolidi
fi
estoS8ri
ngof“f
lowersofsulphur
”ont hecoolerpart
s.
Summar
yofchangesonheat
ingsul
phur
Obser
vat
iononheat
ing Expl
anati
on/
str
uct
ureofSul
phur
Sol
idsul
phur Pucker
edS8ri
ng

o113oC
Heatt Pucker
edS8ringi
nli
qui
dfor
m(l
ow
Ambery
ell
owl
i
qui
d vi
scosi
ty/
floweasi
ly
)

Pucker
edS8r
ingbreak/openst
hen
o
Heatt
o160C j
ointofor
mlongchainsthat
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Li
qui
ddar
kens ent
angle(
ver
yhi
ghv
iscosi
ty/
ver
y
l
owr at
eoffl
ow)

Heatto444oC Mi
xtur
eofS8,
S6,
S2v
apour
Li
quidboi
l
stobr
own
vapour
Pucker
edS8r
ing

Cool
tor
oom temper
ature
Yell
owsubli
mate
(
Flower
sofSulphur
)

E.Phy
sical
andChemi
cal
proper
ti
esofSul
phur
.(
Quest
ions)

1.Statethr
eephy si
calpr
opert
iesuniquetoSulphur
Sulphurisayell
owsolid,
insol
ubleinwater,sol
ubl
ei ncarbon
di
sulphide/
tetr
achlor
omethane/benzene,poorconductorofheatandel
ect
ri
ci
ty.I
thas
o o
amel ti
ngpointof115Candaboi l
ingpointof444C.
2.Moist/damp/wetblueandredli
tmuspaper
swereputi
nagasjarcont
aini
ng
ai
r/oxygen.Bur
ningsulphurwast
henlower
edint
othegasjar
.St
ateandexpl
aint
he
observ
ationmade.
Obser
vati
ons
-Sul
phurmeltst
henbur nswithabluefl
ame
Colour
lessgasproducedthathasapungentsmel
l
Redlit
muspaperr emainsred.Bl
ueli
tmuspapert
urnsr
ed.

Expl
anati
on
Sul
phurbur
nsinai
randfast
erinOxygentof
orm Sul
phur
(I
V)Oxi
degasand
tr
aces/small
amountofSul
phur(
VI)
Oxidegas.Bot
hoxidesr
eactwi
thwatert
ofor
mthe
corr
espondi
ngacidi
csol
uti
oni.
e

(i)Sul
phur(I
V)Oxidegasreact
swi t
hwat ertoform sulphuri
c(I
V)aci
d
(i
i)Sul
phur(VI
)Oxidegasreact
swi t
hwat ertoform sulphuri
c(VI
)aci
d
Chemicalequat
ion
S(s) +O2(g) - > SO2( g)(Sulphur(
IV)Oxidegas)
2S(s) +3O2(g) -> 2SO3( g)(Sulphur(VI)
Oxidegastraces)
SO2(g) +H2O( l
) - > H2SO3( aq)(sulphuri
c(IV)aci
d) SO3(
g)
+H2O(l) -> H2SO4( aq)(sul
phur
ic(VI
)acid).

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3.I
ronfi
l
ingswer
eputinatestt
ubecontai
ningpowderedsul
phurt henheat
edona
Bunsenfl
ame.St
opheati
ngwhenreact
ionstart
s.Stat
eandexplaintheobservat
ions
made.Testt
heeff
ect
sofamagnetont hemi xt
urebef
oreandafterheati
ng.Expl
ain.

Observat
ions
Befor
eheat i
ng,themagnetat
tr
actsi
ronfi
li
ngsleavi
ngsul
phur
Aft
erheating,t
hemagnetdoesnotattr
actt
hemi xt
ure.
Aft
erheating,aredgl
owisobserv
edthatcont
inuesevenwhenheat
ingi
sst
opped.
.
Bl
acksolidisformed.

Explanati
on I
ronis
attr
actedt oamagnetbecauseitisfer
romagnet
ic.
Whenami xt
ureofir
onandsulphurisheat
ed,t
hereact
ioni
sexother
micgivi
ngout
heatener gythatmakest
hemixturetoconti
nueglowi
ngevenaft
erstoppi
ngheati
ng.
BlackIron(II
)sul
phi
deisf
ormedwhi chisacompoundandthusnotferr
omagneti
c.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion Fe(
s)+S(
s)
-
>FeS(
s)(
Exot
her
micr
eact
ion/-
ΔH)
Heat
edpowder
edheav
ymetal
scombi
newit
hsul
phurt
ofor
m bl
acksul
phi
des.
Cu(
s) +S(
s) -
> CuS(s)
Zn(
s) +S(
s) -
> ZnS(s)
Pb(
s) +S(
s) -
> PbS(s)

4.Thesetupbel
owshowt
her
eact
ionofsul
phuronheat
edconcent
rat
ed
sulphur
ic(
VI)
aci
d.

(i
)Stat
eandexplaintheobservati
onmade.
Observat
ion
Yell
owcolourofsulphurfades
Orangecolourofpotassi
um dichr
omate(
VI)
papert
urnst
ogr
een.

Expl
anat
ion
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Hotconcentr
atedsulphur
ic(
VI)aci
doxidi
zessulphurtosulphur(
IV)
oxi
degas.The
oxi
deisalsoreducedtowater.Tracesofsul
phur(VI)
oxideisfor
med.

Chemicalequat
ion
S(s) + 3H2SO4( l
) -
> 3SO2(
g)+3H2O(
l)+SO3(
g)

Sul
phur(
IV)
oxi
degast
urnsOr
angepot
assi
um di
chr
omat
e(VI
)papert
ogr
een.

(
ii
)Stat
eandexpl
aintheobser
vati
onmadeifconcent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
dis
r
eplacedwi
thconcentr
atedNi
tri
c(V)aci
dint
heabovesetup.

Observati
on
Yell
owcol ourofsul
phurfades
Colur
lesssoluti
onformed
Brownf umes/gasproduced.

Explanat
ion
Hotconcentr
atedNi
tri
c(V)
aci
doxidizessul
phurt
osul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d.TheNi
tr
ic(
V)
aci
disreducedtobrownnitr
ogen(I
V)oxi
degas.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion
S(
s) + 6HNO3(l
) -> 6NO2(
g)+2H2O(
l)+H2SO4(
l)

NB:
Hydr
ochl
ori
cacidisaweakeroxi
dizi
ngagentandt
huscannotoxi
dizesul
phurl
i
ket
he
ot
herminer
alaci
ds.

5.
Stat
ethreemai nusesofsul phur .
Sul
phurismainlyusedin:
(i
)Contactprocessforthemanuf acture/industr
ial
/l
argescal
eproduct
ionof
concentratedsul
phuri
c(VI)acid.
(i
i)
Vulcanizati
onofrubbert omakei tharder,tougher
,str
onger,
andmor edur
abl
e.
(i
ii
)Makinggunpowderandmat chst i
ckheads
(i
v)Asoi ntmentstotr
eatf ungali
nfections

6.Revi
sionPracti
ce
Thediagram bel
owrepresent
stheext
ract
ionofsul
phurbyFr
aschspr
ocess.Usei
tto
answerthequesti
onsthatfol
low.
M
L N
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(
a)Namet
hesubst ancesthatpassesthr
ough:
M Superheatedwaterat170oCand10at
mospher
epr
essur
e
L Hotcompr essedair
N Moltensulphur

(b)
Whatist
hepur poseofthesubstancet
hatpassest
hroughLandM?
o
M-Superheatedwaterat170Cand10at mospherepressurei
susedt
omel
tthe
sul
phur
L-Hotcompr essedai
risusedtofor
ceupt hemol
tensulphur.

(c)Thepr
oper
ti
esofthetwomainall
otr
opesofsul
phurr
epr
esentedbyl
ett
ersAandB
aregiv
enint
hetabl
ebelow.Usei
ttoanswert
hequesti
onst
hatfoll
ow.
A B
Appearance Bri
ghtyel
low Pal
eyel
l
ow
Densit
y(gcm-3) 1.
93 2.
08
o
Melt
ingpoint( C) 119 113
St
abili
ty Above96oC ow96oC
Bel
I
.Whatareallot
ropes?
Dif
ferentformsofthesameelementexi
sti
ngatt
hesamet
emper
atur
eand
pr
essur
ewi thoutchangeofst
ate.
I
I.I
dent
if
yal
lot
rope:
A.Monocli
nicsulphur
B.Rhombicsulphur

I
II
.St
atet
womai nusesofsulphur.
-
Manufact
ur eofsulphuri
c(VI
)aci
d
-
asfungi
cide
-
inv
ulcani
zat i
onofrubbertomakeithar
der
/tougher
/st
ronger
-
manufact
ur eofdyes/ f
ibr
es

(d)
Calculatethevol
umeofsulphur(
IV)
oxideproducedwhen0.
4gofsul
phuri
s
completelyburnti
nexcessai
r.
(S=32.0,Imoleofagasoccupi
es24dm3atroom
temperature)
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Chemi
cal equati
on
S(s) +O2( g) -
>SO2(
g)
Moler
atioS: SO2 =1:1
Met
hod1
32.
0gofsul
phur->24dm3ofSO2(
g)
0.
4gofsul
phur->0.4gx24dm3= 0.3dm3
32.
0g
Met
hod2
Mol
esofsul
phurused=Massofsulphur =>0.
4=0.0125mol
es
Molarmassofsulphur 32

Molesofsul
phurused=Molesofsul
phur(
IV)
oxi
deused=>0.
0125mol
es
Vol
umeofsulphur(
IV)oxi
deused=Molesofsul
phur
(I
V)oxi
dexvol
umeofonemol
eof
gas=>0.
0125molesx24dm3= 0. 3dm3

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B.
COMPOUNDSOFSULPHUR
Thef
oll
owingar ethemai ncompoundsofsul
phur:
(
i)Sulphur(
IV)oxi
de
(
ii
)Sulphur(VI)
oxide .
(
ii
i)Sulphuri
c(VI)
acid
(
iv)Hy dr
ogenSul phi
de
(
v)Sulphate(I
V)/SO32-andSul
phat
e(VI
)/SO42-sal
ts

(
i)Sul
phur
(I
V)oxi
de(
SO2)
(
a)Occur
rence
Sulphur(I
V)oxi
deisfoundinvol
cani
careasasagasordi
ssol
vedinwaterf
rom
geysersandhotspr
ingsinact
ivevol
cani
careasoft
heworl
de.g.Ol
kar
iaandHell
sgat
e
nearNaivashainKenya.
(
b)School
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
on
I
naChemi
str
yschool
labor
ator
ySul
phur(
IV)
oxi
dei
spr
epar
edf
rom t
her
eact
ionof

Met
hod1:
Usi
ngCopperandSul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d.

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Met
hod2:
Usi
ngSodi
um Sul
phat
e(I
V)andhy
drochl
ori
caci
d.

(
c)Pr
oper
ti
esofSul
phur
(I
V)oxi
de(
Quest
ions)
1.Wri
tet
heequat
ionsf
ort
her
eact
ionf
ort
hef
ormat
ionofsul
phur(
IV)
oxi
deusi
ng:
(i
)Met
hod1

Cu(
s)+2H2SO4(
l)-
>CuSO4(
aq)+SO2(
g)+2H2O(
l)
Zn(
s)+2H2SO4(
l)-
>ZnSO4(
aq)+SO2(
g)+2H2O(
l)

Mg(s)+2H2SO4(
l)-
>MgSO4( aq)+SO2(
g)+2H2O(l
)
Fe(
s)+2H2SO4(l
)->FeSO4(
aq)+SO2(g)+2H2O(
l)
Calci
um ,LeadandBar i
um wil
lfor
mi nsol
ubl
esul
phate(VI)
salt
sthatwil
lcov
er
unreactedmetalsstoppi
ngfurt
herreacti
ont
husproducingverysmall
amount/
quant
it
y
ofsulphur(I
V)oxidegas.

(
ii
)Method2
Na2SO3(
aq)+HCl(
aq)-
>NaCl
(aq)+SO2(
g)+2H2O(l
)
K2SO3(
aq)+HCl
(aq)-
>KCl
(aq)+SO2(
g)+2H2O(
l)

BaSO3(
s)+2HCl
(aq)-
>BaCl
2(
aq)+SO2(
g)+H2O(
l)

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CaSO3(
s)+2HCl
(aq)-
>CaCl
2(
aq)+SO2(
g)+H2O(l
)
PbSO3(
s)+2HCl
(aq)-
>PbCl
2(
s)+SO2(
g)+H2O(l
)

Lead(
II
)chl
ori
dei
ssolubleonheat
ingthusr
eact
ant
sshoul
dbeheat
edt
opr
event
i
tcoati
ng/cov
eri
ngunreact
edPbSO3(s)

2.
Stat
et hephy si
calpr
opert
iesuniquetosul
phur(
IV)
oxi
degas.
Sul
phur(IV)oxidegasisacolour
lessgaswit
hapungenti
rr
it
ati
ngandchoki
ngsmel
l
whi
chliquidi
fieseasi
ly
.Iti
saboutt woti
mesdensert
hanai
r.

3.Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowt
hesol
ubi
l
ityofsul
phur(
IV)
oxi
degas.Expl
ain.

Sulphur(
IV)oxi
deisv erysolubl
einwat er.
Onedr opofwaterdissolvesallt
heSul phur(I
V)oxi
deinthefl
askl
eavingavacuum.
Ifthecli
pisremov ed,atmosphericpressurefor
cesthewaterupt
hroughthenarr
ow
tubetoform afountaintooccupyt hevacuum.
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Anacidicsolut
ionofsul
phur
ic(
IV)
acidi
sformedwhicht
urnsli
tmussolut
ionr
ed.
Chemicalequati
on
SO2(
g)+H2O( l
) -> H2SO3(aq)(sul
phur
ic(
IV)
aci
dturnli
tmusred)

4.Dryl i
tmuspaper sandwet /damp/ moistli
tmuspaperswereputi
nagasjar
cont ainingsulphur
(I
V)oxi degas.St ateandexplai
ntheobserv
ati
onsmade.
Obser vati
ons
(i
)DryBl ueli
tmuspaperr emai nsblue.
Dr yr edl i
tmuspaperremai nsr ed.
(i
i)Wet /damp/ moi
stbluel i
tmuspapert ur
nsred.
Moi st/damp/ wetredli
tmuspaperr emainsred.
Bothl itmuspaper sar
et henbl eached/ decol
ori
zed.

Explanati
on
Drysul phur(
IV)oxidegasisamol ecularcompoundt hatdoesnotdissociate/
ionizeto
rel
easeH+( aq) i
onsandthushasnoef fectondr yblue/redli
tmuspapers.
Wet/ damp/moi stli
tmuspaper
scont ainwat erthatdissolves/r
eactwit
hdr ysulphur(
IV)
oxi
degast oform asoluti
onofweaksul phuri
c(I
V)acid( H2SO3(aq)
).
Weaksul phuric(I
V)aci
d(H2SO3(aq))dissociates/ionizesint
ofreeH+(aq)
ions:
+ 2-
H2SO3( aq)->2H (aq)+SO3 ( aq)

ThefreeH+( aq)i
onsareresponsi
blefort urningblueli
tmuspapert
urnsredshowingt
he
gasisacidi c.
2-
TheSO3 ( aq)ionsinwet/damp/moistsul phur(I
V)oxidegasi
sresponsi
bleformany
react
ionsoft hegas.
Iti
seasily/readil
yoxidi
zedtosulphate(VI )SO42-(aq)i
onsmakingsul
phur(
IV)oxi
degas
actasar educi ngagentasinthefoll
owi ngexampl es:

(
a)Bl
eachi
ngagent
Wet/damp/moistcolouredflowers/l
i
tmuspaper
sarebleached/
decol
ori
zedwhenput
i
nsulphur
( I
V)oxidegas.
Thi
sisbecausesul phur
(IV)oxideremovesat
omicoxy
genf rom t
hecol
oureddy
e/
materi
alt
of or
m sulphuric(
VI)aci
d.
Chemicalequat
ions
(
i)
For
mat i
onofsul
phuri
c(I
V)aci
d
SO2(
g)+H2O(l) -> H2SO3(
aq)

(
ii
)Decol
ori
zat
ion/
bleachi
ngofthedye/
remov
alofatomi
coxygen.
MethodI.H2SO3(aq)+(dye+O) ->H2SO4(aq)+dye
(
colour
ed) (
col
ourl
ess)
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Met
hodI
I.H2SO3(
aq)+(dye) -
>H2SO4(
aq)+(dye-O)
(col
oured) (col
ourl
ess)

Sul
phur(I
V)oxidegastheref
orebleachesbyr educti
on/remov
ingoxy
genfr
om ady
e
unl
ikechlor
inethatbl
eachesbyoxidati
on/ addingoxygen.
Thebleachi
ngbyr emovingoxygenfrom Sulphur(
IV)oxi
degasist
emporar
y.

Thi
sisbecausethebleacheddyeregai
nst heatomicoxygenfr
om theatmosphere/
air
i
npresenceofsunl
ightascatal
ystthusregaini
ng/r
estor
ingit
sori
ginalcol
our
.e.g.

Oldnewspaper
sturnbr
ownonexposur
etoai
ronregai
ningtheat
omicoxy
gen.
Thebleachi
ngthr
oughaddi
ngoxy
genbychl
ori
negasispermanent.

(
b)Tur
nsOr
angeaci
dif
iedpot
assi
um di
chr
omat
e(VI
)togr
een

Exper
iment
:
(i
)Passastr
eam ofSul
phur(
IV)oxi
degasi
nat
estt
ubecont
aini
ngaci
dif
iedpot
assi
um
di
chromate(
VI)sol
uti
on.or
;

(i
i)
Dipaf i
lt
erpapersoakedinaci
dif
iedpot
assi
um di
chr
omat
e(VI
)int
oagasj
ar
contai
ningSulphur
(I
V)oxidegas.
Observat
ion:
Orangeacidi
fi
edpot
assi
um di
chr
omat
e(VI
)tur
nst
ogr
een.
Explanati
on:
2-
Sulphur(
IV)oxi
degasr educesacidi
fi
edpotassi
um dichr
omate(
VI)f
rom orangeCr2O7
3+
i
onst ogreenCr ionswithoutl
eavi
ngaresidueit
sel
foxidi
zedfom SO32-i
r onsin
2-
sul
phur i
c(I
V)acidtoSO4 i onsi
nsulphur
ic(VI
)acid.
Chemical/
ioni
cequati
on:
(i
)React
ionofSul
phur(I
V)oxi
degaswi
thwat
er
SO2(
g)+H2O( l
) -> H2SO3(
aq)
(
ii
)Di
ssoci
ati
on/ioni
zat
ionofSul
phuric(I
V)aci
d.
2-
H2SO3(aq)->2H+(aq)+SO3 ( aq)
onofSO32-( 2-
(i
i
i)Oxi
dati aq)
andreduct
ionofCr2O7 (aq)
2- 2- 2- 3+
3SO3 (aq)+ Cr
2O7 (aq)+8H+(aq)->3SO4 (aq)+2Cr (aq)+4H2O(
l)

Thi
sisaconf
ir
mat
oryt
estf
ort
hepr
esenceofSul
phur
(I
V)oxi
degas.

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Hydr
ogensul phi
deal
sor educesacidi
fi
edpotassium di
chr
omat
e(VI
)fr
om or
ange
2- 3+
Cr
2O7 i onst
ogreenCr i onsleav
ingay el
l
owr esidue.

(
c)Decol
ori
zesaci
dif
iedpot
assi
um manganat
e(VI
I)

Exper
iment
:
(
i)
Passastream ofSulphur
(I
V)oxi
degasi
nat
estt
ubecont
aini
ngaci
dif
iedpot
assi
um
manganat
e(VII
)solut
ion.or
;

(i
i)
Dipaf i
lt
erpapersoakedinaci
dif
iedpot
assi
um manganat
e(VI
I)i
ntoagasj
ar
contai
ningSulphur
(I
V)oxidegas.
Observat
ion:
Purpl
eacidif
iedpotassi
um manganat
e(VI
I)t
urnst
ocol
our
less/aci
dif
iedpot
assi
um
manganate(VII
)isdecol
ori
zed.
Explanati
on:
Sulphur(
IV)oxi
degasr
educesaci di
fi
edpotassium manganate(VI
I)f
rom pur
pleMnO4-
i
onst ogreenMn2+i
onswi thoutl
eavi
ngaresidueit
selfoxi
dizedfom SO32-i
r onsi
n
2-
sul
phur i
c(I
V)aci
dtoSO4 i onsinsul
phur
ic(VI)aci
d.
Chemical/
ioni
cequati
on:
(i
)React
ionofSul
phur(I
V)oxi
degaswi
thwat
er
SO2(
g)+H2O( l
) -> H2SO3(
aq)
(
ii
)Di
ssoci
ati
on/ioni
zat
ionofSul
phuric(I
V)aci
d.
2-
H2SO3(aq)->2H+(aq)+SO3 ( aq)
(i
i
i)Oxi
datonofSO32-(
i aq)andreduct
ionofMnO4-(aq)
2- - 2-
5SO3 (aq)+ 2MnO4 (aq)+6H+(aq)->5SO4 (aq)+2Mn2+(aq)+3H2O(
l)
(
purpl
e) (col
our
less)
Thi
sisanot
hert
estf
ort
hepr
esenceofSul
phur
(I
V)oxi
degas.
Hydr
ogensulphi
dealsodecol
or i
zesaci
dif
iedpotassi
um manganat
e(VI
I)f
rom pur
ple
- 2+
MnO4 ionst
ocolour
lessMn i onsleav
ingayell
owr esi
due.

(
d)Decol
ori
zesbr
omi
newat
er

Exper
iment
:
(
i)
Passast
ream ofSul
phur
(I
V)oxi
degasi
nat
estt
ubecont
aini
ngbr
omi
newat
er.or
;

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(i
i
)Putthr
eedr
opsofbr
omi
newat
eri
ntoagasj
arcont
aini
ngSul
phur
(I
V)oxi
degas.
Swir
l.
Obser
vat
ion:
Yel
lowbr
ominewat
ert
urnst
ocol
our
less/br
omi
newat
eri
sdecol
ori
zed.
Explanati
on:
Sulphur(I
V)oxi
degasreducesy ell
owbrominewatert
ocol our
lesshydrobromicaci
d
2-
(HBr)wi t
houtl
eavi
ngar esi
dueitsel
foxi
dizedf
rom SO3 i onsinsulphuri
c( I
V)aci
dto
2-
SO4 i onsinsul
phuri
c(VI)aci
d.
Chemical/
ioni
cequati
on:
(i
)React
ionofSul
phur(I
V)oxi
degaswi
thwat
er
SO2(
g)+H2O( l
) -> H2SO3(
aq)
(
ii
)Di
ssoci
ati
on/ioni
zat
ionofSul
phuric(I
V)aci
d.
2-
H2SO3(aq)->2H+(aq)+SO3 ( aq)
(
ii
i)
OxidatonofSO32-(
i aq)andreduct
ionofMnO4-( aq)
2- 2-
SO3 (aq)+ Br2(aq)+H2O(l
)- >SO4 ( aq)+ 2HBr (aq)
(y
ell
ow) (col
ourless)
Thi
scanal
sobeusedasanot
hert
estf
ort
hepr
esenceofSul
phur
(I
V)oxi
degas.
Hydrogensul
phi
deal
sodecol
ori
zesy
ell
owbr
omi
newat
ert
ocol
our
lessl
eav
inga
yel
lowresi
due.

