Heat Transfer - Wikipedia

14/09/2024, 17:51 Heat transfer - Wikipedia
Heat transfer
(Redirected from Heat flow)
Heat transfer is a discipline of

thermal engineering that concerns
the generation, use, conversion, and
exchange of thermal energy (heat)
between physical systems. Heat
transfer is classified into various
mechanisms, such as thermal
conduction, thermal convection,
thermal radiation, and transfer of Simulation of thermal convection in the Earth's mantle. Colors span
energy by phase changes. Engineers from red and green to blue with decreasing temperatures. A hot,
also consider the transfer of mass of less-dense lower boundary layer sends plumes of hot material
upwards, and cold material from the top moves downwards.
differing chemical species (mass
transfer in the form of advection),
either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics,
they often occur simultaneously in the same system.
Heat conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct microscopic exchanges of kinetic energy of
particles (such as molecules) or quasiparticles (such as lattice waves) through the boundary
between two systems. When an object is at a different temperature from another body or its
surroundings, heat flows so that the body and the surroundings reach the same temperature, at
which point they are in thermal equilibrium. Such spontaneous heat transfer always occurs from a
region of high temperature to another region of lower temperature, as described in the second law
of thermodynamics.
Heat convection occurs when the bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries its heat through the
fluid. All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. The flow of fluid may be
forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused
when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus influencing its own
transfer. The latter process is often called "natural convection". The former process is often called
"forced convection." In this case, the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan, or other
mechanical means.
Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium (solid or fluid or gas). It is
the transfer of energy by means of photons or electromagnetic waves governed by the same laws.[1]
Overview
Heat transfer is the energy exchanged between materials (solid/liquid/gas) as a result of a
temperature difference. The thermodynamic free energy is the amount of work that a
thermodynamic system can perform. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic potential, designated by the
letter "H", that is the sum of the internal energy of the system (U) plus the product of pressure (P)
and volume (V). Joule is a unit to quantify energy, work, or the amount of heat.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer 1/21
Heat transfer is a process function (or path

function), as opposed to functions of state;
therefore, the amount of heat transferred in a
thermodynamic process that changes the state of a
system depends on how that process occurs, not
only the net difference between the initial and final
states of the process.
Thermodynamic and mechanical heat transfer is

calculated with the heat transfer coefficient, the
proportionality between the heat flux and the
thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat. Earth's longwave thermal radiation intensity, from
Heat flux is a quantitative, vectorial representation clouds, atmosphere and surface.
of heat flow through a surface.[3]
In engineering contexts, the term heat is taken as synonymous with thermal energy. This usage has
its origin in the historical interpretation of heat as a fluid (caloric) that can be transferred by
various causes,[4] and that is also common in the language of laymen and everyday life.
The transport equations for thermal energy (Fourier's law), mechanical momentum (Newton's law
for fluids), and mass transfer (Fick's laws of diffusion) are similar,[5][6] and analogies among these
three transport processes have been developed to facilitate the prediction of conversion from any
one to the others.[6]
Thermal engineering concerns the generation, use, conversion, storage, and exchange of heat
transfer. As such, heat transfer is involved in almost every sector of the economy.[7] Heat transfer
is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal
radiation, and transfer of energy by phase changes.
Mechanisms
The fundamental modes of heat transfer are:
Advection
Advection is the transport mechanism of a fluid from
one location to another, and is dependent on motion
and momentum of that fluid.
Conduction or diffusion
The transfer of energy between objects that are in
physical contact. Thermal conductivity is the property
of a material to conduct heat and is evaluated The four fundamental modes of heat
primarily in terms of Fourier's Law for heat transfer illustrated with a campfire
conduction.
Convection
The transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion. The
average temperature is a reference for evaluating properties related to convective heat
transfer.
Radiation
The transfer of energy by the emission of electromagnetic radiation.
Advection
By transferring matter, energy—including thermal energy—is moved by the physical transfer of a

hot or cold object from one place to another. This can be as simple as placing hot water in a bottle
and heating a bed, or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean currents. A practical example
is thermal hydraulics. This can be described by the formula:
where
is heat flux (W/m2),

