UNIT I.

INTRODUCTION

A. FOUNDATIONS
Definition of Terms
1. Matter- is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume.
a. Solids—are compact and have a definite shape and volume.
b. Liquids—have a definite volume and assume the shape of their container.
c. Gasses—have neither a definite shape nor volume.
2 Chemical Elements—building blocks of all forms of living and nonliving matter.
3 Chemical Symbol—one or two letters of the element’s name in English, Latin, or another
language.
4 Atoms—the smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of the
element.
5 Subatomic Particles—are the basic composition of an atom
a. Protons—positively charged
b. Neutrons—uncharged or neutral
c. Electrons—negatively charged

6. Ion—is an atom that has a positive or negative charge because it has equal numbers of
protons and electrons. Ionization—is the process of giving up or gaining electrons
7. Molecule—is the resulting combination of two or more atoms that share electrons.
8. Molecular formula—indicates the elements and the number of atoms of each element that make up

a molecule

9. Compound—is a substance that contains atoms of two or more different elements.

10. Free Radical—is an atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron on the outermost shell.

11. Chemical Bonds—are the forces that hold together the atoms of a molecule or a compound.

12. Ionic Bond—is the force of attraction that holds together ions with opposite charges.

13. Cation—positively charged ion

14. Anion—negatively charged ions.

15. Electrolyte—an ionic compound that breaks apart into positive and negative ions in
solution.
16. Covalent Bond—two or more atoms share electrons rather than gaining or losing them.
17 Hydrogen Bond—forms when a hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge attracts the
partial negative charge of neighboring electronegative atoms, most often larger oxygen or
nitrogen atoms.
18. Chemical Reaction—occurs when new bonds form or old bonds break between atoms.
19. Metabolism—refers to all the chemical reactions occurring in the body.
20. Energy—is the capacity to do work. Two principal forms: potential energy and kinetic
energy.
a. Potential Energy—energy stored by matter due to its position.
b. Kinetic Energy—the energy associated with matter in motion.
21. Chemical Energy—is a form of potential energy that is stored in the bonds of compounds
and molecules.
22. Activation Energy—is the collision energy needed to break the chemical bonds of the
reactant molecules so a reaction can start.
23. Catalyst—are chemical compounds that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the
activation energy needed for a reaction to occur. The most important catalysts in the body are
enzymes.
24. Synthesis Reaction—the process of combination of two or more atoms, ions, or molecules
to form new and larger molecules. The word synthesis means “to put together”.
25. Anabolism—collectively refers to all of the synthesis reactions that occur in your body.
26. Decomposition Reaction—splits up large molecules into smaller atoms, ions, or molecules.
27. Catabolism—collectively refers to the decomposition reactions that occur in your body.
a. Exchange Reaction—consists of both synthesis and decomposition reactions.
b. Reversible Reaction—the products can revert to the original reactants
c. Oxidation—refers to the loss of electrons; in the process, the oxidized substance
releases energy.
d. Reduction—refers to the gain of electrons; in the process the reduced substance gains
energy.
e. Oxidation-Reduction Reaction—is always parallel; when a substance is oxidized, another
is reduced at the same time.
B. AIMS AND HISTORY

Mid 1700: Karl Schelle, Swedish founder of biochemistry, studied chemical

composition of matter

1780s Antoine Lavoisier proposed that the combustion of a candle is similar to the respiration
of animals, as both need O2. For the first time a physiological process was explained with
reference to a nonliving mechanism.

Until the early 1800’s “vitalism” was a common belief: the compounds found in living organisms
(i.e., organic molecules) can only be produced by living organisms and could not be produced in
the laboratory.

Friedrich Wöhler disproved this belief (i.e., vitalism) in 1828 by synthesizing urea, an organic
molecule and a waste product of animal metabolism, from ammonium cyanate, an inorganic
molecule obtained from mineral (i.e., nonliving) sources.

Many science historians consider this in vitro synthesis of urea by Wöhler as the starting point
of Biochemistry

However, many consider Eduard Buchner’s first demonstration of alcoholic fermentation in

1893 in cell-free yeast extracts as the starting point for the birth of biochemistry.