(e)
ReducesIr
on(
II
I)Fe3+sal
tst
oIr
on(
II
)sal
tsFe2+
Exper
iment:
(
i)
Passastr
eam ofSul
phur
(I
V)oxi
degasi
nat
estt
ubecont
aini
ngabout3cm3ofI
ron
(
II
I)
chl
ori
desol
uti
on.or
;

(i
i)
Placeabout3cm3ofI
ron(
II
I)
chl
ori
desol
uti
oni
ntoagasj
arcont
aini
ngSul
phur
(I
V)
oxi
degas.Swirl
.
Observ
ati
on:
Yel
low/br
ownIr
on(
II
I)
chl
ori
desol
uti
ont
urnst
ogr
een
Explanat
ion:
Sulphur(
IV)oxi degasreducesIron(I
II
)chl
ori
desol
utionf
rom yel
l
ow/ ownFe3+i
br onsto
2+ 2-
greenFe i onswi thoutleav
ingaresi
dueitsel
foxi
dizedf
rom SO3 i onsinsul
phuri
c(I
V)
2-
acidtoSO4 i onsi
nsul phuri
c(VI
)aci
d.
Chemical/
ioni
cequat
ion:
(i
)React
ionofSul
phur(
IV)oxi
degaswi
thwat
er
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SO2(
g)+H2O(
l) -
> H2SO3(
aq)
(
ii
)Di
ssoci
ati
on/ioni
zat
ionofSul
phuric(I
V)aci
d.
2-
H2SO3(aq)->2H+(aq)+SO3 ( aq)
(i
i
i)Oxidat
ionofSO32-(aq)andr
eductonofFe3+(
i aq)
2- 3+ 2-
SO3 (aq)+ 2Fe ( aq)+3H2O(
l)->SO4 (aq)+2Fe2+(
aq)+2H+(
aq)
(y
ell
ow) (green)

(f
)ReducesNit
ri
c(V)
aci
dtoNi
tr
ogen(
IV)
oxi
degas
Experi
ment:
(i
)Passastr
eam ofSulphur(I
V)oxi
degasi
nat
estt
ubecont
aini
ngabout3cm3of
concent
rat
edni
tri
c(V)acid.or
;

(i
i)
Placeabout3cm3ofconcent
rat
edni
tr
ic(
V)aci
dint
oagasj
arcont
aini
ngSul
phur
(I
V)
oxi
degas.Swirl
.
Obser
vati
on:
Br
ownf umesofagasev
olv
ed/
produced.
Explanat
ion:
Sulphur(
IV)oxi
degasreducesconcentr
atedni
tr
ic(
V)aci
dtobrownnitr
ogen(I
V)oxide
2- 2-
gasitsel
foxidi
zedf
rom SO3 i onsi
nsul
phuri
c(I
V)acidt
oSO4 i onsi
nsulphuri
c(VI)
aci
d.
Chemi
cal/
ioni
cequat
ion:
SO2(
g)+2HNO3( l) -
> H2SO4(
l)+NO2(g)
(
brownf
umes/
gas)

(g)
ReducesHydr
ogenper
oxi
det
owat
er
Exper
iment:
(
i)
Passastr
eam ofSul
phur(
IV)oxi
degasi natesttubecont aini
ngabout3cm3of20
v
olumehydr
ogenperoxi
de.AddfourdropsofBarium ni
trate(V)orBar
ium chl
ori
de
f
oll
owedbyfi
vedropsof2M hydrochl
ori
cacid/2M nitr
ic(V)acid.
Obser
vati
on:
Awhitepr
ecipi
tat
eisf
ormedt
hatper
sist/
remai
nsonaddi
ng2M hy
drochl
ori
caci
d/2M
ni
tr
ic(
V)acid.
Explanati
on:
Sulphur(I
V)oxidegasreduces20vol
umehy dr
ogenperoxi
deanditsel
foxi
dizedf
rom
2- 2-
SO3 i onsinsulphur
ic(
IV)aci
dtoSO4 i onsi
nsulphur
ic(
VI)aci
d.
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WhenBa2+i onsinBarium Nit

rate(
V)orBari
um chl
ori
desolut
ionisadded,awhit
e
preci
pit
ateofi nsol
ubleBarium sal
tsi
sformedshowingthepresenceofofei
therSO32-
,SO42-,
CO32-ions.i
.e.
Chemi
cal
/i
onicequati
on:
2-
SO3 (aq)+ Ba2+(aq)-
>BaSO3(s)
whi
tepreci
pit
ate
2- 2+
SO4 (aq)+ Ba ( aq)-
>BaSO4(s)
whi
tepreci
pit
ate
2- 2+
CO3 (aq)+ Ba ( aq)-
>BaCO3(s)
whi
tepreci
pit
ate

I
fnit
ric(V)/hydrochl
ori
caci disaddedt othethr
eesuspect edi nsolubl
ewhit
e
pr
ecipit
atesabov e,
thewhi t
epr eci
pit
ate:
2-
(i
)per si
st/r
emainsifSO4 ( aq)i
ons(BaSO4(s)
)ispr esent.
2- 2-
(i
i
)dissolvesifSO3 (aq)i
ons( BaSO3(s)
)andCO3 ( aq)ions( BaCO3(
s))
ispr
esent
.
Thisisbecause:

I
.BaSO3( s)r
eact
swithNitr
ic(
V)/hydrochl
ori
cacidt
oproduceacidi
cSO2gasthat
turnsOrangemoistf
il
terpaperdippedinaci
dif
iedPot
assi
um dichr
omateto
green.

Chemi
calequat
ion
s)+2H+(
BaSO3( >Ba2+(
aq)- aq)+SO2(
g)+H2O(
l)

I
.BaCO3(s)react
swithNit
ri
c(V)
/hydr
ochl
ori
caci
dtoproduceaci
dicCO2gast
hat
f
ormsawhi tepreci
pit
atewhenbubbl
edinli
mewater
.
Chemi
calequati
on

s)+2H+(
BaCO3( >Ba2+(
aq)- aq)+CO2(
g)+H2O(
l)

5.
Sul
phur
(I
V)oxi
deal
soactasanoxi
dizi
ngagentasi
nthef
oll
owi
ngexampl
es.
(
a)Reduct
ionbybur
ningMagnesi
um
Exper
iment
Loweraburni
ngMagnesi
um r
ibboni
ntoagasj
arcont
aini
ngSul
phur
(I
V)oxi
degas
Obser
vat
ion
Magnesi
um ri
bboncont
inuestobur
nwi
thdi
ff
icul
ty.
Whit
eashandy el
l
owpowder /
speck
Expl
anat
ion
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Sulphur(IV)oxi
dedoesnotsuppor tburning/combust i
on.Magnesi um burnstoproduce
enoughheatener gytodecomposeSul phur(IV)oxidetosulphurandoxy gen.
Themet alconti
nuestoburnonOxy genf or
mi ngwhi t
eMagnesi um oxidesol
id/ash.
Yell
owspecksofsul phurresi
duef orm onthesi desofreacti
onf l
ask/gasjar
.
Duringther eacti
on,Sul
phur(I
V)oxideisreduced( oxi
dizi
ngagent )
whil
et hemetal i
s
oxi
di zed(reduci
ngagent)

Chemical
equat
ion
SO2(g)+2Mg(s) -
> 2MgO(s) + S(
s)
(whi
teash/
sol
i
d) (
yel
l
owspeck/
powder
)

(
b)Reduct
ionbyHy
drogensul
phi
degas

Experi
ment
Puttwodropsofwaterint
oagasjarcontai
ningdrySulphur(
IV)oxidegas
Bubblehydr
ogensulphi
degasint
othegasjarcontaini
ngSul phur(
IV)oxi
degas.
Or
Puttwodropsofwaterint
oagasjarcontai
ningdrySulphur(
IV)oxidegas
I
nvertagasjarful
lofhy
drogensul
phidegasov ert
hegasj arcontaini
ng
Sulphur
(I
V)oxi
degas.Swirl

Obser vati
on
Yell
owpowder /speck
Explanation
Sulphur (
IV)oxi
deoxi di
zeshydrogensulphi
detoyellowspecksofsulphurr
esi
dueand
i
tselfreducedt oalsosulphurthatf
orm onthesi
desofr eacti
onfl
ask/gasj
ar.
Alitt
lemoi stur
e/wateractascat al
yst/
speedsupt hereacti
on.
Chemi calequati
on
SO2( g)+2H2S( g) - > 2H2O(l
) + 3S( s)
(
yel
lowspeck/ powder
)

6.
Sul
phur
(I
V)oxi
dehasmanyi
ndust
ri
aluses.St
atet
hree.
(
i)
Inthecontactprocessforthemanufactur
eofSul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
d
(
ii
)Asableachingagentofpul pandpaper
.
(
ii
i)
Asaf ungici
detokill
mi cr
obes’
(
iv)
Asapr eservat
iveofjam,jui
cestoprev
entfer
mentat
ion

(
ii
)Sul
phur
(VI
)oxi
de(
SO3)
(
a)Occur
rence

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Sul
phur(
VI)
oxi
dei
sdoesnotoccurf
reei
nnat
ure/
atmospher
e
(
b)Pr
epar
ati
on
I
naChemi
str
yschool
labor
ator
ySul
phur(
VI)
oxi
demaypr
epar
edf
rom:
Met
hod1;
Cat
aly
ticoxi
dat
ionofsul
phur
(I
V)oxi
degas.
Sulphur (
IV) oxidegasandoxy genmi xtur
ear efi
rstdr
iedbybeingpassedthr
ough
Concent r
atedSul phuri
c(VI)
acid.
Thedr ymi xtureist henpassedt hroughplati
nisedasbestost
ocat al
yse/
speedupthe
combi nati
ont oform Sulphur(VI)oxi
degas.
Sulphur(VI) oxidegasr eadi
lysolidi
fyassilkywhiteneedl
esifpassedthr
ougha
fr
eezingmi xture/icecoldwat er.
Thesol i
df umesoutonheat ingtoahi ghlyacidi
cpoisonousgas.

Chemi
cal
equati
on
2SO2(
g)+O2(
g)-
-pl
ati
nisedasbest
os-
-> 2SO3(
g)
Met
hod2;
Heat
ingI
ron(
II
)sul
phat
e(VI
)hept
ahy
drat
e
Whengreenhydr
atedI
ron(I
I)
sulphate(VI
)hept
ahydrat
ecrystal
sar
eheatedi
naboil
ing
t
ube,i
tlosest
hewaterofcryst
all
izati
onandcolourchangesfr
om gr
eentowhi
te.

Chemi
cal
equation
FeSO4.
7H2O(
s) -
> FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(
l)
(gr
eensol
id) (whi
tesoli
d)
Onfurtherheat i
ng, t
hewhi t
eanhydrousI r
on(II
)sulphate(
VI)sol
iddecomposestoa
mixtureofSul phur(VI)oxideandSul phur(IV)oxidegas.
Sulphur( VI)oxidereadily/easil
ysolidi
fyaswhi t
esilkyneedl
eswhenthemi xt
urei
s
passedt hroughaf reezingmi xt
ure/
icecol dwat er.
I
ron(II
I)oxideisleftasabr ownresi
due/ soli
d.
Chemi
cal
equat
ion
2FeSO4(
s) -> Fe2O3(
s) + SO2(
g)+ SO3(
g)
(gr
eensol
id) (
brownsol
id)

Cauti
on
Onexposuretoai
rSulphur(VI)
oxidegasproduceshi
ghl
ycor
rosi
vepoi
sonousfumes
ofconcent
rat
edsulphuri
c(VI
)acidandthusit
sprepar
ati
oni
naschooll
aborat
oryi
svery
ri
sky.
(
c)Usesofsul
phur
(VI
)oxi
de
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Oneofthemai nusesofsul
phur(
VI)oxi
degasisasaninter
mediateproductinthe
cont
actprocessfori
ndustr
ial
/manufact
ure/
lar
gescal
e/product
ionofsulphuri
c(VI
)aci
d.

(
ii
i)Sul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d(H2SO4)
(
a)Occur
rence
Sul
phuri
c( VI)
acid(H2SO4)isoneofthethr
eeminer
alaci
ds.Ther
earethreeminer
al
aci
ds;
Nitri
c(V)acid
Sulphuric(VI)
acid
Hy drochlori
cacid.
Miner
alacidsdonotoccurnat ur
all
ybutarepr
epar
edinaschooll
abor
atoryand
manufacturedatindustri
allev
el.
(
b)TheCont
actpr
ocessf
ori
ndust
ri
almanuf
act
ureofH2SO4.
I
.Rawmat
eri
als

Themainrawmat eri
alsforindustri
alpreparat
ionofSul
phuri
c(VI
)acidi
ncl
ude:
(i
)Sulphurfr
om Fr aschspr ocessorfrom heat
ingmetalsul
phideor
eli
ke
Galena(PbS),Zi
ncbl ende(ZnS)
(i
i
)Oxy genfrom fracti
onal di
sti
ll
ati
onofai r
(i
i
i)Wat erf
rom ri
v ers/l
akes

I
I.Chemi
cal
processes
Thecont
actpr
ocessi
nvol
vesf
ourmai
nchemi
cal
processes:
(
i)
Product
ionofSul
phur(
IV)
oxi
de
Asoneoft
her
awmat
eri
als,
Sul
phur(
IV)
oxi
degasi
sgotf
rom t
hef
oll
owi
ngsour
ces;
I
.Bur
ning/
roast
ingsul
phuri
nai
r.

Sulphurf r
om Fraschspr
ocessi
sroast
ed/
burnti
nai
rtof
orm Sul
phur(
IV)
oxi
degasi
n
thebur ners
Chemi calequati
on
S(
s)+O2( g) --
> SO2( g)
I
I.Bur
ning/
roast
ingsul
phi
deor
esi
nai
r.

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Sul
phur(IV)
oxidegasisproducedasabypr oducti
nextract
ionofsomemet
alsl
i
ke:
-Leadfrom Lead(I
I)
sulphide/Gal
ena,(
PbS)
-Zincfrom zi
nc(I
I)
sulphide/Zi
ncblende,(
ZnS)
-Copperf r
om Copperironsulphi
de/Copperpyri
tes,(
CuFeS2)
Onroasti
ng/bur
ning,
lar
geamount/
quant
it
yofsul
phur
(I
V)oxi
dei
sgener
ated/
produced.
Chemicalequat
ion

(
i)
2PbS( s) +3O2(g) -
> 2PbO(
s) + 2SO2(
g)
(
ii
)2ZnS(s) +3O2(g) -
> 2ZnO(
s) + 2SO2(
g)
(
ii
)2CuFeS2(s) +4O2(g) -
> 2FeO(
s) + 3SO2(
g)+ Cu2O(
s)
Sul
phur(
IV)
oxi
deeasi
l
y/r
eadi
l
yli
quef
iesandt
huscanbet
ranspor
tedt
oaf
ardi
stance
saf
ely
.
(
ii
)Pur
if
icat
ionofSul
phur
(I
V)oxi
de

Sul
phur(I
V) oxidegascont ai
ndustparti
clesandAr seni
c(IV)oxideasimpuri
ties.These
i
mpuriti
es“ poison”/impairthecatal
ystbyadheringon/ coveri
ngi t
ssurf
ace.
Theimpur i
tiesarer emov edbyelect
rostati
cprecipi
tati
onmet hod.
I
nthecont actpr ocessPl ati
num orVanadium(V)oxidemaybeused.Vanadi um( V)oxi
de
i
spreferr
edbecausei ti
s:
(i)cheaper /l
essexpensi v
e
(ii
)lesseasi lypoisonedbyi mpuri
ti
es
(
ii
i)
Cat
aly
ticconv
ersi
onofSul
phur
(I
V)oxi
det
oSul
phur
(VI
)oxi
de
Pureanddr ymi xtureofSulphur(IV)oxi
degasandOxy genisheatedt o450oCinaheat
exchanger.
Theheat edmi xtur eispassedthroughlongpipescoatedwithpel
letsofVanadium
(V)oxi
decat al
y st.
Theclose“ contact ”betweenther eacti
nggasesandcataly
stgivethepr ocessi
tsname.
Vanadium (V)oxi decatalysetheconv er
sion/
oxidat
ionofSulphur
(IV)oxi
det o
Sulphur(VI
)oxidegas.
Chemi calequat i
on
2SO2( g)+O2( g) - -V2O5--> 2SO2( g)
Thisreactioni sexothermic(-ΔH)andt het
emper at
uresneedtobemai ntai
nedat
o
around450Ct oensur ethat:
(i
)react i
onr at
e/ti
met akenf ort
heformati
onofSulphur(
VI)oxi
deisnottoo
o
sl
ow/ l
ongatl owert emperaturesbelow450C
(i
i)Sul phur(VI
)oxidegasdoesnotdecomposebackt oSulphur(
IV)oxi
degasand
o
Oxygengasathi ghertemperaturesthan450C.

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(
iv)
Conv
ersi
onofSul
phur
(VI
)oxi
deofSul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d

Sul
phur(VI)
oxidei stheacidanhy dri
deofconcentratedSul phuri
c(VI
)acid.
Sul
phur(VI)
oxider eactswit
hwat ert
oformthickmi stoff i
nedr opl
etsofvery/hi
ghl
y
cor
rosiveconcent rat
edSulphuric(VI
)aci
dbecauset her eactionishi
ghlyexother
mic.
Topreventthis,Sulphur(VI
)oxideisapassedupt omeetdownwar dflowof98%
Sul
phuric(
VI)acidi ntheabsorptionchamber/tower.
Thereacti
onf ormsav er
yv i
scousoi l
yli
qui
dcal l
edOl eum/ fumingSulphuri
c( VI
)aci
d/
pyr
osulphuri
c( VI)acid.

Chemi
calequati
on
H2SO4(aq)+SO3(
g) -
> H2S2O7(
l)
Oleum/fumingSulphur
ic(VI
)aci
d/py r
osulphur
ic(VI)aci
disdi
l
utedcar
eful
l
ywi
th
di
stil
l
edwat ert
ogi v
econcentr
atedsulphuri
c(VI)aci
d.
Chemicalequati
on
H2S2O7(
l)+H2O( l
) -> 2H2SO4(l)
Theaci
disst
oredr
eadyf
ormar
ket
/sal
e.
I
II
.Env
ironment
alef
fect
sofcont
actpr
ocess
Sulphur (
VI)oxideandSul phur(I
V) oxi
degasesar eatmosphericpollut
antsthatform aci
d
rai
nift heyescapet otheat mospher e.
IntheCont actpr ocess,about2%oft hesegasesdonotf or
m sulphuric(VI)aci
d.
Thef oll
owi ngpr ecauti
onspr event/minimizepollut
ionfrom Contactprocess:
(i
)r
ecy cli
ngbackanyunr eactedSul phur(
IV)oxidegasbackt otheheat
exchanger s.
(i
i)
dissolvingSulphur(VI)
oxidegasi nconcentrat
edsulphuric(VI
)acidinsteadof
water.
Thispr eventstheformationoff inedroplet
soft hecorrosi
ve/toxic/
poisonous
fumesofconcent ratedsulphuri
c( VI)acid.

(
ii
i)
scrubbing-
Thisinvolvespassingtheexhaustgasesthroughver
ytall
chimney
s
l
inedwithquickl
ime/calci
um hy droxi
desolid.
Thisr
eactswi t
hSulphur(VI)oxidegasf or
mi nghar
mlesscalci
um( I
I)
sul
phate(I
V)
/CaSO3

Chemi
cal
equati
on
Ca(
OH)2(
aq)+SO2(
g) -
-> CaSO3(
aq)+H2O(
g)
I
V.UsesofSul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d

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Sul
phur
ic(VI)aci
disused:
(i
)inmakingdyesandpai nt
(i
i
)asacidinLead-aci
daccumul at
or/
battery
(i
i
i)formakingsoaplessdeter
gents
(i
v)formakingsul
phat eagr
icul
tur
alfer
ti
lizer
s

VI
.Sket
chchar
tdi
agr
am showi
ngt
heCont
actpr
ocess

(
c)Pr
oper
ti
esofConcent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d (
i)
Concentrat
ed
-
3
sul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
disacol
our
lessoi
l
yli
qui
dwi
thadensi
tyof1.
84gcm . I
thasaboi
l
ing
o
poi
ntof338C.
(i
i)Concentratedsulphuric(
VI)
acidisverysolublei
nwat er
.
Thesol ubi
li
ty/dissoluti
onoftheacidveryhighlyexother
mic.
Theconcent ratedacidshouldthusbedi l
utedslowlyinexcesswater.
Wat ershoul
dnev erbeaddedt otheacidbecauset hehotacidscat
tershi
ghl
ycor
rosi
ve
fumesoutoft hecont ai
ner.
(i
ii
)Concent r
atedsulphur
ic(VI)
acidisacovalentcompound.I
thasnof reeH+ions.
+
FreeH i onsareresponsi
blefortur
ningtheblueli
tmuspaperred.Concentr
ated
sulphuri
c( VI
)aci
dt husdonotchanget hebluelit
muspaperred.
(i
v)Concent ratedsul
phuric(VI
)aci
dishy gr
oscopic.I
tabsorbswaterfrom t
he
atmospher eanddonotf orm asoluti
on.
Thismakesconcent r
atedsulphuri
c(VI)aci
dv erysui
tabl
easdr y
ingagentdur i
ng
preparati
onofgases.
(v
) Thefoll
owi ngaresomechemi calproper
tiesofconcent
ratedsulphuri
c(VI)aci
d:
I.Asadehy drati
ngagent

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Exper imentI ;
Putaboutf ourspat ulaendf ull
sofbr ownsugarandgl ucosei nseparate10cm3beaker.
Car efullyaddabout10cm3ofconcent ratedsulphuric(
VI )aci
d.Al l
owtostandfor
about10mi nutes.
Obser vati
on;
Colour (inbrownsugar) changef r
om br owntoblack.
Colour( inglucose)changef r
om whi t
et oblack.
10cm3beakerbecomesv eryhot .
Expl anat i
on
Concent ratedsul phur i
c( VI)acidisst r
ongdehy drati
ngagent .
Itremov eschemi callyandphy sicall
ycombi nedelement sofwat er(
Hydrogenand
Oxy geni nr at i
o2:1)from compounds.
Whenaddedt osugar/ glucoseav i
gor ousreactionthatishighlyexother
mictakeplace.
Thesugar /glucosei schar redtobl ackmassofcar bonbecauset heaci
ddehydrat
es
thesugar /glucosel eav i
ngcar bon.
Caut ion
Thisr eact i
oni shighl yexot her
mi ct hatstartslowlybutpr oducefinepart
icl
esofcarbon
thati finhaledcausequi cksuf f
ocat ionbybl ockingthelungv i
ll
i.