is density (kg/m3),
is heat capacity at constant pressure (J/kg·K),
is the difference in temperature (K),
is velocity (m/s).
Conduction
On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and
molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat)
to these neighboring particles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent
atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another. Conduction is
the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects in thermal
contact. Fluids—especially gases—are less conductive. Thermal contact conductance is the study of
heat conduction between solid bodies in contact.[8] The process of heat transfer from one place to
another place without the movement of particles is called conduction, such as when placing a hand
on a cold glass of water—heat is conducted from the warm skin to the cold glass, but if the hand is
held a few inches from the glass, little conduction would occur since air is a poor conductor of heat.
Steady-state conduction is an idealized model of conduction that happens when the temperature
difference driving the conduction is constant so that after a time, the spatial distribution of
temperatures in the conducting object does not change any further (see Fourier's law).[9] In steady
state conduction, the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount of heat coming out,
since the temperature change (a measure of heat energy) is zero.[8] An example of steady state
conduction is the heat flow through walls of a warm house on a cold day—inside the house is
maintained at a high temperature and, outside, the temperature stays low, so the transfer of heat
per unit time stays near a constant rate determined by the insulation in the wall and the spatial
distribution of temperature in the walls will be approximately constant over time.
Transient conduction (see Heat equation) occurs when the temperature within an object changes
as a function of time. Analysis of transient systems is more complex, and analytic solutions of the
heat equation are only valid for idealized model systems. Practical applications are generally
investigated using numerical methods, approximation techniques, or empirical study.[8]
Convection
The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by
buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus
influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called "natural convection". All convective
processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. Another form of convection is forced
convection. In this case, the fluid is forced to flow by using a pump, fan, or other mechanical
means.
Convective heat transfer, or simply, convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by
the movement of fluids, a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer. The bulk
motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical situations, such as between a solid surface
and the fluid.[10] Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases.
Although sometimes discussed as a third method of heat transfer, convection is usually used to
describe the combined effects of heat conduction within the fluid (diffusion) and heat transference
by bulk fluid flow streaming.[11] The process of transport by fluid streaming is known as advection,
but pure advection is a term that is generally associated only with mass transport in fluids, such as
advection of pebbles in a river. In the case of heat transfer in fluids, where transport by advection
in a fluid is always also accompanied by transport via heat diffusion (also known as heat
conduction) the process of heat convection is understood to refer to the sum of heat transport by
advection and diffusion/conduction.
Free, or natural, convection occurs when bulk fluid motions (streams and currents) are caused by
buoyancy forces that result from density variations due to variations of temperature in the fluid.
Forced convection is a term used when the streams and currents in the fluid are induced by
external means—such as fans, stirrers, and pumps—creating an artificially induced convection
current.[12]
Convection-cooling
Convective cooling is sometimes described as Newton's law of cooling:
The rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the temperature difference between the
body and its surroundings.
However, by definition, the validity of Newton's law of Cooling requires that the rate of heat loss
from convection be a linear function of ("proportional to") the temperature difference that drives
heat transfer, and in convective cooling this is sometimes not the case. In general, convection is not
linearly dependent on temperature gradients, and in some cases is strongly nonlinear. In these
cases, Newton's law does not apply.
Convection vs. conduction

In a body of fluid that is heated from underneath its container, conduction, and convection can be
considered to compete for dominance. If heat conduction is too great, fluid moving down by
convection is heated by conduction so fast that its downward movement will be stopped due to its
buoyancy, while fluid moving up by convection is cooled by conduction so fast that its driving
buoyancy will diminish. On the other hand, if heat conduction is very low, a large temperature
gradient may be formed and convection might be very strong.
The Rayleigh number ( ) is the product of the Grashof ( ) and Prandtl ( ) numbers. It is a
measure that determines the relative strength of conduction and convection.[13]
where
g is the acceleration due to gravity,

ρ is the density with being the density difference between the lower and upper ends,
μ is the dynamic viscosity,
α is the Thermal diffusivity,
β is the volume thermal expansivity (sometimes denoted α elsewhere),
T is the temperature,
ν is the kinematic viscosity, and
L is characteristic length.
The Rayleigh number can be understood as the ratio between the rate of heat transfer by
convection to the rate of heat transfer by conduction; or, equivalently, the ratio between the
corresponding timescales (i.e. conduction timescale divided by convection timescale), up to a
numerical factor. This can be seen as follows, where all calculations are up to numerical factors
depending on the geometry of the system.
The buoyancy force driving the convection is roughly , so the corresponding pressure is
roughly . In steady state, this is canceled by the shear stress due to viscosity, and therefore
roughly equals , where V is the typical fluid velocity due to convection and
the order of its timescale. [14] The conduction timescale, on the other hand, is of the order of
.
Convection occurs when the Rayleigh number is above 1,000–2,000.
Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is the transfer of energy via thermal
radiation, i.e., electromagnetic waves.[1] It occurs across
vacuum or any transparent medium (solid or fluid or gas).[15]
Thermal radiation is emitted by all objects at temperatures
above absolute zero, due to random movements of atoms and
molecules in matter. Since these atoms and molecules are
composed of charged particles (protons and electrons), their
movement results in the emission of electromagnetic radiation
Red-hot iron object, transferring which carries away energy. Radiation is typically only
heat to the surrounding environment important in engineering applications for very hot objects, or
through thermal radiation
for objects with a large temperature difference.
When the objects and distances separating them are large in

