FORM THREE CHEMISTRY UPDATED

NOTES

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 Page 2 of 87
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 TOPIC:1
GAS LAWS/MOLES
(a)Gas laws
1. Matter is made up of small particle in accordance to Kinetic Theory of matter:
Naturally, there are basically three states of matter: Solid, Liquid and gas:

(i)A solid is made up of particles which are very closely packed with a definite/fixed shape and
fixed/definite volume /occupies definite space. It has a very high density.

(ii) A liquid is made up of particles which have some degree of freedom. It thus has no definite/fixed
shape. It takes the shape of the container it is put. A liquid has fixed/definite volume/occupies
definite space.

(iii)A gas is made up of particles free from each other. It thus has no definite /fixed shape. It takes the
shape of the container it is put. It has no fixed/definite volume/occupies every space in a container.

2.Gases are affected by physical conditions. There are two physical conditions:
(i)Temperature
(ii)Pressure

3. The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin(K).

Degrees Celsius/Centigrade(oC) are also used.
The two units can be interconverted from the relationship:
o
C + 273= K
K -273 = oC
Practice examples
1. Convert the following into Kelvin.
(i) O oC
o
C + 273 = K substituting : O oC + 273 = 273 K
(ii) -273 oC
o
C + 273 = K substituting : -273oC + 273 = 0 K
(iii) 25 oC
o
C + 273 = K substituting : 25 oC + 273 = 298 K
(iv) 100 oC
o
C + 273 = K substituting : 100 oC + 273 = 373 K

2. Convert the following into degrees Celsius/Centigrade(oC).

(i) 10 K
K -273 = oC substituting: 10 – 273 = -263 oC

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(ii) (i) 1 K
K -273 = oC substituting: 1 – 273 = -272 oC

(iii) 110 K
K -273 = oC substituting: 110 – 273 = -163 oC

(iv) -24 K
K -273 = oC substituting: -24 – 273 = -297 oC

The standard temperature is 273K = 0 oC.

The room temperature is assumed to be 298K = 25oC

4. The SI unit of pressure is Pascal(Pa) / Newton per metre squared (Nm-2) . Millimeters’ of
mercury(mmHg) ,centimeters of mercury(cmHg) and atmospheres are also commonly used.

The units are not interconvertible but Pascals(Pa) are equal to Newton per metre squared(Nm-2).

The standard pressure is the atmospheric pressure.

Atmospheric pressure is equal to about:

(i)101325 Pa
(ii)101325 Nm-2
(iii)760 mmHg
(iv)76 cmHg
(v)one atmosphere.
5. Molecules of gases are always in continuous random motion at high speed. This motion is affected by
the physical conditions of temperature and pressure.

Physical conditions change the volume occupied by gases in a closed system.

The effect of physical conditions of temperature and pressure was investigated and expressed in both
Boyles and Charles laws.

6. Boyles law states that

“the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure at constant/fixed
temperature ”
Mathematically:
Volume α 1 (Fixed /constant Temperature)
Pressure
V α 1 (Fixed /constant T) ie PV = Constant(k)
P
From Boyles law , an increase in pressure of a gas cause a decrease in volume. i.e doubling the
pressure cause the volume to be halved.

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Graphically therefore a plot of volume(V) against pressure (P) produces a curve.

P
Graphically a plot of volume(V) against inverse/reciprocal of pressure (1/p) produces a straight line

1
/P

For two gases then P1 V1 = P2 V2

P1 = Pressure of gas 1
V1 = Volume of gas 1
P2 = Pressure of gas 2
V2 = Volume of gas 2
Practice examples:
1. A fixed mass of gas at 102300Pa pressure has a volume of 25cm3.Calculate its volume if the
pressure is doubled.
Working
P1 V1 = P2 V2 Substituting :102300 x 25 = (102300 x 2) x V2
V2 = 102300 x 25 = 12.5cm3
(102300 x 2)

2. Calculate the pressure which must be applied to a fixed mass of 100cm3 of Oxygen for its
volume to triple at 100000Nm-2.
P1 V1 = P2 V2 Substituting :100000 x 100 = P2 x (100 x 3)
V2 = 100000 x 100 = 33333.3333 Nm-2
(100 x 3)

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3.A 60cm3 weather ballon full of Hydrogen at atmospheric pressure of 101325Pa was released
into the atmosphere. Will the ballon reach stratosphere where the pressure is 90000Pa?
P1 V1 = P2 V2 Substituting :101325 x 60 = 90000 x V2
V2 = 101325 x 60 = 67.55 cm3
90000

The new volume at 67.55 cm3 exceed ballon capacity of 60.00 cm3.It will burst before reaching
destination.
7.Charles law states that“the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature at constant/fixed pressure ”

Mathematically:
Volume α Pressure (Fixed /constant pressure)

V α T (Fixed /constant P) ie V = Constant(k)

T

From Charles law , an increase in temperature of a gas cause an increase in volume. i.e doubling the
temperature cause the volume to be doubled.
Gases expand/increase by 1/273 by volume on heating.Gases contact/decrease by 1/273 by volume on
cooling at constant/fixed pressure.

The volume of a gas continue decreasing with decrease in temperature until at -273oC /0 K the
volume is zero. i.e. there is no gas.
This temperature is called absolute zero.

It is the lowest temperature at which a gas can exist.

Graphically therefore a plot of volume(V) against Temperature(T) in:
(i)oC produces a straight line that is extrapolated to the absolute zero of -273oC .

-273oC 0oC
T(oC)

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(ii)Kelvin/K produces a straight line from absolute zero of O Kelvin

0 T(Kelvin)

For two gases then V1 = V 2

T1 T2
T1 = Temperature in Kelvin of gas 1
V1 = Volume of gas 1
T2 = Temperature in Kelvin of gas 2
V2 = Volume of gas 2

Practice examples:
1. 500cm3 of carbon(IV)oxide at 0oC was transfered into a cylinder at -4oC. If the capacity of the
cylinder is 450 cm3,explain what happened.
V1 = V2 substituting 500 = V2
T1 T2 (0 +273) (-4 +273)

= 500 x (-4 x 273) = 492.674cm3

(0 + 273)

The capacity of cylinder (500cm3) is less than new volume(492.674cm3).

7.326cm3(500-492.674cm3)of carbon(IV)oxide gas did not fit into the cylinder.

2. A mechanic was filling a deflated tyre with air in his closed garage using a hand pump. The
capacity of the tyre was 40,000cm3 at room temperature. He rolled the tyre into the car outside.
The temperature outside was 30oC.Explain what happens.
V1 = V2 substituting 40000 = V2
T1 T2 (25 +273) (30 +273)
= 40000 x (30 x 273) = 40671.1409cm3
(25 + 273)
The capacity of a tyre (40000cm3) is less than new volume(40671.1409cm3).
The tyre thus bursts.

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3. A hydrogen gas balloon with 80cm3 was released from a research station at room temperature.
If the temperature of the highest point it rose is -30oC , explain what happened.
V1 = V2 substituting 80 = V2
T1 T2 (25 +273) (-30 +273)
= 80 x (-30 x 273) = 65.2349cm3
(25 + 273)
The capacity of balloon (80cm3) is more than new volume (65.2349cm3).
The balloon thus remained intact.

8. The continuous random motion of gases differ from gas to the other.The movement of molecules (of
a gas) from region of high concentration to a region of low concentration is called diffusion.
The rate of diffusion of a gas depends on its density. i.e. The higher the rate of diffusion, the less
dense the gas.

The density of a gas depends on its molar mass/relative molecular mass. i.e. The higher the density the
higher the molar mass/relative atomic mass and thus the lower the rate of diffusion.

Examples
1.Carbon (IV)oxide(CO2) has a molar mass of 44g.Nitrogen(N2)has a molar mass of 28g. (N2)is thus
lighter/less dense than Carbon (IV)oxide(CO2). N2 diffuses faster than CO2.

2.Ammonia(NH3) has a molar mass of 17g.Nitrogen(N2)has a molar mass of 28g. (N2)is thus about
twice lighter/less dense than Ammonia(NH3). Ammonia(NH3) diffuses twice faster than N2.

3. Ammonia(NH3) has a molar mass of 17g.Hydrogen chloride gas has a molar mass of 36.5g.Both
gases on contact react to form white fumes of ammonium chloride .When a glass/cotton wool dipped in
ammonia and another glass/cotton wool dipped in hydrochloric acid are placed at opposite ends of a
glass tube, both gases diffuse towards each other. A white disk appears near to glass/cotton wool
dipped in hydrochloric acid. This is because hydrogen chloride is heavier/denser than Ammonia and
thus its rate of diffusion is lower .

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The rate of diffusion of a gas is in accordance to Grahams law of diffusion. Grahams law states that:
“the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its density, at the
same/constant/fixed temperature and pressure”
Mathematically

R α 1 and since density is proportional to mass then R α 1

√ p √ m

For two gases then:

R1 = R2 where: R1 and R2 is the rate of diffusion of 1st and 2nd gas.
√M2 √M1 M1 and M2 is the molar mass of 1st and 2nd gas.

Since rate is inverse of time. i.e. the higher the rate the less the time:
For two gases then:
T1 = T2 where: T1 and T2 is the time taken for 1st and 2nd gas to diffuse.
√M1 √M2 M1 and M2 is the molar mass of 1st and 2nd gas.

Practice examples:
1. It takes 30 seconds for 100cm3 of carbon(IV)oxide to diffuse across a porous plate. How long
will it take 150cm3 of nitrogen(IV)oxide to diffuse across the same plate under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure. (C=12.0,N=14.0=16.0)
Molar mass CO2=44.0 Molar mass NO2=46.0
Method 1
100cm3 CO2 takes 30seconds
150cm3 takes 150 x30 = 45seconds
100

T CO2 = √ molar mass CO2 => 45seconds = √ 44.0

T NO2 √ molar mass NO2 T NO2 √ 46.0

T NO2 =45seconds x √ 46.0 = 46.0114 seconds

√ 44.0

Method 2
100cm3 CO2 takes 30seconds
1cm3 takes 100 x1 = 3.3333cm3sec-1
30
R CO2 = √ molar mass NO2 => 3.3333cm3sec-1 = √ 46.0
R NO2 √ molar mass CO2 R NO2 √ 44.0
R NO2 = 3.3333cm3sec-1 x √ 44.0 = 3.2601cm3sec-1

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√ 46.0
3.2601cm3 takes 1seconds
150cm3 take 150cm3 = 46.0109seconds
3.2601cm3

2. How long would 200cm3 of Hydrogen chloride take to diffuse through a porous plug if
carbon(IV)oxide takes 200seconds to diffuse through.

Molar mass CO2 = 44g Molar mass HCl = 36.5g

T CO2 = √ molar mass CO2 => 200 seconds = √ 44.0
T HCl √ molar mass HCl T HCl √ 36.5
T HCl = 200seconds x √ 36.5 = 182.1588 seconds
√ 44.0

3. Oxygen gas takes 250 seconds to diffuse through a porous diaphragm. Calculate the molar mass
of gas Z which takes 227 second to diffuse.
Molar mass O2 = 32g Molar mass Z = x g
T O2 = √ molar mass O2 => 250 seconds = √ 32.0
T Z √ molar mass Z 227seconds √ x
√ x = 227seconds x √ 32 = 26.3828 grams
250

4. 25cm3 of carbon(II)oxide diffuses across a porous plate in 25seconds. How long will it take
75cm3 of Carbon(IV)oxide to diffuse across the same plate under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure. (C=12.0,0=16.0)
Molar mass CO2 = 44.0 Molar mass CO = 28.0
Method 1
25cm3 CO takes 25seconds
75cm3 takes 75 x25 = 75seconds
25
T CO2 = √ molar mass CO2 => T CO2seconds = √ 44.0
T CO √ molar mass CO 75 √ 28.0
T CO2 =75seconds x √ 44.0 = 94.0175 seconds
√ 28.0

Method 2
25cm3 CO2 takes 25seconds
1cm3 takes 25 x1 = 1.0cm3sec-1
25

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R CO2 = √ molar mass CO => x cm3sec-1 = √ 28.0
R CO √ molar mass CO2 1.0cm3sec -1
√ 44.0
R CO2 = 1.0cm3sec x √ 28.0
-1
= 0.7977cm3sec -1

√ 44.0
0.7977cm3 takes 1 seconds
75cm3 takes 75cm3 = 94.0203seconds
0.7977cm3

(b)Introduction to the mole, molar masses and Relative atomic masses

1. The mole is the SI unit of the amount of substance.
2. The number of particles e.g. atoms, ions, molecules, electrons, cows, cars are all measured in terms of
moles.
3. The number of particles in one mole is called the Avogadros Constant. It is denoted “L”.
The Avogadros Constant contain 6.023 x10 23 particles. i.e.
1mole = 6.023 x10 23 particles = 6.023 x10 23

2 moles = 2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles = 1.205 x10 24

0.2 moles = 0.2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles = 1.205 x10 22
0.0065 moles = 0.0065 x 6.023 x10 23 particles = 3.914 x10 21

3. The mass of one mole of a substance is called molar mass. The molar mass of:
(i) an element has mass equal to relative atomic mass /RAM(in grams)of the element e.g.
Molar mass of carbon(C)= relative atomic mass = 12.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of carbon = 1 mole =12.0 g
Molar mass of sodium(Na) = relative atomic mass = 23.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of sodium = 1 mole =23.0 g

Molar mass of Iron (Fe) = relative atomic mass = 56.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of iron = 1 mole =56.0 g

(ii) a molecule has mass equal to relative molecular mass /RMM (in grams)of the molecule. Relative
molecular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the elements making the molecule.

The number of atoms making a molecule is called atomicity. Most gaseous molecules are diatomic
(e.g. O2, H2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)noble gases are monoatomic(e.g. He, Ar, Ne, Xe),Ozone gas(O3) is
triatomic e.g.
Molar mass Oxygen molecule(O2) =relative molecular mass =(16.0x 2)g =32.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen molecule = 1 mole = 32.0 g

Molar mass chlorine molecule(Cl2) =relative molecular mass =(35.5x 2)g =71.0g

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6.023 x10 23 particles of chlorine molecule = 1 mole = 71.0 g
Molar mass Nitrogen molecule(N2) =relative molecular mass =(14.0x 2)g =28.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of Nitrogen molecule = 1 mole = 28.0 g

(ii) a compound has mass equal to relative formular mass /RFM (in grams)of the molecule. Relative
formular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the elements making the compound. e.g.