Chemi
calequat
ion
Gl
ucose: C6H12O6(
s)-
-conc.
H2SO4-
-> 6C(s)+ 6H2O(
l)
(
white) (bl
ack)

Sugar
: C12H22O11(
s) -
-conc.
H2SO4-
->12C( s)+11H2O(
l)
(
brown) (
black)

ExperimentII
;
Putaboutt wospatul
aendful
lofhy
dratedcopper
(I
I)
sulphate(
VI)cr
yst
alsi
naboi
l
ing
tube.Careful
l
yaddabout10cm3ofconcentrat
edsulphuri
c(VI)aci
d.Warm.
Observati
on;
Colourchangefr
om bl
uetowhit
e.
Explanat
ion

Concentr
atedsul
phuri
c(VI)aci
disstrongdehy
drat
ingagent.
Itr
emovesphy si
call
y
combinedelementsofwater
(HydrogenandOxygeninrat
io2:
1)fr
om hy
drated
compounds.
Theaciddehydr
atesbluecopper
(I
I)sul
phat
etowhiteanhydr
ouscopper(
II
)sulphat
e.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion
CuSO4.5H2O(
s)-
-conc.
H2SO4-
-> CuSO4(s)+ 5H2O(
l)
(
blue) (whi
te)
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Experi
mentIII;
Putabout4cm3ofabsol uteethanol
inaboil
ingtube.Carefull
yaddabout10cm3of
concentr
atedsul phuri
c(VI)acid.
Placemoist/damp/ wetfilt
erpaperdippedi
nacidifi
edpotassium
di
chromat e(
VI )
soluti
onont hemout hoftheboil
ingtube.Heatstrongly
.
Cauti
on:
Absoluteethanol i
shighlyf l
ammable.
Observat
ion;
Colourlessgaspr oduced.
Orangeaci dif
iedpotassium di
chromate(VI)paperturnstogreen.

Explanat
ion
Concentratedsul
phuri
c( VI)aci
disstrongdehydr
ati
ngagent.
Itremoveschemi cal
l
ycombi nedelementsofwater
(Hydr
ogenandOxy geninrat
io
2:
1) f
rom compounds.
Theaciddehy dr
atesethanol t
oethenegasatabout170oC.
Ethenewi t
h=C=C=doubl ebondturnsorangeaci
dif
iedpotassi
um di
chromate(VI
)
paperturnstogreen.
Chemical
equati
on
C2H5OH(l
)--
conc. 170oC-
H2SO4/ -> C2H4(
g)+ H2O( l
)
NB:Thisr
eacti
onisusedfort
heschool
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
onofet
henegas

Experi
mentIV;
Putabout4cm3ofmet hanoicaci
dinaboil
ingt
ube.
Car
eful
l
yaddabout6cm3of
concentr
atedsul
phur
ic(VI)aci
d.Heatgent
ly
Caution:
Thisshoul dbedonei naf umechamber /open
Obser vat
ion;
Colourl
essgaspr oduced.
Explanati
on
Concent r
atedsulphuri
c( VI)acidisstrongdehy drat
ingagent.I
tremoveschemical
l
y
combi nedelement sofwat er(HydrogenandOxy geninrat
io2:1)f
rom compounds.
Theaci ddehydratesmet hanoicacidtopoi sonous/toxi
ccarbon(I
I)
oxi
degas.
Chemical
equati
on
HCOOH(l)--
conc.
H2SO4-
-> CO(
g)+ H2O( l)
NB:Thisr
eact
ionisusedfort
heschool
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
onofsmal
lamountcar
bon
(I
I)
oxi
degas

Exper
imentV;
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Putabout4cm3ofethan-1,
2-di
oic/oxal
icacidinaboil
ingtube.Car
eful
lyaddabout6
cm3ofconcentrat
edsulphuri
c(VI)acid.Passanygaseousproductthr
oughli
me
water
.Heatgent
ly
Cauti
on:
Thisshoul
dbedonei
naf
umechamber
/open

Observat i
on;
Colourlessgaspr oduced.
Gaspr oducedformsawhi tepr eci
pit
atewit
hli
mewat er
.
Explanation
Concent ratedsulphuri
c( VI
)acidi sstrongdehydr
ati
ngagent.
Itremov eschemi call
ycombi nedel ementsofwater(Hy
drogenandOxygeni
nr at
io
2:1)f
rom compounds.
Theaci ddehy dratesethan-1,
2-dioic/
oxali
cacidtoami xt
ureofpoi
sonous/
toxic
carbon(II)oxi
deandcar bon( I
V)oxidegases.
Chemi
cal
equat
ion
HOOCCOOH(l
)--
conc.
H2SO4-
-> CO(
g)+CO2(
g)+ H2O(
l)
NB: Thi
sreactionisal
sousedfortheschooll
abor
atorypr
eparat
ionofsmall
amount
carbon(I
I)oxidegas.
Carbon(IV)oxidegasisremovedbypassingthemixt
urethr
oughconcent
rated
sodium/potassium hy
droxi
desolut
ion.

I
I.AsanOxi
dizi
ngagent

Experi
mentI
Putabout2cm3ofConcent
ratedsul phur
ic(VI
)acidintothreesepar
ateboi l
i
ngtubes.
Placeathi
nmoist
/damp/wetfil
terpaperdippedinacidif
iedpotassi
um dichromate
(VI)
sol
uti
ononthemouthoftheboi l
ingtube.Putabout0.5gofCoppert urni
ngs,Zi
nc
granul
eandIr
onfi
li
ngstoeachboi l
ingtubeseparatel
y.

Obser
vation;
Effervescence/ fi
zzing/bubbles
Bluesol utionformedwi t
hcopper ,
Greensol uti
onf ormedwi thIron
Colour l
esssol utionformedwi thZinc
Colourlessgaspr oducedthathasapungentirri
tat
ingchokingsmell
.
Gaspr oducedt urnorangemoi st
/damp/
wetfi
lt
erpaperdippedinaci
dif
ied
potassi um dichromat e(VI)
sol uti
ontogr
een.

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Explanat i
on
Concent r
atedsulphur
ic(VI)aci
disst
rongoxidizingagent.
Itoxidizesmetalstomet al
licsul
phat
e(VI)sal
tsandi t
selfr
educedt osul
phur
(IV)
oxide
gas.
Sul phur( I
V)oxi
degast urnorangemoist/damp/ wetfi
lt
erpaperdippedi
nacidif
ied
potassi um di
chromate(VI)sol
uti
ontogreen.
CuSO4( aq)isabluesoluti
on.ZnSO4(
aq)isacol ourl
esssolut
ion.FeSO4(
aq)i
sagr een
solution.
Chemi
calequati
on
Cu(s)+2H2SO4(aq)--
> CuSO4(aq)+SO2(
g)+ 2H2O(l
)
Zn(s)+2H2SO4(aq)--
> ZnSO4(aq)+SO2(
g)+ 2H2O(l
)
Fe(s)+2H2SO4(aq)-
-> FeSO4(
aq)+SO2(g)+ 2H2O(
l)

Experi
mentI I
Putabout2cm3ofConcent ratedsul phur
ic( VI)acidintotwosepar ateboili
ngt ubes.
Placeat hinmoist/
damp/ wetf il
terpaperdi ppedi nacidif
iedpotassium dichromat e
(VI)
soluti
onont hemout hoft heboi l
ingtube.
Putabout0. 5gofpowder edchar coal andsul phurpowdert oeachboi li
ngt ube
separately.
War m.
Observation;
Blacksolidchar
coal dissolves/decrease
Yellowsolidsul
phurdi ssolves/decrease
Colourl
essgasproducedt hathasapungenti rri
tat
ingchokingsmel l.
Gaspr oducedturnorangemoi st
/damp/ wetfil
terpaperdippedi nacidif
ied
potassium di
chromat e(VI)soluti
ont ogr een.

Explanation
Concent ratedsul phur
ic(VI)aci
disstrongoxidi
zingagent .Itoxi
dizesnon- metalst
o
nonmet alli
coxidesandi tsel
freducedtosulphur(I
V)oxidegas.Sul phur(I
V)oxi degas
tur
nor angemoi st /
damp/wetf i
lt
erpaperdi
ppedi nacidifiedpotassium dichr
omat e
(VI
)solutiont ogreen.
Char coal isoxi
dizedtocar bon(I
V)oxi
de.Sulphurisoxidizedt oSulphur(
IV)oxi
de.
Chemi cal equation
C( s)+2H2SO4( aq)- -
> CO2(aq)+2SO2( g)+ 2H2O( l)
S( s)+2H2SO4( aq)- -
> 3SO2( g)+ 2H2O( l
)

I
II
.Ast
hel
eastv
olat
il
eaci
d
Studythet
abl
ebel
owshowi
ngacompar
isoni
nboi
l
ingpoi
ntsoft
het
hreemi
ner
al
acids
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o
Mi
ner
alaci
d Rel
ati
vemol
ecul
a Boi
l
ingpoi
nt(C)
mass
Hydrochlori
cacid(
HCl) 36. 5 35.
0
Nit
ri
c(V)acid(HNO3) 63.
0 83.
0
Sul
phuric(VI)
acid(
H2SO4) 98.
0 333

1.
Whichistheleastvol
ati
leacid?Expl
ain
Sulphur
ic(
VI)aci
d(H2SO4)becausei
thasthelar
gestmol
ecul
eandjoinedby
Hydrogenbondsmaki ngittohavethehi
ghestboi
li
ngpoi
nt/
leastv
olati
l
e.
2.Usi
ngchemical
equat
ions,
expl
ainhowsul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
ddi
spl
acest
hel
essv
olat
il
e
miner
alaci
ds.
(
i)
Chemical
equati
on
KNO3(s)+H2SO4(
aq)-
-> KHSO4(
l)+HNO3(
g)
NaNO3(s)+H2SO4(
aq)-
-> NaHSO4(
l)+HNO3(
g)
Thi
sreact
ioni
susedi
ntheschool
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
onofNi
tr
ic(
V)aci
d(HNO3)
.
(
ii
)Chemi
calequat
ion
KCl(
s)+H2SO4(aq)-
-> KHSO4(
s)+HCl(
g)
NaCl(
s)+H2SO4(aq)-
-> NaHSO4(
s)+HCl(
g)
Thi
sreact
ioni
susedi
ntheschool
labor
ator
ypr
epar
ati
onofHy
drochl
ori
caci
d(HCl
).

(
d)Pr
oper
ti
esofdi
l
utesul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d.
Dilut
esulphuric(
VI)aci
dismadewhenabout10cm3ofconcent ratedsulphuri
c
(VI)acidiscaref
ull
yaddedt oabout90cm3ofdi still
edwat er.
Di l
uti
ngconcent r
atedsulphur i
c(VI)acidshouldbedonecar eful
lybecausethe
reacti
onishighlyexothermi c.
Dilut
ingconcentrat
edsul phur ic(VI
)aci ddecreasest henumberofmol espresenti
na
givenv ol
umeofsol uti
onwhi chmakest heacidlesscor r
osiv
e.
Ondi l
uti
ngconcent r
atedsul phuri
c(VI)acid,
wat erionizes/dissociat
estheacid
+ 2-
full
y/whollyi
ntotwo(dibasic)freeH ( aq)andSO4 ( aq)i
ons:
H2SO4( > 2H+(
aq) - aq)+SO42-(
aq)
Thepresenceoff eeH+(
r aq)i
onsisr
esponsibl
efor;
(i)t
urnli
tmusr edbecauseofthepresenceoffeeH+(
r aq)
ions
(ii
)havepH1/ 2/ 3becauseoft
hepresenceofmanyfeeH+(
r aq)
ionshencea
st
ronglyacidi
csolution.
(ii
i)
Reactionwit hmetal
s

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Experi
ment :
Pl
ace5cm3of0. 2M dil
utesulphur
ic(VI
)aci
dintofoursepar
atecleant
esttubes.
Addabout0. 1gofMagnesium r
ibbontoonet estt
ube.Cov ert
hemixturewi
thaf i
nger
asstopper.I
ntroduceaburni
ngspli
ntont opofthefi
ngerandr el
easethefi
nger
“st
opper”.Repeatbyaddi
ngZinc,CopperandI r
oninsteadoftheMagnesium r
ibbon.

Observati
on:
Noef ferv escence/bubbl es/f izzingwi thcopper
Ef f
erv escence/bubbl es/f i
zzi ngwi thIron, ZincandMagnesi um
Col our l
essgaspr oducedt hatext inguishesbur ningspl intwi t
ha“ pop”sound.
Col our l
esssol utionf ormedwi thZi ncandMagnesi um.
Gr eensol utionf ormedwi t
hI ron
Expl
anation:
Whenamet al highert hanhy drogeni nther eact i
vity/electrochemi cal seriesisput
inat estt ubecont ai ningdi lutesul phuric( VI )acid,efferv escence/bubbl ing/fizzi
ng
takespl acewi thev olutionofHy drogengas.
Impur ehy dr
ogengasext ingui shesbur ni ngspl i
ntwi tha“ pop”sound.
Asul phat e(VI)sal tsi sf ormed.I ron,ZincandMagnesi um ar ehighert han
hy drogeni nt her eact ivit
y/ elect rochemi cal ser ies.
Theyf ormI ron( II
)sul phat e(VI ),Magnesi um sul phat e(VI)andZi ncsul phat e(
VI).
. Whenamet al l
owert hanhy drogeni nther eact ivi
ty/elect r
ochemi cal seriesisput
inat estt ubecont ai ningdi lutesul phuric( VI )acid,ther eisnoef f
erv escence/
bubbl ing/f i
zzingt hatt akepl ace.
Coppert husdonotr eactwi thdi lutesul phur ic(VI)acid.
Chemical/ionicequat ion
Mg( s) + H2SO4( aq) - -> MgSO4( aq) + H2( g)
+ 2+
Mg( s) + 2H ( aq) --
> Mg ( aq) + H2(g)
Zn(
s) + H2SO4(aq) -
-> ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
+ 2+
Zn(
s) + 2H (aq) -
-> Zn ( aq) + H2(
g)
Fe(
s) + H2SO4(aq) -
-> FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
+ 2+
Fe(s) + H( aq) -
-> Fe ( aq) + H2(
g)
NB:(
i)Calci
um,LeadandBari
um for
msi nsol
ubl
esul
phate(
VI)salt
sthatcover
/coatt
he
unr
eactedmetal
s.
(i
i)Sodi
um andPotassi
um r
eactexplosi
vel
ywi
thdi
lutesulphuri
c(VI
)aci
d

(
iv)
React
ionwi
thmet
alcar
bonat
esandhy
drogencar
bonat
es
Experi
ment :
Place5cm3of0.
2M di
lutesulphuri
c(VI
)aci
dint
ofoursepar
atecl
eanboil
i
ng
tubes.Addabout0.
1gofsodium carbonat
etooneboili
ngtube.I
ntr
oduceaburni
ng
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spl
intontopoft heboi
l
ingtube.Repeatbyaddi
ngZinccarbonat
e,Copper(
II
)car
bonat
e
andIron(
II
)Carbonatei
nplaceofthesodium hy
drogencar
bonate.
Observat
ion:
Effer
vescence/bubbl es/fi
zzi
ng.
Colourl
essgaspr oducedthatext
inguishesbur
ningspl
int
.
Colourl
esssol ut
ionformedwi thZinccarbonat
e,sodi
um hydr
ogencar
bonat
eand
sodium carbonate.
Greensolutionformedwi thIr
on(I
I)Carbonat
e
Bluesoluti
onf or
medwi t
hCopper (
II)
Carbonate
Expl
anati
on:
Whenamet alcarbonat
eorahy drogencar bonatesisputinatesttube
containingdil
utesulphuri
c(VI
)acid,eff
ervescence/bubbl i
ng/f
izzingtakespl
ace
withev olut
ionofcarbon(I
V)oxidegas.car bon(IV)oxi
degasextinguishesa
burningsplintandformsawhi tepr eci
pit
atewhenbubbl edinl
i
mewat er
.
Asulphat e(VI)salt
sisformed.
Chemical
/i
oni cequation
ZnCO3(
s)+ H2SO4( aq)--
> ZnSO4(aq)+H2O(l
)+CO2(
g)
+ 2+
ZnCO3(s)+ 2H (aq)--> Zn ( aq)+H2O(
l)+CO2(
g)
CuCO3(
s)+ H2SO4( aq)--
> CuSO4( aq)+H2O(
l)+CO2(g)
+ 2+
CuCO3(
s)+ 2H ( aq)--> Cu ( aq)+H2O(l
)+CO2(g)
FeCO3(
s)+ H2SO4(aq)--
> FeSO4(aq)+H2O(
l)+CO2(
g)
+ 2+
FeCO3(
s)+ 2H (aq)--
> Fe ( aq)+H2O(l
)+CO2(
g)

2NaHCO3(s)+ H2SO4(aq)--
> Na2SO4(
aq)+2H2O(l
)+2CO2(
g)
+ +
NaHCO3(s)+ H ( aq)--
> Na (aq)+H2O(l
)+CO2(
g)

Na2CO3(
s)+ H2SO4(aq)--
> Na2SO4(
aq)+H2O(l
)+CO2(
g)
+ +
NaHCO3(
s)+ H (aq)--> Na (aq)+H2O(
l)+CO2(
g)

(
NH4)2CO3(s)+ H2SO4(aq)-
->(NH4)2SO4(
aq)+H2O(l
)+CO2(
g)
+ +
(
NH4)2CO3(s)+ H (aq)--
> NH4 (aq)+H2O(
l)+CO2(
g)

2NH4HCO3(
aq)+ H2SO4(aq)-
->(NH4)2SO4(
aq)+H2O(l
)+CO2(
g)
+ +
NH4HCO3(
aq)+ H (aq)--
> NH4 (aq)+H2O(l
)+CO2(
g)

NB:
Cal
cium,LeadandBari
um carbonat
esf
ormsi
nsol
ubl
esul
phat
e(VI
)sal
tst
hat
cov
er/coatt
heunreact
edmetals.
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(
v)Neut
ral
i
zat
ion-
react
ionofmet
aloxi
desandal
kal
i
s/bases
ExperimentI:
Place5cm3of0. 2M di
l
utesulphuri
c(VI)
acidi
nt of
ourseparat
ecleanboi
li
ng
tubes.Addabout0. 1gofcopper(I
I)
oxidetooneboi l
ingtube.St
ir
.
Repeatbyaddi ngZincoxi
de,cal
cium carbonateandSodium (I
I)
Oxideinpl
aceoft
he
Copper (
II
)Oxide.
Observation:
Bluesolutionfor
medwi thCopper(I
I)Oxi
de
Colourl
esssolutionfor
medwi thotheroxides
Explanati
on:
Whenamet aloxi
deisputi
nat estt
ubecontai
ningdi
l
utesul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d,t
he
oxi
dedissol
vesfor
mingasulphate(VI
)sal
t.
Chemi
cal/
ioni
cequati
on
ZnO(
s)+ H2SO4( aq)--
> ZnSO4(aq)+H2O(l
)
+ 2+
ZnO(s)+ 2H (aq)--> Zn ( aq)+H2O(
l)
CuO(
s)+ H2SO4( aq)--
> CuSO4( aq)+H2O(
l)
+ 2+
CuO(
s)+ 2H ( aq)--> Cu ( aq)+H2O(l
)
MgO(
s)+ H2SO4(aq)--
> MgSO4(aq)+H2O(
l)
+ 2+
MgO(
s)+ 2H (aq)--
> Mg ( aq)+H2O(l
)

Na2O(
s)+ H2SO4( aq)--
> Na2SO4(aq)+H2O(
l)
+ +
Na2O(s)+ 2H (aq)--> 2Na (aq)+H2O(l
)

K2CO3(
s)+ H2SO4(
aq)--> K2SO4(
aq)+H2O(
l)
+ +
K2O(
s)+ H (aq)-
-> 2K (aq)+H2O(l
)

NB:
Cal
cium,LeadandBarium oxi
desf
ormsi
nsol
ubl
esul
phat
e(VI
)sal
tst
hatcov
er/
coatt
he
unr
eactedmetal
soxides.
ExperimentII:
Fi
llabur ett
ewut h0.1M di
l
utesul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
d.Pipet
te20.0cm3of0. 1Msodium
hydroxidesolutionintoa250cm3conicalf
lask.Addthreedropsofphenolpht
halei
n
i
ndicator.Ti
tratetheacidtogetapermanentcolourchange.Repeatwith0.
1M
potassium hy dr
oxidesoluti
oni
nplaceof0.
1Msodi um hydr
oxidesolut
ion
Observation:
Col
ourofphenol
pht
hal
einchangesf
rom pi
nkt
ocol
our
lessatt
heendpoi
nt.

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Explanati
on
Li
keot her(mineral)aci dsdi
lutesul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
dneutral
izesbases/al
kal
ist
oa
sul
phat esaltandwat eronly.
Colouroft heindicatorusedchangeswhenasl i
ghtexcessofacidisaddedtot
hebase
attheendpoi nt
Chemi calequati
on:
2NaOH( aq)+ H2SO4( aq)--> Na2SO4(
aq)+H2O( l)
- +
OH( s)+ H ( aq)--> H2O(l
)

2KOH(aq)+ H2SO4(
aq)--> K2SO4(
aq)+H2O(
l)
- +
OH(s)+ H (aq)--
> H2O(l
)

2NH4OH(aq)+ H2SO4(
aq)--
>( NH4)
2SO4(
aq)+H2O(
l)
- +
OH(s)+ H (aq)-
-> H2O(
l)

(
iv)Hy
drogensul
phi
de(
H2S)
(
a)Occur
rence
Hydrogensulphideisfoundinvol
cani
careasasagasordi
ssolv
edinwaterf
rom
geysersandhotspringsinacti
vevol
cani
careasoft
heworl
de.g.Ol
kar
iaandHell
sgat
e
nearNaivashainKenya.
I
tispresentinrott
eneggsandhumanexcr et
a.

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(
b)Pr
epar
ati
on
Hydr
ogensul
phi
deispr
epar
edi
naschool
labor
ator
ybyheat
ingI
ron(
II
)sul
phi
dewi
th
di
l
utehydr
ochl
ori
caci
d.