size and compared to the wavelength of thermal radiation, the rate of transfer of radiant energy is
best described by the Stefan-Boltzmann equation. For an object in vacuum, the equation is:
For radiative transfer between two objects, the equation is as follows:
where
is the heat flux,

is the emissivity (unity for a black body),
is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant,

is the view factor between two surfaces a and b,[16] and
and are the absolute temperatures (in kelvins or degrees Rankine) for the two objects.
The blackbody limit established by the Stefan-Boltzmann equation can be exceeded when the
objects exchanging thermal radiation or the distances separating them are comparable in scale or
smaller than the dominant thermal wavelength. The study of these cases is called near-field
radiative heat transfer.
Radiation from the sun, or solar radiation, can be harvested for heat and power.[17] Unlike
conductive and convective forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation – arriving within a narrow-
angle i.e. coming from a source much smaller than its distance – can be concentrated in a small
spot by using reflecting mirrors, which is exploited in concentrating solar power generation or a
burning glass.[18] For example, the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats the PS10 solar power
tower and during the day it can heat water to 285 °C (545 °F).[19]
The reachable temperature at the target is limited by the temperature of the hot source of
radiation. (T4-law lets the reverse flow of radiation back to the source rise.) The (on its surface)
somewhat 4000 K hot sun allows to reach coarsely 3000 K (or 3000 °C, which is about 3273 K) at
a small probe in the focus spot of a big concave, concentrating mirror of the Mont-Louis Solar
Furnace in France.[20]
Phase transition
Phase transition or phase change, takes place in a
thermodynamic system from one phase or state of matter to
another one by heat transfer. Phase change examples are the
melting of ice or the boiling of water. The Mason equation
explains the growth of a water droplet based on the effects of
heat transport on evaporation and condensation.
Phase transitions involve the four fundamental states of

matter:
Solid – Deposition, freezing, and solid-to-solid

Lightning is a highly visible form of
transformation.
energy transfer and is an example
Liquid – Condensation and melting / fusion. of plasma present at Earth's
Gas – Boiling / evaporation, recombination/ deionization, and surface. Typically, lightning
sublimation. discharges 30,000 amperes at up to
Plasma – Ionization. 100 million volts, and emits light,
radio waves, X-rays and even
gamma rays.[21] Plasma
Boiling temperatures in lightning can
approach 28,000 kelvins
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the
(27,726.85 °C) (49,940.33 °F) and
vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding
electron densities may exceed 1024
the liquid[22][23] and the liquid evaporates resulting in an
m−3.
abrupt change in vapor volume.
In a closed system, saturation temperature and boiling point

mean the same thing. The saturation temperature is the
temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a
liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be
saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy
results in a phase transition.
At standard atmospheric pressure and low temperatures, no

boiling occurs and the heat transfer rate is controlled by the
usual single-phase mechanisms. As the surface temperature is
increased, local boiling occurs and vapor bubbles nucleate,
Nucleate boiling of water. grow into the surrounding cooler fluid, and collapse. This is
sub-cooled nucleate boiling, and is a very efficient heat transfer
mechanism. At high bubble generation rates, the bubbles begin to interfere and the heat flux no
longer increases rapidly with surface temperature (this is the departure from nucleate boiling, or
DNB).
At similar standard atmospheric pressure and high temperatures, the hydrodynamically quieter
regime of film boiling is reached. Heat fluxes across the stable vapor layers are low but rise slowly
with temperature. Any contact between the fluid and the surface that may be seen probably leads
to the extremely rapid nucleation of a fresh vapor layer ("spontaneous nucleation"). At higher
temperatures still, a maximum in the heat flux is reached (the critical heat flux, or CHF).
The Leidenfrost Effect demonstrates how nucleate boiling slows heat transfer due to gas bubbles
on the heater's surface. As mentioned, gas-phase thermal conductivity is much lower than liquid-
phase thermal conductivity, so the outcome is a kind of "gas thermal barrier".
Condensation
Condensation occurs when a vapor is cooled and changes its phase to a liquid. During
condensation, the latent heat of vaporization must be released. The amount of heat is the same as
that absorbed during vaporization at the same fluid pressure.[24]
There are several types of condensation:
Homogeneous condensation, as during the formation of fog.