(i) Molar mass Water(H2O) = relative formular mass =[(1.0 x 2 ) + 16.0]g =18.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of Water molecule = 1 mole = 18.0 g

6.023 x10 23 particles of Water molecule has:
- 2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Hydrogen atoms
-1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms

(ii)Molar mass sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) = relative formular mass

=[(1.0 x 2 ) + 32.0 + (16.0 x 4)]g =98.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) = 1 mole = 98.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) has:
- 2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Hydrogen atoms
-1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Sulphur atoms
-4 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms

(iii)Molar mass sodium carbonate(IV)(Na2CO3) = relative formular mass

=[(23.0 x 2 ) + 12.0 + (16.0 x 3)]g =106.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of sodium carbonate(IV)(Na2CO3) = 1 mole = 106.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of sodium carbonate(IV)(Na2CO3) has:
- 2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Sodium atoms
-1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Carbon atoms
-3 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms

(iv)Molar mass Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) = relative formular mass

=[(40.0+ 12.0 + (16.0 x 3)]g =100.0g.

6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) = 1 mole = 100.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) has:
- 1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium atoms
-1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Carbon atoms
-3 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms

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(v)Molar mass Water(H2O) = relative formular mass
=[(2 x 1.0 )+ 16.0 ]g =18.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of Water(H2O) = 1 mole = 18.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of Water(H2O) has:
- 2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Hydrogen atoms
-2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms

Practice
1. Calculate the number of moles present in:
(i)0.23 g of Sodium atoms
Molar mass of Sodium atoms = 23g
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.01moles
Molar mass 23

(ii) 0.23 g of Chlorine atoms

Molar mass of Chlorine atoms = 35.5 g
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.0065moles /6.5 x 10-3 moles
Molar mass 35.5

(iii) 0.23 g of Chlorine molecules

Molar mass of Chlorine molecules =( 35.5 x 2) = 71.0 g
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.0032moles /3.2 x 10-3 moles
Molar mass 71

(iv) 0.23 g of dilute sulphuric(VI)acid

Molar mass of H2SO4 = [(2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x14)] = 98.0g
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.0023moles /2.3 x 10-3 moles
Molar mass 98

2. Calculate the number of atoms present in:(Avogadros constant L = 6.0 x 10 23)

(i) 0.23 g of dilute sulphuric (VI)acid
Method I
Molar mass of H2SO4 = [(2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x14)] = 98.0g
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.0023moles /2.3 x 10-3 moles
Molar mass 98
23
1 mole has 6.0 x 10 atoms
2.3 x 10-3 moles has (2.3 x 10-3 x 6.0 x 10 23) = 1.38 x 10 21 atoms
1
Method II
Molar mass of H2SO4 = [(2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x14)] = 98.0g
98.0g = 1 mole has 6.0 x 10 23 atoms

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 0.23 g therefore has (0.23 g x 6.0 x 10 23 ) = 1.38 x 10 21 atoms
98

(ii)0.23 g of sodium carbonate(IV)decahydrate

Molar mass of Na2CO3.10H2 O=
[(2 x 23) + 12 + (3 x16) + (10 x 1.0) + (10 x 16)] = 276.0g
Method I
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.00083moles /
Molar mass 276 8.3 x 10-4 moles
1 mole has 6.0 x 10 23 atoms
8.3 x 10-4 moles has (8.3 x 10-4 moles x 6.0 x 10 23) = 4.98 x 10 20 atoms
1
Method II
276.0g = 1 mole has 6.0 x 10 23 atoms
0.23 g therefore has (0.23 g x 6.0 x 10 23 ) = 4.98 x 10 20 atoms
276.0
(iii)0.23 g of Oxygen gas

Molar mass of O2 = (2 x16) = 32.0 g

Method I
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.00718moles /
Molar mass 32 7.18 x 10-3 moles
1 mole has 2 x 6.0 x 10 23 atoms in O2
7.18 x 10-3moles has (7.18 x 10-3moles x 2 x 6.0 x 10 23) =8.616 x 10 21atoms
1

Method II
32.0g = 1 mole has 2 x 6.0 x 10 23 atoms in O2
0.23 g therefore has (0.23 g x 2 x 6.0 x 10 23 ) = 8.616 x 10 21atoms
32.0

(iv)0.23 g of Carbon(IV)oxide gas

Molar mass of CO2 = [12 + (2 x16)] = 44.0 g

Method I
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.00522moles /
Molar mass 44 5.22 x 10-3 moles
1 mole has 3 x 6.0 x 10 23 atoms in CO2
7.18 x 10-3moles has (5.22 x 10-3moles x 3 x 6.0 x 10 23) =9.396 x 10 21atoms
1

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Method II
44.0g = 1 mole has 3 x 6.0 x 10 23 atoms in CO2
0.23 g therefore has (0.23 g x 3 x 6.0 x 10 23 ) = 9.409 x 10 21atoms
44.0

(c)Empirical and molecular formula

1.The empirical formula of a compound is its simplest formula. It is the simplest whole number ratios in
which atoms of elements combine to form the compound.
2.It is mathematically the lowest common multiple (LCM) of the atoms of the elements in the
compound
3.Practically the empirical formula of a compound can be determined as in the following examples.

To determine the empirical formula of copper oxide

(a)Method 1:From copper to copper(II)oxide
Procedure.
Weigh a clean dry covered crucible(M1).Put two spatula full of copper powder into the crucible.

Weigh again (M2).Heat the crucible on a strong Bunsen flame for five minutes. Lift the lid, and swirl
the crucible carefully using a pair of tong. Cover the crucible and continue heating for another five
minutes. Remove the lid and stop heating. Allow the crucible to cool. When cool replace the lid and
weigh the contents again (M3).

Sample results
Mass of crucible(M1) 15.6g
Mass of crucible + copper before heating(M2) 18.4
Mass of crucible + copper after heating(M3) 19.1

Sample questions
1. Calculate the mass of copper powder used.
Mass of crucible + copper before heating(M2) = 18.4
Less Mass of crucible(M1) = - 15.6g
Mass of copper 2.8 g

2. Calculate the mass of Oxygen used to react with copper.

Method I
Mass of crucible + copper after heating(M3) = 19.1g
Mass of crucible + copper before heating(M2) = - 18.4g
Mass of Oxygen = 0.7 g

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Method II
Mass of crucible + copper after heating(M3) = 19.1g
Mass of crucible = - 15.6g
Mass of copper(II)Oxide = 3.5 g
Mass of copper(II)Oxide = 3.5 g
Mass of copper = - 2.8 g
Mass of Oxygen = 0.7 g

3. Calculate the number of moles of:

(i) copper used (Cu = 63.5)
number of moles of copper = mass used => 2.8 = 0.0441moles
Molar mass 63.5

(ii) Oxygen used (O = 16.0)

number of moles of oxygen = mass used => 0.7 = 0.0441moles
Molar mass 16.0

4. Determine the mole ratio of the reactants

Moles of copper = 0.0441moles = 1 => Mole ratio Cu: O = 1:1
Moles of oxygen 0.0441moles 1

5.What is the empirical, formula of copper oxide formed.

CuO (copper(II)oxide

6. State and explain the observations made during the experiment.

Observation
Colour change from brown to black
Explanation
Copper powder is brown. On heating it reacts with oxygen from the air to form black copper(II)oxide

7. Explain why magnesium ribbon/shavings would be unsuitable in a similar experiment as the

one above.
Hot magnesium generates enough heat energy to react with both Oxygen and Nitrogen in the air
forming a white solid mixture of Magnesium oxide and magnesium nitride.

This causes experimental mass errors.

(b)Method 2: From copper(II)oxide to copper

Procedure.
Weigh a clean dry porcelain boat (M1). Put two spatula full of copper(II)oxide powder into the crucible.
Reweigh the porcelain boat (M2). Put the porcelain boat in a glass tube and set up the apparatus as
below;

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 Determining empirical formula from copper(II)oxide to copper

Copper(II)oxide Excess hydrogen

burning

HEAT

Hydrogen /Laboratory gas /

Ammonia gas/Carbon(II)Oxide
gas from a generator
jgthungu@gmail.com 52

Pass slowly (to prevent copper(II)oxide from being blown away)a stream of either dry Hydrogen
/ammonia/laboratory gas/ carbon(II)oxide gas for about two minutes from a suitable generator.

When all the in the apparatus set up is driven out ,heat the copper(II)oxide strongly for about five
minutes until there is no further change.

Stop heating.
Continue passing the gases until the glass tube is cool.
Turn off the gas generator.
Carefully remove the porcelain boat form the combustion tube.
Reweigh (M3).

Sample results

Mass of boat(M1) 15.6g

Mass of boat before heating(M2) 19.1
Mass of boat after heating(M3) 18.4

Sample questions
1. Calculate the mass of copper(II)oxide used.
Mass of boat before heating(M2) = 19.1
Mass of empty boat(M1) = - 15.6g
Mass of copper(II)Oxide 3.5 g

2. Calculate the mass of

(i) Oxygen.
Mass of boat before heating(M2) = 19.1

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Mass of boat after heating (M3) = - 18.4g
Mass of oxygen = 0.7 g

(ii)Copper
Mass of copper(II)Oxide = 3.5 g
Mass of oxygen = 0.7 g
Mass of oxygen = 2.8 g

3. Calculate the number of moles of:

(i) Copper used (Cu = 63.5)
number of moles of copper = mass used => 2.8 = 0.0441moles
Molar mass 63.5

(ii) Oxygen used (O = 16.0)

number of moles of oxygen = mass used => 0.7 = 0.0441moles
Molar mass 16.0

4. Determine the mole ratio of the reactants

Moles of copper = 0.0441moles = 1 => Mole ratio Cu: O = 1:1
Moles of oxygen 0.0441moles 1

5.What is the empirical, formula of copper oxide formed.

CuO (copper(II)oxide

6. State and explain the observations made during the experiment.

Observation
Colour change from black to brown
Explanation
Copper(II)oxide powder is black. On heating it is reduced by a suitable reducing agent to brown copper
metal.

7. Explain why magnesium oxide would be unsuitable in a similar experiment as the one above.
Magnesium is high in the reactivity series. None of the above reducing agents is strong enough to
reduce the oxide to the metal.
8. Write the equation for the reaction that would take place when the reducing agent is:
(i) Hydrogen
CuO(s) + H2(g) -> Cu(s) + H2O(l)
(Black) (brown) (colourless liquid form
on cooler parts )

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(ii)Carbon(II)oxide
CuO(s) + CO (g) -> Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(Black) (brown) (colourless gas, form
white ppt with lime water )

(iii)Ammonia
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) -> 3Cu(s) + N2 (g) + 3H2O(l)
(Black) (brown) (colourless liquid form
on cooler parts )

9. Explain why the following is necessary during the above experiment;

(i)A stream of dry hydrogen gas should be passed before heating copper (II) Oxide.
Air combine with hydrogen in presence of heat causing an explosion

(ii)A stream of dry hydrogen gas should be passed after heating copper (II) Oxide has been
stopped.
Hot metallic copper can be re-oxidized back to copper(II)oxide

(iii) A stream of excess carbon (II)oxide gas should be ignited to burn

Carbon (II)oxide is highly poisonous/toxic. On ignition it burns to form less toxic carbon (IV)oxide gas.

10. State two sources of error in this experiment.

(i)All copper(II)oxide may not be reduced to copper.
(ii)Some copper(II)oxide may be blown out the boat by the reducing agent.

4.Theoreticaly the empirical formula of a compound can be determined as in the following examples.
(a)A oxide of copper contain 80% by mass of copper. Determine its empirical formula. (Cu = 63.5,
16.0)
% of Oxygen = 100% - % of Copper => 100- 80 = 20% of Oxygen

Element Copper Oxygen

Symbol Cu O
Moles present = % composition 80 20
Molar mass 63.5 16
Divide by the smallest value 1.25 1.25
1.25 1.25
Mole ratios 1 1

Empirical formula is CuO

Page 19 of 87
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(b)1.60g of an oxide of Magnesium contain 0.84g by mass of Magnesium. Determine its empirical
formula(Mg = 24.0, 16.0)
Mass of Oxygen = 1.60 – 0.84 => 0.56 g of Oxygen

Element Magnesium Oxygen

Symbol Mg O
Moles present = % composition 0.84 0.56
Molar mass 24 16
Divide by the smallest value 0.35 0.35
0.35 0.35
Mole ratios 1 1

Empirical formula is MgO

(c)An oxide of Silicon contain 47% by mass of Silicon. What is its empirical formula(Si = 28.0, 16.0)
Mass of Oxygen = 100 – 47 => 53% of Oxygen

Element Silicon Oxygen

Symbol Si O
Moles present = % composition 47 53
Molar mass 28 16
Divide by the smallest value 1.68 3.31
1.68 1.68
Mole ratios 1 1.94 = 2

Empirical formula is SiO2

(d)A compound contain 70% by mass of Iron and 30% Oxygen. What is its empirical formula
(Fe = 56.0, 16.0)
Mass of Oxygen = 100 – 47 => 53% of Oxygen

Element Silicon Oxygen

Symbol Si O
Moles present = % composition 47 53
Molar mass 28 16
Divide by the smallest value 1.68 3.31
1.68 1.68
Mole ratios 1 1.94 = 2

Empirical formula is SiO2

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2.During heating of a hydrated copper (II)sulphate(VI) crystals, the following readings were
obtained:
Mass of evaporating dish =300.0g
Mass of evaporating dish + hydrated salt = 305.0g
Mass of evaporating dish + anhydrous salt = 303.2g
Calculate the number of water of crystallization molecules in hydrated copper (II)sulphate(VI)
(Cu =64.5, S = 32.0,O=16.0, H = 1.0)
Working
Mass of Hydrated salt = 305.0g -300.0g = 5.0g
Mass of anhydrous salt = 303.2 g -300.0g = 3.2 g
Mass of water in hydrated salt = 5.0g -3.2 g = 1.8g
Molar mass of water(H2O) = 18.0g
Molar mass of anhydrous copper (II)sulphate(VI) (CuSO4) = 160.5g

Element/compound anhydrous copper (II) Oxygen

sulphate(VI)
Symbol CuSO4 O
Moles present = composition by mass 3,2 1.8
Molar mass 160.5 18
Divide by the smallest value 0.0199 0.1
0.0199 18
Mole ratios 1 5

The empirical formula of hydrated salt = CuSO4.5H2O

Hydrated salt has five/5 molecules of water of crystallizations

4. The molecular formula is the actual number of each kind of atoms present in a molecule of a
compound.
The empirical formula of an ionic compound is the same as the chemical formula but for simple
molecular structured compounds, the empirical formula may not be the same as the chemical formula.
The molecular formula is a multiple of empirical formula .It is determined from the relationship:
(i) n = Relative formular mass
Relative empirical formula
where n is a whole number.

(ii) Relative empirical formula x n = Relative formular mass where n is a whole number.