(
c)Pr
oper
ti
esofHy
drogensul
phi
de(
Quest
ions)
1.Wri
tetheequationforther
eact
ionfort
heschooll
abor
atorypr
epar
ati
onofHy
drogen
sul
phi
de.
Chemicalequat
ion:FeS(s)+2HCl (
aq)->H2S( g)FeCl
2(aq)

2.Stat
ethreephysicalpr
operti
esuniquetoHydrogensulphide.
Hydrogensulphi
dei sacolour
lessgaswithcharacter
ist
icpungentpoi
sonoussmel
lof
rot
teneggs.Iti
ssolubleincol
dwat erbuti
nsolubleinwarm water
.Iti
sdensert
han
waterandturnsblueli
tmuspaperred.
3.Hydrogensul
phideexistasadi basi
caci dwhendi ssol
vedinwat
er.Usi
ngachemi
cal
equati
onshowhowi tionizesinaqueousst at
e.
+ -
H2S(
aq) - > H( aq) + HS( aq)
+ 2-
H2S(
aq) - > 2H ( aq)+ S ( aq)
Hydrogensul
phidetherefor
ecanf orm bothnor malandacidsal
tse.g
Sodium hydr
ogensulphideandsodi um sulphidebothexist
4.St
ateandexplai
nonegaseousi
mpur
it
yli
kel
ytobepr
esenti
nthegasj
arcont
aini
ng
hydr
ogensul
phideabove.

Hy
drogen/H2
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Ir
on( II
)sul
phidecont ainsIronasimpur it
y.Theironwil
lreactwithdil
utehy dr
ochlori
c
acidt oformiron(I
I)chlori
deandpr oducehydrogengast hatmixeswithhy drogen
sulphidegas.
5.St ateandexplaint heobservati
onsmadewhenaf il
terpaperdippedi nLead(II
)
ethanoat e/Lead(II
)ni tr
ate(V)sol
ut i
onisputinagasj arcontaini
nghy drogensulphi
de
gas.
Obser vati
ons
Moi stLead(II
)ethanoat e/Lead( I
I)nit
rate(
V)paperturnsblack.
Explanation
Whenhy dr ogensul phidei sbubbl edinamet al
li
csal tsol
uti
on, amet all
icsulphideis
for
med.
Allsulphidesar einsolubl eblacksal t
sexceptsodium sulphide,pot
assi um sulphide
andammoni um sulphides.
Hydrogensul phi
degasbl ackensmoi stLead(II
)ethanoate/ Lead(I
I)nitrat
e(V)paper.
2+
Thegasr eact swi t
hPb i nthepapert oform bl
ackLead( II
)sulphi
de.
Thisisthechemi caltestf orthepr esenceofH2Sot herthant hephysicalsmell ofrot
ten
eggs.
Chemi cal equat i
ons
2+
Pb ( aq) +H2S ->PbS +2H+( aq)
(black)
2+
Fe ( aq) +H2S ->FeS +2H+( aq)
(black)
2+
Zn ( aq) +H2S ->ZnS +2H+( aq)
(black)
2+
Cu ( aq) +H2S ->CuS +2H+( aq)
(black)
+
2Cu( aq) +H2S ->Cu2S +2H+( aq)
(black)
6.Dryhy dr ogensul phidewasi gnit
edasbelow.

Fl
ameA

DryHy
d
(
i)r
o
Sge
t
ans
teu
tl
p
hhi
d
eeb
o ser
vat
ionsmadei
nfl
ameA
gas
Hydr
ogensulphi
debur
nsi
nexcessai
rwi
thabl
uefl
ametoform sul
phur
(I
V)oxi
degas
andwater
.
Chemical
equati
on: 2H2S(
g) + 3O2( g)-> 2H2O(
l)+ 2SO2(
g)
Hy
drogensul
phi
debur
nsi
nli
mit
edai
rwi
thabl
uef
lamet
ofor
m sul
phursol
i
dand
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water
.
Chemical
equat
ion: 2H2S(
g) + O2(
g) -
> 2H2O(
l)+ 2S(
s)

7.Hydr
ogensulphidei
sastr
ongreduci
ngagentthati
soxidi
zedt
oyell
owsoli
dsul
phur
aspr
ecipi
tat
e.Thef ol
l
owi
ngexperi
mentsi
ll
ustr
atethereduci
ngpr
opert
iesof
Hydr
ogensulphide.
(
a)Tur
nsOr
angeaci
dif
iedpot
assi
um di
chr
omat
e(VI
)togr
een
Exper
iment
:
(i
)Passastream ofHydr
ogensulphi
degasi
nat
estt
ubecont
aini
ngaci
dif
ied
potassi
um dichr
omate(VI)sol
uti
on.or
;

(i
i)
Dipaf i
lt
erpapersoakedinaci
dif
iedpot
assi
um di
chr
omat
e(VI
)int
oagasj
ar
contai
ningHydrogensulphi
degas.
Observat
ion:
Orangeacidi
fi
edpotassi
um di
chr
omat
e(VI
)tur
nst
ogr
een.
Yell
owsolidresi
due.
Explanat i
on:
Hy dr
ogensul phi
degasreducesaci
dif
iedpotassi
um dichromate(
VI)fr
om orange
2- 3+
Cr2O7 i onst
ogreenCr i onsl
eavi
ngay el
lowsolidresidueasit
selfi
soxidi
zedto
sulphur.
Chemical
/i
oni
cequat i
on:
2- 3+
4H2S(
aq)+ Cr2O7 (aq)+6H+(
aq)-
>4S(
aq)+2Cr (aq)+7H2O(
l)
Thi
stesti
susedf
ordi
ff
erent
iat
ingHy
drogensul
phi
deandsul
phur(
IV)
oxi
degas.
2-
Sul
phur
(I
V) oxi
dealsoreducesacidi
fi
edpot
assi
um dichr
omat
e(VI
)fr
om or
angeCr
2O7
3+
i
onstogreenCr ionswithoutl
eavi
ngayel
lowresi
due.
(
b)Decol
ori
zesaci
dif
iedpot
assi
um manganat
e(VI
I)
Exper
iment
:
(
i)
Passastream ofSulphur
(I
V)oxi
degasi
nat
estt
ubecont
aini
ngaci
dif
iedpot
assi
um
manganat
e(VII
)solut
ion.or
;

(i
i)
Dipaf i
lt
erpapersoakedinaci
dif
iedpot
assi
um manganat
e(VI
I)i
ntoagasj
ar
contai
ningHydrogenSulphi
degas.
Observat
ion:
Purpl
eacidif
iedpot
assi
um manganat
e(VI
I)t
urnst
ocol
our
less/aci
dif
iedpot
assi
um
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manganat
e(VII
)isdecol
ori
zed.
Yel
l
owsolidresi
due.
Expl
anat i
on:
-
Hydrogensulphidegasreducesacidif
iedpotassi
um manganate(
VI I
)fr
om pur
pleMnO4
i
onst ogreenMn2+ionsleavi
ngar esidueasthegasi t
sel
fisoxi
dizedtosul
phur.
Chemi cal
/i
onicequati
on:
-
5H2S(g)+ 2MnO4 ( aq)+6H+(aq)- >5S(s)+2Mn2+( aq)+8H2O( l
)
(pur
ple) (
colour
less)
Thi
sisanot hertestfordi
ff
er enti
ati
ngHy drogensulphi
deandSulphur
(IV)oxi
degas.
Sul
phur(IV)oxidealsodecol
or izesacidi
fi
edpotassium manganat
e(VI
I)from pur
ple
- 2+
MnO4 ionstocol ourl
essMn i onsleavi
ngnoy el
l
owr esi
due.

(
c)Decol
ori
zesbr
omi
newat
er
Exper
iment
:
(
i)
Passast
ream ofHy
drogensul
phi
degasi
nat
estt
ubecont
aini
ngbr
omi
newat
er.or
;

(i
i
)Putthr
eedr
opsofbr
omi
newat
eri
ntoagasj
arcont
aini
ngHy
drogensul
phi
degas.
Swir
l.
Obser
vati
on:
Yel
lowbrominewat
ert
urnst
ocol
our
less/br
omi
newat
eri
sdecol
ori
zed.
Yel
lowsoli
dresi
due
Expl
anati
on:
Hydr
ogensulphi
degasreducesy
ell
owbrominewatert
ocolour
lesshydr
obr
omi
caci
d
(HBr
)leavi
ngayell
owresi
dueasthegasit
selfi
soxidi
zedt
osulphur.
Chemical
/i
onicequati
on:
H2S(g) + Br 2(aq) -
> S( s) + 2HBr
(aq)
(
yell
owsoluti
on) (
yel
l
owsol
id) (
col
ourl
ess)
Thi
sisanot hertestfordi
ff
er enti
ati
ngHy drogensulphi
deandSulphur
(IV)oxi
degas.
Sul
phur(IV)oxidealsodecol
or izesacidi
fi
edpotassium manganat
e(VI
I)from pur
ple
- 2+
MnO4 ionstocol ourl
essMn i onsleavi
ngnoy el
l
owr esi
due.
(d)ReducesIr
on(
II)Fe3+sal
I tstoI
ron(I
I)sal
tsFe2+
Experiment:
(i
)Passast r
eam ofHydrogensul
phidegasinatestt
ubecont
aini
ngabout3cm3of
I
ron( I
II
)chl
ori
desolut
ion.or;

(
ii
)Pl
aceabout3cm3ofI
ron(
II
I)
chl
ori
desol
uti
oni
ntoagasj
arcont
aini
ngHy
drogen
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sul
phi
degas.Swi
rl
.
Observ
ati
on:
Yel
low/br
ownIr
on(I
II
)chl
ori
desol
uti
ont
urnst
ogr
een.
Yel
lowsoli
dsol
id
Expl
anat
ion:
Hydr
ogensul phidegasreducesIr
on(II
I)
chl
ori
desol
uti
onf r
om y
ellow/
brownFe3+i
ons
2+
togr
eenFe i onsleav
ingay el
l
ow resi
due.
Thegasisitsel
foxi
dizedt
osulphur
.
Chemi
cal/
ionicequat
ion:
aq) + 2Fe3+(
H2S( aq) -
> S( s)+ Fe2+(
aq) +2H+(
aq)
(
yell
owsoluti
on)(yel
l
owr esi
due) (
green)
(e)
ReducesNit
ri
c(V)
aci
dtoNi
tr
ogen(
IV)
oxi
degas
Exper
iment:
(i
)Passastr
eam ofHydr
ogensul
phi
degasi
nat
estt
ubecont
aini
ngabout3cm3of
concent
rat
edni
tri
c(V)
aci
d.or;
(ii
)Pl
aceabout3cm3ofconcent
rat
edni
tr
ic(
V)aci
dint
oagasj
arcont
aini
ngHy
drogen
sul
phidegas.Swi
rl
.
Observ
ati
on:
Brownfumesofagasev
olv
ed/
produced.
Yell
owsoli
dresi
due
Expl
anat
ion:
Hydr
ogensulphi
degasr
educesconcent
rat
edni
tr
ic(
V)aci
dtobr
ownni
tr
ogen(
IV)
oxi
de
gasi
tsel
foxi
dizedt
oyel
lowsul
phur.
Chemi
cal/
ioni
cequat
ion:
H2S(
g)+2HNO3( l) -
> 2H2O(
l) +S(s) +2NO2(g)
(yel
l
owresidue)(
brownf
umes)

(f
)Reducessul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
dtoSul
phur
Experi
ment:
(i
)Passastr
eam ofHy
drogensulphi
degasi
nat
estt
ubecont
aini
ngabout3cm3of
concent
rat
edsul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
d.or;

(
ii
)Pl
aceabout3cm3ofconcent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
dint
oagasj
arcont
aini
ng
Hydr
ogensulphi
degas.Swi
rl
.
Obser
vati
on:
Yel
lowsoli
dresi
due
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Expl
anat
ion:
Hydr
ogensulphi
degasr
educesconcent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
dtoy
ell
owsul
phur
.
Chemi
cal/i
onicequat
ion:
3H2S(g)+H2SO4( l
) -
> 4H2O(
l) + 4S(s)
(
yel
l
owr esi
due)

(g)
ReducesHydr
ogenper
oxi
det
owat
er
Exper
iment:
(i
)Passast r
eam ofHydr
ogensul
phi
degasi
nat
estt
ubecont
aini
ngabout3cm3of20
volumehy dr
ogenperoxi
de.
Observati
on:
Yellowsoli
dresi
due
Explanati
on:
Hy dr
ogensul phidegasr educes20v ol
umehy drogenperoxidetowat
eranditsel
f
oxidi
zedt oyellowsulphur
Chemi cal/
ionicequati
on:
H2S(g)+H2O2( l)-> 2H2O( l
) + S( s)
(yell
owresidue)
8.Namet hesal tfor
medwhen:
(i
)equal v
olumesofequi molarhydr
ogensulphideneutral
izessodi
um hy
droxi
de
soluti
on:
Sodium hy drogensulphide
Chemi cal/
ionicequation:
H2S(g)+NaOH( l
) -
> H2O( l)+ NaHS( aq)

(
ii
)hydrogensul
phi
deneutral
i
zesexcessconcent
rat
edsodi
um hy
droxi
desol
uti
on:
Sodium sul
phi
de
Chemi cal
/i
oni
cequat
ion:
H2S(g)+2NaOH( l
) - > 2H2O( l
) + Na2S(
aq)

Pr
acti
ce
Hydr
ogensulphi
degaswasbubbl
edi
ntoasol
uti
onofmet
all
i
cni
tr
ate(
V)sal
tsas
i
nthefl
owchartbelow
Hy
drogensul
phi
de

Brownsol
uti
on
Blue
solut
ion
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Gr
eensol
uti
on
(
a)Name
Bl
at
h
ce
k b
sol
l
iacksol
d i
d Copper
(I
I)
sul
phi
de
(
b)I
dentif
yt hecat
ionr esponsi
blef
ort hef or
mat
ionof
:
2+
I
.Bl uesolut
ion Cu ( aq)
2+
I
I.Gr eensol
ut i
on Fe ( aq)
3+
I
II.Brownsol ut
ion Fe ( aq)
(c)
Usingaci di
fi
edpot assi um dichromat e(VI
)descri
behowy ouwoulddiff
erent
iat
e
betweensul phur
(IV)Oxi deandhy drogensulphide
-Bubblethegasesi nsepar atetesttubescontainingaci dif
iedPotassi
um
dichromate(VI)sol uti
on.
-Bothchangest heOr angecol ourofacidifi
edPot assium dichromate(
VI)sol
uti
on
togreen.
-Yell
owsol i
dresi due/deposi tisformedwi t
hHy drogensul phide
Chemi cal
/ioni
cequat ion:
2- 3+
4H2S(aq)+ Cr 2O7 (aq)+6H+( aq)- >4S(aq)+2Cr (aq)+7H2O( l)
2- 2- 2- 3+
3SO3 (aq)+ Cr 2O7 (aq)+8H+( aq)- >3SO4 (aq)+2Cr ( aq)+4H2O( l)

(d)
Stateandexpl ai
ntheobser v
ati
onsmadei faburni
ngspli
nti
sintr
oducedatthe
mouthofahy drogensulphi
degenerat
or.
Observati
onGascont i
nuesburni
ngwithabluef l
ame
Expl
anat i
on:Hydrogensulphi
deburnsinexcessairwi
thabluefl
ametoform
sul
phur(I
V)oxidegasandwat er
.
Chemical equat
ion:2H2S(g)
+3O2(g)-
>2H2O( l
)+2SO2(g)

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(
v)Sul
phat
e(VI
)(SO42-)
andSul
phat
e(I SO32-)sal
V)( ts
1.Sulphate(VI)( SO42-)saltsar enormal andacidsal
tsderivedfrom Sul
phuric(
VI)acid
H2SO4.
2.Sulphate(IV)(SO32-)saltsar enormal andacidsaltsderi
vedf r
om Sulphuri
c(IV)aci
d
H2SO3.
3.Sulphuric(VI)acidH2SO4i sf or
medwhensul phur(
VI)oxi
degasi sbubbledinwat er
.
Theacidexi stasadi basicaci dwit
htwoi oni
sablehydrogen.Itfor
mst heref
orethe
2- -
Sulphate(VI)(SO4 )andhy dr ogensul
phat e(VI
)(HSO4)salts.
i.
e.
H2SO4( aq)- > 2H+( aq)+SO42-(
aq)
+ -
H2SO4( aq)- > H( aq)+HSO4 ( aq)
AllSul
phate( VI)(SO42-)sal
tsdissolveinwat er
/aresolubleexceptCal ci
um (II
)sul
phate
(VI
)(CaSO4) ,Barium (II
)sulphate(VI)(BaSO4)andLead( II
)sulphate(VI)(PbSO4)
-
AllHydrogensul phate( VI
)(HSO3)sal tsexisti
nsol ut
ion/dissolv
edinwat er.Sodi
um (I
)
hydrogensul phate(VI)(NaHSO4) ,Potassi
um (I)hydrogensul phate(VI)(KHSO4)and
Ammoni um hydrogensul phate(VI)(NH4HSO4)exi stalsoassol i
ds.
-
OtherHy drogensulphat e(VI)(HSO4)sal t
sdonotexi stexceptt hoseofCal ci
um (I
I)
hydrogensul phate(VI)(Ca( HSO4)2)andMagnesi um (II)hydrogensulphate(VI)(
Mg
(HSO4)2).

4.Sulphuric(I
V) acidH2SO3i sf or
medwhensul phur
(I
V)oxi
degasisbubbledinwater
.
Theacidexi stasadi basi
caci dwit
htwoi oni
sablehydr
ogen.I
tfor
mst heref
oret
he
2- -
Sulphate(IV)(SO3 )andhy dr ogensul
phat e(
VI)(HSO4)sal
ts.
i.
e.
H2SO3( aq)- > 2H+( aq)+SO32-(
aq)
+ -
H2SO3( aq)- > H( aq)+HSO3 ( aq)
AllSul
phate( I
V)(SO32-)sal
tsdissolvei nwat er
/aresolubleexceptCalcium (II
)sul
phate
(I
V)(CaSO3), Bar
ium (II
)sulphate(IV)( BaSO3)andLead( II
)sulphate(I
V)(PbSO3)
-
AllHydrogensulphate( I
V)(HSO3)sal tsexisti
nsol ut
ion/dissolv
edinwat er.Sodi
um (I
)
hydrogensulphate(I
V)( NaHSO3) ,Pot assi
um (I)hydrogensul phate(I
V)(KHSO3)and
Ammoni um hydr
ogensul phate(IV)(NH4HSO3)exi stalsoassol i
ds.
-
OtherHy dr
ogensulphat e(I
V)( HSO3)sal t
sdonotexi stexceptt hoseofCal ci
um (I
I)
hydrogensulphate(I
V)( Ca( HSO3)2)andMagnesi um (II)hydrogensulphate(IV)(
Mg
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(
HSO3)
2).
5.Thefol
lowi
ngexperimentsshowt
heef
fectofheatonsul
phat
e(VI
)(SO42-)
and
2-
sulphat
e(I
V)(SO3 )sal
ts:
Experi
ment :
I
nacl eandr yt
estt
ubeplacesepar
atelyabout1.0gof:
Zinc(I
I)
sulphat
e(VI
),I
ron(
II
)sul
phate(
VI),Copper
(II
)sul
phate(
VI)
,Sodi
um (
I)sul
phat
e
(VI)
,Sodium (I
)sul
phate(
IV).
Heatgentl
yt henst
rongly
.Testanygasespr
oducedusing
l
itmuspaper s.
Obser v
at ions:
-
Col ourlessdr opletsofli
quidformsont hecoolerpartsofthetesttubeinallcases.
-
Whi tesol idresidueislefti
ncaseofZi nc(II
)sulphat
e(VI)
,Sodi
um (I
)sulphate(VI)and
Sodium ( I)sulphate(IV).
-
Col ourchangesf r
om greentobr own/ yel
lowi ncaseofIron(II
)sul
phate(VI)
-Colourchangesf rom bl
uetowhi tethenbl ackincaseofCopper( I
I)sulphate(VI)
-
Bl ueli
tmuspaperr emainandbl ueandr edl i
tmuspaperr emainredincaseof
Zinc(I
I)sulphate(VI),Sodi
um (I)sulphate(VI)andSodi um (I
)sul
phate(IV)
-
Bl ueli
tmuspapert urnsredandr edlit
muspaperr emainredincaseofI ron
(I
I)sul
phat e(
VI)andCopper( I
I)sulphat
e( VI).
Expl
anation
(i
)Al
lSulphate(
VI SO42-)sal
)( tsexi
stashydrat
edsalt
swit
hwaterofcrystal
l
izat
ionthat
condensesandcoll
ect
soncool erpart
softesttubeasacol
our
lessl
iquidongentle
heati
ng.e.g.
K2SO4. 10H2O( s)- > K2SO4( s) + 10H2O(l)
Na2SO4. 10H2O( s) -
> Na2SO4( s) + 10H2O(l)
MgSO4. 7H2O( s) -> MgSO4( s) + 7H2O(l
)
CaSO4. 7H2O( s) - > CaSO4( s) + 7H2O(l)
ZnSO4. 7H2O( s) - > ZnSO4( s) + 7H2O(l)
FeSO4. 7H2O( s) - > FeSO4( s) + 7H2O(l
)
Al2(SO4)3.6H2O( s) -> Al 2(
SO4)
3(s) + 6H2O( l
)
CuSO4. 5H2O( s) - > CuSO4( s) + 5H2O(l)
2-
AllSulphat e(VI )(SO4 )sal tsdonotdecomposeonheat ingexceptIr
on(I
I)sul
phate(
VI)
andCopper( II)sulphat e(VI).
(i
) I
ron( I
I)sulphat e( VI)decomposesonst rongheat
ingtoproduceacidi
csulphur
(IV)oxideandsul phur(VI)oxidegases.I
ron(II
I)
oxi
deisformedasabr own/ y
ell
ow
residue.
Chemi calequat ion
2FeSO4( s)- > Fe2O3( s) + SO2(g)+ SO3(g)
Thisr eactioni susedf ortheschool l
aboratorypr
eparat
ionofsmal l
amountof
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sulphur(VI)oxidegas.
Sulphur( VI)oxidereadi
ly/easil
ysoli
dif
iesaswhitesi
lkyneedl
eswhent hemixt
urei
s
passedt hr oughf r
eezi
ngmi xtur
e/i
cecoldwater.
Sulphur( I
V)oxi dedoesnot .
(i
i)Copper (II
)sulphat
e(VI
)decomposesonst r
ongheat i
ngtoblackcopper(
II
)oxi
deand
Sulphur( VI)oxidegas.
Chemi cal equat i
on
2CuSO4( s)-> CuO( s) + SO3(g)
Thisreact i
oni susedfortheschool l
aborat
oryprepar
ationofsmallamountof
sulphur(VI)oxidegas.