Condensation in direct contact with subcooled liquid.
Condensation on direct contact with a cooling wall of a heat exchanger: This is the most
common mode used in industry:
Filmwise condensation is when a liquid film is formed on the subcooled surface, and
usually occurs when the liquid wets the surface.
Dropwise condensation is when liquid drops are formed on the subcooled surface, and
usually occurs when the liquid does not wet the surface.
Dropwise condensation is difficult to sustain reliably; therefore, industrial equipment is normally
designed to operate in filmwise condensation mode.
Melting
Melting is a thermal process that results in the phase transition of a

substance from a solid to a liquid. The internal energy of a substance is
increased, typically through heat or pressure, resulting in a rise of its
temperature to the melting point, at which the ordering of ionic or
molecular entities in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state and
the solid liquefies. Molten substances generally have reduced viscosity
with elevated temperature; an exception to this maxim is the element
sulfur, whose viscosity increases to a point due to polymerization and
then decreases with higher temperatures in its molten state.[25]
Modeling approaches
Heat transfer can be modeled in various ways.
Ice melting
Heat equation
The heat equation is an important partial differential equation that describes the distribution of
heat (or temperature variation) in a given region over time. In some cases, exact solutions of the
equation are available;[26] in other cases the equation must be solved numerically using
computational methods such as DEM-based models for thermal/reacting particulate systems (as
critically reviewed by Peng et al.[27]).
Lumped system analysis

Lumped system analysis often reduces the complexity of the equations to one first-order linear
differential equation, in which case heating and cooling are described by a simple exponential
solution, often referred to as Newton's law of cooling.
System analysis by the lumped capacitance model is a common approximation in transient

conduction that may be used whenever heat conduction within an object is much faster than heat
conduction across the boundary of the object. This is a method of approximation that reduces one
aspect of the transient conduction system—that within the object—to an equivalent steady-state
system. That is, the method assumes that the temperature within the object is completely uniform,
although its value may change over time.
In this method, the ratio of the conductive heat resistance within the object to the convective heat
transfer resistance across the object's boundary, known as the Biot number, is calculated. For
small Biot numbers, the approximation of spatially uniform temperature within the object can be
used: it can be presumed that heat transferred into the object has time to uniformly distribute
itself, due to the lower resistance to doing so, as compared with the resistance to heat entering the
object.[28]
Climate models
Climate models study the radiant heat transfer by using quantitative methods to simulate the
interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice.[29]
Engineering
Heat transfer has broad application to the functioning of
numerous devices and systems. Heat-transfer principles may
be used to preserve, increase, or decrease temperature in a
wide variety of circumstances.[30] Heat transfer methods are
used in numerous disciplines, such as automotive engineering,
thermal management of electronic devices and systems,
climate control, insulation, materials processing, chemical
engineering and power station engineering.
Heat exposure as part of a fire test
for firestop products
Insulation, radiance and resistance
Thermal insulators are materials specifically designed to
reduce the flow of heat by limiting conduction, convection, or both. Thermal resistance is a heat
property and the measurement by which an object or material resists to heat flow (heat per time
unit or thermal resistance) to temperature difference.
Radiance, or spectral radiance, is a measure of the quantity of radiation that passes through or is
emitted. Radiant barriers are materials that reflect radiation, and therefore reduce the flow of heat
from radiation sources. Good insulators are not necessarily good radiant barriers, and vice versa.
Metal, for instance, is an excellent reflector and a poor insulator.
The effectiveness of a radiant barrier is indicated by its reflectivity, which is the fraction of
radiation reflected. A material with a high reflectivity (at a given wavelength) has a low emissivity
(at that same wavelength), and vice versa. At any specific wavelength, reflectivity=1 - emissivity. An
ideal radiant barrier would have a reflectivity of 1, and would therefore reflect 100 percent of
incoming radiation. Vacuum flasks, or Dewars, are silvered to approach this ideal. In the vacuum
of space, satellites use multi-layer insulation, which consists of many layers of aluminized (shiny)
Mylar to greatly reduce radiation heat transfer and control satellite temperature.[31]
Devices
A heat engine is a system that performs the conversion of a flow of thermal energy (heat) to
mechanical energy to perform mechanical work.[32][33]
A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device and a widely used type of temperature sensor

for measurement and control, and can also be used to convert heat into electric power.
A thermoelectric cooler is a solid-state electronic device that pumps (transfers) heat from one side
of the device to the other when an electric current is passed through it. It is based on the Peltier
effect.
A thermal diode or thermal rectifier is a device that causes heat