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Practice sample examples
1. A hydrocarbon was found to contain 92.3% carbon and the remaining Hydrogen.
If the molecular mass of the compound is 78, determine the molecular formula(C=12.0, H =1.0)
Mass of Hydrogen = 100 – 92.3 => 7.7% of Oxygen

Element Carbon Hydrogen

Symbol C H
Moles present = % composition 92.3 7.7
Molar mass 12 1
Divide by the smallest value 7.7 7.7
7.7 7.7
Mole ratios 1 1

Empirical formula is CH
The molecular formular is thus determined :
n = Relative formular mass = 78 = 6
Relative empirical formula 13
The molecular formula is (C H ) x 6 = C6H6

2. A compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen contain 54.55% carbon, 9.09% and remaining
36.36% oxygen.
If its relative molecular mass is 88, determine its molecular formula(C=12.0, H =1.0, O= 16.0)
Element Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
Symbol C H O
Moles present = % composition 54.55 9.09 36.36
Molar mass 12 1 16
Divide by the smallest value 4.5458 9.09 2.2725
2.2725 2.2725 2.2725
Mole ratios 2 4 1

Empirical formula is C2H4O

The molecular formula is thus determined :
n = Relative formular mass = 88 = 2
Relative empirical formula 44
The molecular formula is (C2H4O ) x 2 = C4H8O2.

4.A hydrocarbon burns completely in excess air to form 5.28 g of carbon (IV) oxide and 2,16g of
water.
If the molecular mass of the hydrocarbon is 84, draw and name its molecular structure.
Since a hydrocarbon is a compound containing Carbon and Hydrogen only. Then:

Page 22 of 87
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Mass of carbon in CO2 = Mass of C in CO2 x mass of CO2 =>
Molar mass of CO2
12 x 5.28 = 1.44g√
44
Mass of Hydrogen in H2O = Mass of C in H2O x mass of H2O =>
Molar mass of H2O
2 x 2.16 = 0.24g√
18
Element Carbon Hydrogen
Symbol C H
Moles present = mass 1.44g 0.24g√
Molar mass 12 1
Divide by the smallest value 0.12 0.24
0.12 0.12

Mole ratios 1 2√

Empirical formula is CH2√

The molecular formular is thus determined :
n = Relative formular mass = 84 = 6√
Relative empirical formula 14

The molecular formula is (CH2 ) x 6 = C6H12. √

molecular name Hexene√/Hex-1-ene (or any position isomer of Hexene)
Molecular structure
H H H H H H

H C C C C C C H√

H H H H

5. Compound A contain 5.2% by mass of Nitrogen .The other elements present are Carbon,
hydrogen and Oxygen. On combustion of 0.085g of A in excess Oxygen,0.224g of carbon(IV)oxide
and 0.0372g of water was formed. Determine the empirical formula of A (N=14.0, O=16.0 ,
C=12.0 , H=1.0)
Mass of N in A = 5.2% x 0.085 = 0.00442 g
Mass of C in A = 12 x 0.224 = 0.0611g
44
Mass of H in A = 2 x 0.0372 = 0.0041g
18
Mass of O in A = 0.085g – 0.004442g = 0.0806g (Mass of C,H,O)
=> 0.0611g + 0.0041g = 0.0652g (Mass of C,H)

Page 23 of 87
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 0.0806g (Mass of C,H,O)- 0.0652g (Mass of C,H) = 0.0154 g
Element Nitrogen Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
Symbol N C H O
Moles present = mass 0.00442 g 0.0611g 0.0041g 0.0154 g
Molar mass 14 12 1 16
Divide by the smallest value 0.00032 0.00509 0.0041g 0.00096
0.00032 0.00032 0.00032 0.00032
Mole ratios 1 16 13 3
Empirical formula = C16H13NO3

(d)Molar gas volume

The volume occupied by one mole of all gases at the same temperature and pressure is a constant.It is:
(i) 24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at room temperature(25oC/298K)and pressure(r.t.p).
i.e. 1mole of all gases =24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
Examples
1mole of O2 = 32g =6.0 x1023 particles= 24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
1mole of H2 = 2g =6.0 x1023 particles =24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
1mole of CO2 = 44g = 6.0 x1023 particles =24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
1mole of NH3 = 17g =6.0 x1023 particles = 24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
1mole of CH4 = 16g =6.0 x1023 particles =24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p

(ii)22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at standard temperature(0oC/273K) and pressure(s.t.p)

i.e. 1mole of all gases =22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
Examples
1mole of O2 = 32g =6.0 x1023 particles= 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
1mole of H2 = 2g =6.0 x1023 particles = 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
1mole of CO2 = 44g = 6.0 x1023 particles = 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
1mole of NH3 = 17g =6.0 x1023 particles= 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
1mole of CH4 = 16g =6.0 x1023 particles = 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p

The volume occupied by one mole of a gas at r.t.p or s.t.p is commonly called the molar gas volume.
Whether the molar gas volume is at r.t.p or s.t.p must always be specified.

From the above therefore a less or more volume can be determined as in the examples below.

Practice examples
1. Calculate the number of particles present in:
(Avogadros constant =6.0 x1023mole-1 )

Page 24 of 87
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(i) 2.24dm3 of Oxygen.
22.4dm3 -> 6.0 x1023
2.24dm3 -> 2.24 x 6.0 x1023
22.4
=6.0 x10 molecules = 2 x 6.0 x1022. = 1.2 x1023 atoms
22

(ii) 2.24dm3 of Carbon(IV)oxide.

22.4dm3 -> 6.0 x1023
2.24dm3 -> 2.24 x 6.0 x1023
22.4
=6.0 x1022 molecules = (CO2) = 3 x 6.0 x1022. = 1.8 x1023 atoms

2. 0.135 g of a gaseous hydrocarbon X on complete combustion produces 0.41g of carbon(IV)oxide

and 0.209g of water.0.29g of X occupy 120cm3 at room temperature and 1 atmosphere pressure
.Name X and draw its molecular structure.(C=12.0,O= 16.O,H=1.0,1 mole of gas occupies 24dm3
at r.t.p)
Molar mass CO2= 44 gmole-1√ Molar mass H2O = 18 gmole-1√
Molar mass X = 0.29 x (24 x 1000)cm3 = 58 gmole-1√
120cm3
Since a hydrocarbon is a compound containing Carbon and Hydrogen only. Then:
Mass of carbon in CO2 = Mass of C in CO2 x mass of CO2 =>
Molar mass of CO2
12 x 0.41 = 0.1118g√
44
Mass of Hydrogen in H2O = Mass of C in H2O x mass of H2O =>
Molar mass of H2O
2 x 0.209 = 0.0232g√
18

Element Carbon Hydrogen

Symbol C H
Moles present = % composition 0.g118 0.0232g√
Molar mass 12 1
Divide by the smallest value 0.0093 0.0232
0.0093 0.0093√

Mole ratios 1 x2 2.5x2

2 5√

Empirical formula is C2H5√

Page 25 of 87
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The molecular formular is thus determined :
n = Relative formular mass = 58 = 2√
Relative empirical formula 29
The molecular formula is (C2H5 ) x 2 = C4H10.√
Molecule name Butane
Molecula structure
H H H H

H C C C C H√

H H H H

(e)Gravimetric analysis
Gravimetric analysis is the relationship between reacting masses and the volumes and /or masses of
products. All reactants are in mole ratios to their products in accordance to their stoichiometric
equation. Using the mole ration of reactants and products any volume and/or mass can be determined as
in the examples:
1. Calculate the volume of carbon(IV)oxide at r.t.p produced when 5.0 g of calcium carbonate is
strongly heated.(Ca=40.0, C= 12.0,O = 16.0,1 mole of gas =22.4 at r.t.p)
Chemical equation
CaCO3(s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Mole ratios 1: 1: 1
Molar Mass CaCO3 =100g

Method 1
100g CaCO3(s) -> 24dm3 CO2(g) at r.t.p
5.0 g CaCO3(s) -> 5.0 g x 24dm3 = 1.2dm3/1200cm3
100g

Method 2
Moles of 5.0 g CaCO3(s) = 5.0 g = 0.05 moles
100 g
Mole ratio 1:1
Moles of CO2(g) = 0.05moles
Volume of CO2(g) = 0.05 x 24000cm3 =1200cm3 /1.2dm3

2. 1.0g of an alloy of aluminium and copper were reacted with excess hydrochloric acid. If 840cm3
of hydrogen at s.t.p was produced, calculate the % of copper in the alloy.(Al =27.0,one mole of a
gas at s.t.p =22.4dm3 )

Page 26 of 87
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Chemical equation
Copper does not react with hydrochloric acid
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) -> 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)

Method 1
3H2(g) = 3 moles x (22.4 x 1000)cm3 => 2 x 27 g Al
840cm3 => 840cm3 x 2 x 27 = 0.675g of Aluminium
3 x 22.4 x 1000
Total mass of alloy – mass of aluminium = mass of copper
=> 1.0g - 0.675g =0.325g of copper
% copper = mass of copper x100% = 32.5%
Mass of alloy

Method 2
Mole ratio 2Al: 3H2 = 2:3
Moles of Hydrogen gas = volume of gas => 840cm3 = 0.0375moles
Molar gas volume 22400cm3
Moles of Al = /3 moles of H2 => 2/3x 0.0375moles = 0.025moles
2

Mass of Al = moles x molar mass =>0.025moles x 27 = 0.675g

Total mass of alloy – mass of aluminium = mass of copper
=> 1.0g - 0.675g = 0.325 g of copper
% copper = mass of copper x100% = 32.5%
Mass of alloy

(f)Gay Lussac’s law

Gay Lussacs law states that “when gases combine/react they do so in simple volume ratios to each
other and to their gaseous products at constant/same temperature and pressure”

Gay Lussacs law thus only apply to gases

Given the volume of one gas reactant, the other gaseous reactants can be deduced thus:

Examples
1. Calculate the volume of Oxygen required to completely react with 50cm3 of Hydrogen.
Chemical equation: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) -> 2H2O(l)
Volume ratios 2 : 1 : 0
Reacting volumes 50cm3 : 25cm3
50cm3 of Oxygen is used

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2. Calculate the volume of air required to completely reacts with 50cm3 of Hydrogen.(assume
Oxygen is 21% by volume of air)
Chemical equation: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) -> 2H2O(l)
Volume ratios 2 : 1 : 0
Reacting volumes 50cm3 : 25cm3
50cm3 of Oxygen is used
21% = 25cm3
100% = 100 x 25 =
21

3.If 5cm3 of a hydrocarbon CxHy burn in 15cm3 of Oxygen to form 10cm3 of Carbon(IV)oxide and
10cm3 of water vapour/steam, obtain the equation for the reaction and hence find the value of x and y in
CxHy.
Chemical equation: CxHy (g) + O2 (g) -> H2O(g) + CO2(g)
Volumes 5cm3 : 15cm3 : 10cm3 : 10cm3
Volume ratios 5cm3 : 15cm3 : 10cm3 : 10cm3 (divide by lowest volume)
5 5 5 5
Reacting volume ratios 1volume 3 volume 2 volume 2 volume
Balanced chemical equation: CxHy (g) + 3O2 (g) -> 2H2O(g) + 2CO2(g)
If “4H” are in 2H2O(g) the y=4
If “2C” are in 2CO2 (g) the x=2
Thus(i) chemical formula of hydrocarbon = C2H4
(ii) chemical name of hydrocarbon = Ethene

4.100cm3 of nitrogen (II)oxide NO combine with 50cm3 of Oxygen to form 100cm3 of a single
gaseous compound of nitrogen. All volumes measured at the same temperature and pressure.
Obtain the equation for the reaction and name the gaseous product.
Chemical equation: NO (g) + O2 (g) -> NOx
Volumes 100cm3 : 50cm3 : 100
Volume ratios 100cm3 : 50cm3 : 100cm3 (divide by lowest volume)
50 50 50
Reacting volume ratios 2volume 1 volume 2 volume
Balanced chemical equation: 2 NO (g) + O2 (g) -> 2NO x(g)
Thus(i) chemical formula of the nitrogen compound = 2 NO2
(ii) chemical name of compound = Nitrogen(IV)oxide

5.When 15cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon was burnt in 100cm3 of Oxygen ,the resulting gaseous
mixture occupied70cm3 at room temperature and pressure. When the gaseous mixture was passed
through, potassium hydroxide its volume decreased to 25cm3.

(a)What volume of Oxygen was used during the reaction.(1mk)

Volume of Oxygen used =100-25 =75cm3√

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(P was completely burnt)

(b)Determine the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon(2mk)

CxHy + O2 -> xCO2 + yH2O
15cm3 : 75cm3
15 15
1 : 3√
=> 1 atom of C react with 6 (3x2)atoms of Oxygen
Thus x = 1 and y = 2 => P has molecula formula CH4√

(g) Ionic equations

An ionic equation is a chemical statement showing the movement of ions (cations and anions ) from
reactants to products.

Solids, gases and liquids do not ionize/dissociate into free ions. Only ionic compounds in
aqueous/solution or molten state ionize/dissociate into free cations and anions (ions)

An ionic equation is usually derived from a stoichiometric equation by using the following guidelines

Guidelines for writing ionic equations

1.Write the balanced stoichiometric equation
2.Indicate the state symbols of the reactants and products
3.Split into cations and anions all the reactants and products that exist in aqueous state.
4.Cancel out any cation and anion that appear on both the product and reactant side.
5. Rewrite the chemical equation. It is an ionic equation.
Practice

(a)Precipitation of an insoluble salt

All insoluble salts are prepared in the laboratory from double decomposition /precipitation. This
involves mixing two soluble salts to form one soluble and one insoluble salt
1. When silver nitrate(V) solution is added to sodium chloride solution,sodium nitrate(V) solution and a
white precipitate of silver chloride are formed.
Balanced stoichiometric equation
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) -> AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion

Ag+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s) + Na+(aq)+ NO3- (aq)

Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side

Ag+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s) + Na+(aq)+ NO3- (aq)

Page 29 of 87
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Rewrite the equation
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s) (ionic equation)

2. When barium nitrate(V) solution is added to copper(II)sulphate(VI) solution, copper(II) nitrate(V)

solution and a white precipitate of barium sulphate(VI) are formed.
Balanced stoichiometric equation
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + CuSO4(aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + Cu(NO3) 2 (aq)

Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion

Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + 2NO3- (aq)+ Cu2+(aq)

Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side

Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) +Cu2+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)-> BaSO4(s) + 2NO3- (aq) + Cu2+(aq)

Rewrite the equation

Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) -> BaSO4(s) (ionic equation)

3.A yellow precipitate of Potassium Iodide is formed from the reaction of Lead(II)nitrate(v) and
potassium iodide.
Balanced stoichiometric equation
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq) -> PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion
Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + 2K +(aq) + 2I - (aq) -> PbI2 (s) + 2NO3- (aq)+ 2K +(aq)

Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + 2K +(aq) + 2I - (aq) -> PbI2 (s) + 2NO3- (aq)+ 2K +(aq)
Rewrite the equation
Pb2+(aq) + 2I - (aq) -> PbI2 (s) (ionic equation)

(b)Neutralization
Neutralization is the reaction of an acid with a soluble base/alkali or insoluble base.