6.Thef
oll
owi
ngexperiment
sshowthet
estf
orthepr
esenceofsul
phat
e(VI
)(SO42-)
and
2-
sul
phat
e(I
V)(
SO3 )ionsi
nasampleofasal
t/
compound:
Exper
iment
s/Obser
vat
ions:
(
a)Usi
ngLead(
II
)ni
tr
ate(
V)
I.Toabout5cm3ofasaltsolut
ioninat
estt
ubeaddf
ourdr
opsof
Lead(I
I)
nit
rat
e(V)
sol
uti
on.Preserve.

Obser
vati
on I
nference
2-
SO32-,
CO32-, -
Whit
epreci
pit
ate/
ppt SO4 , Cl i
ons

I
I.Tot
hepr
eser
vedsampl
ein(
I)abov
e,addsi
xdr
opsof2M ni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d.Pr
eser
ve.
Obser
vati
on1
Obser
vati
on I
nference
2- -
Whit
epreci
pit
ate/
pptper
sist
s SO4 , Cli
ons
Obser
vati
on2
Obser
vati
on I
nference
2-
Whit
epreci
pit
ate/
pptdi
ssol
ves SO3 , CO32-,
ions

I
II
.(
a)Tot
hepr
eser
vedsampl
eobser
vat
ion1i
n(I
I)abov
e,Heatt
oboi
l
.
Obser
vat
ion1
Obser
vati
on I
nference
2-
Whit
epreci
pit
ate/
pptper
sist
sonboi
l
ing SO4 i ons
Obser
vati
on2
Obser
vati
on I
nference
-
Whit
epreci
pit
ate/
pptdi
ssol
vesonboi
l
ing Cl ions
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.
(b)
Tothepreser
vedsampleobservat
ion2in(I
I)abov
e,add4dr
opsofaci
dif
ied
pot
assi
um manganat
e(VI
I)/di
chromate(VI
).
Observati
on1
Observati
on I
nference
2-
(i
)aci
dif
iedpotassium SO3 ions
manganat e(
VII
)decolori
zed
(i
i
)Orangecolourofacidifi
edpot
assi
um
di
chromat e(
VI)tur
nst ogreen

Observati
on2
Observati
on I
nference
2-
(i
)aci
dif
iedpotassi
um manganate(VII)not CO3 ions
decol
orized
(i
i
)Orangecolourofaci
dif
iedpotassium
di
chromat e(
VI)doesnott
urnstogr een

Exper
iments/
Observat
ions:
(b)
UsingBari
um(I
I)
nitr
ate(V)
/Bar
ium(
II
)chl
ori
de
I
.Toabout5cm3ofasaltsolut
ioni
nat
estt
ubeaddf
ourdr
opsofBar
ium(
II
)ni
tr
ate(
V)
/Bar
ium(I
I)
chl
ori
de.Pr
eserve.

Obser
vati
on I
nference
2-
Whit
epreci
pit
ate/
ppt SO4 , SO32-,
CO32-i
ons

I
I.Tot
hepr
eser
vedsampl
ein(
I)abov
e,addsi
xdr
opsof2M ni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d.Pr
eser
ve.

Obser
vati
on1
Obser
vati
on I
nference
2-
Whit
epreci
pit
ate/
pptper
sist
s SO4 , i
ons

Obser
vati
on2
Obser
vati
on I
nference
2-
Whit
epreci
pit
ate/
pptdi
ssol
ves SO3 , CO32-,
ions
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I
II
.Tot hepreser
vedsampleobser
vat
ion2in(I
I)abov
e,add4dr
opsofaci
dif
ied
potassium manganat
e(VI
I)/
dichr
omate(
VI)
.

Observati
on1
Observati
on I
nference
2-
(i
)aci
dif
iedpotassium SO3 ions
manganat e(
VII
)decolori
zed
(i
i
)Orangecolourofacidifi
edpot
assi
um
di
chromat e(
VI)tur
nst ogreen

Observati
on2
Observati
on I
nference
2-
(i
)aci
dif
iedpotassi
um manganate(VII)not CO3 ions
decol
orized
(i
i
)Orangecolourofaci
dif
iedpotassium
di
chromat e(
VI)doesnott
urnstogr een

Expl
anat
ions
UsingLead( I
I)nit
r at
e(V)
-
(i
)Lead(II
)nit
rate(V)solutionreactswithchlor
ides(Cl)
,Sul
phate(VI
)sal
t SO42-)
s( ,
2- 2-
Sulphate(IV)salts(SO3 )andcar bonates(CO3 )toformtheinsol
ubl
ewhit
epreci
pit
ate
ofLead( I
I)
chloride,Lead(II)
sulphate(
VI),
Lead(II
)sulphat
e(IV)and
Lead(II
)carbonat e(I
V).
Chemi
cal
/i
oni
cequat
ion:

Pb2+( -
aq) + Cl(aq) - > PbCl
2(s)
2+ 2+
Pb ( aq) + SO4 ( aq)-
> PbSO4(s)
2+ 2+
Pb ( aq) + SO3 ( aq)-
> PbSO3(s)
2+ 2+
Pb ( aq) + CO3 ( aq)-
> PbCO3(s)

(
ii
)Whentheinsol
ubl
epreci
pit
atesareacidi
fi
edwithni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d,
-Lead(
II)
chl
ori
deandLead(II
)sul
phate(
VI)donotr
eactwit
htheaci
dandt
hus
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t
hei
rwhi
tepr
eci
pit
atesr
emai
n/per
sist
s.

-Lead(I
I)sul
phate(I
V)andLead( I
I)
carbonate(I
V)reactswi
ththeaci
dtof
orm
sol
ubl
eLead(II)ni
tr
ate(V)andproduce/eff
ervesces/f
izzes/
bubbl
esout
sul
phur
(IV)
oxideandcarbon(I
V)oxidegasesrespectiv
ely.

.Chemi
cal
/i
onicequat
ion:
s) + 2H+(
PbSO3( aq) -> H2O(
l) + Pb2+(aq) + SO2(
g)
+ 2+
PbCO3(
s)+ 2H ( aq) -
> H2O(
l) + Pb ( aq) + CO2(
g)

(
ii
i)
WhenLead(
II
)chl
ori
deandLead(
II
)sul
phat
e(VI
)ar
eheat
ed/
war
med;

-Lead(
II
)chl
ori
dedi
ssol
vesi
nhotwat
er/
onboi
l
ing(
recr
yst
all
i
zesoncool
i
ng)

-Lead(
II
)sul
phat
e(VI
)donotdi
ssol
vei
nhotwat
ert
husi
tswhi
tepr
eci
pit
ate
per
sists/r
emainsonheati
ng/
boi
li
ng.

(
iv)
Whensul
phur
(I
V)oxi
deandcar
bon(
IV)
oxi
degasesar
epr
oduced;

-sul
phur(
IV)oxidewi l
ldecol
ori
zeaci
dif
iedpotassi
um manganate(
VII
)and/or
Orangecolourofacidif
iedpotassi
um di
chromate(
VI)wil
ltur
nstogreen.
Carbon(I
V)oxi
dewi l
lnot .

Chemicalequati
on:
2-
5SO3 (aq)+ 2MnO4-(aq)+6H+( >5SO42-(
aq)- aq)+2Mn2+(
aq)+3H2O(
l)
(purpl
e) (
col
our
less)

3SO32-( 2-
>3SO42-( 3+
aq)+ Cr2O7 (aq)+8H+(
aq)- aq)+2Cr (aq)+4H2O(
l)
(Orange) (green)

-Car bon(
IV)oxi
deformsaninsol
ubl
ewhi
tepreci
pit
ateofcal
ci
um carbonat
eif
t
hreedropsoflimewat erar
eaddedint
other
eact
iontesttubewhenef
ferv
escenceis
t
akingplace.Sulphur
(I
V)oxi
dewil
lnot.

Chemi
calequati
on:
Ca(
OH) 2(
aq)+ CO2(
g) -
>CaCO3(
s)+H2O(
l)

Thesetest
sshouldbedoneimmedi
atel
yaft
eraci
dif
yingt
oensur
ethegasespr
oduced
reactwi
ththeoxi
dizi
ngagent
s/l
i
mewater.

Usi
ngBar
ium(
II
)ni
tr
ate(
V)/Bar
ium(
II
)Chl
ori
de
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(i
)Bari
um( II
)nit
rate(
V)and/orBarium( I
I)
chl
oridesolutionreactswit
hSulphate(
VI)
2- 2- 2-
salt
s(SO4 ) ,
Sulphate(I
V)sal
ts(SO3 )andcar bonates(CO3 )tofor
mthei nsol
ubl
e
whiteprecipit
ateofBar i
um(II
)sul
phate(VI
),Bari
um( I
I)sulphate(I
V)and
Bari
um( I
I)carbonate(I
V).
Chemi
cal/ioni
cequat
ion:
2+
Ba ( aq) + SO42+(
aq)-
> BaSO4(
s)

Ba2+(
aq) + SO32+(
aq)-
> BaSO3(
s)

Ba2+(
aq) + CO32+(
aq)-
> BaCO3(
s)

(
ii
)Whent
hei
nsol
ubl
epr
eci
pit
atesar
eaci
dif
iedwi
thni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d,

-Bari
um (II
)sul
phat
e(VI
)donotr
eactwi
tht
heaci
dandt
husi
tswhi
tepr
eci
pit
ates
r
emai
n/persi
sts.

-Bar
ium( I
I)sul
phate(IV)andBari
um(II
)car
bonate(
IV)reactswit
htheaci
dtof
orm
sol
ubl
eBarium(II)ni
tr
ate(V)andproduce/eff
ervesces/f
izzes/bubbl
esout
sul
phur
(I
V)oxideandcar bon(I
V)oxi
degasesrespecti
vel
y.

.Chemi
cal
/i
onicequat
ion:
+
BaSO3(
s)+ 2H ( aq) -
> H2O(
l) + Ba2+(
aq) + SO2(
g)
s)+ 2H+(
BaCO3( aq) -
> H2O(
l) + Ba2+(
aq) + CO2(
g)
(
ii
i)Whensul
phur
(I
V)oxi
deandcar
bon(
IV)
oxi
degasesar
epr
oduced;

-sul
phur(
IV)oxidewi l
ldecol
ori
zeaci
dif
iedpotassi
um manganate(
VII
)and/or
Orangecolourofacidif
iedpotassi
um di
chromate(
VI)wil
ltur
nstogreen.
Carbon(I
V)oxi
dewi l
lnot .
Chemicalequati
on:
2-
5SO3 (aq)+ 2MnO4-(aq)+6H+( >5SO42-(
aq)- aq)+2Mn2+(
aq)+3H2O(
l)
(purpl
e) (
col
our
less)
3SO32-( 2-
>3SO42-( 3+
aq)+ Cr2O7 (aq)+8H+(
aq)- aq)+2Cr (aq)+4H2O(
l)
(Orange) (green)
-Car bon(
IV)oxi
deformsaninsol
ubl
ewhi
tepreci
pit
ateofcal
ci
um carbonat
eif
t
hreedropsoflimewat erar
eaddedint
other
eact
iontesttubewhenef
ferv
escenceis
t
akingplace.Sulphur
(I
V)oxi
dewil
lnot.

Chemi
cal
equat
ion:
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Ca(
OH)
2(aq)+ CO2(
g) -
>CaCO3(
s)+H2O(
l)

Thesetest
sshouldbedoneimmedi
atel
yaft
eraci
dif
yingt
oensur
ethegasespr
oduced
reactwi
ththeoxi
dizi
ngagent
s/l
i
mewater.

Summar
ytestf
orSul
phat
e(VI
)(SO42-)
andSul
phat
e(I SO32-)sal
V)( ts

Unknownsal
t

Lead(
II
)ni
tr
ate(
V)

-
Whitepr eci
pit
atesofCl
,SO42
-
,SO32-andCO32-

Di
l
uteni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d

whi
tepptdi
ssol
ves whit
epptpersi
st
2- 2-
i
nSO3 andCO3 /r
emai nSO32-and
nsi
CO32-

Acidif
iedKMnO4 Heatt
oboi
l
K2Cr2O7/Li
me
water

Whitepptwith Acidi
fiedKMnO4 Whit
epptdi
ssol
v es Whitepptper
sist
l
iPr
me a
wct
ai
t
ec
re
ir
nevi
sionquestion onheat
ingi
nCl-
onheati
ngin
2-
decolori nSO32-
zedi
CO3 SO42-
1.St
udyt
hef
lowchar
tbel
owandusei
ttoanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow
Sodi
um sal
t
sol
uti
on
Bari
um ni
tr
ate(
VI)
(VI
)(
aq)
Whi
tepr
eci
pit
ate

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Aci
dif
iedK2Cr
2O7
Di
l
uteHCl
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(
a)I
denti
fythe:
I
:Sodium sal
tsoluti
on
Sodium sul
phat
e(IV)/
Na2SO3

I
I:Whit
epreci
pit
ate
Bari
um sul
phat
e(IV)
/BaSO3

I
II
:GasG
Sul
phur(
IV)
Oxi
de/
SO2

I
V:Colourl
esssol
uti
onH
Bar
ium chl
ori
de/BaCl2

(b)
Wr i
teanioni
cequat
ionf
ort
hef
ormat
ionof
:
I
.Whi
tepreci
pit
ate

I
onicequat
ion Ba2+(aq) + SO32-(aq) -
> BaSO3(
s)
I
I.
GasG
I
onicequat
ion BaSO3( +2H+(
s) aq)->SO2( g)+H2O(l)+Ba2+(
aq)
I
II
.Greensolut
ionf
rom t
heorangesolution

3SO32-( 2-
>3SO42-( 3+
aq)+ Cr2O7 (aq)+8H+(
aq)- aq)+2Cr (aq)+4H2O(
l)
(Orange) (green)

2. St
udyt
hef
lowchar
tbel
owandanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow.

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(
i)
Wri
teequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
iont
aki
ngpl
aceat
:

I
.Ther
oast
ingf
urnace (
1mk)

2FeS2(
s)+5O2(
g) -
>2FeO(
s)+4SO2(
g)

I
I.
Theabsor
pti
ont
ower (
1mk)

H2SO4(
l)+SO3(
g) -
>H2S2O7(
l)

I
II
.Thedi
l
uter (
1mk)

H2S2O7(
l)+H2O(
l) -
>2H2SO4(
l)

(
ii
)Ther
eact
iont akingplacei
nchamberKi s
1
SO2(g)+ /2O2(
g) SO3(g)

I
.Expl
ainwhyi
tisnecessar
ytouseexcessai
rinchamberK

Toensur
eal
ltheSO2r
eact
s

I
I.
Nameanot
hersubst
anceusedi
nchamberK

Vanadi
um(
V)oxi
de

3.(
a)Descr
ibeachemi
cal
testthatcanbeusedt
odi
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weensodi
um
sul
phate(I
V)andsodi
um sul
phate(VI)
.
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Addaci
dif
iedBarium ni
tr
ate(
V)/
chl
ori
de.
Whit
eprecipi
tat
ef or
medwi t
hsodi
um sul
phate(VI
)
Nowhit
epr eci
pit
atefor
medwi t
hsodi
um sulphat
e(IV)

(b)
Calcul
atet
hevolumeofsulphur(
IV)oxi
defor
medwhen120kgofcopperi
sreact
ed
wit
hexcessconcentr
atedsul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
d.(
Cu=63.
5,1mol
eofagasats.t
.p
=22.4dm3)

Chemicalequat
ion
Cu(s)+2H2SO4(l
)->CuSO4(
aq)
+H2O(
l)+SO2(
g)
Molerati
oCu(s:SO2(g)=1:
1

Met
hod1
1MoleCu=63.
5g -
> 1mol eSO2=22.4dm3
(
120x1000)g -
> (
120x1000)gx22.
4.dm3)
63.
5g
=42330.
7087

Met
hod2
Mol
esofCu= (120x1000)g=1889. 7639moles
63.
5
Mol
esSO2 = MolesofCu =1889.7639mol es
Vol
umeofSO2=Mol exmolargasv
olume=( 1889.
7639mol
esx22.
4)
=42330.7114

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(
a)I
dent
if
ythe:

(
i)
cat
ionr
esponsi
blef
ort
hegr
eensol
uti
onT
3+
Cr

(
ii
)possi
bleani
onspr
esenti
nwhi
tepr
eci
pit
ateR

CO32-,SO32-,SO42-

(
b)NamegasV

Sul
phur(
IV)
oxi
de

(
c)Wr
it
eapossi
blei
oni
cequat
ionf
ort
hef
ormat
ionofwhi
tepr
eci
pit
ateR.

Ba2+(
aq)+ CO32-(
aq) -
>BaCO3(
s)

Ba2+(
aq)+ SO32-(
aq) -
>BaSO3(
s)

Ba2+(
aq)+ SO42-(
aq) -
>BaSO4(
s)

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CONTENTS

A.Chl
ori
ne.

B.TheHal
ogens.

C.Hy
drogenchl
ori
de.
-
D.Chl
ori
de(
Cl)sal
ts.

E.Compr
ehensi
ver
evi
sionquest
ions.

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A.
CHLORI
NE
Chlorinei sanon- metall
icelementi ngroupVI I(Group17)oft heperiodi ctable.I
thas
-
elect
r onicconf i
gurati
on2: 8:
7.Itgainsonev alenceel ecti
ont oform stabl eCl i
on,it
belongst othechemi cal f
ami l
yofhalogens.
Occur rence
-AsBr ine-concentrat
ionsodi um chlor
idesolutiondissolvedi nsaltyseaswat er,oceans
andlakese. g.LakeMagadi inKeny aisver
ysal ty.
-Asrock- saltsoli
dsodium chl ori
decrystal
sint heear thscrustallov erthewor l
d.
B)Pr epar at
ion
Chlorinegasmaybepr eparedintheschool laboratoryfrom thef oll
owi ng:
a)Heat ingsolidManganese( iv)OxideandConcent ratedHy drochlori
caci d.
b)Heat i
ngLead( I
V)Oxi deandconcent rat
edhy dr
ochl ori
cacid.
c)React ingPotassium Manganat e(VII
)withconcent r
atedHy drochloricaci d
d)React ingPot assi
um / sodi
um Di chr
omat e(VI)Acidwi thConcent r
atedHy drochlor
ic
acid.
Setupofschool laboratorypreparat
ionofchl orine.

c)Pr
oper
tiesofchlor
ine.(
Questi
ons)
1.Whati
st hecol
ourofchlor
ine?
Pal
egr een.
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2.Descri
bet hesmel lofchl or
ine.
Pungenti r
ri
tatingsmel l
.
3.Whatmet hodisusedi ncoll
ecti
onofchlor
inegasexplai
n.
-
Downwar ddel i
v ery.
1
-
Chlorineis1/ 2d enserthanair.
4.(i
)Whatist hepur poseofconcent rat
edsul
phuric(
VI)aci
d.
-
Todr yt hegas.
(i
i)Namet woot hersubst ancesthatcanbeusedi npl
aceofconcent
rat
edsulphuri
c(VI
)
acid.
-
Calcium chloride
-
Sil
icagel
(i
ii
)Nameasubst ancet hatcannotbeusedinplaceofconcent
rat
edsul
phuri
c( VI
)aci
d
explai
n.
-
Calcium oxider eact swithchlori
ne.

5.(
a)Wri
tet
hreepossi
bler
eact
ionsbet
weenconcent
rat
edhy
drochl
ori
caci
dandt
he
oxi
dizi
ngagent
s.

1.2KMnO4(
s)+16HCl
(aq)→ 2KCl
(aq)
+2MnCl
2(
aq)+8H2O(
l)+5Cl
2(
g)

2.
K2Cr
2O7(
s)+14HCl
(aq)→ 2KCl
(aq)+2Cr
Cl3(
aq)+7H¬2O(
l)+3Cl
2(
g)

3.
Na2¬Cr
2O7(
s)+14HCl
(aq)→ 2NaCl
(aq)+Cr
Cl3(
aq)+7H2O(
l)+3Cl
2(
g)

4.
PbO2(
s)+4HCl
(aq)→ PbCl
2(
aq)+Cl
2(
g)+2H2O(
l)

5.
MnO2(
s)+4HCl
(aq)→ MnCl
2(
aq)+Cl
¬2(
g)+2H2O(
l)

(b)WhyisHy drochlor
icacidusedinallt
heabov ecases?
Oxidi
zingagentsKMnO4/ PbO2/ MnO2/
K2Cr2O/Na2Cr¬2O7r
eadi
l
yoxi
dizehy
drochl
ori
c
acidt
ochl ori
nethemselvesr educedt
otheirchl
orides.
Generall
y:
2HCl (
aq)+[ O]→ Cl2(g)+H2O( l
)
(
From oxidizi
ngagent)

6.Stateandexpl ai
ntheobservat
ionmadewhenchlor
inei
sbubbledi
nwater.
Observati
on
-Pal
ey el
l
owcol ourofchlor
inef
ades.
-yel
lowsol uti
onformed.
Explanati
on
Chlori
nedi ssolvesthenreact
swithwatert
ofor
my ell
owchlor
inewat
er.Chl
ori
newat
er
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i
schemical
lyamixtur
eofhydrochl
ori
cacidandchl
ori
c(I
)aci
d(hypochl
orousaci
d).
Ami xt
ureofhy
drochl
ori
cacidandchlor
ic(
I)
acid(
hypochlor
ousacid)i
scommonly
cal
l
edChlori
newater

Chemi
cal
equati
on:
Cl
2(
g)+H2O(
l)→ HCl
(aq)+HCl
O(aq)

7.Chl
ori
newateri
naboi
li
ngtubeinv
ert
edint
oatroughwasexposedtosunl
ightf
or
twohour
s.Usi
ngawelll
abel
eddiagr
am showandexpl
aint
heobservat
ionsmade.

Chl
ori
ne(I
)acidisanunst
ablecompound.
Aft
ertwohoursthechlor
ic(
I)acidinchlor
inewat
erdecomposest
ohy
drochl
ori
c
aci
dandrel
easesoxygengas.Thi
sr eact
iontakespl
aceinsunl
i
ght.
Chemi
calequati
on
2HOCl(aq) → 2HCl(
aq)+O2( g)

8.Stateandexpl ai
nt heobser vati
onmadewhenchl or
inegasi sbubbledingasjar
containingdamp/ wet/moi stlitmuspaper s.
Observ ation
Thebl uel it
must urnsredt henbot hthered/ blueli
tmuspaper sare
bleached/ decolouri
zed.
Explanat i
on
Chlori
ner eactswithwat erint helitmuspaper stoform aci
dichydrochlor
icaci
dand
chlori
c( l)acidthatturnsbl uelitmuspaper sr ed.
Chemi cal Equation
Cl 2(g) + H2O( l
)→ HCl (
aq)+HCl O( aq)
Explanat i
on
Unstabl echl or
ic(I
)acidoxi dizest hedye/col uredli
tmuspapert ocolourl
essmat er
ial
Chemi cal Equation
HCl O(aq) + dy e → HCl (aq)+ ( dy e+O)
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(
col
our
ed) (
col
our
less)
Or
:
HCl
O(aq) + dye-
O → HCl
(aq)+ dye
(
col
oured) (col
our
less)

NBChlori
nedoesnotther
efor
ebl
each/
decol
ouri
zedryl
i
tmuspaper
/dy
ebecause
chl
ori
c(I
)aci
dcannotbeformedi
nabsenceofwater
.