to flow preferentially in one direction.
Heat exchangers
A heat exchanger is used for more efficient heat transfer or to
dissipate heat. Heat exchangers are widely used in
refrigeration, air conditioning, space heating, power
generation, and chemical processing. One common example of
a heat exchanger is a car's radiator, in which the hot coolant
fluid is cooled by the flow of air over the radiator's
surface.[34][35] Schematic flow of energy in a heat
engine.
Common types of heat exchanger flows include parallel flow,
counter flow, and cross flow. In parallel flow, both fluids move
in the same direction while transferring heat; in counter flow, the fluids move in opposite
directions; and in cross flow, the fluids move at right angles to each other. Common types of heat
exchangers include shell and tube, double pipe, extruded finned pipe, spiral fin pipe, u-tube, and
stacked plate. Each type has certain advantages and disadvantages over other types.
A heat sink is a component that transfers heat generated within a solid material to a fluid medium,
such as air or a liquid. Examples of heat sinks are the heat exchangers used in refrigeration and air
conditioning systems or the radiator in a car. A heat pipe is another heat-transfer device that
combines thermal conductivity and phase transition to efficiently transfer heat between two solid
interfaces.
Applications
Architecture
Efficient energy use is the goal to reduce the amount of energy required in heating or cooling. In
architecture, condensation and air currents can cause cosmetic or structural damage. An energy
audit can help to assess the implementation of recommended corrective procedures. For instance,
insulation improvements, air sealing of structural leaks, or the addition of energy-efficient
windows and doors.[36]
Smart meter is a device that records electric energy consumption in intervals.

Thermal transmittance is the rate of transfer of heat through a structure divided by the
difference in temperature across the structure. It is expressed in watts per square meter per
kelvin, or W/(m2K). Well-insulated parts of a building have a low thermal transmittance,
whereas poorly-insulated parts of a building have a high thermal transmittance.
Thermostat is a device to monitor and control temperature.
Climate engineering
Climate engineering consists of carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. Since the
amount of carbon dioxide determines the radiative balance of Earth's atmosphere, carbon dioxide
removal techniques can be applied to reduce the radiative forcing. Solar radiation management is
the attempt to absorb less solar radiation to offset the effects of greenhouse gases.
An alternative method is passive daytime radiative cooling,

which enhances terrestrial heat flow to outer space through the
infrared window (8–13 μm).[37][38] Rather than merely
blocking solar radiation, this method increases outgoing
longwave infrared (LWIR) thermal radiation heat transfer with
the extremely cold temperature of outer space (~2.7 K) to lower
ambient temperatures while requiring zero energy
input.[39][40]
An example application in climate
engineering includes the creation of
Greenhouse effect Biochar through the pyrolysis
process. Thus, storing greenhouse
The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation
gases in carbon reduces the
from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric radiative forcing capacity in the
greenhouse gases and clouds, and is re-radiated in all atmosphere, causing more long-
directions, resulting in a reduction in the amount of thermal wave (infrared) radiation out to
radiation reaching space relative to what would reach space in Space.
the absence of absorbing materials. This reduction in outgoing
radiation leads to a rise in the temperature of the
surface and troposphere until the rate of outgoing
radiation again equals the rate at which heat
arrives from the Sun.[42]
Heat transfer in the human body