(i)Reaction of alkalis with acids

1.Reaction of nitric(V)acid with potassium hydroxide

Balanced stoichiometric equation
HNO3(aq) + KOH (aq) -> H2O (l) + KNO3 (aq)

Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion

H+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + K +(aq) + OH - (aq) -> H2O (l) + NO3- (aq)+ K +(aq)

Page 30 of 87
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Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side
H+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + K +(aq) + OH - (aq) -> H2O (l) + NO3- (aq)+ K +(aq)

Rewrite the equation

H+ (aq) + OH - (aq) -> H2O (l) (ionic equation)

2.Reaction of sulphuric(VI)acid with ammonia solution

Balanced stoichiometric equation
H2SO4(aq) + 2NH4OH (aq) -> H2O (l) + (NH4) 2SO4 (aq)

Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion

2H+(aq) + SO42- (aq) + 2NH4 +(aq)+ 2OH - (aq) ->2H2O (l) +SO42- (aq)+ 2NH4 + (aq)

Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side

2H+(aq) + SO42- (aq) + 2NH4 +(aq)+ 2OH - (aq) ->2H2O (l) +SO42- (aq)+ 2NH4 + (aq)

Rewrite the equation

2H+ (aq) + 2OH - (aq) -> 2H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + OH - (aq) -> H2O (l) (ionic equation)

3.Reaction of hydrochloric acid with Zinc hydroxide

Balanced stoichiometric equation

2HCl(aq) + Zn(OH)2 (s) -> 2H2O (l) + ZnCl 2 (aq)

Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion

2H+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + Zn(OH)2 (s) ->2H2O (l) + 2Cl- (aq)+ Zn 2+ (aq)

Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side

2H+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + Zn(OH)2 (s) ->2H2O (l) + 2Cl- (aq)+ Zn 2+ (aq)

Rewrite the equation

2H+(aq) + Zn(OH)2 (s) ->2H2O (l) + Zn 2+ (aq) (ionic equation)

(h)Molar solutions
A molar solution is one whose concentration is known. The SI unit of concentration is Molarity
denoted M.
Molarity may be defined as the number of moles of solute present in one cubic decimeter of solution.
One cubic decimeter is equal to one litre and also equal to 1000cm3.
The higher the molarity the higher the concentration and the higher/more solute has been dissolved in
the solvent to make one cubic decimeter/ litre/1000cm3 solution.

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Examples
2M sodium hydroxide means 2 moles of sodium hydroxide solute is dissolved in enough water to make
one cubic decimeter/ litre/1000cm3 uniform solution mixture of sodium hydroxide and water.

0.02M sodium hydroxide means 0.02 moles of sodium hydroxide solute is dissolved in enough water to
make one cubic decimeter/ litre/1000cm3 uniform solution mixture of sodium hydroxide and water.
“2M” is more concentrated than“0.02M”.

Preparation of molar solution

Procedure
Weigh accurately 4.0 g of sodium hydroxide pellets into a 250cm3 volumetric flask.
Using a wash bottle add about 200cm3 of distilled water.
Stopper the flask.
Shake vigorously for three minutes.
Remove the stopper for a second then continue to shake for about another two minutes until all the
solid has dissolved.
Add more water slowly upto exactly the 250 cm3 mark.
Sample questions

1.Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide pellets present in:

(i) 4.0 g.
Molar mass of NaOH = (23 + 16 + 1) = 40g
Moles = Mass => 4.0 = 0.1 / 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
Molar mass 40

(ii) 250 cm3 solution in the volumetric flask.

Moles in 250 cm3 = 0.1 / 1.0 x 10 -1 moles

(iii) one decimeter of solution

Method 1
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3
Volume of solution
=> 1.0 x 10 -1 moles x 1000cm3 =
250cm3
= 0.4 M / 0.4 molesdm-3

Method 2
250cm3 solution contain 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
250 cm3
= 0.4 M / 0.4 molesdm-3

Page 32 of 87
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Theoretical sample practice
1. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing:
(i) 4.0 g sodium hydroxide dissolved in 500cm3 solution
Molar mass of NaOH = (23 + 16 + 1) = 40g
Moles = Mass => 4.0 = 0.1 / 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
Molar mass 40

Method 1
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3
Volume of solution
=> 1.0 x 10 -1 moles x 1000cm3
500cm3
= 0.2 M / 0.2 molesdm-3

Method 2
500 cm3 solution contain 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
500 cm3
= 0.2 M / 0.2 molesdm-3

(ii) 5.3 g anhydrous sodium carbonate dissolved in 50cm3 solution

Molar mass of Na2CO3 = (23 x 2 + 12 + 16 x 3) = 106 g

Moles = Mass => 5.3 = 0.05 / 5. 0 x 10-2 moles

Molar mass 106

Method 1
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3
Volume of solution
=> 1.0 moles x 1000cm3 =
50cm3
=1.0 M

Method 2
50 cm3 solution contain 5.0 x 10 -2 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 5.0 x 10 -2 moles
50 cm3
= 1.0M / 1.0 molesdm-3

Page 33 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
(iii) 5.3 g hydrated sodium carbonate decahydrate dissolved in 50cm3 solution

Molar mass of Na2CO3.10H2O = (23 x 2 + 12 + 16 x 3 + 20 x 1 + 10 x 16) =286g

Moles = Mass => 5.3 = 0.0185 / 1.85 x 10 -2 moles
Molar mass 286

Method 1
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3
Volume of solution
=> 1.85 x 10 -2 moles x 1000cm3 =
50cm3
= 0.37 M/0.37 molesdm-3

Method 2
50 cm3 solution contain 1.85 x 10 -2 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 1.85 x 10 -2 moles
50 cm3
= 3.7 x 10 M / 3.7 x 10-1 molesdm-3
-1

(iv) 7.1 g of anhydrous sodium sulphate(VI)was dissolved in 20.0 cm3 solution. Calculate the
molarity of the solution.
Method 1
20.0cm3 solution ->7.1 g
1000cm3 solution -> 1000 x 71 = 3550 g dm-3
20
Molar mass Na2SO4 = 142 g
Moles dm-3 = Molarity = Mass 3550 = 2.5 M/ molesdm-3
Molar mass 142

Method 2
Molar mass Na2SO4 = 142 g
Moles = Mass => 7.1 = 0.05 / 5.0 x 10 -2 moles
Molar mass 142

Method 2(a)
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3
Volume of solution
=> 5.0 x 10 -2 moles x 1000cm3
20cm3
= 2.5 M/2.5 molesdm-3

Page 34 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Method 2(b)
20 cm3 solution contain 5.0 x 10 -2 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 5.0 x 10 -2 moles
20 cm3
= 2.5 M/2.5 molesdm-3

(iv) The density of sulphuric(VI) is 1.84gcm-3 Calculate the molarity of the acid.
Method 1
1.0cm3 solution ->1.84 g
1000cm3 solution -> 1000 x 1.84 = 1840 g dm-3
1
Molar mass H2SO4 = 98 g
Moles dm-3 = Molarity = Mass = 1840
Molar mass 98
-3
= 18.7755 M/ molesdm

Method 2
Molar mass H2SO4 = 98 g
Moles = Mass => 1.84 = 0.0188 / 1.88 x 10 -2 moles
Molar mass 98

Method 2(a)
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3
Volume of solution
=> 1.88 x 10 -2 moles x 1000cm3
1.0cm3
= 18.8M/18.8 molesdm-3
Method 2(b)
20 cm3 solution contain 1.88 x 10 -2 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 1.88 x 10 -2 moles
1.0 cm3
= 18.8M/18.8 molesdm-3

2. Calculate the mass of :

(i) 25 cm3 of 0.2M sodium hydroxide solution(Na =23.0.O =16.0, H=1.0)
Molar mass NaOH = 40g
Moles in 25 cm3 = Molarity x volume => 0.2 x 25 = 0.005/5.0 x 10-3moles
1000 1000

Mass of NaOH =Moles x molar mass = 5.0 x 10-3 x 40 = 0.2 g

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(ii) 20 cm3 of 0.625 M sulphuric(VI)acid (S =32.0.O =16.0, H=1.0)
Molar mass H2SO4 = 98g
Moles in 20 cm3 = Molarity x volume=> 0.625 x 20 = 0.0125/1.25.0 x 10-3moles
1000 1000
Mass of H2SO4 =Moles x molar mass => 5.0 x 10-3 x 40 = 0.2 g

(iii) 1.0 cm3 of 2.5 M Nitric(V)acid (N =14.0.O =16.0, H=1.0)

Molar mass HNO3 = 63 g
Moles in 1 cm3 = Molarity x volume => 2.5 x 1 = 0.0025 / 2.5. x 10-3moles
1000 1000
Mass of HNO3 =Moles x molar mass => 2.5 x 10-3 x 40 = 0.1 g

3. Calculate the volume required to dissolve :

(a)(i) 0.25moles of sodium hydroxide solution to form a 0.8M solution
Volume (in cm3) = moles x 1000 => 0.25 x 1000 = 312.5cm3
Molarity 0.8

(ii) 100cm3 was added to the sodium hydroxide solution above. Calculate the concentration of
the solution.
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2 where:
C1 = molarity/concentration before diluting/adding water
C2 = molarity/concentration after diluting/adding water
V1 = volume before diluting/adding water
V2 = volume after diluting/adding water
=> 0.8M x 312.5cm3 = C2 x (312.5 + 100)
C2 = 0.8M x 312.5cm3 = 0.6061M
412.5
(b)(ii) 0.01M solution containing 0.01moles of sodium hydroxide solution .
Volume (in cm3) = moles x 1000 => 0.01 x 1000 = 1000 cm3
Molarity 0.01

(ii) Determine the quantity of water which must be added to the sodium hydroxide solution above
to form a 0.008M solution.
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2 where:
C1 = molarity/concentration before diluting/adding water
C2 = molarity/concentration after diluting/adding water
V1 = volume before diluting/adding water
V2 = volume after diluting/adding water
=> 0.01M x 1000 cm3 = 0.008 x V2
V2 = 0.01M x 1000cm3 = 1250cm3
0.008
Volume added = 1250 - 1000 = 250cm3

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 (c)Volumetric analysis/Titration
Volumetric analysis/Titration is the process of determining unknown concentration of one reactant from
a known concentration and volume of another.
Reactions take place in simple mole ratio of reactants and products.
Knowing the concentration/ volume of one reactant, the other can be determined from the relationship:

M1V1 = M2V2 where:

n1 n2
M1 = Molarity of 1st reactant
M2 = Molarity of 2nd reactant
V1 = Volume of 1st reactant
V1 = Volume of 2nd reactant
n1 = number of moles of 1st reactant from stoichiometric equation
n2 = number of moles of 2nd reactant from stoichiometric equation

Examples
1.Calculate the molarity of MCO3 if 5.0cm3 of MCO3 react with 25.0cm3 of 0.5M hydrochloric
acid.(C=12.0 ,O =16.0)
Stoichiometric equation: MCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Method 1
M1V1 = M2V2 -> M1 x 5.0cm3 = 0.5M x 25.0cm3
n1 n2 1 2
=> M1 = 0.5 x 25.0 x1 = 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3
5.0 x 2

Method 2
Moles of HCl used = molarity x volume
1000
=> 0.5 x 25.0 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles
1000
Mole ratio MCO3 : HCl = 1:2
Moles MCO3 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles = 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 moles
2
Molarity MCO3 = moles x 1000 => 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 x 1000
Volume 5
-3
= 1.25M / 1.25 moledm

2. 2.0cm3 of 0.5M hydrochloric acid react with 0.1M of M2CO3. Calculate the volume of 0.1M
M2CO3 used.
Stoichiometric equation: M2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2MCl (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Page 37 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Method 1
M1V1 = M2V2 -> 0.5 x 2.0cm3 = 0.1M x V2 cm3
n1 n2 2 1
=> V2 = 0.5 x 2.0 x1 = 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3
0.1 x 2

Method 2
Moles of HCl used = molarity x volume
1000
=> 0.5 x 2.0 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles
1000
Mole ratio M2CO3 : HCl = 1:2
Moles M2CO3 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles = 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 moles
2

Molarity M2CO3 = moles x 1000 => 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 x 1000

Volume 5
-3
= 1.25M / 1.25 moledm

3. 5.0cm3 of 0.1M sodium iodide react with 0.1M of Lead(II)nitrate(V). Calculate(i) the volume of
Lead(II)nitrate(V) used.
(ii)the mass of Lead(II)Iodide formed
(Pb=207.0, I =127.0)
Stoichiometric equation: 2NaI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)
(i)Volume of Lead(II)nitrate(V) used
Method 1
M1V1 = M2V2 -> 5 x 0.1cm3 = 0.1M x V2 cm3
n1 n2 2 1
-3
=> V2 = 0.1 x 5.0 x 1 = 1.25M / 1.25 moledm
0.1 x 2

Method 2
Moles of HCl used = molarity x volume
1000
=> 0.1 x 5.0 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles
1000

Mole ratio M2CO3 : HCl = 1:2

Moles M2CO3 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles = 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 moles
2
Molarity M2CO3 = moles x 1000 => 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 x 1000
Volume 5
-3
= 1.25M / 1.25 moledm

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4. 0.388g of a monobasic organic acid B required 46.5 cm3 of 0.095M sodium hydroxide for
complete neutralization. Name and draw the structural formula of B
Moles of NaOH used = molarity x volume
1000
=> 0.095 x 46.5 = 0.0044175 /4.4175 x 10-3moles
1000

Mole ratio B : NaOH = 1:1

Moles B = 0.0044175 /4.4175 x 10-3moles

Molar mass B = mass => 0.388

moles 0.0044175 /4.4175 x 10-3moles
= 87.8324 gmole-1

X-COOH = 87.8324 where X is an alkyl group

X =87.8324- 42 = 42.8324=43
By elimination: CH3 = 15 CH3CH2 = 29 CH3CH2 CH2 = 43
Molecula formula : CH3CH2 CH2COOH
Molecule name : Butan-1-oic acid
Molecular structure
H H H O

H C C C C O H

H H H H
5. 10.5 g of an impure sample containing ammonium sulphate (VI) fertilizer was warmed with
250cm3 of o.8M sodium hydroxide solution.The excess of the alkali was neutralized by 85cm3 of
0.5M hydrochloric acid. Calculate the % of impurities in the ammonium sulphate (VI)fertilizer.
(N=14.0,S=32.0,O=16.0, H=1.0)
Equation for neutralization
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NaOH(aq) + H2O(l)
Mole ratio NaOH(aq):HCl(aq)= 1:1
Moles of HCl = Molarity x volume => 0.5 x 85 = 0.0425 moles
1000 1000

Excess moles of NaOH(aq)= 0.0425 moles

Equation for reaction with ammonium salt
2NaOH(aq) + (NH4) 2SO4(aq) -> Na 2SO4(aq) + 2NH3 (g)+ 2H2O(l)
Mole ratio NaOH(aq): (NH4) 2SO4(aq)= 2:1
Total moles of NaOH = Molarity x volume => 0.8 x 250 = 0.2 moles
1000 1000

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Moles of NaOH that reacted with(NH4) 2SO4 = 0.2 - 0.0425 = 0.1575moles
Moles (NH4) 2SO4 = ½ x 0.1575moles = 0. 07875moles
Molar mass (NH4) 2SO4= 132 gmole-1
Mass of in impure sample = moles x molar mass =>0. 07875 x 132 = 10.395 g
Mass of impurities = 10.5 -10.395 = 0.105 g
% impurities = 0.105 x 100 = 1.0 %
10.5

Practically volumetric analysis involves titration.