This was another blow to the vitalistic thinking, showing that the presence of living yeast cells
was not needed for fermentation. Previously, scientists believed that only living cells could
catalyze such complex biological reactions.
Miller-Urey Experiment

 Experiments recreating the atmosphere of primitive earth, with the energy sources and
temperatures have led to the spontaneous formation of amino acids and other
biologically significant molecules.
 The Miller-Urey experiment showed that a variety of organic molecules, including the
amino acids could form in an early, reducing atmosphere.
 Thus, living things obey the standard laws of physics and chemistry
 And, no “vitalistic” force is required to explain life at the molecular level.
 1810s-1830s: A major substance from animals and plants was identified, composed of C,
H, O, and N. The term “Protein”, meaning the most important thing, was first used in
1838.
 1840: Schleiden and Schwann formulated the Cell Theory.
 1875: Walter Flemming discovered chromosomes.
 1850s-1890s: Carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids were recognized.
 The term “biochemistry” was coined in the 1870s by a German scientist, Carl Newberg.
 1925: Embden and Mayerhoff described the glycolytic pathway.
 1937: Hans Kreb proposed Kreb cycle.
 1953: James Watson and Francis Crick described the double helical structure of DNA
 1997: Paul Boyer and Jay Walker discovered the “Rotary Engine” that generated ATP.
 Danish J. Skou studied the “pump” that drives sodium and potassium across
membranes.
 Stanley Frusiner discovered the organism that causes “Mad Cow Disease”.
 Ruska et. al discovered the electron microscope and provided a whole new level of
insight into cellular structure.
C. IMPORTANCE OF BIOCHEMISTRY TO DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES

It is used in clinical diagnosis, manufacturing of various biological products,

treatment of diseases, in nutrition, agriculture etc. The study of biochemistry helps
one understand the actual chemical concepts of biology. That is the functioning of
various body processes and physiology by uses of biomolecules.

a. Dentistry
The aims, attitude and techniques of biochemistry are as relevant to dentistry as to medicine
or to any aspect of biology

1. To understand the true nature of dental disease. All diseases have a biochemical basis.
2. To give dental patients the necessary or appropriate dietary advice to prevent dental
diseases.
3. Special relevance to dentistry is areas of blood coagulation and effects of drugs and
other
injected substances on tissue and cells
4. Understanding the physicochemical process of resorption and deposition of
bone materials and its matrix is essential to orthodontics.

As for the future, methods to prevent or cure tooth decay are likely to involve a biochemical
approach, like the caries vaccine.

The role of fluoride is now well established and its role to re-mineralize a carious lesion or
chemically modify a tooth, the enamel surface and its bacterial population offer scope for
further investigation.

b. Agriculture
Biochemistry plays a valuable role in farming, fishery, poultry, sericulture, beekeeping etc;

1. Prevent diseases: It helps for prevention, treatment of diseases and also increases the
production or yield.
2. Enhance growth: Biochemistry gives an idea of how the use of fertilizers can increase
plant growth, their yield, quality of food etc.
3. Enhance Yield: Some hormones promote growth, while other promote flowering fruit
formation etc. In fisheries, use of substances to promote fish growth, their
reproduction, etc. can be understood.
4. Adulteration: Even the composition of food material produced, their alteration or
adulteration for example in honey can be found by biochemical tests.
Biochemistry tests help prevent contamination.
5. Biochemical tests for the pesticide residues or other toxic waste in plant, food grain and
soil can be evaluated. Hence during import and export of food grains a biochemical
check of the toxic residues is done to fix the quality.
 6. In fisheries, the water quality is regularly monitored by biochemical tests. Any drastic
change in water chemistry & composition of fishery ponds can lead to the vast death of
fishes and prawns; hence the tests are done on regular basis to see salt content (calcium
content), pH, accumulation of waste due to not changing water for long etc.

c. Plants
1. Photosynthesis: This describes how carbohydrates are synthesized by use of sunlight,
CO2, and water in the green leaves of plants. It goes on to explain about different
complex enzymes involved in the process to combine the energy of the sun within the
molecules of H2O+ CO2 in the form of carbohydrates.
2. Respiration: By use of the above photosynthesis pathway, plants leave out Oxygen while
taking up Carbon dioxide from the air.
3. Different sugars: Biochemistry defines different types of carbohydrates formed in plants
like trioses (3 carbon sugars i.e. glyceraldehyde), tetroses (4), pentoses (5), hexoses (6=
glucose), heptuloses (7) etc. Heptuloses are the carbohydrates which go on to form the
nucleic acids i.e. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA)
4. Plants secondary metabolites: Biochemistry also describes how the plant products like
gums, tannins, alkaloids, resins, enzymes, phytohormones are formed inside the plants
5. Other functions: It also describes how plant fruits get ripened, how plant seed
germinates, the respiration process inside the plant cell, how proteins and amino acids
are formed on rough endoplasmic reticulum and fats are formed on smooth ER.