The principles of heat transfer in engineering
systems can be applied to the human body to
determine how the body transfers heat. Heat is
produced in the body by the continuous
metabolism of nutrients which provides energy for A representation of the exchanges of energy
the systems of the body.[43] The human body must between the source (the Sun), the Earth's surface,
maintain a consistent internal temperature to the Earth's atmosphere, and the ultimate sink outer
space. The ability of the atmosphere to redirect and
maintain healthy bodily functions. Therefore,
recycle[41] energy emitted by the Earth surface is
excess heat must be dissipated from the body to
the defining characteristic of the greenhouse effect.
keep it from overheating. When a person engages
in elevated levels of physical activity, the body
requires additional fuel which increases the metabolic rate and the rate of heat production. The
body must then use additional methods to remove the additional heat produced to keep the
internal temperature at a healthy level.
Heat transfer by convection is driven by the movement of fluids over the surface of the body. This
convective fluid can be either a liquid or a gas. For heat transfer from the outer surface of the body,
the convection mechanism is dependent on the surface area of the body, the velocity of the air, and
the temperature gradient between the surface of the skin and the ambient air.[44] The normal
temperature of the body is approximately 37 °C. Heat transfer occurs more readily when the
temperature of the surroundings is significantly less than the normal body temperature. This
concept explains why a person feels cold when not enough covering is worn when exposed to a cold
environment. Clothing can be considered an insulator which provides thermal resistance to heat
flow over the covered portion of the body.[45] This thermal resistance causes the temperature on
the surface of the clothing to be less than the temperature on the surface of the skin. This smaller
temperature gradient between the surface temperature and the ambient temperature will cause a
lower rate of heat transfer than if the skin were not covered.
To ensure that one portion of the body is not significantly hotter than another portion, heat must
be distributed evenly through the bodily tissues. Blood flowing through blood vessels acts as a
convective fluid and helps to prevent any buildup of excess heat inside the tissues of the body. This
flow of blood through the vessels can be modeled as pipe flow in an engineering system. The heat
carried by the blood is determined by the temperature of the surrounding tissue, the diameter of
the blood vessel, the thickness of the fluid, the velocity of the flow, and the heat transfer coefficient
of the blood. The velocity, blood vessel diameter, and fluid thickness can all be related to the
Reynolds Number, a dimensionless number used in fluid mechanics to characterize the flow of
fluids.
Latent heat loss, also known as evaporative heat loss, accounts for a large fraction of heat loss from
the body. When the core temperature of the body increases, the body triggers sweat glands in the
skin to bring additional moisture to the surface of the skin. The liquid is then transformed into
vapor which removes heat from the surface of the body.[46] The rate of evaporation heat loss is
directly related to the vapor pressure at the skin surface and the amount of moisture present on the
skin.[44] Therefore, the maximum of heat transfer will occur when the skin is completely wet. The
body continuously loses water by evaporation but the most significant amount of heat loss occurs
during periods of increased physical activity.
Cooling techniques
Evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling happens when water vapor is added to the
surrounding air. The energy needed to evaporate the water is taken
from the air in the form of sensible heat and converted into latent
heat, while the air remains at a constant enthalpy. Latent heat
describes the amount of heat that is needed to evaporate the liquid;
this heat comes from the liquid itself and the surrounding gas and
surfaces. The greater the difference between the two temperatures, the
greater the evaporative cooling effect. When the temperatures are the
same, no net evaporation of water in the air occurs; thus, there is no
cooling effect.
A traditional air cooler in

Laser cooling
Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh,
In quantum physics, laser cooling is used to achieve temperatures of India
near absolute zero (−273.15 °C, −459.67 °F) of atomic and molecular
samples to observe unique quantum effects that can only occur at this
heat level.
Doppler cooling is the most common method of laser cooling.
Sympathetic cooling is a process in which particles of one type cool particles of another type.
Typically, atomic ions that can be directly laser-cooled are used to cool nearby ions or atoms.
This technique allows the cooling of ions and atoms that cannot be laser-cooled directly.[47]
Magnetic cooling
Magnetic evaporative cooling is a process for lowering the temperature of a group of atoms, after
pre-cooled by methods such as laser cooling. Magnetic refrigeration cools below 0.3K, by making
use of the magnetocaloric effect.
Radiative cooling
Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by radiation. Outgoing energy is an
important effect in the Earth's energy budget. In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system, it refers
to the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of
short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. The thermosphere (top of atmosphere) cools to space
primarily by infrared energy radiated by carbon dioxide (CO2) at 15 μm and by nitric oxide (NO) at
5.3 μm.[48] Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent heat both remove heat
from the surface and redistribute it in the atmosphere.
Thermal energy storage

Thermal energy storage includes technologies for collecting and storing energy for later use. It may
be employed to balance energy demand between day and nighttime. The thermal reservoir may be
maintained at a temperature above or below that of the ambient environment. Applications include
space heating, domestic or process hot water systems, or generating electricity.
History
Newton's law of cooling

In 1701, Isaac Newton anonymously published an article in
Philosophical Transactions noting (in modern terms) that the rate of
temperature change of a body is proportional to the difference in
temperatures (graduum caloris, "degrees of heat") between the body
and its surroundings.[49] The phrase "temperature change" was later
replaced with "heat loss", and the relationship was named Newton's law
of cooling. In general, the law is valid only if the temperature difference
is small and the heat transfer mechanism remains the same.
Thermal conduction
In heat conduction, the law is valid only if the thermal conductivity of
the warmer body is independent of temperature. The thermal Isaac Newton
conductivity of most materials is only weakly dependent on
temperature, so in general the law holds true.
Thermal convection
In convective heat transfer, the law is valid for forced air or

pumped fluid cooling, where the properties of the fluid do not
vary strongly with temperature, but it is only approximately
true for buoyancy-driven convection, where the velocity of the
flow increases with temperature difference.
Thermal radiation
In the case of heat transfer by thermal radiation, Newton's law Newton's law of cooling. T0 =
original temperature, TR = ambient
of cooling holds only for very small temperature differences.
temperature, t = time
Thermal conductivity of different metals