Titration generally involves filling a burette with known/unknown concentration of a solution then
adding the solution to unknown/known concentration of another solution in a conical flask until there is
complete reaction. If the solutions used are both colourless, an indicator is added to the conical flask.
When the reaction is over, a slight/little excess of burette contents change the colour of the indicator.
This is called the end point.

Set up of titration apparatus

The titration process involve involves determination of titre. The titre is the volume of burette
contents/reading before and after the end point. Burette contents/reading before titration is usually
called the Initial burette reading. Burette contents/reading after titration is usually called the Final
burette reading. The titre value is thus a sum of the Final less Initial burette readings.

To reduce errors, titration process should be repeated at least once more.

The results of titration are recorded in a titration table as below

Page 40 of 87
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 Sample titration table
Titration number 1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of solution used(cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0

As evidence of a titration actually done examining body requires the candidate to record their burette
readings before and after the titration.
For KCSE candidates burette readings must be recorded in a titration table in the format provided by
the Kenya National Examination Council.
As evidence of all titration actually done Kenya National Examination Council require the candidate to
record their burette readings before and after the titration to complete the titration table in the format
provided.
Calculate the average volume of solution used

24.0 + 24.0 + 24.0 = 24.0 cm3

3
As evidence of understanding the degree of accuracy of burettes , all readings must be recorded to a
decimal point.
As evidence of accuracy in carrying the out the titration , candidates value should be within 0.2 of the
school value .
The school value is the teachers readings presented to the examining body/council based on the
concentrations of the solutions s/he presented to her/his candidates.

Bonus mark is awarded for averaged reading within 0.1 school value as Final answer.

Calculations involved after the titration require candidates thorough practical and theoretical practice
mastery on the:

(i)relationship among the mole, molar mass, mole ratios, concentration, molarity.
(ii) mathematical application of 1st principles.

Very useful information which candidates forget appears usually in the beginning of the question paper
as:
“You are provided with…”

All calculation must be to the 4th decimal point unless they divide fully to a lesser decimal point.
Candidates are expected to use a non programmable scientific calculator.

Page 41 of 87
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(a)Sample Titration Practice 1 (Simple Titration)
You are provided with:
0.1M sodium hydroxide solution A
Hydrochloric acid solution B

You are required to determine the concentration of solution B in moles per litre.

Procedure
Fill the burette with solution B. Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution A into a conical flask. Titrate solution A
with solution B using phenolphthalein indicator to complete the titration table 1
Sample results Titration table 1

Titration number 1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of solution B used(cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0

Sample worked questions

1. Calculate the average volume of solution B used
Average titre = Titre 1 + Titre 2 +Titre 3 => ( 20.0 +20.0 +20.0 ) = 20.0cm3
3 3

2. How many moles of:

(i)solution A were present in 25cm3 solution.

Moles of solution A = Molarity x volume = 0.1 x 25 = 2.5 x 10-3 moles

1000 1000
(ii)solution B were present in the average volume.
Chemical equation: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Mole ratio 1:1 => Moles of A = Moles of B = 2.5 x 10-3 moles

(iii) solution B in moles per litre.
Moles of B per litre = moles x 1000 = 2.5 x 10-3 x 1000 = 0.1M
Volume 20

(b)Sample Titration Practice 2 (Redox Titration)

You are provided with:
Acidified Potassium manganate(VII) solution A
0.1M of an iron (II)salt solution B
8.5g of ammonium iron(II)sulphate(VI) crystals(NH4)2 SO4FeSO4.xH2O solid C

Page 42 of 87
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You are required to
(i)standardize acidified potassium manganate(VII)
(ii)determine the value of x in the formula (NH4)2 SO4FeSO4.xH2O.

Procedure 1
Fill the burette with solution A. Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution B into a conical flask. Titrate solution A
with solution B until a pink colour just appears.
Record your results to complete table 1.

Table 1:Sample results

Titration number 1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of solution A used(cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0

Sample worked questions

1. Calculate the average volume of solution A used

Average titre = Titre 1 + Titre 2 +Titre 3 => ( 20.0 +20.0 +20.0 ) = 20.0cm3
3 3
2. How many moles of:
(i)solution B were present in 25cm3 solution.

Moles of solution A = Molarity x volume = 0.1 x 25 = 2.5 x 10-3 moles

1000 1000
(ii)solution A were present in the average volume. Assume one mole of B react with five moles of B

Mole ratio A : B = 1:5

=> Moles of A = Moles of B = 2.5 x 10-3 moles = 5.0 x 10 -4 moles
5 5
(iii) solution B in moles per litre.
Moles of B per litre = moles x 1000 = 2.5 x 10-3 x 1000
Volume 20
= 0.025 M /moles per litre /moles l-1

Procedure 2
Place all the solid C into the 250cm3 volumetric flask carefully. Add about 200cm3 of distilled water.
Shake to dissolve. Make up to the 250cm3 of solution by adding more distilled water. Label this
solution C. Pipette 25cm3 of solution C into a conical flask, Titrate solution C with solution A until a
permanent pink colour just appears. Complete table 2.

Page 43 of 87
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Table 2:Sample results

Titration number 1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of solution A used(cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0

Sample worked questions

1. Calculate the average volume of solution A used

Average titre = Titre 1 + Titre 2 +Titre 3 => ( 20.0 +20.0 +20.0 ) = 20.0cm3
3 3
2. How many moles of:
(i)solution A were present inin the average titre.
Moles of solution A = Molarity x volume = 0.025 x 20 = 5.0 x 10-4 moles
1000 1000

(ii)solution C in 25cm3 solution given the equation for the reaction:

MnO4- (aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5Fe2+ (aq) -> Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
Mole ratio MnO4- (aq): 5Fe2+ (aq) = 1:5 =>
Moles of 5Fe2+ (aq) = Moles of MnO4- (aq) = 5.0 x 10-4 moles = 1.0 x 10 -4 moles
5 5
(iii) solution B in 250cm3.
Moles of B per litre = moles x 250 = 1.0 x 10 -4 x 250 = 1.0 x 10 -3 moles
Volume 25
3. Calculate the molar mass of solid C and hence the value of x in the chemical formula
(NH4)2SO4FeSO4.xH2O.
(N=14.0, S=32.0, Fe=56.0, H=1.0 O=16.0)
Molar mass = mass perlitre = 8.5 = 8500 g
-3
Moles per litre 1.0 x 10 moles
NH4)2SO4FeSO4.xH2O = 8500
284 + 18x =8500
8500 - 284 = 8216 = 18x = 454.4444
18 18
x = 454 (whole number)

(c) Sample Titration Practice 3 (Back titration)

You are provided with:
(i)an impure calcium carbonate labeled M
(ii)Hydrochloric acid labeled solution N
(iii)solution L containing 20g per litre sodium hydroxide.

Page 44 of 87
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You are required to determine the concentration of N in moles per litre and the % of calcium carbonate
in mixture M.

Procedure 1
Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution L into a conical flask. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate
with dilute hydrochloric acid solution N and record your results in table 1(4mark)
Sample Table 1
1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 6.5 6.5 6.5
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of N used (cm3) 6.5 6.5 6.5

Sample questions

(a) Calculate the average volume of solution N used

6.5 + 6.5 + 6.5 = 6.5 cm3
3
(b) How many moles of sodium hydroxide are contained in 25cm3of solution L
Molar mass NaOH =40g
Molarity of L = mass per litre => 20 = 0.5M
Molar mass NaOH 40
Moles NaOH in 25cm3 = molarity x volume => 0.5M x 25cm3 = 0.0125 moles
1000 1000

(c)Calculate:

(i)the number of moles of hydrochloric acidthat react with sodium hydroxide in (b)above.
Mole ratio NaOH : HCl from stoichiometric equation= 1:1
Moles HCl =Moles NaOH => 0.0125 moles

(ii)the molarity of hydrochloric acid solution N.

Molarity = moles x 1000 => 0.0125 moles x 1000 =1.9231M/moledm-3
6.5 6.5

Procedure 2
Place the 4.0 g of M provided into a conical flask and add 25.0cm3 of the dilute hydrochloric acid to it
using a clean pipette. Swirl the contents of the flask vigorously until effervescence stop.Using a 100ml
measuring cylinder add 175cm3 distilled waterto make up the solution up to 200cm3.Label this solution
K.Using a clean pipettetransfer 25.0cm3 of the solution into a clean conical flask and titrate with
solution L from the burette using 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator.Record your observations in table
2.

Page 45 of 87
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Sample Table 2
1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 24.5 24.5 24.5
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of N used (cm3) 24.5 24.5 24.5

Sample calculations
(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used(1mk)
24.5 + 24.5 + 24.5 = 24.5cm3
3

(b)How many moles of sodium hydroxide are present in the average volume of solution L used?
Moles = molarity x average burette volume => 0.5 x 24.5
1000 1000
-2
= 0.01225 /1.225 x 10 moles

(c) How many moles of hydrochloric acid are present in the original 200cm3 of solution K?
Mole ratio NaOH: HCl = 1:1 => moles of HCl = 0.01225 /1.225 x 10-2 moles
Moles in 200cm3 = 200cm3 x 0.01225 /1.225 x 10-2moles
25cm3(volume pipetted)
=0.49 /4.9 x 10-1moles

(d)How many moles of hydrochloric acid were contained in original 25 cm3 solution N used
Original moles = Original molarity x pipetted volume =>
1000cm3
1.9231M/moledm-3 x 25 = 0.04807/4.807 x 10-2 moles
1000

(e)How many moles of hydrochloric acid were used to react with calcium carbonate present?
Moles that reacted = original moles –moles in average titre =>
0.04807/4.807 x 10-2moles - 0.01225 /1.225 x 10-2moles
= 0.03582/3.582 x 10 -2 moles

(f)Write the equation for the reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

(g)Calculate the number of moles of calcium carbonate that reacted with hydrochloric acid.
From the equation CaCO3(s):2HCl(aq) = 1:2
=> Moles CaCO3(s) = 1/2moles HCl
= 1/2 x 0.03582/3.582 x 10 -2 moles
= 0.01791 /1.791 x 10-2moles

Page 46 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
(h)Calculate the mass of calcium carbonate in 4.0g of mixture M (Ca=40.0,O = 16.0,C=12.0)
Molar mass CaCO3 = 100g
Mass CaCO3 = moles x molar mass => 0.01791 /1.791 x 10-2moles x 100g
= 1.791g

(i)Determine the % of calcium carbonate present in the mixture

% CaCO3 = mass of pure x 100% => 1.791g x 100% = 44.775%
Mass of impure 4.0

(d)Sample titration practice 4 (Multiple titration)

You are provided with:
(i)sodium L containing 5.0g per litre of a dibasic organic acid H2X.2H2O.
(ii)solution M which is acidified potassium manganate(VII)
(iii)solution N a mixture of sodium ethanedioate and ethanedioic acid
(iv)0.1M sodium hydroxide solution P
(v)1.0M sulphuric(VI)

You are required to:

(i)standardize solution M using solution L
(ii)use standardized solution M and solution P to determine the % of sodium ethanedioate in the
mixture.

Procedure 1
Fill the burette with solution M. Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution L into a conical flask. Heat this solution to
about 70oC(but not to boil).Titrate the hot solution L with solution M until a permanent pink colour just
appears .Shake thoroughly during the titration. Repeat this procedure to complete table 1.
Sample Table 1
1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 24.0 24.0 24.0
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of N used (cm3) 24.0 24.0 24.0

Sample calculations
(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used (1mk)
24.0 + 24.0 + 24.0 = 24.0cm3
3
(b)Given that the concentration of the dibasic acid is 0.05molesdm-3.determine the value of x in
the formula H2X.2H2O (H=1.0,O=16.0)
Molar mass H2X.2H2O= mass per litre => 5.0g/litre = 100g
-3
Moles/litre 0.05molesdm

Page 47 of 87
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H2X.2H2O =100
X = 100 – ((2 x1) + 2 x (2 x1) + (2 x 16) => 100 – 34 = 66

(c) Calculate the number of moles of the dibasic acid H2X.2H2O.

Moles = molarity x pipette volume => 0.5 x 25 = 0.0125/1.25 x10 -2 moles
1000 1000

(d)Given the mole ratio manganate(VII)(MnO4-): acid H2X is 2:5, calculate the number of moles
of manganate(VII) (MnO4-) in the average titre.
Moles H2X = 2/5 moles of MnO4-
=> 2/5 x 0.0125/1.25 x10 -2 moles
= 0.005/5.0 x 10 -3moles

(e)Calculate the concentration of the manganate(VII)(MnO4-) in moles per litre.

Moles per litre/molarity = moles x 1000
average burette volume
=>0.005/5.0 x 10 -3moles x 1000 = 0.2083 molesl-1/M
24.0

Procedure 2
With solution M still in the burette ,pipette 25.0cm3 of solution N into a conical flask. Heat the conical
flask containing solution N to about 70oC.Titrate while hot with solution M.Repeat the experiment to
complete table 2.
Sample Table 2
1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 12.5 12.5 12.5
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of N used (cm3) 12.5 12.5 12.5

Sample calculations
(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used (1mk)
12.5 + 12.5 + 12.5 =12.5cm3
3
(b)Calculations:
(i)How many moles of manganate(VII)ions are contained in the average volume of solution M
used?
Moles = molarity of solution M x average burette volume
1000
=> 0.2083 molesl-1/ M x 12.5 = 0.0026 / 2.5 x 10-3 moles
1000

Page 48 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
(ii)The reaction between manganate(VII)ions and ethanedioate ions that reacted with is as in the
equation:
2MnO4- (aq) + 5C2O42- (aq) + 16H+ (aq) -> 2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)

Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioate ions that reacted with manganate (VII) ions in the
average volume of solution M.
From the stoichiometric equation,mole ratio MnO4- (aq): C2O42- (aq) = 2:5
=> moles C2O42- = 5/2 moles MnO4- => 5/2 x 0.0026 / 2.5 x 10-3 moles
= 0.0065 /6.5 x10-3 moles

(iii)Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioate ions contained in 250cm3 solution N.

25cm3 pipette volume -> 0.0065 /6.5 x10-3 moles
250cm3 ->
0.0065 /6.5 x10-3 moles x 250 = 0.065 / 6.5 x10-2 moles
25

Procedure 3
Remove solution M from the burette and rinse it with distilled water. Fill the burette with sodium
hydroxide solution P. Pipette 25cm3 of solution N into a conical flask and add 2-3 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate this solution N with solution P from the burette. Repeat the procedure
to complete table 3.
Sample Table 2
1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 24.9 24.9 24.9
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of N used (cm3) 24.9 24.9 24.9

Sample calculations
(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used (1mk)
24.9 + 24.9 + 24.9 = 24.9 cm3
3

(b)Calculations:
(i)How many moles of sodium hydroxide solution P were contained in the average volume?