9.Bluelit
muspaperswer eputi
naf l
askcont aini
ngcolddi
lutesodi
um hydr
oxi
de.
Chlori
negaswasbubbl edint
othesol ut
ion.Stateandexpl
aintheobser
vati
onsmade.
Observati
on
blueli
tmuspaperswerebleached/ decolor
ized.
Palegreencolourofchl
ori
nef ades.

Explanati
on
-Sodium hydroxi
dereactswi
thchl
ori
netofor
m sodium chl
ori
deandsodi
um
hypochlori
te.Sodium hy
pochl
ori
tebl
eachesdyesbyoxidat
ion.

Chemi
cal
Equati
on
Cl
2 +2NaOH(
aq)→ NaCl (aq)+NaCl
O(aq)+H2O
NaClO(
aq) + dy e → NaCl
(aq)+( dy
e+O)
(col
oured) (Col
our
less)

NaCl
O(aq) + (dy
e-O)→ NaCl
(aq) + dy
e
(Col
oured) (
Col
our
less)
10.
Blueli
tmuspaper swereputinf
laskcontai
ninghotconcent
rat
edsodi
um hydr
oxi
de.
Chl
orinegaswasbubbl edint
othesoluti
on.St
ateandexplai
ntheobser
vat
ionsmade.
Observat
ion.
blueli
tmuspaperswerebleached.
Palegreencol
ourofchlor
inefades.

Explanati
on
Hotconcentr
atedsodium hydroxi
dereactswithchlor
inetoform sodi
um chl
ori
deand
sodi
um chlor
ide(V)
.Sodium chlor
ate(V)bleachesbyoxidat
ion.

Chemical
equat
ion
2Cl2(
g)+4NaOH(aq)→ 3NaCl
(aq) +NaCl
O3(
aq)+H2O(
l)

NaCl
O3(
aq)+3(
dyes)→ NaCl
(aq)+3(dy
e+O)
NaCl
O3(
aq)+3(
dyes-
O)→ NaCl(aq)+3dyes
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NaCl
O3i
sal
soaweedki
l
ler
11.St
atet
hreemai nuseofchlori
negas.
-Manufact
ureofpolyvi
nylchlor
ide(P.
V.C)/
/polychl
oroet
henepipes.
-Manufact
ureofhydrochl
oricacidusedin“
Pickl
i
ng”ofmet al
s.
-Manufact
ureofbleachi
ngagent s
-Chl
ori
nati
onofwat ertokil
lgerms.

12.Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowst
heef
fectofchl
ori
neonheat
edi
ronwool
.
Met
hodI

Met
hodI
I

Al
umini
um( I
II
)oxi
d
I
ron/
Alumi
niu
e/
ir
on(I
II
)oxi
de
m

Chl
ori
n Suct
ion
egas pump

HEAT
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Concent
r ated
sodi
um/ pot assi
u
m hydr
oxi de.

a)Identif
yasuitabl edryingagenttodrychlor
inegas.
-Conc.H2SO4/Concent r
atedsulphur
ic(VI
)acid.
-AnhydrousCal ci
um (I
I)Chlori
de.
-Sil
icagel
b)Stateandexpl aint heobservati
onsmadei ncombustiont
ubei
nmet
hodIandI
I
Obser vat
ion
Ironglowsr edhot
Browncryst alsareformed

Explanation
Ironreactswithchlori
netofor
m dar kbrowncr y
stal
sofiron(
III
)Chlori
de.
Thisr eact
ionisexothermi
candr equiresnofart
herheat
ingoncestarted.
Ir
on(III)Chlori
desubli
mesawayensur i
ngt heunreactedI
roncompletel
yreactswi
th
chlor
inegas.
Chemi calequation
2Fe(s) +3Cl 2(g) → 2FeCl3(g)

c)(i
)Whyist
hebrownsol
idcoll
ect
edatt
hepointasshowninmethodIandII.
-Heat
edi
ron(I
II
)Chl
ori
decry
stal
ssubl
imetogasandsoli
dif
yonthecoolerpar
ts.

(i
i)Nameanot
hermetal t
hatcanbeusedinplaceofi
ront
oreactwi
thchl
ori
neand
coll
ect
edatsi
milarpointonheat
ingexpl
ain.
Met
alAl
umi num

Explanat i
on
Aluminum r eactswithchl
ori
netof
orm awhi l
esubl
i
mat
eofal
umi
num (
II
I)chl
ori
deat
thecoolerpar ts
Chemi calequat
ion
2Al(s) + 3Cl 2(g) → 2AlCl3(
s/g)

d)Whati
sthepurposeofsucti
onpump?
Topull
thegaseousproduct
sint
othesetup.

e)Whatisthefuncti
onof:
(i
)Sodium hydr
oxidei
nmet
hodI
I.Expl
ain.
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Toabsorbpoisonous/toxi
cexcessunreactedchlori
negas.
Sodi
um hydroxidereactswit
hchlor
inetoform sodium chl
ori
de,Sodium hy
pochl
ori
te
andwater.
Chemicalequation:
2NaOH( aq) + Cl2(
g) → NaCl (aq) + NaCl O(aq) + H2O(l
)
2KOH( aq) + Cl 2(
g) → KCl (
aq) + KCl O(aq) + H2O( l
)

(i
i)Anhydrouscalcium chl
ori
de/
calci
um oxi
deinmet
hodI.Explai
n.
Toabsor bmoisture/wateri
nthesetuptoprev
enti
tfr
om hydroly
zingi
ron(
II
I)
chlor
ide/al
umini
um oxi de.

Expl
anat ion
I
ron( I
II)chlor i
deandAluminium chloridefumesandreactswithsmall
tracesofwater
toform asol uti
onofi
ron(II
I)hydroxide/ al
umini
um hy
droxideandhydr
ogenchlori
de
gas.
Chemi calequat ion
FeCl 3(s) +3HCl(aq)→ Fe( OH) 3(aq)+3HCl(
g)

Al
Cl3(
s) +3HCl
(aq)→ Al
(OH)
3(aq)+3HCl
(g)

f
)Basedone( i)and(i
i)abovewhatpr ecaut
ionshouldbemadei
n:
(i
)methodIItoensurecorrectresul
ts.
-
TubeBshoul dbecompl etel
ydrytopreventhy
drol
ysi
sofi
ron(
II
I)Chl
ori
det
o
i
ron(I
II) hydr
oxide.

(
ii
)Carryi
ngoutmet hodI
-Shouldbedoneinafumechamberori
ntheopenbecausechl
ori
negasi
s
poisonous/
toxic.

(
g)Nameanot
hersubstancethatcanbeusedpl
aceofSodi
um hy
droxi
dei
nmet
hodI
Potassi
um hydroxi
de

(
h)Calci
um oxidecannotbeusedi nplaceofcalci
um chl
ori
dedur i
ngpreparationof
chl
orine.Explain.
Calci
um oxi deisabase.Itr
eact
s/ absor
bswatertoform cal
cium hy
dr oxide
sol
ution.
Calci
um hy droxidereact
swit
hchlori
netoform amixtur
eofcal ci
um chlorideand
cal
cium hy pochlori
te.
Chemi calequation
2Ca( OH)2(aq)+2Cl 2(
g)→ CaCl
2(aq)+CaOCl2(
aq)+H2O( l
)

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13.(
a)Stat
eandexpl aintheobservat
ionmadewhenapi eceofbur
ningmagnesi
um
ri
bboni sloweredinagasj arcontai
ningchl
ori
negas.
-Magnesium ri
bboncont i
nuesbur ni
ngwithabrightflame.
-Whitesolidf
ormed.
-Paleyell
owcol ourofchl
orinefades

Explanati
on:
Magnesium reactswithchlor
inef
ormingawhi
tesol
i
dofmagnesi
um chl
ori
de.
Chemi calequat
ion
Mg( s) + Cl 2(
g)→ MgCl2(s)
(
b)Wr
it
etheequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
iont
hatt
akespl
acei
fzi
nci
sused.

Zn(
s) + Cl
2(
g) → ZnCl
2(
s)

14.Burni
ngphosphoruswasloweredinagasj
arcont
aini
ngchl
ori
negas.
a)Stat
etheobservati
onsmade.
-
Phosphor
uscont i
nuestoburn.
-
Densewhit
ef umesformed.
-
Palegr
eencolourofchlor
inefades.

b)Wr
itetwopossi
bleequat
ionst
hattakepl
ace.
P4(
s) + 6Cl2(
g) → 4PCl 3(s)
P4(
s) + 10Cl2(
g)→ 4PCl 3(
s)

(
c)St
at etworeasonswhyt hedeflagrati
ngspoonwi t
hri
d/covershouldbeused.
-Chlor
ineinthegasjarispoisonous/t
oxic.
-Burni
ngphosphor usproducespoisonous/toxicphosphorus(I
II
)chl
ori
de//
phosphor us(V)chl
ori
de.
-Ensurethereacti
onisnotaffectedbyair/
oxy genfr
om theatmosphere.

(
d)Afterthereact
ioniscomplete,2cm3ofdi
sti
l
ledwat
erwer
eadded.Thesol
uti
on
f
ormedwast estedwithbothblueandredl
it
muspaper
s.
(
i)Statetheobservat
ionsmade.
-Bl
uelit
muspapert urnsred
-Redli
tmuspaperr emainred

(
ii
)Expl aint
heobservat
ionmadeind(i
)above
-Phosphori
c(V)Chlori
dehydr
oly
zeinwatert
ophosphori
c(V)acidandpr
oduce
hydrogenchlor
idegas.Bot
hhydrogenchl
ori
deandphosphor
ic(V)aci
dare
acidic.
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Chemi
calequat
ion
PCl
5(l)+ 4H2O(
l) → H3PO4(
aq) + 5HCl
(g)

15.St
ateandexpl ai
nt heobservati
onsmadewhengasj arcontai
ningchl
ori
neis
inv
ertedoveranothercont ai
ninghydrogensul
phidegas.
Observation
Yellowsolidformed.
Palecolourofchl ori
nefades
Explanat
ion
Chlori
neoxidizeshy drogensulphi
det osul
phurit
sel
freducedtohydrogen
chlor
idegas.Al i
tt
lewat ercatal
yzesthereact
ion.
Chemicalequation
H2S(g) + Cl2(
g) → S(s) + HCl(
g)
(yell
owsoli
d) ( WhiteFume)

16.Chlori
newasbubbl edinaqueousammoni asol
uti
oninabeakerst
ateandexpl
ain
theobser vationmade.
Observ at
ion:
Whi tef umesev ol
ved.
Palegr eencolourofchl
ori
nefades.
Explanation
Chlor
inereact swi thammoni agastofor
m adensewhi t
efumeofammoni achl
ori
de
andNi t
rogengasi spr
oduced.
Chemi cal equati
on
8NH3( g) + 3Cl2(
g) → 6NH4Cl(
s) + N2( g)

17.(
a)Drygaswasbubbl
edi
ncol
ddi
l
utesodi
um hy
droxi
desol
uti
on.Expl
aint
he
obser
vati
onsmade:

Obser vation
Pal egr eencolourofchlor
inefades.
Pal ey el l
owsol ut
ionisfor
med.
Explanat i
on
Chl oriner eactswithhotconcentratedsodiumsodium hydroxi
de/Potassi
um
hy droxi desoluti
ont oform pal
ey ell
owsol uti
onofmet alchl
orat
e(V)and
chl ori
desoft hemet al
Chemi cal equat i
on
Cl2(g) +2NaOH → NaClO( aq) +NaCl (aq) +H2O( l
)
(sodi um hydroxi
de)(Sodium Chl or
ate(I)
)
Cl2(g) +2KOH → KClO(aq) + NaCl (
aq)+H2O( l)
( Potassi um hydroxi
de)( Potassium Chlor
ate(
I))
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(b)Theexper imentin17(a)wasrepeatedwi t
hhotconcent rat
edsodium hy dr
oxi
de
soluti
on.Expl aint heobser
vati
onmade.
Obser vation
Pal egreencolourofchlor
inefades.
Paleyellowsoluti
onisformed.
Explanat ion
Chloriner eactswi t
hhotconcentrat
edSodi um hy dr
oxi
de/Potassium hydroxi
de
solutiont oform paleyel
lowsoluti
onofmet alchl
orat
e( v)andchlori
desof
met als.
Chemi cal equation
3Cl2(g)+6NaOH( aq) → NaCl O3(aq) + 5NaCl (aq)+3H2O( l)
(
Sodium hydroxi
de)(Sodium Chlorate(V))
3Cl
2(g)+6KOH(aq) → KClO3(aq) + 5KCl(aq)+3H2O(
l)
(Potassi
um hy
droxi
de)(
Potassi
um Chl
orat
e(V)
)

Thepr
oductsfor
medwhenchlori
nereact
swithal
kal
i
sdependt
huson
t
emper
atureandt
heconcent
rati
onofalkal
i
s.

(
c)(
i)Wri
tetheequat
ionf
ort
hef
ormat
ionofcal
ci
um chl
ori
te(
I)andcal
ci
um
chlor
ate(V)
.

2Ca( OH) 2(
aq) + 2Cl
2(
g)→ CaCl2(
aq) +CaOCl2(aq) +H2O( l
)
(
Calci
um hy droxi
de) (
Calci
um Chlorate(
I)
)
(Col
d/ di
lute)
Ca(OH) 2(aq)+Cl2(
g) → CaCl2(
aq) + Ca( Cl
O3)2(aq) +H2O(l
)
(Cal
cium Chlorat
e(V)
)

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B:
THEHALOGENS
a)Whatarehal
ogens?
Theseareel
ementsi
ngr
oupVI
Ioft
heper
iodi
ctabl
e.Theyi
ncl
ude:

El
ement SymbolAtomi
c El ectri
c Charge Val
ency Stat
eat
number conf i
gurat
ion ofion Room
Temper atur
e
-
Fl
uori
ne F 9 2:
7 F 1 Paleyell
ow
gas
-
Chlor
ine Cl 17 2:
8: 7 Cl 1 Palegreen
gas
-
Bromine Br 35 2:
8: 18:
7 Br 1 Redli
qui d
-
I
odi
ne I 53 2:
8:18:
18:
7 I 1 Gr
eySol
i
d
-
Ast
ati
ne At 85 2:
8:18:
32: 7 At
18: 1 Radi
oact
ive

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b)Comparetheatomicradiusandionicr adi
usofchlori
deionandchlori
ne.Explai
n.
Theradiusofchlori
neissmallerthantheionicradi
usothechlori
deion.
Eff
ectiv
enucleusattract
iononout erenergyl
evelinchl
ori
deionislessthan
chl
orineatom becauseofextragainedelectr
ongainedelect
ronthatrepel
ledthus
causestheouterenergylevel
toexpand/ i
ncrease.

c)Comparetheatomi
cradi
usofchlor
ineandf l
uori
neExplai
n.
Atomicradi
usofFl
uori
neissmallert
hanthatofchlori
ne.
Chlor
inehasmoreenergyl
evel
sthanfluori
neoccupiedbymor
eel
ect
rons.

d)Chl
ori
neisagas, Bromi
neisaliqui
d,Iodineisasol
id.Explai
ntheabove
obser
vati
ons.
-Br
omine,Chlori
neandi
odineexistsasdi at
omicmol ecul
esbondedbystr
ong
coval
entbond.Eachmoleculeisjoinedtotheot
herbyweaki nter
molecul
ar
for
ces/Van-der-
waalsf
orces.

-
Thestr
engt
hofi nter
molecul
ar/Van-der-
waalsfor
cesofattr
act
ionincreasewit
h
i
ncr
easeinmolecularsi
ze/at
omi cradi
us.I
odinehasther
efor
ethelargestatomi
c
r
adi
usandthusst r
ongestint
ermolecularfor
cestomakeitasoli
d.

e)(
i)Whati select
ronegati
vi
ty?
Electronegativ
ityi
sthetendency/easeofacqui
ri
ng/gainingelectr
onsbyan
elementdur ingchemicalreact
ion.
Itismeasur edusingPauling’
sscale.
Fluori
newi t
hPaul i
ngscale4.0isthemostelect
ronegativeel
ementinthe
per i
odictabl
eandt husthehighesttendencyt
oacquire/gainextr
aelect
ron.

(
ii
)Thet
abl
ebel
owshowst
heel
ect
ronegat
ivi
tyoft
hehal
ogens.

Halogen F Cl Br I At
Electr
onegat
ivi
ty(
Paul
i
ng’
s 4.
0 3.
0 2.
8 2.
5 2.
2
scale)

Expl
ainthetr
endinel ect
ronegat
ivi
tyofthehalogens.
Decreasedownthegr oupfrom f
luori
netoAstatine
Atomicradi
usincreasedownt hegroupdecreasingel
ect
ron–at
tract
ingpower
downt hegr
oupf r
om f l
uori
netoastati
ne.

(
f)(
i)
Whatiselect
ronaff
ini
ty
El
ect
ronaffi
nit
yist
heenergyr
equi
redt
ogai
nanel
ect
roni
nanat
om ofan
el
ementi
ni t
sgaseousstat
e.
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(
ii
)St
udyt
het
abl
ebel
owshowi
ngt
heel
ect
ionaf
fi
nit
yofhal
ogensf
ort
hepr
ocess
x + e → x-

Hal
ogen F Cl Br I
-
1
El
ect
ronaf
fi
nit
ykJmol
e -333 -
364 -
342 -
295

(
ii
i)Explainthetrendi nelect
ronaff
init
yofthehalogens.
-
Decr easedownt hegroup
-
At omicradiusofhal ogensincr
easedownt hegr oupthusincoming/
gai
ned
el
ectronisattractedlessstr
onglybytheprogressiv
elylar
geratomswit
ha
decreasi
ngef fecti
venuclearchargeonouterenergylevel
-
(
iv)Whichisamovestabl
eionCl orBr-explai
n?
-
-
Cli on.
-
-
Hasamor enegat
ive/
exother
micelectronaff
ini
tyt
hanBr

(
v)Dif
fer
ent
iat
ebetweenel
ect
ronaf
fi
nit
yand:
I.I
oni
zat
ionener
gy.

I
onizati
onener
gyist heenergyrequi
redtolose/donat
eanelectr
oninanatom
ofanelementi
ni t
sgaseousst atewhil
eelectr
onaffi
nit
yist
heenergyrequi
red
togain/
acqui
reextraelect
ronbyanat om ofanelementini
tsgaseousstat
e.
Botharemeasuredinkiloj
oulespermole.

I
I.El
ect
ronegat
ivi
ty.

-Elect
ronaff
ini
tyi
stheener
gyrequir
edtogainanelect
roni
nanat
om ofan
elementingaseousstat
e.I
tinv
olv
est hepr
ocess:
-
X(g) +e→ X( g)

Elect
ronegat
ivi
tyi
stheease/
tendencyofgaini
ng/acqui
ri
ngel
ect
ronsbyan
elementduri
ngchemicalr
eacti
ons.
Itdoesnotinvol
veuseofenergybuttheor
eti
calar
bit
rar
yPaul
i
ng’sscal
eof
measurements.

(
g)(
i)5cm3ofsodium chlor
ide,
Sodium br
omideandSodi
um iodi
desol
uti
onswereput
separat
elyi
ntesttubes.5dropsofchl
ori
newaterwasaddedtoeachtestt
ube:
stat
eandexplai
nt heobservat
ionmade.

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Observati
on
Yell
owcol ourofchl
ori
newaterf
adesi
nal
ltestt
ubesexpectwi
thsodi
um
chlori
de.
-Colour
edSoluti
onformed.
Explanat
ion
Chlori
neismor
eel
ectr
onegat
ivet
hanbromi
neandiodine.Onaddingchl
ori
ne
wat er
,br
omi
neandIodi
nearedi
spl
acedf
rom t
heirsolut
ionsbychl
ori
ne.
(
ii
)Theexperi
menting( i
)wasrepeat
edwi t
h5dropsofbr
omi
newat
eri
nst
eadof
chl
ori
newater.expl
aint
heobservat
ionmade.

Obser
vat
ion

Yell
owcol
ourofbr
omi
newaterfadesintestt
ubecont
aini
ngsodi
um i
odi
de.
-Brownsol
uti
onfor
medi
ntesttubecontai
ningsodi
um i
odi
de

Expl
anati
on
Bromineismoreel
ect
ronegat
ivet
haniodi
debutl
ess6thanchl
ori
ne.
OnaddingBromi
newater,
iodi
dedispl
acedfr
om i
tssol
uti
onbutnotchl
ori
ne.

(
ii
i)Usingtheknowl
edgei
ng(i)and(i
i
)above,
I.Compl et
ethet
abl
ebelowusing(X)t
oshownor
eact
ionand(
√)t
oshowa
r
eacti
on.

F- - - -
Hal
i
dei
on Cl Br I
Halogen
ionin
sol
ution
Halogen
F2 X √ √ √

Cl
2 X X √ √

Br
2 X X X √

I
2 X X X √
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Wr
it
eani onicequati
onf orther
eact i
onwher
ether
eis(V)
- -
F2(g)+ 2Cl(aq) -
>2F(aq) + Cl
2(g)

-
F2(g)+ 2Br( >2F-(aq)
aq) - + Br
2(
aq)

-
F2(g)+ 2I( >2F-(aq)
aq) - + I
2(
aq)

- -
Cl
2(g) + 2Br(aq) -
>2Cl
(aq) + Br
2(
aq)

- -
Cl
2( +
g) 2I(aq) -
>2Cl
(aq) + I
2(
aq)

- -
Br
2( +
aq) 2I( - -
aq) >2Br(
aq) + I
2(
aq)

(
h)Stat
eoneusesof :
(
i)
Fluori
ne
Manuf actur
eofP. T.F.
E( Pol
ytetr
afluoroethene)syntheticfiber
.
Reducet oothdecaywhenaddedi nsmal lamount s/equationsintoothpast
e.
Note: l
argesmal lquantit
iesoffl
uori
ne/ f
luori
dei onsinwat ercausebr owni
ngof
teeth/fl
ourosi
s.
Hydrogenf l
uorideisusedt oengrav
ewor dpictur
esi nglass.