In a 1780 letter to Benjamin Franklin, Dutch-born British scientist Jan
Ingenhousz relates an experiment which enabled him to rank seven
different metals according to their thermal conductivities:[50]
You remembre you gave me a wire of five metals all drawn

thro the same hole Viz. one, of gould, one of silver, copper
steel and iron. I supplyed here the two others Viz. the one of
tin the other of lead. I fixed these seven wires into a wooden
frame at an equal distance of one an other ... I dipt the seven
wires into this melted wax as deep as the wooden frame ... By
taking them out they were covred with a coat of wax ... When
I found that this crust was there about of an equal thikness Jan Ingenhousz
upon all the wires, I placed them all in a glased earthen vessel
full of olive oil heated to some degrees under boiling, taking
care that each wire was dipt just as far in the oil as the other
... Now, as they had been all dipt alike at the same time in the
same oil, it must follow, that the wire, upon which the wax
had been melted the highest, had been the best conductor of
heat. ... Silver conducted heat far the best of all other metals,
next to this was copper, then gold, tin, iron, steel, Lead.
Apparatus for measuring
the relative thermal
conductivities of different
Benjamin Thompson's experiments on heat transfer metals
During the years 1784 – 1798, the British physicist Benjamin

Thompson (Count Rumford) lived in Bavaria, reorganizing the Bavarian army for the Prince-
elector Charles Theodore among other official and charitable duties. The Elector gave Thompson
access to the facilities of the Electoral Academy of Sciences in Mannheim. During his years in
Mannheim and later in Munich, Thompson made a large number of discoveries and inventions
related to heat.
Conductivity experiments
"New Experiments upon Heat"
In 1785 Thompson performed a series of thermal conductivity

experiments, which he describes in great detail in the Philosophical
Transactions article "New Experiments upon Heat" from 1786.[51][52]
The fact that good electrical conductors are often also good heat
conductors and vice versa must have been well known at the time, for
Thompson mentions it in passing.[53] He intended to measure the
relative conductivities of mercury, water, moist air, "common air" (dry
air at normal atmospheric pressure), dry air of various rarefication,
and a "Torricellian vacuum".
From the striking analogy between the electric fluid and heat Benjamin Thompson
respecting their conductors and non-conductors (having
found that bodies, in general, which are conductors of the
electric fluid, are likewise good conductors of heat, and, on
the contrary, that electric bodies, or such as are bad
conductors of the electric fluid, are likewise bad conductors
of heat), I was led to imagine that the Torricellian vacuum,
which is known to afford so ready a passage to the electric
fluid, would also have afforded a ready passage to heat.
For these experiments, Thompson employed a

Medium Relative conductivity
thermometer inside a large, closed glass tube. Under the
circumstances described, heat may—unbeknownst to Mercury 1000
Thompson—have been transferred more by radiation Moist air 330
than by conduction.[54] These were his results. Water 313
After the experiments, Thompson was surprised to Dry air (1 atm) 80.41
observe that a vacuum was a significantly poorer heat Dry air (1/4 atm) 80.23
conductor than air "which of itself is reckoned among the Dry air (1/24 atm) 78
worst",[55] but only a very small difference between
Torricellian vacuum 55
common air and rarefied air.[56] He also noted the great
difference between dry air and moist air,[57] and the great
benefit this affords.[58]
I cannot help observing, with what infinite wisdom and goodness Divine Providence
appears to have guarded us against the evil effects of excessive heat and cold in the
atmosphere; for if it were possible for the air to be equally damp during the severe cold of
the winter ... as it sometimes is in summer, its conducing power, and consequently its
apparent coldness ... would become quite intolerable; but, happily for us, its power to
hold water in solution is diminished, and with it its power to rob us of our animal heat.
Every body knows how very disagreeable a very moderate degree of cold is when the air is
very damp; and from hence it appears, why the thermometer is not always a just measure
of the apparent or sensible heat of the atmosphere. If colds ... are occasioned by our
bodies being robbed of our animal heat, the reason is plain why those disorders prevail
most during the cold autumnal rains, and upon the breaking up of the frost in the spring.
It is likewise plain [why] ... inhabiting damp houses, is so very dangerous; and why the
evening air is so pernicious in summer ... and why it is not so during the hard frosts of
winter.
Temperature vs. sensible heat

Thompson concluded with some comments on the important difference between temperature and
sensible heat.
The ... sensation of hot or cold depends not intirely upon the temperature of the body
exciting in us those sensations ... but upon the quantity of heat it is capable of
communicating to us, or receiving from us ... and this depends in a great measure upon
the conducing powers of the bodies in question. The sensation of hot is the entrance of
heat into our bodies; that of cold is its exit ... This is another proof that the thermometer
cannot be a just measure of sensible heat ... or rather, that the touch does not afford us a
just indication of ... real temperatures.
Coining of the term "convection"