Moles = molarity of solution P x average burette volume

1000
=> 0.1 molesl-1 x 24.9 = 0.00249 / 2.49 x 10-3 moles
1000

Page 49 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
(ii)Given that NaOH solution P reacted with the ethanedioate ions from the acid only and the
equation for the reaction is:
2NaOH (aq) + H2C2O4 (aq) -> Na2C2O4(g) + 2H2O(l)
Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioic acid that were used in the reaction

From the stoichiometric equation,mole ratio NaOH(aq): H2C2O4 (aq) = 2:1

=> moles H2C2O4 = 1/2 moles NaOH => 1/2 x 0.00249 / 2.49 x 10-3 moles

= 0.001245/1.245 x10-3 moles.

(iii)How many moles of ethanedioic acid were contained in 250cm3 of solution N?

25cm3 pipette volume -> 0.001245/1.245 x10-3 moles
250cm3 ->
0.001245/1.245 x10-3 moles x 250 = 0.01245/1.245 x10-2 moles
25

(iii)Determine the % by mass of sodium ethanedioate in the micture

(H= 1.0,O=16.0,C=12.0 and total mass of mixture =2.0 g in 250cm3 solution)
Molar mass H2C2O4 = 90.0g
Mass of H2C2O4 in 250cm3 = moles in 250cm3 x molar mass H2C2O4
=>0.01245/1.245 x10-2 moles x 90.0
= 1.1205g
% by mass of sodium ethanedioate
=(Mass of mixture - mass of H2C2O4) x 100%
Mass of mixture
=> 2.0 - 1.1205 g = 43.975%
2.0
Note
(i) L is 0.05M Oxalic acid
(ii) M is 0.01M KMnO4
(iii) N is 0.03M oxalic acid(without sodium oxalate)

Practice example 5.(Determining equation for a reaction)

You are provided with
-0.1M hydrochloric acid solution A
-0.5M sodium hydroxide solution B
You are to determine the equation for thereaction between solution A and B

Page 50 of 87
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Procedure
Fill the burette with solution A.Using a pipette and pipette filler transfer 25.0cm3 of solution B into a
conical flask.Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator.Run solution A into solution B until a
permanent pink colour just appears.Record your results in Table 1.Repeat the experiment to obtain three
concordant results to complete Table 1
Table 1(Sample results)

Titration 1 2 3
Final volume(cm3) 12.5 25.0 37.5
Initial volume(cm3) 0.0 12.5 25.0
Volume of solution A used(cm3) 12.5 12.5 12.5

Sample questions
Calculate the average volume of solution A used.
12.5+12.5+12.5 = 12.5cm3
3

Theoretical Practice examples

1. 1.0g of dibasic acid HOOC(CH2)xCOOH was dissolved in 250cm3 solution. 25.0 cm3 of this
solution reacted with 30.0cm3 of 0.06M sodium hydroxide solution. Calculate the value of x in
HOOC(CH2)xCOOH. (C=12.0,H=1.0,O=16.)

Chemical equation
2NaOH(aq) + H2X(aq) -> Na2X (aq) + 2H2O(aq)
Mole ratio NaOH(aq) :H2X(aq) = 2:1
Method 1
Ma Va = na => Ma x 25.0 = 1 => Ma =0.06 x 30.0 x1
Mb Vb = nb 0.06 x 30.0 2 25.0 x 2
-1
Molarity of acid = 0.036M/Mole l
Mass of acid per lite = 1.0 x1000 = 4.0 g/l
250
0.036M/ Mole l-1 -> 4.0 g /l
1 mole= molar mass of HOOC(CH2)xCOOH = 4.0 x 1 = 111.1111 g
0.036
Molar mass (CH2)x = 111.1111 – (HOOCCOOH = 90.0) = 21.1111
(CH2)x = 14x = 21.1111 = 1.5 = 1 (whole number)
14

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Method 2
Moles of sodium hydroxide = Molarity x volume = 0.06 x 30 = 1.8 x 10 -3moles
1000
Moles of Hydrochloric acid = 1/2 x 1.8 x 10 -3moles = 9.0 x10 -4moles
Molarity of Hydrochloric acid = moles x 1000 = 9.0 x10 -4moles x1000
Volume 25
Molarity of acid = 0.036M/Mole l-1
Mass of acid per lite = 1.0 x1000 = 4.0 g/l
250
0.036M/ Mole l-1 -> 4.0 g /l
1 mole= molar mass of HOOC(CH2)xCOOH = 4.0 x 1 = 111.1111 g
0.036
Molar mass (CH2)x = 111.1111 – (HOOCCOOH = 90.0) = 21.1111
(CH2)x = 14x = 21.1111 = 1.5 = 1 (whole number)
14

2. 20.0cm3 of 0.05 M acidified potassium manganate(VII)solution oxidized 25.0cm3 of Fe2+(aq)

ions in 40.0g/l of impure Iron (II)sulphate(VI) to Fe3+(aq) ions. Calculate the percentage
impurities in the Iron (II)sulphate(VI).
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+(aq)+ 5Fe2+(aq)-> 5Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(aq)
Fe=56.0,S= 32.0, O=16.0).

Moles of MnO4- (aq) = Molarity x volume = 0.05 x 20.0 = 0.001 Moles

1000 1000

Mole ratio MnO4- (aq): 5Fe2+(aq)= 1:5

Moles 5Fe2+(aq) = 5 x0.001 = 0.005 Moles
Moles of 5Fe2+(aq) per litre/molarity = Moles x 1000 = 0005 x 1000
Volume 25.0

= 0.2 M/ Moles/litre

Molar mass =FeSO4=152 g

Mass of in the mixture = Moles x molar mass => 0.2 x 152 = 30.4 g
Mass of impurity = 40.0 – 30.4 =9.6 g
% impurity = 9.6 g x100 = 24.0 % impurity
40.0

3.9.7 g of a mixture of Potassium hydroxide and Potassium chloride was dissolved to make one
litre solution.20.0cm3 of this solution required 25.0cm3 of 0.12M hydrochloric acid for completed
neutralization. Calculate the percentage by mass of Potassium chloride.(K=39.0,Cl= 35.5)

Page 52 of 87
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Chemical equation
KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Moles of HCl = Molarity x volume => 0.12 x 25.0 = 0.003/3.0 x 10 -3 moles
1000 1000
Mole ratio KOH(aq) : HCl(aq) -= 1:1
Moles KOH =0.003/3.0 x 10 -3 moles

Method 1
Molar mass KOH =56.0g
Mass KOH in 25cm3 =0.003/3.0 x 10 -3 moles x56.0 = 0.168g
Mass KOH in 1000cm3/1 litre = 0.168 x1000= 8.4 g/l
20
Mass of KCl = 9.7g - 8.4g = 1.3 g
% of KCl = 1.3 x 100 = 13.4021%
9.7

Method 2
Moles KOH in 1000cm3 /1 litre = Moles in 20cm3 x 1000 =>0.003 x 1000
20 20
=0.15M/Moles /litre
Molar mass KOH =56.0g
Mass KOH in 1000/1 litre = 0.15M/Moles /litre x 56.0 = 8.4g/l
Mass of KCl = 9.7g - 8.4g = 1.3 g
% of KCl = 1.3 x 100 = 13.4021%
9.7

4.A certain carbonate, GCO3, reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid according to the equation given
below:
GCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> GCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
If 1 g of the carbonate reacts completely with 20 cm3 of 1 M hydrochloric acid ,calculate the
relative atomic mass of G (C = 12.0 = 16.0)

Moles of HCl = Molarity x volume=> 1 x20 = 0.02 moles

1000 1000
Mole ratio HCl; GCO3 = 2:1
Moles of GCO3= 0.02 moles = 0.01moles
2

Molar mass of GCO3 = mass => 1 = 100 g

moles 0.01moles

G= GCO3 - CO3 =>100g – (12+ 16 x3 = 60) = 40(no units)

Page 53 of 87
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5. 46.0g of a metal carbonate MCO3 was dissolved 160cm3 of 0.1M excess hydrochloric acid and
the resultant solution diluted to one litre.25.0cm3 of this solution required 20.0cm3 of 0.1M
sodium hydroxide solution for complete neutralization. Calculate the atomic mass of ‘M’

Equation
Chemical equation
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Moles of NaOH = Molarity x volume=> 0.1 x20 = 0.002 moles
1000 1000
Mole ratio HCl; NaOH = 1:1
Excess moles of HCl = 0.002 moles
25cm3 -> 0.002 moles
1000cm3 -> 1000 x 0.002 = 0.08moles
25cm3
Original moles of HCl = Molarity x volume => 1M x 1litre = 1.0 moles

Moles of HCl reacted with MCO3 = 1.0 - 0.08 moles = 0.92moles

Chemical equation
MCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
Mole ratio MCO3(s) : HCl(aq) =1:2

Moles of MCO3 = 0.92moles => 0.46moles

2
Molar mass of MCO3= mass => 46g = 100 g
moles 0.46moles
M= MCO3 - CO3 =>100g – (12+ 16 x3 = 60) = 40

6. 25.0cm3 of a mixture of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions in an aqueous salt was acidified with
sulphuric(VI)acid then titrated against potassium manganate(VI).The salt required 15cm3
ofe0.02M potassium manganate(VI) for complete reaction.
A second 25cm3 portion of the Fe2+ and Fe3+ ion salt was reduced by Zinc then titrated against the
same concentration of potassium manganate(VI).19.0cm3 of potassium manganate(VI)solution
was used for complete reaction. Calculate the concentration of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ion in the solution on
moles per litre.
Mole ratio Fe2+ :Mn04- = 5:1
Moles Mn04- used = 0.02 x 15 = 3.0 x 10-4 moles
1000
Moles Fe2+ = 3.0 x 10-4 moles = 6.0 x 10-5 moles
5
Molarity of Fe2+ = 6.0 x 10-4 moles x 1000 = 2.4 x 10-3 moles l-1
25

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Since Zinc reduces Fe3+ to Fe2+ in the mixture:
Moles Mn04- that reacted with all Fe2+= 0.02 x 19 = 3.8 x 10-4 moles
1000
Moles of all Fe2+ = 3.8 x 10-4 moles = 7.6 x 10-5 moles
5
Moles of Fe3+ = 3.8 x 10-4 - 6.0 x 10-5 = 1.6 x 10-5 moles
Molarity of Fe3+ = 1.6 x 10-5 moles x 1000 = 4.0 x 10-4 moles l-1

Page 55 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 TOPIC 2:
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY I & II
Introduction to Organic chemistry

Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that studies carbon compounds present in living things,
once living things or synthetic/man-made.
Compounds that makes up living things whether alive or dead mainly contain carbon. Carbon is
tetravalent.

It is able to form stable covalent bonds with itself and many non-metals like hydrogen, nitrogen
,oxygen and halogens to form a variety of compounds.

This is because:
(A) carbon uses all the four valence electrons to form four strong covalent bond.
(ii)carbon can covalently bond to form a single, double or triple covalent bond with itself.
(iii)carbon atoms can covalently bond to form a very long chain or ring.
When carbon covalently bond with Hydrogen, it forms a group of organic compounds called
Hydrocarbons

A.HYDROCARBONS (HCs)

Hydrocarbons are a group of organic compounds containing /made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms
only.
Depending on the type of bond that exist between the individual carbon atoms, hydrocarbon are
classified as:

(i) Alkanes

(ii) Alkenes

(iii) Alkynes

(i) Alkanes
(a)Nomenclature/Naming
These are hydrocarbons with a general formula CnH2n+2 where n is the number of Carbon atoms in a
molecule.
The carbon atoms are linked by single bond to each other and to hydrogen atoms.

Page 56 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
They include:

n General/ Structural formula Name

Molecular
formula
1 CH4 H Methane

H C H

2 C2H6 H H Ethane

H C C H

H H

3 C3H8 H H H Propane

H C C C H

H H H

4 C4H10 H H H H Butane

H C C C C H

H H H H

5 C5H12 H H H H H Pentane

H C C C C C H CH3 (CH2) 6CH3

H H H H H

6 C6H14 H H H H H H Hexane

H C C C C C C H CH3 (CH2) 6CH3

H H H H H H

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 C7H16 H H H H H H H

7 H C C C C C C C H Heptane

H H H H H H H

8 C8H18 H H H H H H H H Octane

H C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H

9 C9H20 H H H H H H H H H Nonane

H C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H H

10 C10H22 H H H H H H H H H H decane

H C C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H H H

Note

1.The general formula/molecular formular of a compound shows the number of each atoms of
elements making the compound e.g.
Decane has a general/molecular formula C10H22 ;this means there are 10 carbon atoms and 22 hydrogen
atoms in a molecule of decane.

2.The structural formula shows the arrangement/bonding of atoms of each element making the
compound e.g
Decane has the structural formula as in the table above ;this means the 1st carbon from left to right is
bonded to three hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom.
The 2nd carbon atom is joined/bonded to two other carbon atoms and two Hydrogen atoms.

3.Since carbon is tetravalent ,each atom of carbon in the alkane MUST always be bonded using four
covalent bond /four shared pairs of electrons.

4.Since Hydrogen is monovalent ,each atom of hydrogen in the alkane MUST always be bonded using
one covalent bond/one shared pair of electrons.

Page 58 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
5.One member of the alkane differ from the next/previous by a CH2 group. e.g
Propane differ from ethane by one carbon and two Hydrogen atoms form ethane. Ethane differ from
methane also by one carbon and two Hydrogen atoms

6.A group of compounds that differ by a CH2 group from the next /previous consecutively is called a
homologous series.

7.A homologous series:

(i) differ by a CH2 group from the next /previous consecutively
(ii) have similar chemical properties
(iii) have similar chemical formula that can be represented by a general formula e.g alkanes have
the general formula CnH2n+2.
(iv) the physical properties (e.g.melting/boiling points)show steady gradual change)

8.The 1st four alkanes have the prefix meth_,eth_,prop_ and but_ to represent 1,2,3 and 4 carbons in
the compound. All other use the numeral prefix pent_,Hex_,hept_ , etc to show also the number of
carbon atoms.

9.If one hydrogen atom in an alkane is removed, an alkyl group is formed.e.g

Alkane molecular Alkyl name Molecula

name structure structure
CnH2n+2 CnH2n+1
methane CH4 methyl CH3
ethane CH3CH3 ethyl CH3 CH2
propane CH3 CH2 CH3 propyl CH3 CH2 CH2
butane CH3 CH2 CH2 butyl CH3 CH2 CH2
CH3 CH2

(b)Isomers of alkanes
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular general formula but different molecular
structural formula.
Isomerism is the existence of a compounds having the same general/molecular formula but different
structural formula.
The 1st three alkanes do not form isomers.Isomers are named by using the IUPAC(International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system of nomenclature/naming.