d. Nutrition
1. In nutrition, biochemistry describes food chemistry. For maintenance of health,
optimum intake of many biochemical like macro, micronutrients, vitamins, minerals,
essential fatty acids & water is necessary.
2. Food chemistry gives an idea of what we eat, i.e. it is components like carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, etc. and the possible physiological alteration due to their deficiency.
3. The role of nutrients: Due to biochemistry the importance of vitamins, minerals,
essential fatty acids, their contribution to health were known. Hence, there is a frequent
recommendation for inclusion of essential amino acids, cod liver oil, salmon fish oil etc.
by physicians and other health and fitness experts. The nutrients value of food material
can also be determined by biochemical tests.
4. The physician can prescribe to limit usage of certain foods like excess sugar for diabetics,
excess oil for heart & lung problem prone patients etc. As these carbohydrate and fat
diets can inhibit the recovery rate from said disorder. This knowledge is due to their idea
of food chemistry.
e. Pharmacology

1. Drug Constitution: Biochemistry gives an idea of the constitution of the drug, its chances
of degradation with varying temperature etc. How modification in the medical
chemistry helps improve efficiency, minimize side effects etc.
2. Drug storage: The storage condition required can be estimated by the biochemical test.
For example, many enzymes, hormones are stored for dispensing. These get
deteriorated over time due to temperature or oxidation, contamination and also due to
improper storage.
3. Drug metabolism: It also gives an idea of how drug molecules are metabolized by many
biochemical reactions in presence of enzymes. This helps to avoid drugs which have a
poor metabolism or those with excessive side effects from being prescribed or
dispensed to the patient.

f. Medicine

1. Biochemistry is a valuable subject in medicine without which there would have been no
such advancement in the field.
2. Physiology: Biochemistry helps one understand the biochemical changes and related
physiological alteration in the body. Pathology of any disease is studied through
biochemical changes.
3. Pathology: Based on the symptoms described by the patient, the physician can get a
clue on the biochemical change and the associated disorder. For example, if a patient
complains about stiffness in small joints, then the physician may predict it to be gout
and get confirmed by evaluating uric acid levels in the blood. As uric acid accumulation
in blood results in gout.
4. Nutrition deficiency: In the present scenario, many people rely on taking multivitamin &
minerals for better health. The function and role of the vitamin in the body are
described only by biochemistry.
5. Hormonal deficiency: There are many disorders due to hormonal imbalance in especially
women and children. The formation, role of hormones in the normal body function is
taught in biochemistry by which the physician can understand the concerned problem
during treatment.
g. Nursing
In nursing, the importance of clinical biochemistry is INVALUABLE. When a patient is in the
hospital nurses need to keep a watch on how his condition is progressing through clinical
biochemistry. That is the treatment helping him recover from said condition etc. Almost all the
diseases or disorders have some biochemical involvement.
So, the diagnosis of any clinical condition is easily possible by biochemical estimations:

1. Kidney function test: For example, in kidney disorders, other chemotherapy treatments
etc. urine tests help understand the extent of excretion of drugs or other metabolites,
the change in pH, the color of urine etc.
2. Serum cholesterol test: Evaluation of blood cholesterol level and other lipoproteins
helps understand the proneness of the patient to cardiovascular diseases.
3. Blood test: In diabetes, biochemical analytical test for blood glucose level (above
150mg/ deciliter helps one understand the severity of diabetes disorder. Another
biochemical test for ketones bodies in urine also indicates the stage of diabetes. The
appearance of ketone bodies or ketone urea is mostly the last stage of diabetes.
4. Liver function tests help understand the type of disease or damage to the liver, the
effect of any medication on liver etc.

Thus, the importance of clinical biochemistry is to help the nurse monitor the patient’s
condition regularly during the treatment.