In the 1830s, in The Bridgewater Treatises, the term convection is attested
in a scientific sense. In treatise VIII by William Prout, in the book on
chemistry, it says:[59]
This motion of heat takes place in three ways, which a common

fire-place very well illustrates. If, for instance, we place a
thermometer directly before a fire, it soon begins to rise,
indicating an increase of temperature. In this case the heat has
made its way through the space between the fire and the William Prout
thermometer, by the process termed radiation. If we place a
second thermometer in contact with any part of the grate, and
away from the direct influence of the fire, we shall find that this
thermometer also denotes an increase of temperature; but here
the heat must have travelled through the metal of the grate, by
what is termed conduction. Lastly, a third thermometer placed
in the chimney, away from the direct influence of the fire, will
also indicate a considerable increase of temperature; in this case
a portion of the air, passing through and near the fire, has
become heated, and has carried up the chimney the temperature Fireplace, with grate
acquired from the fire. There is at present no single term in our and chimney
language employed to denote this third mode of the propagation
of heat; but we venture to propose for that purpose, the term
convection, [in footnote: [Latin] Convectio, a carrying or
conveying] which not only expresses the leading fact, but also
accords very well with the two other terms.
Later, in the same treatise VIII, in the book on meteorology, the concept of convection is also
applied to "the process by which heat is communicated through water".
See also
Combined forced and natural convection
Heat capacity
Heat transfer enhancement
Heat transfer physics
Stefan–Boltzmann law
Thermal contact conductance
Thermal physics
Thermal resistance
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References
Martin, Thomas (1951). "The Experimental Researches of Benjamin Thompson, Count

Rumford" (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4024834). Bulletin of the British Society for the History of
Science. 1 (6): 144–158). doi:10.1017/S0950563600000567 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS095
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External links
A Heat Transfer Textbook (http://ahtt.mit.edu) - (free download).
Thermal-FluidsPedia (https://www.thermalfluidscentral.org/encyclopedia/index.php/Main_Page)
- An online thermal fluids encyclopedia.
Hyperphysics Article on Heat Transfer (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/heat
ra.html) - Overview
Interseasonal Heat Transfer (http://www.icax.co.uk/thermalbank.html) - a practical example of
how heat transfer is used to heat buildings without burning fossil fuels.
Aspects of Heat Transfer, Cambridge University (http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2007/
HT/heat_transfer.html)
Thermal-Fluids Central (https://www.thermalfluidscentral.org/)
Energy2D: Interactive Heat Transfer Simulations for Everyone (https://intofuture.org/energy2d.
html)
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14/09/2024, 17:51 Heat transfer - Wikipedia

Heat transfer is a discipline of

Heat transfer is a process function (or path

Thermodynamic and mechanical heat transfer is

By transferring matter, energy—including thermal energy—is moved by the physical transfer of a

is heat flux (W/m2),

Convection vs. conduction

g is the acceleration due to gravity,

Convection occurs when the Rayleigh number is above 1,000–2,000.

When the objects and distances separating them are large in

For radiative transfer between two objects, the equation is as follows:

is the heat flux,

is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant,

Phase transitions involve the four fundamental states of

Solid – Deposition, freezing, and solid-to-solid

In a closed system, saturation temperature and boiling point

At standard atmospheric pressure and low temperatures, no

There are several types of condensation:

Homogeneous condensation, as during the formation of fog.

Melting is a thermal process that results in the phase transition of a

Lumped system analysis

System analysis by the lumped capacitance model is a common approximation in transient

A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device and a widely used type of temperature sensor

A thermal diode or thermal rectifier is a device that causes heat

Smart meter is a device that records electric energy consumption in intervals.

An alternative method is passive daytime radiative cooling,

Heat transfer in the human body

A traditional air cooler in

Doppler cooling is the most common method of laser cooling.

Thermal energy storage

Newton's law of cooling

In convective heat transfer, the law is valid for forced air or

Thermal conductivity of different metals

You remembre you gave me a wire of five metals all drawn

During the years 1784 – 1798, the British physicist Benjamin

"New Experiments upon Heat"

In 1785 Thompson performed a series of thermal conductivity

For these experiments, Thompson employed a

Temperature vs. sensible heat

Coining of the term "convection"

This motion of heat takes place in three ways, which a common

30. "Thermal Energy Transfer - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" (https://www.sciencedirect.co

Martin, Thomas (1951). "The Experimental Researches of Benjamin Thompson, Count

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&oldid=1245182652"

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