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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
The IUPAC system of nomenclature uses the following basic rules/guidelines:

1.Identify the longest continuous carbon chain to get/determine the parent alkane.
2.Number the longest chain form the end of the chain that is near the branches so as the branch get the
lowest number possible
3. Determine the position, number and type of branches. Name them as methyl, ethyl, propyl e.tc.
according to the number of carbon chains attached to the parent alkane. Name them fluoro-,
chloro-,bromo-,iodo- if they are halogens

4.Use prefix di-,tri-,tetra-,penta-,hexa- to show the number of branches attached to the parent alkane.

Practice on IUPAC nomenclature of alkanes

(a)Draw the structure of:

(i)2-methylpentane
Procedure
1. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain to get/determine the parent alkane.
Butane is the parent name CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
2. Number the longest chain form the end of the chain that is near the branches so as the branch get the
lowest number possible
The methyl group is attached to Carbon “2”
3. Determine the position, number and type of branches. Name them as methyl, ethyl, propyl e.tc.
according to the number of carbon chains attached to the parent alkane i.e
Position of the branch at carbon “2”
Number of branches at carbon “1”
Type of the branch “methyl” hence
Molecular formula
CH3

CH3 CH CH2 CH3 // CH3 CH (CH3 ) CH2CH3

Structural formula
H H H H

H C C C C H

H H H

H C H

H
(ii)2,2-dimethylpentane

Page 60 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Procedure

1. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain to get/determine the parent alkane.
Butane is the parent name CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3

2. Number the longest chain form the end of the chain that is near the branches so as the branch get the
lowest number possible
The methyl group is attached to Carbon “2”

3. Determine the position, number and type of branches. Name them as methyl, ethyl, propyl e.tc.
according to the number of carbon chains attached to the parent alkane i.e
Position of the branch at carbon “2”
Number of branches at carbon “2”
Type of the branch two“methyl” hence
Molecular formular

CH3

CH3 C CH2 CH3 // CH3 C (CH3 )2 CH2CH3

CH3

Structural formula
H

H C H

H H H

H C C C C H

H H H

H C H

(iii) 2,2,3-trimethylbutane

Page 61 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Procedure
1. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain to get/determine the parent alkane.
Butane is the parent name CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3

2. Number the longest chain form the end of the chain that is near the branches so as the branch get the
lowest number possible
The methyl group is attached to Carbon “2 and 3”

3. Determine the position, number and type of branches. Name them as methyl, ethyl, propyl e.tc.
according to the number of carbon chains attached to the parent alkane i.e
Position of the branch at carbon “2 and 3”
Number of branches at carbon “3”

Type of the branch three “methyl” hence

Molecular formular
CH3

CH3 C CH CH3 // CH3 C (CH3 )3 CH2CH3

CH3 CH3

Structural formula

H C H

H H

H C C C H

H H
H

H C C H

H
H C H

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(iv) 1,1,1,2,2,2-hexabromoethane
Molecular formula
CBr3 CBr3
Structural formula
Br Br

Br C C Br

Br Br

(v) 1,1,1-tetrachloro-2,2-dimethylbutane
CH3

CCl 3 C CH3 // C Cl 3 C (CH3 )2 CH3

CH3

Structural formula
Cl

Cl C Cl

H H

H C C C H

H H
H C H

(c)Occurrence and extraction

Crude oil ,natural gas and biogas are the main sources of alkanes:
(i)Natural gas is found on top of crude oil deposits and consists mainly of methane.

(ii)Biogas is formed from the decay of waste organic products like animal dung and cellulose. When the
decay takes place in absence of oxygen , 60-75% by volume of the gaseous mixture of methane gas is
produced.
(iii)Crude oil is a mixture of many flammable hydrocarbons/substances. Using fractional distillation,
each hydrocarbon fraction can be separated from the other. The hydrocarbon with lower /smaller
number of carbon atoms in the chain have lower boiling point and thus collected first.

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 As the carbon chain increase, the boiling point, viscosity (ease of flow) and colour intensity increase
as flammability decrease. Hydrocarbons in crude oil are not pure. They thus have no sharp fixed
boiling point.

Uses of different crude oil fractions

Carbon atoms in a molecule Common name of fraction Uses of fraction

1-4 Gas L.P.G gas for domestic use
5-12 Petrol Fuel for petrol engines
9-16 Kerosene/Paraffin Jet fuel and domestic
lighting/cooking
15-18 Light diesel Heavy diesel engine fuel
18-25 Diesel oil Light diesel engine fuel
20-70 Lubricating oil Lubricating oil to reduce
friction.
Over 70 Bitumen/Asphalt Tarmacking roads

(d)School laboratory preparation of alkanes

In a school laboratory, alkanes may be prepared from the reaction of a sodium alkanoate with solid
sodium hydroxide/soda lime.

Chemical equation:
Sodium alkanoate + soda lime -> alkane + Sodium carbonate
CnH2n+1COONa(s) + NaOH(s) -> C n H2n+2 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CnH2n+1 in CnH2n+1COONa(s) to form C n H2n+2.

Examples
1. Methane is prepared from the heating of a mixture of sodium ethanoate and soda lime and collecting
over water
Sodium ethanoate + soda lime -> methane + Sodium carbonate
CH3COONa(s) + NaOH(s) -> C H4 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CH3 in CH3COONa(s) to form CH4.

2. Ethane is prepared from the heating of a mixture of sodium propanoate and soda lime and collecting
over water
Sodium propanoate + soda lime -> ethane + Sodium carbonate
CH3 CH2COONa(s) + NaOH(s) -> CH3 CH3 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CH3 CH2 in CH3 CH2COONa (s) to form CH3 CH3

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 3. Propane is prepared from the heating of a mixture of sodium butanoate and soda lime and collecting
over water
Sodium butanoate + soda lime -> propane + Sodium carbonate
CH3 CH2CH2COONa(s) + NaOH(s) -> CH3 CH2CH3 + Na2CO3(s)

The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CH3 CH2 CH2 in CH3 CH2CH2COONa (s) to form CH3
CH2CH3

4. Butane is prepared from the heating of a mixture of sodium pentanoate and soda lime and collecting
over water
Sodium pentanoate + soda lime -> butane + Sodium carbonate
CH3 CH2 CH2CH2COONa(s)+NaOH(s) -> CH3 CH2CH2CH3 + Na2CO3(s)

The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CH3CH2 CH2 CH2 in CH3 CH2CH2
CH2COONa (s) to form CH3 CH2 CH2CH3

Laboratory set up for the preparation of alkanes

(d) Properties of alkanes

I. Physical properties
Alkanes are colourless gases, solids and liquids that are not poisonous.

They are slightly soluble in water.

The solubility decrease as the carbon chain and thus the molar mass increase

The melting and boiling point increase as the carbon chain increase.

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This is because of the increase in van-der-waals /intermolecular forces as the carbon chain increase.

The 1st four straight chain alkanes (methane,ethane,propane and butane)are therefore gases ,the nect
six(pentane ,hexane, heptane,octane,nonane, and decane) are liquids while the rest from unidecane(11
carbon atoms) are solids .
The density of straight chain alkanes increase with increasing carbon chain as the intermolecular forces
increases.

This reduces the volume occupied by a given mass of the compound.

Summary of physical properties of alkanes

Alkane General formula Melting Boiling Density State at room(298K)
point(K) point(K) gcm-3 temperature and
pressure atmosphere
(101300Pa)
Methane CH4 90 112 0.424 gas
Ethane CH3CH3 91 184 0.546 gas
Propane CH3CH2CH3 105 231 0.501 gas
Butane CH3(CH2)2CH3 138 275 0.579 gas
Pentane CH3(CH2)3CH3 143 309 0.626 liquid
Hexane CH3(CH2)4CH3 178 342 0.657 liquid
Heptane CH3(CH2)5CH3 182 372 0.684 liquid
Octane CH3(CH2)6CH3 216 399 0.703 liquid
Nonane CH3(CH2)7CH3 219 424 0.708 liquid
Octane CH3(CH2)8CH3 243 447 0.730 liquid

II.Chemical properties
(i)Burning.
Alkanes burn with a blue/non-luminous non-sooty/non-smoky flame in excess air to form carbon(IV)
oxide and water.
Alkane + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)

Alkanes burn with a blue/non-luminous no-sooty/non-smoky flame in limited air to form carbon(II)
oxide and water.
Alkane + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (limited air)

Examples
1.(a) Methane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in excess air to form carbon(IV) oxide
and water.
Methane + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) -> CO2(g) + 2H2O(l/g)

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 (b) Methane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in limited air to form carbon(II) oxide
and water.
Methane + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2CO(g) + 4H2O(l/g)

2.(a) Ethane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in excess air to form carbon(IV) oxide and
water.
Ethane + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) -> 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l/g)

(b) Ethane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in limited air to form carbon(II) oxide and
water.
Ethane + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2C2H6(g) + 5O2(g) -> 4CO(g) + 6H2O(l/g)
3.(a) Propane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in excess air to form carbon(IV) oxide
and water.
Propane + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) -> 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l/g)

(b) Ethane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in limited air to form carbon(II) oxide and
water.
Ethane + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2C3H8(g) + 7O2(g) -> 6CO(g) + 8H2O(l/g)

ii)Substitution
Substitution reaction is one in which a hydrogen atom is replaced by a halogen in presence of ultraviolet
light.
Alkanes react with halogens in presence of ultraviolet light to form halogenoalkanes.

During substitution:
(i)the halogen molecule is split into free atom/radicals.
(ii)one free halogen radical/atoms knock /remove one hydrogen from the alkane leaving an alkyl
radical.
(iii) the alkyl radical combine with the other free halogen atom/radical to form halogenoalkane.
(iv)the chlorine atoms substitute repeatedly in the alkane. Each substitution removes a hydrogen atom
from the alkane and form hydrogen halide.
(v)substitution stops when all the hydrogen in alkanes are replaced with halogens.

Substitution reaction is a highly explosive reaction in presence of sunlight / ultraviolet light that act as
catalyst.

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Examples of substitution reactions
Methane has no effect on bromine or chlorine in diffused light/dark.
In sunlight, a mixture of chlorine and methane explode to form colourless mixture of chloromethane
and hydrogen chloride gas. The pale green colour of chlorine gas fades.

Chemical equation
1.(a)Methane + chlorine -> Chloromethane + Hydrogen chloride

CH4(g) + Cl2(g) -> CH3Cl (g) + HCl (g)

H H

H C H + Cl Cl -> H C Cl + H Cl

H H
(b) Chloromethane + chlorine -> dichloromethane + Hydrogen chloride

CH3Cl (g) + Cl2(g) -> CH2Cl2 (g) + HCl (g)

H H

H C Cl + Cl Cl -> H C Cl + H Cl

H Cl

(c) dichloromethane + chlorine -> trichloromethane + Hydrogen chloride

CH2Cl2 (g) + Cl2(g) -> CHCl3 (g) + HCl (g)

Cl H

H C Cl + Cl Cl -> Cl C Cl +H Cl

H Cl

(d) trichloromethane + chlorine -> tetrachloromethane + Hydrogen chloride

CHCl3 (g) + Cl2(g) -> CCl4 (g) + HCl (g)

H Cl

Cl C Cl + Cl Cl -> Cl C Cl + H Cl

Cl Cl

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Ethane has no effect on bromine or chlorine in diffused light/dark. In sunlight , a mixture of bromine
and ethane explode to form colourless mixture of bromoethane and hydrogen chloride gas. The
red/brown colour of bromine gas fades.
Chemical equation
(a)Ethane + chlorine -> Chloroethane + Hydrogen chloride
CH3CH3(g) + Br2(g) -> CH3CH2Br (g) + HBr (g)

H H H H

H C C H + Br Br -> H C C H+H Br

H H H Br
Bromoethane

H H H Br

H C C H + Br Br -> H C C H+H Br

H Br H Br
1,1-dibromoethane

H Br H Br

H C C H + Br Br -> H C C Br + H Br

H Br H Br
1,1,1-tribromoethane

H Br H Br

H C C Br + Br Br -> H C C Br + H Br

H Br Br Br
1,1,1,2-tetrabromoethane

H Br H Br

H C C Br + Br Br -> Br C C Br + H Br

Br Br Br Br

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1,1,1,2,2-pentabromoethane

H Br Br Br

Br C C Br + Br Br -> Br C C Br + H Br

Br Br Br Br
1,1,1,2,2,2-hexabromoethane

Uses of alkanes
1.Most alkanes are used as fuel e.g. Methane is used as biogas in homes. Butane is used as the
Laboratory gas.
2.On cracking ,alkanes are a major source of Hydrogen for the manufacture of ammonia/Haber process.
3.In manufacture of Carbon black which is a component in printers ink.
4.In manufacture of useful industrial chemicals like methanol, methanol, and chloromethane.

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 TOPIC 3:
NITROGEN AND IT’S COMPOUNDS
A.NITROGEN

a) Occurrence:
Nitrogen is found in the atmosphere occupying about 78% by volume of air.
Proteins, amino acids, polypeptides in living things contain nitrogen.

b) Isolation of nitrogen from the air.

Nitrogen can be isolated from other gases present in air like oxygen, water (vapour), carbon (IV) oxide
and noble gases as in the school laboratory as in the flow chart below:

Water is added slowly into an “empty flask” which forces the air out into another flask containing
concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid. Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is hygroscopic. It therefore
absorb/remove water present in the air sample.
More water forces the air into the flask containing either concentrated sodium hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide solution. These alkalis react with carbon IV) oxide to form the carbonates and thus
absorbs/remove carbon IV) oxide present in the air sample.

Chemical equation 2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) ->Na2CO3 (aq)+ H2O(l)

Chemical equation 2KOH (aq)+ CO2 (g) -> K2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l)

More water forces the air through a glass tube packed with copper turnings. Heated brown copper
turnings react with oxygen to form black copper (II) oxide.

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 Chemical equation 2Cu (s) + O2 (g) -> CuO (s)
(brown) (black)

The remaining gas mixture is collected by upward delivery/downward displacement of water/over

water. It contains about 99% nitrogen and 1% noble gases.

On a large scale for industrial purposes, nitrogen is got from fractional distillation of air.

c) Nitrogen from fractional distillation of air.

For commercial purposes nitrogen is got from the fractional of air.

Air is first passed through a dust precipitator/filter to remove dust particles.
The air is then bubbled through either concentrated sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide solution
to remove/absorb Carbon(IV) oxide gas.

Chemical equation
2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l)

Chemical equation
2KOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> K2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l)

Air mixture is the cooled to -25oC.At this temperature, water (vapour ) liquidifies and then solidify to
ice and thus removed.

The air is further cooled to -200oC during which it forms a blue liquid.
The liquid is then heated. Nitrogen with a boiling point of -196oC distils first then Argon at-186oC and
then finally Oxygen at -183oC boils last.