(
ii
) Br
omine
Si
l
verbr
omi
dei
susedt
omakel
i
ghtsensi
ti
vephot
ogr
aphi
cpaper
/fi
l
ms.

(
ii
i) Iodi
de
Iodi
nedissol
vedi
nal
cohol
isusedasmedi
cinet
oki
l
lbact
eri
ainski
ncut
s.I
tis
call
edti
nctur
eofi
odi
ne.

(
i)Thet
abl
ebel
owt
oshowsomecompoundsofhal
ogens.

El
ement H Na Mg Al Si C P
Hal
ogen
F HF NaF MgH2 Al
F3 Si
F4 CF4 PF3

Cl HCl NaClMgCl Al
Cl3 Si
Cl3 CCl
4 PCl
3

Br HBr NaBr MgBr

2 Al
Bo3 Si
Br4 CBr
4 PBr
3

I Hl Nal Mgl
2 Al
l
3 Si
L4 Cl
2 Pb3
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(
j)(
i)Usi
ngdot(
.)andCr
oss(
x)t
orepr
esentel
ect
rons,
show
t
hebondi
ngi
nchl
ori
nemolecul
e.

(
ii
)Namet
het y
peofbondf
ormed.
Cov
alent.

(
ii
i)Belowist
het
abl
eshowi
ngthebondener
gyoffourhal
ogens.
-
1
Bond Bondener
gykJmol e
Cl-
Cl 242
Br-
Br 193
I-
I 151
I
.Whatdoyouunder
standbytheterm“bondenergy
”
Bondener
gyi
stheenergyrequi
redtobreak/f
orm onemol
eofchemi
cal
bond
I
I.Explainthetrendi nbondEnergyoft hehalogensabov e:
-Decreasedownt hegr oupfr
om chlori
netoI odine
-Atomicr adi
usi ncreasedownthegr oupdecr easi
ngt heener
gyrequir
edtobreak
thecov al
entbondsbet weenthelargerat
om wi t
hreducedeffect
ivenucl
ear
chargeanout erenergylevel
thattakepartinbondi ng.

(
k)Somecompoundsofchlor
inear
einthet
abl
ebelowtheoxi
dati
onst
ateofchl
ori
ne
ineachcompound.
Compound Oxi
dat
ionst
ate Nameofcompound
NaClO3 +5 Sodi
um chl
orat
e(V)
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Cl
O2 +4 Chlori
c( I
V)oxide
KCl
O2 +3 Potassium chl
or at
e( I
II
)
NaCl
O +1 Sodium Chlori
te( I
)
Cl
2 0 Chlori
neMol ecule
NaCl -
1 Sodium Chlori
de( I)
MgCl2 -
1 Magnesi um Chlori
de( I
)

C.HYDROGENCHLORI
DE
a)
Occur
rence
Hydr
ogenChl
ori
dedoesnotoccurf
reei
ntheat
mospher
eori
nnat
ure

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b)
Preparat
ion
Hydrogenchl
ori
demaybeprepar
edint
heschoollaborat
orybyreact
ingsol
i
d
sodi
um/ pot
assi
um chl
ori
decr
yst
alswi
thconcent
ratedsulphur
ic(Vi
)aci
dasint
he
setupbelow.

c)
Proper
ti
esofhy
drogenchl
ori
degas(
quest
ions)

1.
Whatprecaut i
onsshoul dbet akenwhenhandli
ngconcentratedsul
phuricacid?
Expl
ain.
-
Wearpr otectiv
eclothing/glovest
oavoidacci
dental
contactwithskin.
-
Concentratedsulphuric(VI)acidi
shighl
ycorrosi
ve-
itcausespainf
ul wounds
whenincont actwit
hski n.

2.
Whatmethodofgascoll
ecti
onisused?Expl
ain.
-
Downwarddeli
ver
y//upwarddispl
acementofwat
er
-
Hydr
ogenchlor
ideisdensert
hanair.

3.
a)Writ
etheequati
onfort
hereacti
onthatt
akespl
ace.
NaCl(
s)+H2SO4(l
)->NaHSO4(aq)+HCl (g)
KCl
(s) +H2SO4(
l)->KHSO4(aq) +HCl (
g)
NaCliscommonlyusedbecauseiti
scheapert
hanKCl

b)Whatproper
tyofconcent
ratedsulphur
ic(VI)acidi
susedduri
ngtheabove
r
eact
ion
-
ist
heleastvol
ati
leminer
alacid,
thusdisplacethemorevol
ati
lehydr
ogenchl
ori
de
f
rom i
tssal
t(KCl/
NaCl)
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d)
i)
Whati
sthepur
poseofconcent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d.
-
Dryi
ngagent/t
odrythegas.

i
i
)Whatproper
tyofconcent
rat
edsul
phuri
c(VI)aci
disusedduringt
heabov
euse.
-I
shy gr
oscopi
c–absorbswaterbutdonotfor
m solut
ion.

i
i
i)Nameanot hersubstancewhi
chcanbeusedt
odr
ychl
ori
negas.
-anhydrousCalci
um chl
ori
de
-sil
icagel

i
v)Usi
ngachemi cal equati
on,expl
ainwhyanhy drouscalci
um oxidecannotbe
usedinflaskB
-Calci
um oxi dereactswithwater/moisturetoform cal
cium hy
droxide.
Thecal cium hydroxidefor
medr eactswithchlor
inetoform cal
cium
hypochlor i
te.
Chemicalequations:
CaO( s)+2H2O( l)-> Ca(OH)2(
aq)+H2O( l
)
Ca(OH) 2(
aq)+Cl 2(g)- >CaOCl2(aq)+H2O( l
)

Thi
sreducest
heamountofChl
ori
nepr
oduced.

d)
Blueandr edlit
muspaper sweredippedi nthehy dr ogenchlor
idepreparedabov e.
ThePr ocedurewasr epeatedwi t
hdamp/ wet /
moi stlitmuspapers.Explainthe
diff
erencesinobser vationsmade.
-Drybluelit
muspaper sremainblue
-Dryredlit
muspaper sremainred
-Damp/ moist/wetbl uelitmuspaperst urnred
-Damp/ moist/wetr edl i
tmuspapert urnsred.
-Dryhydrogenchloridei samol ecularcompoundt hatisjoi
nedbycov alentbonds
betweent heatoms.Thegasi spolarthusdi ssolvesi nwaterandionizecompl etel
y
+
tofreeH t hatareresponsi bletoturni
ngbl uelit
muspaperr ed.

e)
Dr yhydrogenchlori
degaswasbubbledi
nt woseparat
elybeaker
scont
aini
ngwat
er
andi nmet hyl
benzene.
(
i)Classi
fythetwosolvent
saseither“
pol
ar”or“
non-pol
ar”
Water–pol ar
Methylbenzene–non-pol
ar

(
ii
)St
ateandexplai
ntheobser
vat
ionsmadei
nthebeakercont
aini
ng:
(
i)
Methyl
benzene
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Colourofli
tmussolut
ionremain.
Hy drogenchl
ori
deisamol ecul
arsubst
ance.Whendissol
vedi
nnon-
polarsol
vent
,it
+
doesnotdissoci
ate/ioni
zetor el
easeH ionst
hatchangest
hecol
ourofli
tmus
sol
ution.

(i
i
)Wat er
Colourofli
tmussoluti
onchanget ored.
Hydrogenchlor
ideisamol ecul
arsubstance.Whendissol
vedinpol
arsolv
entl
i
kewat
er,
+
i
tdissociat
e/i
onizetorel
easeH i onsthatchangesl
i
tmussoluti
ontored.

(
ii
i)
Whyshouldaninvert
edfil
terf
unnelbeusedtodissol
vehy dr
ogenchlor
ide.
-Thefi
lt
erfunneli
sdippedjustbel
owthewatersurfacetoincr
easethesur
face
areaofdi
ssolvi
ngthegasandpr ev
entsuckback.

(
iv)
Namethesoluti
onfor
medwhenhy
drogenchl
ori
dedi
ssol
vesi
nwat
er.
Hy
drochl
oricaci
d

(
f)Descr
ibethetestforpresenceofhydr
ogenchlor
idegas.
-Di
pagl assrodinammoni a.Bri
ngitt
othemout hofagasj
arcont
aini
ngagas
suspectedtobehy drogenchl
ori
de
-Whit
efumesofammoni achl
ori
dearefor
med.

(
g)Place5cm3ofdi l
ut ehy drochlori
cacidintoaf ourseparatetesttubes.Toseparate
testtubeaddzi nc, magnesi um ironandcoppermet al
s.Stateandexpl ai
nthe
observ ati
onsmade.
Obser vati
on
–Ef fervescence/ bubbl es/fi
zzinginallcasesexceptcopper
-Col ourlesssol utionf ormedwi t
hzincandmagnesi um.
-Gr eensol uti
onf ormedwi thion.
-Gaspr oducedt hatext inguishesspli
ntwithexplosion.
Explanat i
on
Met alsabov ehy drogeni nreactivi
tyser
iesreactwi t
hhy dr
ochlori
candl i
berat
ing
hydrogengas.
Chemi cal Equat i
on:
Concent ratedhy drochlor i
cacidisaweakoxi di
zingagentt hanotherconcentr
ated
acidsi .
eSulphur ic( VI)acidandni tr
ic(V)acidthatreactwithallmetalseventhose
loweri nther eact i
v i
tyser i
es.

(
h)Place5cm3ofdilutehydrochlor
icacidint
of i
veseparat
etesttubes.Tosepar
ate
testtubes,
addcalcium car
bonate,si
lvercarbonate,
coppercarbonat
e,i
ron(I
I)
carbonateandSodium hydrogencarbonate.Explai
ntheobservati
onsmade.
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Obser vation
Effervescence/ bubbl es/ f
izzingv i
gorouslyexceptinsi l
vercarbonateandlead(
II
)
carbonat et hatst opl ater.
-Colour l
esssol ut ionf ormedexceptwi thiron(II
)carbonateandcopper( I
I)
carbonat e
-Greensol uti
onf ormedwi t
hi ron(II
)carbonat e
-Bluesol utionf ormedwi thcopper( I
I)carbonate
Explanat i
on.
Car bonat esandhy dr ogencar bonatereactwithdilutehydrochlor
icaci
dto
producecar bon( IV)oxi de, waterandf orm chlori
des.
Allchloridesf ormedar esol ubleExceptLead( II
)Chlori
de(solubleon
heating/ war ming)andsi l
v erchlori
de.
Chemi cal equat i
on:
CaCO3( s)+2HCl (aq)→ CaCl 2(
aq)+H2O( l
)+CO2( g)
(Col ourl
esssolut i
on)

Chemicalequati
on:
Ag2CO3(s)+2HCl(
aq)→ AgCl(
s) + H2O( l
) +CO2(
g)
(Coats/
CoverAg2CO3)

Chemical
equat
ion:
CuCO3(s)+2HCl(
aq)→ CuCl
2(
aq)+H2O(
l)+CO2(
g)
(Bl
ueSol
uti
on)

Chemicalequat
ion:
FeCO3(s)+2HCl(
aq)→ FeCl
2(
aq)+H2O(
l)+CO2(
g)

Chemi
calequat
ion:
NaHCO3(s)+HCl(aq)→ NaCl
(aq)+H2O(
l)+CO2(
g)

(
I)Place5cm3ofdi l
utesodi um hydr oxide,Potassium hydroxideandaqueous
ammoni asol ut
ionint othreesepar atetesttubes.Addonedr opofphenol
phthal
ein
i
ndi catordr opwi se, adddi l
utehy drochl
oricacid.Explai
nt heobser v
ati
onsmade.
Obser v at
ion
Col ourofPhenopht haleinindi
cat orchangef rom pi
nkt ocol our
less.
Expl anation
Hy drochlor i
caci dneut ral
izesalkalistosaltandwat er
Whenal l
t healkalihasr eactedwi ththeacid, Anextraslightexcessacidt
urnsthe
i
ndicatorusedt ocol our l
ess.
Chemi cal equati
on:
NaOH( aq)+HCl (aq)→ NaCl (aq)+H2O( l)
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Chemi
calequat
ion:
KOH(aq)+HCl(aq)→ KCl(
aq)+H2O(l
)
Chemi
calequat
ion:
NH4OH(aq)+HCl(aq)→ NHaCl(
aq)+H2O(
l)

(
j ace5cm3ofhy
)Pl drochl
ori
cacidint
of ourseparat
et estt
ubetubesSepar
atel
yadd
about1gofeachofcopper(II
)Oxide,Zinc(I
I)Oxide,Lead(
II
)Oxide<Cal
cium (
II
)
Oxide.Whathappenstoeachtesttube?Explai
n.

Observati
on:
Al
lSoli
ddissol
v esexceptLead(I
I)Oxi
de
Colour
lesssoluti
onformedwi t
hzincOxi
deandcal
cium (
II
)Oxi
debl
uesol
uti
on
formedwi t
hcopper( I
I)Oxi
de.

Explanati
on:
Metaloxidesdi ssolv
esindil
utehydr
ochlori
cacidtof
orm wat
erandchlori
desal
t
Insolubl
eLead( II
)chl
ori
deandsil
v erchl
ori
deoncefor
medcov er
/coatunr
eact
ed
oxidesst oppingfurt
herr
eacti
on.
Chemi calequat i
on:CuO(s)+HCl (aq)→ CaCl2(
aq)+H2O(l
)

Chemi
cal
equat
ion:
CaO(
s)+HCl
(aq)→ CaCl
2(aq)+H2O(
l)

Chemi
cal
equat
ion:
PbO(
s)+2HCl
(aq)→ PbCl
2(aq)+H2O(
l)

Chemi
cal
equat
ion:
ZnO(
s)+HCl
(aq)→ ZCl
2(aq)+H2O(
l)

(
k)Manuf
act
ureofHy
drochl
ori
caci
d.
(
i)RawMat eri
als
1.Hy drogen
(i
)Dur ingel
ectrol
ysisofBrinefrom thef l
owi
ngmercury-
cat
hodecel
l
duri
ngt hemanuf actureofsodium hy droxi
desol
uti
on.
(i
i
)Fr om watergasbypassi ngsteam inheat
edcharcoal
.
C(s) +H2O → CO( g)+H2( g)
(i
i
i)From parti
aloxidati
onofnat uralgas/met
hane
CH4(g)+O2( g)→ CO( g)+3H2( g)
2.
Chlori
ne
(i
)Fr
om electr
oly
sisoffused/
soli
dsodium chl
ori
deint
hedownsprocess
duri
ngextract
ionofsodium
(i
i
)From el
ectrol
ysi
sofbr i
ne/
concent
ratedsodi
um chl
ori
desol
uti
oninthe

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fl
owingmercur
y-cat
hodedur
ingt
hemanuf
act
ureofsodi
um hy
droxi
de
sol
ution.

(
ii
)Chemi calprocesses.
-Hy drogenandchl ori
negasesar eseparatel
ypassedthr
oughconcent
rat
ed
sulphuri
c(VI)aci
dt oactasadr yingagent.
-Smal lamountofpur ehy dr
ogeni sconti
nuouslyi
gni
tedinachamberwit
h
continoussupplyofpur edrychlori
ne.
Largeamountofhy drogenexplodes.
-Hy drogenbur nsi
nchl or
inetoform hydrogenchl
ori
degas.
Chemi calEquati
on
H2(g)+ Cl (g) → 2HCl ( g)
-Thehy dr
ogenchlori
deproducedi
sthenpasseduptomeetadownwar dfl
ow
ofwateri
nt heabsor
bti
onchambers.Hydr
ogenchlorideisver
ysol
ubl
ein
wateranddissol
vestofor
m 35%concentr
atedhy
dr ochlor
icaci
d.
ChemicalEquati
on
HCl(g) + ( aq) → HCl (
aq)
Theabsorpti
onchamberi sshelvedandpackedwithbrokenglassbeadsto
(
i)Slowdownt hedownwardflowofwat er
.
(
ii
)Increasesurf
aceareaoverwhicht
hewat erdissol
ves
Thehydrochl
oricacidisthentr
ansport
edinsteel
tankslinedwithrubberf
or
market
(
ii
i)
UsesofHy dr
ochloricAcid
- Tost andardizethepHof( al
coholandwi nes)
- Regener ati
ngion-exchangeresi
ndur i
ngremov al
ofhardnessofwat
er.
- Pi ckl
ingofmet alstoremoveosidelayer
sont hei
rsur
faces.
- I nthemanuf actureofdyesanddrugs.
- Maki ngzincchlorideformakingdrycell
s.
(
iv)
Diagr
am Showi
ngI
ndust
ri
almanuf
act
ure.
Col
dwat
er

Absor
bti
on
Bur
ningHy
drogengas chamber

35%Conc.
HCl

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Dry
chl
ori
ne
gas

Dr
yHy
drogengas

(
ii
)Env
ironment
alef
fect
sofmanuf
act
uri
ngHCl
.

-Hydrochloricacidi
sacidic.Anyl eakagefrom amanufacturi
ngplanttonearby
riv
ers/lakecausesexessaci dityt
hatlowerspHofwat erkil
l
ingmar i
nelif
e.
-Hydrogenchl ori
deleakagei ntoatmospher edi
ssolv
estof or
m“ aci
dicrai
n”that
acceleratecorrosi
oni nbuildi
ngs, Breat
hingprobl
emst ohumanbei ngsandkil
l
faunaandf lor
aaroundt hepai nt.
-Chlor
ineleakagecausesbr eathingandsightprobl
emst ohumanbei ng.It
acceleratesbleachingofdy edmet al
s.
-Hydrogenl eakagecancauseanexpl osi
onbecauseimpurehy dr
ogenex pl
odeson
ignit
ion.

(
ii
)Fact
orsconsi
der
edi
nset
ti
nghy
drochl
ori
caci
dmanuf
act
uri
ngpl
ant
.

1.Near
nesstothemanuf acturi
ngofsodi um hydroxi
debecauset hebyproduct
s
ofel
ect
roly
sisofbrinearetherawmat eri
alsforhydrochl
ori
cacidplant
.
2.Avai
l
abil
it
yofnaturalgasforextracti
onofhy drogen.
3.Near
ness/Avai
labi
li
tyofwat ertodissolv
et hehydrogenchlor
idegas.
4.Avai
l
abil
it
yoflabour,market,capi
talandgoodmeansoft r
ansport
.

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-
D:
CHLORI
DE(
Cl)SALTS

(
a)Occur
rence.

1.Chl
ori
desaresalt
sderivedfrom hydrochlor
icacid.Hydrochl
ori
cacidi
sa
monobasi
c(HX)saltwi t
honlyonei onazabl
e/replaceabl
e“H”init
smolecul
e.
Al
lchl
ori
desarethereforenormalsalts.
2.Al
lmetal
sexistaschlori
desaltexceptplati
num andgol dasbelow

Met
al K Na Li Mg Ca Al Zn Fe Pb H. Cu Ag Hg

For
mula KCl NaCl Li
Cl MgCl
2 CaCl
2 Al
Cl3 ZnCl
2 FeCl
2 PbCl HCl CuCl AgCl Hg2Cl2
of FeCl
3 PbCl
4 CuCl
2 HgCl2
chl
ori
de

(i
)BothFeCl 2andFeCl3exi
stsbutFeCl 2isr eadi
lyoxidi
zedtoFeCl3because
i
tismor establ e.
(i
i)PbCl2a ndPbCl4e xi
stbutPbCl4isonlyoxi di
zedtoform PbCl
2b yusing
excesschl ori
ne.I
tislessstabl
e.
(i
ii)CuCl andCuCl 2exi
stsbutCuCl ¬2is(thermody namical
l
y )mor
est able
t
hanCuCl .CuCl dispr
oport
ionatetoCuandCuCl 2..
(i
v )HgCl andHgCl 2exi
stsasmol ecularcompounds.

3.All
chlori
desar esol
uble/dissolvesinwaterexceptsi
lverchl
ori
de(AgCl
),
Copper(I)chlori
deCuCl,Mer cury(I
)Chlori
deHg2Cl2andLead(II)Chl
ori
de
PbCl2thatdissol
vesinwar m wat er
.
4.Mostchl or
idesareverystablecompounds.Theydonotdecomposeongent l
e
orstr
ongbunsenbur nerheat inginaschool l
aborat
oryexceptAmmoni um
Chlor
ide.
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5.Heat
ingammoni
um chl
ori
de

Placeabout2gofsol
i
dammoni
um chl
ori
decr
yst
alsi
nacl
eandr
yboi
l
ingt
ube.
Heat
gentl
ythenstr
ongl
y.
Obser
vati
on
-
redli
tmuspaperturnbl
ue
-
bluel
itmuspaperremainsbl
ue
Thenl
ater:
-
bothbluel
it
muspaper stur
nred
Explanation:
Ammoni um chl
or i
deonheat i
ngdecomposest hroughchemi calsubli
mati
ont o
ammoni aandhy drogenchlor
idegas.Ammoni agasi slessdensethanhy dr
ogen
chl
oride.Itisabasi cgasanddiffusesoutf astertoturnredl i
tmuspapertoblue.
Hydrogenchl or
idei sanacidi
cgas. Itisdenserthanammoni agasandthusdiffuses
sl
owert hanammoni agastotur
nt heal readybothbluel i
tmuspapert or
ed.
Chemi calequati
on
NH4Cl(s) -> HCl (g) + NH3(g)
(acidicgas) (basic/al
kal
inegas)
-
(b)
TestforClions
-
1.Thefoll
owi
ngexper
imentshowst
het
estf
ort
hepr
esenceofCli
onsi
nsol
i
ds
chl
ori
desalts.

(a)Procedure:
Placeabout1gofsodi um chl
ori
de,Zi
ncchl
orideandcopper(I
I)chl
ori
dein
separateboili
ngtubes.Pl
acemoistbl
ueandredl i
tmuspapersonthemout hof
thetesttube.Caref
ull
y,addthr
eedropsofconcentrat
edsul
phuri
c(VI)aci
d.
Dipagl assrodinaqueousammoni asol
uti
ont henbri
ngi
ttothemout hoft
he
boili
ngtube.

obser
vati
on i
nference
+
-
redli
tmuspaperremainr
ed Hi ons
-
bluel
itmuspapertur
nred
-
-
vigor
ousef
fer
vescence/
fizzi
ng Clions
/
bubbli
ng

-
whi
tef
umespr
oducedon HCl
gassuspect
ed

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(
b)Explanati
on:
Concentratedsulphur
ic(
VI)aci
dist
helessvolat
il
eminer
alaci
d.
I
tvigorouslydispl
aceschl
ori
neinmetalchl
ori
destoevol
veaci
dichy
drogenchl
ori
de
gasfumes.
Chemical equati
on
NaCl(s)+H2SO4(l) -
>NaHSO4( aq)+HCl
(g)
KCl(
s) +H2SO4( l
) -
>KHSO4(aq) +HCl(
g)
CuCl2(s)+H2SO4(
l) ->CuSO4(
aq) +2HCl(g)
ZnCl2(s)+H2SO4(
l) -
>ZnSO4(aq) +2HCl (
g)
Hydrogenchlori
deandammoni agasesr eactandfor
m whitefumesofammoni
um
-
chl
oridethatconfi
rmspr
esenceofCli onsinthesol
idsubstance.
Chemi cal
equati
on
NH3(g) + HCl (
g) - > NH4Cl (s)

-
2.Thefoll
owingexper
imentshowst
het
estf
ort
hepr
esenceofCli
onsi
nsol
uti
on
/aqueouschl
ori
desalt
s.

(
i)
Usi
ngaqueousLead(
II
)ni
tr
ate(
V)

(
a)Procedur
e:
I.
Placeabout5cm3ofsodium chl
ori
de,I
ron(I
II
)chlor
ideandcopper(
II
)chlor
idein
separateboil
ingt
ubes.Addf
ourdropsofLead(II
)nit
rat
e(V)sol
uti
ontoeach.Preser
ve.

Obser
vati
on I
nfer
ence
SO42-,
SO32-, -
Whit
epreci
pit
ate/
ppt Cl,CO32-

I
I.
Tothepreservedsample,addsi
xdr
opsofni
tri
c(V)acid.Pr
eser
ve.
Obser
vati
on I
nference
2- -
Whit
epreci
pitat
e/pptper
sist SO4 ,Cl

I
II
.Tothepr eservedsample,
heatt
hemi
xtur
etoboil
Observ
at i
on I
nference
-
Whit
epr eci
pitat
e/pptdi
ssolv
eson Cl
boi
li
ng/war ming

Expl
anat
ion:

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I.
WhenLead( II)ni
tr
ate(
V)solut i
oni saddedtoanunknownsal t,awhit
e
preci
pit
ate/pptofLead(II
)sulphat e(
VI)Lead(
II
)carbonate(
IV)Lead(
II
)sul
phat
e(I
V)
Lead(I
I)chl
or i
de(I
)areformed.
Ioni
cequation:
2+
Pb ( aq) + SO42-(aq) - > PbSO4( s)
2+ 2-
Pb ( aq) + SO3 ( aq) - > PbSO3( s)
2+ 2-
Pb ( aq) + CO3 ( aq) - > PbCO3( s)
2+ -
Pb ( aq) + Cl
(aq) -
> PbCl 2(s)

I
I.
Whent hewhitepreci
pit
ate/
pptformedisaci
difi
edwithdil
utenit
ric(V)acid,
the
whit
epreci
pit
ateofLead(II
)sulphat
e(VI
)andLead( I
I)chl
ori
de(I)persist
/remain
whil
ethatofLead(I
I)car
bonate(I
V)andLead(I
I)sul
phate(
IV)dissolves.

I
II
.Onheating/war
mingLead(I
I)chl
ori
de(I)dissol
vesbutoncooli
ngit
-
r
ecrystal
l
izes.
Thi
sshowsthepresenceofClionsinaqueoussolut
ions
.
(
ii
)Usingaqueoussi
lv
er(I
)ni
tr
ate(V)

Procedur
e
I.Placeabout5cm3ofsodium chl
ori
de,
Iron(I
II
)chl
orideandcopper(
II
)chl
ori
dein
separ at
eboil
ingt
ubes.Addfourdr
opsofsi l
ver
(I
)ni
trate(
V)sol
uti
ontoeach.Pr
eserv
e.

Obser
vati
on I
nference
-
Whit
epreci
pit
ate/
ppt Cl,CO32-

I
I.Tothepr eser
vedsample,addsi
xdr
opsofni
tr
ic(
V)acid.Pr
eser
ve.
Obser
v ati
on I
nfer
ence
-
Whit
epr eci
pitat
e/pptper
sist Cl

Explanat
ion:
I.
Whensi lver(
I)ni
tr
ate(V)solut
ioni
saddedtoanunknownsal
t,awhi
tepr
eci
pit
ate
/pptofsi l
ver(I
)carbonate(
IV)andsi
lv
er(
I)chl
ori
de(I
)ar
efor
med.
Ionicequation:
+
2Ag (aq) + CO32-(
aq) - > Ag2CO3( s)
+ -
Ag (aq) + Cl(
aq) -
> AgCl (
s)

I
I.Whenthewhitepr
ecipi
tate/
pptformedisaci
difi
edwit
hdil
uteni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d,the
whit
epreci
pit
ateofsi
lv
er( I
)chlor
ide(I
)per
sist
/remai
n.Thi
sshowsthepr
esenceof
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-
Cl
ionsinaqueoussol
uti
ons.
Si
lver(
I)car
bonate(I
V)di
ssol
veswhenr
eact
edwi
thni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d.

COMPREHENSI
VEREVI
SIONQUESTI
ONS

1.I
nanexperi
ment,dryhy
drogenchl
ori
degaswaspassedt
hroughheat
edzinc
tur
ningsasi
nthesetupbelow.
Thegasproducedwast
hepassedthr
oughcopper
(I
I)
oxi
de

a)Wr
it
etheequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
ion:
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(
i)
Fort
heschool
labor
ator
ypr epar
ati
onofhy
drogenchl
ori
degas.
NaCl
(s)+H2SO4(
l)->NaHSO4(
aq)+HCl (g)

(
ii
)i
ntubeS
Zn(
s)+2HCl
(aq) -
>ZnCl
2(
aq)+ H2(
g)

b)St
ateandexplaint heobser vati
onmadei ntubeV.
Observat
ions-colourofsolidchangesfrom bl
ackt obrown
-
colourlessli
qui dfor
ms ont hecoolerpartsoft
ubeV
Expl
anati
on-Hy drogenpr oducedintubeSreducesblackcopper(II
)oxi
deto
browncoppermet al andt hegasoxi di
zedtowatervapourthatcondenseoncool
er
part
s..
Chemicalequat i
on.
CuO( s)+H2( g) -
>Cu(
s)+ H2O( l)

(c)Howwoul dt hetot al
massoft ubeSandt ubeVandt hei
rcontentscompar ebef ore
andaf t
ertheexper iment .
TubeS-Massi ncrease/r i
sebecauseZi nccombi newi thchlor
inetoform heavierZinc
Chlori
de.
TubeV-Massdecr ease/ fall
s/lowersbecausecopper( II
)oxideisreducedt oli
ghter
copperandoxy gencombi newi thhy dr
ogent of or
m wat ervapourthatescape.
2.Chlori
neispr eparedbyusi ngsol i
dsodi um chlor
ide,concentr
atedsulphuric(
VI)acid
andpot assi
um manganat e(VII
)
a)Whatisther oleoft hefollowingint hereaction;
(i
)concent r
atedsul phuric(VI)
Topr oducehy drogenchl oridegasbyr eacti
ngwi t
ht hesoli
dsodi um chl
oride.

(i
i)
pot
assium manganate(
VII
)
Tooxi
dizehydr
ogenchlori
degast
ochl
ori
ne

3.
Uset
hef
lowchar
tbel
owt
oanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow.

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a)
(i
)Name:
gasX Hydrogenchlor
ide
sol
uti
onW hydrochl
ori
cacid
gasQ chlori
ne
bl
eachingagentZ sodium chl
orat
e(V)
b)
Wr i
tethechemicalequati
onforthefor
mat i
onof:
(i)gasX
NaCl(
s)+H2SO4(l)-
>NaHSO4( aq)+HCl (g)

(
ii
)sol
uti
onW
HCl
(g) + (
aq) -
> HCl
(aq)

(i
i
i)gasQ
2KMnO4 +16HCl
(aq)-
>2KCl
(aq)+2MnCl
2(
aq)+8H2O(
l)+5Cl
2(
g)

(
iv)
bleachi
ngagentZ
6NaOH( aq) + 3Cl
2(
g)-
>NaCl
(aq)+NaCl
O3(
aq)+3H2O(
l)

c)
Stateandexpl ainthef ol
lowingobservati
ons;
(i)aglassr oddi ppedi naqueousammoni aisbroughtneargasX
Obser vation:Densewhi tefumes
Explanation:Ammoni agasreactswithhy dr
ogenchlori
degastofor
m densewhi
te
fumesofammoni um chlor
ide.
Chemi cal equat i
on:NH3(g)+HCl(g)->NH4Cl (
s)
(ii
)Wetblueandr edlit
muspaper swer edippedint
ogasQ
Obser vati
ons: Bluel i
tmuspaperturnedredt hebotharebleached
/decolorized.
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Explanati
ons: chlor
inereactswithwatertoform bot
hacidi
chy dr
ochl
oricandchlor
ic
(I)aci
dsthatt urnbluelitmuspaperred.Unstabl
echlor
ic(I
)acidoxi
dizesthedyein
thepaperst ocolourless.
Chemi calequations
Cl2(g)+HCl (aq) ->HCl (
aq)+ HCl O(aq)
Coloureddy e+HCl O( aq) ->HCl
(aq)+ ( Col
ourl
essdye+O) /
/
(Coloureddye-O)+HCl O(aq) -
>HCl(
aq)+ Col ourl
essdye

4.
Uset
hef
lowchar
tbel
owt
oanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow

a)Name
Liqui
dA Concent
ratedsulphuri
c(VI
)aci
d
ProcessZ Neutr
ali
zati
on
Whit
esol
idX Ammoni um chl
oride

b)
Wri
tetheequat
ionf
orthefor
mat
ionof:
(i)Hydr
ogenchl
ori
de
NaCl(
s)+H2SO4(
l)-
>NaHSO4(
aq)+HCl
(g)

(
ii
)B
HCl (g) + (
aq) -
> HCl
(aq)
(
ii
i)
processZ( usi
ngi
onicequat
ion)
+ -
H( aq) + OH(aq) - > H2O(
l)

(
iv)
C(usi
ngi
oni
cequat
ion)
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Ag+( -
aq) + Cl
(aq) -
> AgCl
(s)

c)
Describehowsol uti
onBi sobt ai
ned.
Bubbl
inghy dr
ogenchl ori
degast hroughinvert
edfunneli
ntodi
stil
l
edwater
unti
lnomor edissolve.
5Ther esul
tsobtainedwhenhal ogensarebubbl edintotestt
ubescontai
ningsol
uti
ons
ofhali
deA, BandCi sasinthetabl ebel
ow.Ti ck(v
)meansar eacti
ontook
pl
ace.Cross(x)meansnor eacti
ont ookplace.

Hal
i
dei
onsi
nsol
uti
on
Hal
ogens
A B C
I
2 x - x

Br
2 x v -

Cl
2 - v v

a)
Identi
fythehal
idei onsrepresent
edbyl et
ter
-
A Cl
-
B I
-
C Br
b)
Wr i
tetheioni
cequat i
onforthereact
ionthattakeplacewit
hhal
i
de:
(i
)C
- -
Cl
2(g) + 2Br (
aq) - > 2Cl (aq) + Br2(
aq)

(i
i
)B
- -
Cl2(
g) + 2Br(aq) -
> 2Cl
(aq) + Br
2(aq)
- -
Cl2(
g) + 2I(
aq) -
> 2Cl
(aq) + I
2(
aq)

6.
Thedi
agram bel
owshowsasetupofappar
atusf
ort
heschool
labor
ator
ycol
l
ect
ion
ofdr
ychl
ori
negas.

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a)
Name:
(i
)substanceQ
Concentratedhy drochl
oricacid
(i
i
)sui
tabledr yi
ngagentL
-
Concent ratedsulphuri
c(VI)acid
-
anhy drouscal ci
um chlor
ide
-
sil
icagel
b)St
ateami ssingcondi ti
onf ort
her eact
iontot
akepl
acef
ast
er.
-
Heat /Heating

c)Redandblueli
tmuspapersweredippedintot
hechl
ori
negasfrom t
heabov
esetup
.Stat
eandexplaint
heobservat
ionsmade.
Observat
ion:Bl
ueli
tmuspaperremainblue.Redl
it
muspaperremai
nr ed.
Explanat
ion:Dr
ychlor
inehasnoeffectondryli
tmuspaper
s.

d)
Wri
tetheequat
ionfort
hereact
iontaki
ngpl
aceint
heconical
flask
MnO4(s)+4HCl(aq)-
> MnCl2(aq)+2H2O(l
)+Cl 2(
g)

e)
Namet woothersubstancesthatcanbeusedi
npl
aceofMnO2
Lead(I
V)oxide(PbO2)
Potassi
um manganat e(
VI)
(KMnO4)
Potassi
um dichr
omat e(
K2Cr2O4)

Bl
eachi
ngpowder
(CaOCl
2)

7.Thesetupbel
owshowst
heappar
atususedt
opr
epar
eandcol
l
ectanhy
drousi
ron(
II
I)
chlor
ide.

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a)
Namesal
tK
Ir
on(I
II
)cchl
ori
de

b)Writ
etheequat
ionf
ort
hereact
ionfort
hefor
mat
ionofsal
tK
2Fe(s) +3Cl2(
g) -
> 2FeCl 3(s/
g)

c)St
ateandexplai
nthefol
lowi
ng
(i
)Smallamountofwateri
saddedtoi
ron(II
)chlor
ideinatesttubet
hen
shaken
Soli
ddissol
vestofor
m agreensol
uti
on.I
ron(I
I)chlor
idei
ssolublei
nwater

(i
i)I
.Thr eedropsofaqueoussodi um hydroxi
deisaddedtoaqueousiron(
II
)
chlorideandt henaddedexcessofthealkali
.
Observ ati
on:
Greenpr eci
pitateisformedthatper
sist/
remain/i
nsolubl
einexcessakal
i.
Explanat i
on:
Ir
on( I
I)chlori
der eactswithaqueoussodium hydr
oxi
det ofor
m agreen
precipitateofi r
on(I
I)hydroxi
de.
Ionicequat i
on:
2+
Fe ( aq) + OH-(aq) - > Fe( OH)2(
s)

I
I.
Sixdropsofhydr
ogenper oxidei
saddedtothemixt
ureind(i
i
)above.
Observati
on:
Effer
vescence/
bubbl
ing/
fizzingtakepl
aceandthegreenpr
ecipi
tat
e
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di
ssolv
etoform ay
ell
ow/ br
ownsolution.
Expl
anati
on:
hydr
ogenperoxi
deoxi
dizesgreenFe2+toyel
l ownFe3+sol
ow/br uti
on.

9.
Uset
hef
lowchar
tbel
owt
oanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow.

a)
Wri
tet
hechemi
calequati
onf
orthefor
mat
ionofgasA
NaCl(
s)+H2SO4(
l)-
>NaHSO4(aq)+HCl(
g)

b)
Identi
fy:
(
i)f
ourpossibl
ei onsthatcanpr
oducewhi
tepr
eci
pit
ateB
2- 2- 2- -
SO4 ,SO3 ,CO3 ,Cl

(
ii
)t
wopossi
bleionsthatcanpr
oduce;
I
.Whi
tepreci
pit
ateC
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SO42-, -
Cl
II
.col
ourlesssol utionD
2- 2-
SO3 , CO3
(
ii
i)
possibl
eionspr esenti n
I.
Whitepr eci pitateE
2-
SO4
II
.col
ourlesssol utionF
-
Cl

11.Bel
owisasetupi
nthepr
epar
ati
onofapar
ti
cul
arsal
t.St
udyi
tandanswert
he
quest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow.

St
atet
he
obser
vati
onmadewhenal
umi
nium wool
isheat
ed.
Glowsredhot
.

b)
(i
)Ident
if
ysaltA
al
umini
um(
II
I)chl
ori
de/
/Al
Cl3

(
ii
)Wr
itet
heequat
ionforthef
ormationofsal
tA
2Al
(s)+3Cl
2(g) -
>2AlCl3(
s/g)

(
ii
i)
Whatproper
tyofsal
tAi
sexhibi
tedasshowni
ntheexper
iment
.
I
tsubli
mes//subl
i
mat
ion.
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(i
v)Cal
cul
atet hemi nimum volumeofchl ori
ner equiredtoform 700kgofiron(
II
I)
chl
ori
deatroom temper ature.
(Fe=56. 0,Cl=35.5,
1mol eofagas=24000cm3, 1000g=
1kg)
Mol
er atio Fe: Cl2 =2: 3mol armassFeCl 3=162.5g
Method1
2x162. 5gFeCl 3- >3x22400cm3Cl 2
700x1000gFeCl 3- >( 700x1000x3x22400) /(
2x162. 5)
-
8
=1.4474x10 cm3
Method2
Mol
esofFeCl 3=ma ss/mol armass
=>( 700x1000)/162. 5=4307. 6923mol es
Mol
esofCl 2=3 /
2mol esofFeCl 3
=>3/2x4307. 6923=6461. 5385mol es
Vol
umeofchl orine=mol esxmol argasv ol
ume
=>6461.5385x24000=1. 5508x10-8cm3

c)Nameanot
hermet
alt
hatcanpr
oducesi
mil
arr
esul
tsassal
tK.
Ir
on

d)
(i
)Whati
sthepur
poseofanhy
drouscal
ci
um chl
ori
de.

-ensuretheapparatusar
ewat erf
ree.
-preventwaterf
rom theatmospherefr
om ent
eri
ngand
alter
ing//
hydrol
ysingsal
tA

(
ii
)Wri
tetheequat
ionf
ort
hereact
iont
hatt
akepl
acei
fanhy
drouscal
ci
um
chl
ori
dei
snotusedintheabov
esetup.

Al
Cl3(
s) +3H2O(
l)-
>Al
(OH)
3(aq)+3HCl
(g)

(i
i
i)Wri
tetheequati
onfort
her
eact
iont
hatt
akepl
acewhenI
ronmet
ali
sreact
edwi
th
dryhy
drogenchlor
idegas.

Fe(
s) +2HCl
(g) -
>FeCl
2(
s)+H2(
g)

(
iv)
Calcul
atet hemassofI ron(I
I)
chl
ori
defor
medwhen60cm3ofhy drogenchl
ori
deat
r
.t
.piscompl etelyreact
ed.(1moleofagas=24dm3atr.
t.
p,Fe=56.O,Cl=35.
5)
Chemi cal equati
onFe( s) + 2HCl
(g) -
>FeCl
2(
s) +Cl 2(
g)

Mol
erat
ioHCl
:FeCl
2=1:
1
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Mol
armassFeCl
2=127g

Mol
esofHClused=60cm3/24000cm3=2.5x10-3mol
es
-
3
Mol
esofFeCl
2=Mo l
esofHCl=>2.5x10 moles

MassofFeCl
2=mol
esxmol 5x10-3x127=0.
armass=>2. 3175g

12.
Studyt
hef
lowchar
tbel
owandusei
ttoanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow

a)
Identi
fysubstance:
P Ir
on( I
I)chlori
de//FeCl
2
Q Chlorine/ /Cl2
R Ir
on( I
II)chlor
ide/
/FeCl3

b)
Writ
etheequat
ionf
orther
eact
ionfort
hef
ormat
ionof
:
(i
)gasQ
2KMnO4(s)+16HCl(
aq)-
> 2KCl(
aq)+2MnCl
2(
aq)+8H2O(
l)+5Cl
2(
g)

(i
i
)thegr eenpr
ecipi
tat
e(usi
ngi
oni
cequat
ion)
I
onicequat i
on:
2+
Fe ( aq) + 2OH-(
aq) -> Fe(OH)2(s)

(i
i
)thebr ownpreci
pit
ate(usi
ngi
oni
cequati
on)
I
onicequation:
3+
Fe ( aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH)3(
s)

c)
Aglassrodwasdippedi
naqueousammonia.Ther
odwasthenbr
oughtnear
hydr
ogenchl
ori
de.Stat
eandexpl
aint
heobserv
ati
onmade.
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Observ at
ion:
Whi tef
umes
Explanati
on:
Ammoni agasr eactswithhydr
ogenchlori
degastofor
m whit
efumesofammonium
chl
oride.
Chemi calequati
on:
NH3(g)+HCl (
g)->NH4Cl (
s)
13.Usingdot (.
)andcross(x)
torepr
esentel
ect
rons,
showthebondi
ngi
nalumi
nium
chl
orideinv apourphase.

(
b)Howmanyel ectronsi n:
(
i)
alumini
um at omsar eusedi nbonding.
Sixelectrons(threevalenceelectr
onsi neachaluminium atom)
(
ii
)chl
ori
neat omsat omsar eusedi ndati
v ebonding.
fourelectrons(twolonepai rsofvalenceelectr
onsint wochlori
neatoms)
(
ii
i)
themolecul eareusedi nbondi ng.
Sixt
eenel ectrons
-sixv al
enceelect r
onsf r
om alumi ni
um atom t
hroughcov al
entbond
-sixv al
enceelect r
onsf r
om chlorineatomsthroughcov al
entbond.
-fourv alenceelectronsfrom chlori
neatomst hroughdativ
ebond

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(
c)Howmanyl onepairofelectr
onsdonottakepar
tinbondi
ngwit
hint
hemol
ecul
e.
Si
xteen(
16)lonepairsfrom si
xchl
ori
neatoms(32el
ectr
ons)

(d)Alumini
um chl ori
dedoesnotconductelectr
ici
tyi
nmoltenstatebutMagnesium
chlorideconduct .
3+ -
Alumi ni
um chl or
ideisamol ecul
arcompoundthathasnofreemobi l
eAl andCl ions
whichar eresponsibleforconducti
ngelect
ri
ci
ty.Magnesi
um chlori
dehasf r
eemobi le
2+ -
Mg andCli onsbecauseitisanioni
ccompound.

8.Uset
hef
lowchar
tbel
owt
oanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow:

a)
Wr i
teanequat i
onfortheschool labor atoryformationofhy dr
ogenchl
ori
degas
NaCl (
s)+H2SO4( l
)->NaHSO4( aq)+HCl (g)
KCl (
s)+H2SO4(l)->KHSO4( aq)+HCl (g)
b)
Name:
I.soli
dY Ir
on( I
I)chloride( FeCl2)
IIgreenpreci
pit
ateIr
on( I
I)hydr oxide( Fe(OH)2
IIIGasY Chlorine( Cl2)
IV.Bleachi
ngagentA Sodi um hy pochlorit
e(NaOCl )
c)
Blueandr edli
tmuspaper swer edippedi ntobleachingagentA.Wri
tet
heequat
ion
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f
ort
her
eact
iont hattakesplace.
Coloureddy e+NaOCl (aq) -
>NaCl(
aq)+ (Col
our
lessdye+O)/
/
(Coloureddy e-
O)+NaOCl (aq) -
>NaCl(
aq)+ Col
ourlessdy
e

d)
Stat
efourusesofgasZ
1.Bleachingagent
2.Manuf actur
eofhydrochlor
icaci
d
3.Chlori
nationofwatertokil
lger
ms
4.Manuf actur
eofPVCpi pes

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