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c) School laboratory preparation of Nitrogen.
The diagram below shows the set up of the school laboratory preparation of nitrogen gas.

d.Properties of Nitrogen gas(Questions)

1.Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation of nitrogen gas.
Chemical equation NH4Cl (s) + NaNO2(s)->NaCl (g)+ NH4NO2 (s)

Chemical equation NH4NO2 (s) -> N2 (g) + H2O (l)

2. State three physical properties of nitrogen gas.

- colourless, odourless, less dense than air ,neutral and slightly soluble in water

3. State and explain the observation made when a burning magnesium ribbon is lowered in a gas
jar containing nitrogen gas.
Observation; It continues burning with a blight blindening flame forming white ash.
Explanation
Magnesium burns to produce enough heat /energy to reacts with nitrogen to form white magnesium
nitride.
Chemical equation3Mg (s) + N2 (g) -> Mg3N2 (s)
(white ash/solid)

4. State two main uses of nitrogen gas

-manufacture of ammonia from Haber process
- As a refrigerant in storage of semen for Artificial insemination.

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B. OXIDES OF NITROGEN

Nitrogen forms three main oxides:

i)Nitrogen(I) oxide(N2O)
ii) Nitrogen(II) oxide (NO)
iii) Nitrogen (IV) oxide( NO2)

i) Nitrogen (I) oxide(N2O)

a) Occurrence
Nitrogen (I) oxide does not occur naturally but prepared in a laboratory.
b)Preparation
The set up below shows the set up of apparatus that can be used to prepare Nitrogen (I) oxide in a
school laboratory.

c) Properties of nitrogen (I) oxide (Questions)

1. Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation of Nitrogen (I) oxide.
Chemical equation NH4NO2(s) -> H2O (l) + N2O (g)

2.a) State and explain three errors made in the above set up
-Oxygen is being generated instead of Nitrogen (I) oxide.
Ammonium Nitrate(V) should be used instead of potassium manganate(VI) and manganese(IV)oxide.
b) State three physical properties of Nitrogen (I) oxide.
-slightly soluble in water.
-colourless
-odourless
-less dense than air
-slightly sweet smell

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3. State and explain the observation made when a burning magnesium ribbon is lowered in a gas
jar containing Nitrogen (I) oxide.
Observation - Continues to burn with a bright flame
-White solid/residue is formed
Explanation-Magnesium burns in air to produce enough heat/energy split/break Nitrogen (I) oxide gas
into free Nitrogen and oxygen then continues to burn in oxygen to form white solid/ash of Magnesium
oxide.
Chemical equation
Mg(s) + N2O (g)-> MgO (s) + N2(g)

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 TOPIC 4 :
SULPHUR AND IT’S COMPOUNDS
A.SULPHUR (S)
Sulphur is an element in Group VI Group 16)of the Periodic table . It has atomic number 16 and
electronic configuration 16 and valency 2 /divalent and thus forms the ion S2-

A. Occurrence.
Sulphur mainly occurs:
(i) as free element in Texas and Louisiana in USA and Sicily in Italy.
(ii)Hydrogen sulphide gas in active volcanic areas e.g. Olkaria near Naivasha in Kenya
(iii)as copper pyrites(CuFeS2) ,Galena (PbS,Zinc blende(ZnS))and iron pyrites(FeS2) in other parts
of the world.

B. Extraction of Sulphur from Fraschs process

Suphur occurs about 200 metres underground. The soil structure in these areas is usually weak and can
easily cave in.

Digging of tunnels is thus discouraged in trying to extract the mineral.

Sulphur is extracted by drilling three concentric /round pipes of diameter of ratios 2:8: 18 centimeters.

Superheated water at 170oC and 10atmosphere pressure is forced through the outermost pipe.

The high pressures ensure the water remains as liquid at high temperatures instead of vapour of vapour
/gas.
The superheated water melts the sulphur because the melting point of sulphur is lower at about at about
115oC.

A compressed air at 15 atmospheres is forced /pumped through the innermost pipe.

The hot air forces the molten sulphur up the middle pipe where it is collected and solidifies in a large
tank.
It is about 99% pure.

Diagram showing extraction of S

ulphur from Fraschs Process

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C. Allotropes of Sulphur.
1. Sulphur exists as two crystalline allotropic forms:
(i)Rhombic sulphur
(ii)Monoclinic Sulphur

Rhombic sulphur Monoclinic sulphur

Bright yellow crystalline solid Pale yellow crystalline solid
Has a melting point of 113oC Has a melting point of 119oC
Has a density of 2.06gcm-3 Has a density of 1.96gcm-3
Stable below 96oC Stable above 96oC
Has octahedral structure Has a needle-like structure

Rhombic sulphur and Monoclinic sulphur have a transition temperature of 96oC.This is the temperature
at which one allotrope changes to the other.

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2. Sulphur exists in non-crystalline forms as:

(i)Plastic sulphur-
Plastic sulphur is prepared from heating powdered sulphur to boil then pouring a thin continuous stream
in a beaker with cold water. A long thin elastic yellow thread of plastic sulphur is formed .If left for long
it turn to bright yellow crystalline rhombic sulphur.

(ii)Colloidal sulphur-
Colloidal sulphur is formed when sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) is added hydrochloric acid to form a
yellow precipitate.

D. Heating Sulphur.
A molecule of sulphur exists as puckered ring of eight atoms joined by covalent bonds as S8.

On heating the yellow sulphur powder melts at 113oC to clear amber liquid with low viscosity and thus
flows easily.

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On further heating to 160oC the molten liquid darkens to a brown very viscous liquid that does not flow
easily.

This is because the S8 rings break into S8 chain that join together to form very long chains made of over
100000 atoms of Sulphur.
The long chains entangle each other reducing their mobility /flow and hence increases their viscosity.
On continued further heating to above 160oC, the viscous liquid darkens but becomes more
mobile/flows easily and thus less viscous.

This is because the long chains break to smaller/shorter chains.

At 444oC, the liquid boils and forms brown vapour of a mixture of S8 ,S6 ,S2 molecules that solidifies to
S8 ring of “flowers of sulphur” on the cooler parts.

Summary of changes on heating Sulphur

Observation on heating Explanation/structure of Sulphur

Solid sulphur Puckered S8 ring

Heat to 113oC Puckered S8 ring in liquid form (low

Amber yellow liquid viscosity/flow easily)

Puckered S8 ring break/opens then join to

o
Heat to 160 C form long chains that entangle (very high
Liquid darkens viscosity/very low rate of flow)

Mixture of S8 ,S6 ,S2 vapour

o
Heat to 444 C
Liquid boils to brown vapour Puckered S8 ring

Cool to room temperature

Yellow sublimate
(Flowers of Sulphur)

E. Physical and Chemical properties of Sulphur.(Questions)

1. State three physical properties unique to Sulphur

Sulphur is a yellow solid, insoluble in water, soluble in carbon disulphide/tetrachloromethane/benzene,
poor conductor of heat and electricity. It has a melting point of 115oC and a boiling point of 444oC.

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 2. Moist/damp/wet blue and red litmus papers were put in a gas jar containing air/oxygen.
Burning sulphur was then lowered into the gas jar. State and explain the observation made.
Observations
-Sulphur melts then burns with a blue flame
Colourless gas produced that has a pungent smell
Red litmus paper remains red. Blue litmus paper turns red.

Explanation
Sulphur burns in air and faster in Oxygen to form Sulphur(IV)Oxide gas and traces/small amount of
Sulphur(VI)Oxide gas. Both oxides react with water to form the corresponding acidic solution i.e
(i) Sulphur(IV)Oxide gas reacts with water to form sulphuric(IV)acid
(ii) Sulphur(VI)Oxide gas reacts with water to form sulphuric(VI)acid

Chemical equation
S(s) + O2(g) -> SO2(g) (Sulphur(IV)Oxide gas)
2S(s) + 3O2(g) -> 2SO3(g) (Sulphur(VI)Oxide gas traces)
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq) ( sulphuric(IV)acid)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO4 (aq) ( sulphuric(VI)acid).

3. Iron filings were put in a test tube containing powdered sulphur then heated on a Bunsen flame.
Stop heating when reaction starts. State and explain the observations made. Test the effects of a
magnet on the mixture before and after heating. Explain.
Observations
Before heating, the magnet attracts iron filings leaving sulphur
After heating, the magnet does not attract the mixture.
After heating, a red glow is observed that continues even when heating is stopped..
Black solid is formed.

Explanation
Iron is attracted to a magnet because it is ferromagnetic.
When a mixture of iron and sulphur is heated, the reaction is exothermic giving out heat energy that
makes the mixture to continue glowing even after stopping heating.

Black Iron(II)sulphide is formed which is a compound and thus not ferromagnetic.

Chemical equation
Fe(s) + S(s) -> FeS(s) (Exothermic reaction/ -∆H)

Heated powdered heavy metals combine with sulphur to form black sulphides.
Cu(s) + S(s) -> CuS(s)
Zn(s) + S(s) -> ZnS(s)
Pb(s) + S(s) -> PbS(s)

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4.The set up below show the reaction of sulphur on heated concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid.

(i)State and explain the observation made.

Observation
Yellow colour of sulphur fades
Orange colour of potassium dichromate(VI)paper turns to green.

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 TOPIC 5:
CHLORINE AND IT’S COMPOUNDS
A.CHLORINE
Chlorine is a non-metallic element in group VII (Group 17) of the periodic table. It has electronic
configuration 2:8:7. It gains one valence election to form stable Cl-ion, it belongs to the chemical family
of halogens.

Occurrence
-As Brine-concentration sodium chloride solution dissolved in salty seas water, oceans and lakes e.g.
Lake Magadi in Kenya is very salty.
-As rock-salt solid sodium chloride crystals in the earths crust all over the world.

B) Preparation
Chlorine gas may be prepared in the school laboratory from the following:
a)Heating solid Manganese (iv) Oxide and Concentrated Hydrochloric acid.
b) Heating Lead (IV) Oxide and concentrated hydrochloric acid.
c)Reacting Potassium Manganate (VII) with concentrated Hydrochloric acid
d)Reacting Potassium /sodium Dichromate (VI) Acid with Concentrated Hydrochloric acid.

Set up of school laboratory preparation of chlorine.

c) Properties of chlorine. (Questions)

1. What is the colour of chlorine?
Pale green.

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2. Describe the smell of chlorine.
Pungent irritating smell.

3. What method is used in collection of chlorine gas explain.

-Downward delivery.
-Chlorine is 11/2 denser than air.

4.(i) What is the purpose of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.

-To dry the gas.

(ii) Name two other substances that can be used in place of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
-Calcium chloride
-Silica gel

(iii) Name a substance that cannot be used in place of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid explain.
-Calcium oxide reacts with chlorine.

5.(a)Write three possible reactions between concentrated hydrochloric acid and the oxidizing agents.

1. 2KMnO4(s) +16HCl(aq) → 2KCl(aq)+2MnCl2(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 5Cl2(g)

2.K2Cr2O7(s) +14HCl(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + 2CrCl3(aq) + 7H2O(l) + 3Cl2(g)

3.Na2Cr2O7(s) + 14HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CrCl3(aq) + 7H2O(l) + 3Cl2(g)

4.PbO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) → PbCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l)

5.MnO2(s)+ 4HCl(aq) → MnCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l)

(b) Why is Hydrochloric acid used in all the above cases?

Oxidizing agents KMnO4/PbO2/MnO2/K2Cr2O/Na2Cr2O7 readily oxidize hydrochloric acid to
chlorine themselves reduced to their chlorides.
Generally:
2HCl (aq) + [O] → Cl2 (g) + H2O (l)
(From oxidizing agent)

6. State and explain the observation made when chlorine is bubbled in water.
Observation
-Pale yellow colour of chlorine fades.
-yellow solution formed.

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Explanation
Chlorine dissolves then reacts with water to form yellow chlorine water. Chlorine water is chemically a
mixture of hydrochloric acid and chloric(I)acid (hypochlorous acid).
A mixture of hydrochloric acid and chloric(I)acid (hypochlorous acid) is commonly called Chlorine
water

Chemical equation:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)

7. Chlorine water in a boiling tube inverted into a trough was exposed to sunlight for two hours. Using a
well labeled diagram show and explain the observations made.

Chlorine (I) acid is an unstable compound.

After two hours the chloric (I) acid in chlorine water decomposes to hydrochloric acid and
releases oxygen gas. This reaction takes place in sunlight.
Chemical equation
2HOCl(aq) → 2HCl(aq) + O2 (g)

8. State and explain the observation made when chlorine gas is bubbled in gas jar containing
damp/wet/moist litmus papers.
Observation
The blue litmus turns red then both the red/blue litmus papers are bleached/decolourized.

Explanation
Chlorine reacts with water in the litmus papers to form acidic hydrochloric acid and chloric (l)
acid that turns blue litmus papers red.

Chemical Equation
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)

Explanation
Unstable chloric (I) acid oxidizes the dye/colured litmus paper to colourless material

Chemical Equation
HClO(aq) + dye → HCl(aq) + (dye + O)
(coloured) (colourless)

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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Or:
HClO(aq) + dye-O → HCl(aq) + dye
(coloured) (colourless)

NB Chlorine does not therefore bleach/decolourize dry litmus paper/dye because chloric(I) acid
cannot be formed in absence of water.

9. Blue litmus papers were put in a flask containing cold dilute sodium hydroxide. Chlorine gas was
bubbled into the solution. State and explain the observations made.

Observation

blue litmus papers were bleached /decolorized.

Pale green colour of chlorine fades.

Explanation
-Sodium hydroxide reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride and sodium hypochlorite.
Sodium hypochlorite bleaches dyes by oxidation.

Chemical Equation
Cl2 + 2NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + NaClO(aq) + H2O

NaClO(aq) + dye → NaCl(aq) + (dye + O)

(coloured) (Colourless)

NaClO(aq) + (dye-O) → NaCl(aq) + dye

(Coloured) (Colourless)

10.Blue litmus papers were put in flask containing hot concentrated sodium hydroxide. Chlorine gas
was bubbled into the solution. State and explain the observations made.

Observation.
blue litmus papers were bleached.
Pale green colour of chlorine fades.

Explanation
Hot concentrated sodium hydroxide reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride and sodium
chloride (V).Sodium chlorate (V) bleaches by oxidation.

Page 85 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 Chemical equation
2Cl2(g) + 4NaOH(aq) → 3NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + H2O(l)
NaClO3(aq) + 3(dyes) → NaCl(aq) + 3(dye + O)
NaClO3(aq) + 3(dyes-O) → NaCl(aq) + 3 dyes
NaClO3 is also a weed killer
11. State three main use of chlorine gas.
-Manufacture of polyvinyl chloride (P.V.C) // polychloroethene pipes.
-Manufacture of hydrochloric acid used in “Pickling” of metals.
-Manufacture of bleaching agents
-Chlorination of water to kill germs.

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 Page 87 of 87
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes