Analog and Digital

Communications
SUBJECT CODE:20EC4304 Dr. K. Shri Ramtej,
Assistant Professor,
B TECH II YEAR 4 TH SEM ECE, VRSEC

1
UNIT I
Amplitude Modulation: Time, Frequency Domain Description, Generation of AM waves, Detection of AM waves. Double Side Band-
Suppressed Carrier Modulation: Time and Frequency Domain Description, Generation of DSBSC waves, Coherent detection of DSBSC
Modulated Waves, Single Side Band Modulation: Frequency Domain Description, Vestigial Side-Band Modulation: Frequency Domain
Description
Angle Modulation: Frequency Modulation: Single Tone Frequency Modulation, Spectrum Analysis, Narrow Band FM, Wideband FM,
Transmission Bandwidth of FM, Applications of AM &FM. Comparison of AM and FM. (12)

UNIT II
Pulse Modulation: Quantization Process, Pulse Code Modulation, Delta Modulation
Baseband Pulse Transmission: Matched filter, Properties, Inter symbol Interference, Nyquist’s criterion for Distortion less Baseband Binary
Transmission, Correlative Level Coding.
(12)

UNIT III:
Signal Space Analysis: Introduction, Geometric Representation of Signals, Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Procedure, Likelihood
Functions, Coherent Detection of Signals in Noise - Maximum Likelihood Decoding, Correlation Receiver
(12)
UNIT IV:
Pass band Data Transmission: Introduction, Passband Transmission Model, Coherent Phase Shift Keying – BPSK, QPSK, M-ary PSK,
Coherent Frequency Shift Keying - Binary FSK, Comparison and Applications of Digital Modulation Schemes.
(12)
2
Text Books:
1. Simon Haykin. “ An introduction to Analog and Digital Communication Systems”,
3rdedition, 2009, John Wiley and Sons.(Units - I)
2. Simon Haykin, “Communication Systems”, John Wiley & Sons, 4th edition, 2007.(Units
- II,III & IV)
Reference Books:
1. George Kennedy, Electronic Communication Systems, sixth edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Edition -2017
2. Bernard Sklar, “Digital Communication”, 2nd edition, Pearson Education, 2013.
3. Taub and Schilling, “Principles of Communication Systems”, 2nd edition, TMH, 1986

3
 Unit I

Introduction

4
Signal
▪ A signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current that is used for carrying data
from one system to another.
▪ In electronics, a signal can be a time-varying voltage/current that is an
electromagnetic wave which carries information.
▪ There are two main types of signals used in electronics: analog and digital
signals.
▪ Analog signals are continuous in both values and time.
▪ Unlike analog signals, digital signals are not continuous, but signals are discrete
in value and time.

5
Signal
▪ An analog signal is time-varying and generally bound to a range, but there is an
infinite number of values within that continuous range.
▪ Analog signals are often calculated responses to changes in light, sound,
temperature, position, pressure, etc.
▪ When plotted on a voltage vs. time graph, an analog signal should produce a
smooth and continuous curve. There should not be any discrete value changes

6
Signal
▪ A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete values.
▪ A digital signal can only take on one value from a finite set of possible values at
a given time.
▪ When plotted on a voltage vs. time graph, digital signals are one of two values,
and are usually between 0V and VCC.

7
Communication System
▪ Communication is simply the process of exchanging information.
▪ Transmitter converts information into a signal that is suitable for transmission
over a medium.

8
Modulation
▪ Modulation is the process by which some characteristic of a carrier signal is
varied in accordance with the modulating (message) signal.
▪ Modulating Signal: Message signal
▪ Carrier Signal: Signal which carries message signal.
▪ Modulated Signal: The resultant signal after modulation.
▪ In simple words, mixing of low frequency signal with high frequency carrier
signal is called modulation.
▪ Low frequency signals cannot be transmitted for longer distances.
▪ So we modify the carrier signal with respect to modulating (message) signal.

9
Need for Modulation
1. Reducing the height of antenna
▪ Usually the size of antenna is around 𝜆/4.
𝑐 3×108
▪ For voice signal ranging from 300 Hz to 3.4 KHz, 𝜆 = = = 105 𝑚 =
𝑓 3×103
100 km. So the height of antenna becomes 25 km which is not practically
possible.
3×108
▪ If we modulate the signal to higher frequency (10MHz), 𝜆 = = 30 𝑚.
10×106
So antenna size becomes 30/4 = 7.5 m, which can be installed easily.

10
Need for Modulation
2. Multiplexing
▪ Multiplexing is a process in which two or more signals can be transmitted
over the same communication channel simultaneously.
▪ If 3 users are transmitting voice signals simultaneously, all the signals get
mixed together and a receiver can not separate them from each other.
▪ If we modulate the 3 voice signals on to 3 different carrier signals, they will
not interfere with each other.
▪ This process is called Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).

11
Need for Modulation
3. Increase the Range of Communication
▪ Low frequency signals can not travel long distance when they are transmitted
as they get heavily attenuated .
▪ The attenuation reduces with increase in frequency of the transmitted signal,
and they travel longer distance .
▪ The modulation process increases the frequency of the signal to be
transmitted. Therefore, it increases the range of communication.

12
Types of Modulation
▪ Consider a carrier signal 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑐 ).
▪ 𝐴𝑐 is the amplitude of the carrier.
▪ 𝑓𝑐 is the frequency of the carrier.
▪ 𝜙𝑐 is the phase of the carrier.
▪ Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a carrier signal in
accordance with the modulating (message) signal.
▪ Amplitude Modulation
▪ Frequency Modulation
▪ Phase Modulation

13
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
▪ Consider a carrier signal 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡).
▪ Amplitude Modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of
carrier wave 𝑐 𝑡 is varied linearly with message signal 𝑚 𝑡 .
Time-Domain Description of AM
▪ The standard form of AM wave is defined by
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
▪ where 𝑘𝑎 is a constant called amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.

14
Time-Domain Description of AM
▪ The amplitude of time function multiplying cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) is called the envelope
of AM wave, denoted by
𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)
▪ The maximum absolute value of 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) multiplied by 100 is referred to as the
percentage modulation.
▪ If 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) < 1, Under modulated
▪ If 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) = 1, Critically modulated
▪ If 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) > 1, Over modulated

15
16
17
20
Time-Domain Description of AM
▪ If 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) > 1, modulated wave will suffer from envelope distortion as it is
over modulated.
▪ So percentage modulation should be less than 100%, to avoid envelope
distortion.

21
Fourier Transform
▪ FT{1} = 𝛿 𝑓
1 1
▪ FT{cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 }=FT 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2 2
▪ FT{𝑚(𝑡)} = 𝑀(𝑓)
1
▪ FT{𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 }= 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2

22
Frequency-Domain Description of AM
▪ The standard form of AM wave is defined by
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
▪ To determine frequency description of this AM wave, take Fourier transform on
both sides.
𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑐
𝑆 𝑓 = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2 2
▪ 𝑀(𝑓) is the FT of 𝑚(𝑡) and 𝑚(𝑡) is band-limited to the interval −𝑊 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 𝑊
▪ 𝑓𝑐 > 𝑊

23
𝑆 𝑓
𝐴𝑐
= 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2
𝑘 𝑎 𝐴𝑐
+ 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2

24
Frequency-Domain Description of AM
▪ The spectrum consists of two delta functions weighted by factor 𝐴𝑐 /2 occurring
at ±𝑓𝑐 and two versions of the baseband spectrum translated in the frequency by
±𝑓𝑐 and scaled in amplitude by 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑐 /2
▪ For positive frequencies, the portion of spectrum lying above carrier frequency
is called upper sideband and the symmetric portion below 𝑓𝑐 is called lower
sideband.
▪ The condition 𝑓𝑐 > 𝑊 ensures that the sidebands do not overlap. Otherwise the
modulated wave exhibits spectral overlap and therefore frequency distortion.
▪ For positive frequencies, the highest frequency component of AM wave is
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑊 and lowest frequency component is 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑊.

▪ 25
Frequency-Domain Description of AM
▪ The difference between these two frequencies defines transmission bandwidth
B of AM wave, which is exactly twice the message bandwidth W.
▪ B=2W
▪ This spectrum of the AM wave is full i.e., the carrier, the upper sideband, and
the lower sideband are all completely represented.
▪ Hence this form of amplitude modulation is treated as standard.

26
Single-Tone modulation of AM
▪ Consider a modulating wave m 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡).
▪ The AM wave is described by
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
▪ where 𝜇 = 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 is called modulation factor or modulation index. Modulation
index is a measure of the extent to which some characteristic of carrier is varied
by the modulating signal.
▪ To avoid envelope distortion due to over modulation, the modulation factor 𝜇
must be kept below unity.
▪ Let 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 be the maximum and minimum values of the envelope of
the modulated wave.
27
28
Single-Tone modulation of AM
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐴𝑐 (1 + 𝜇)
=
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑐 (1 − 𝜇)
▪ That is
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜇=
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
1
▪ Using the relation cos(A)cos(B) = [cos(A+B)+cos(A-B)]
2
1 1
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2 2
29
Single-Tone modulation of AM
1 1
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2 2
▪ FT of s(t) is
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝜇
𝑆 𝑓 = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚
2 4
𝐴𝑐 𝜇
+ 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚
4
▪ Thus the spectrum of an AM wave, for special case of sinusoidal modulation,
consists of delta functions at ±𝑓𝑐 , 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑓𝑚 and −𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑓𝑚 .

30
Single-Tone modulation of AM

31
 1
𝐴𝑐 = 1, 𝑘𝑎 = 2 , 𝑚 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 , 𝑓𝑚 =1

32
𝐴𝑐 = 1, 𝑘𝑎 = 1, 𝑚 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 , 𝑓𝑚 =1

33
𝐴𝑐 = 1, 𝑘𝑎 = 3, 𝑚 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 , 𝑓𝑚 =1

34
35
Power Calculation in AM
1 1
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑉𝑝 2 1 𝑉𝑝 2 𝑉𝑝 2
▪ Power = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = = when R=1.
𝑅 2 𝑅 2𝑅 2
𝐴𝑐 2
▪ Carrier Power, 𝑃𝑐 =
2
𝐴𝑐 𝜇/2 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2 𝑃𝑐 𝜇2
▪ Upper Sideband Power, 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = =
2 8 4
𝐴𝑐 𝜇/2 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2 𝑃𝑐 𝜇2
▪ Lower Sideband Power, 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = = =
2 8 4
𝑃𝑐 𝜇2 𝑃𝑐 𝜇2 𝑃𝑐 𝜇2
▪ Total power, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑐 + + = 𝑃𝑐 +
4 4 2

36
Power Calculation in AM
𝜇2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇2
▪ Total power, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + = 1 +
2 2 2
𝜇2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑐 𝜇2
▪ Transmission Efficiency, 𝜂 = = 2
𝜇2
=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑐 1+ 2+𝜇2
2
1 3
▪ Let 𝑃𝑡 = 300𝑊, 𝜇 = 1 then 300 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + = 𝑃𝑐
2 2
▪ i.e., 𝑃𝑐 = 200𝑊, 𝑃𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑡 − 𝑃𝑐 = 100𝑊
▪ So 200𝑊 of the power is wasted to transmit carrier. 2/3rd of power is lost in
transmitting carrier and only 1/3rd of power is used to transmit sidebands.

37
Generation of AM Waves
Square Law Modulator
▪ It requires 3 features:
▪ a means of summing the carrier and modulating waves,
▪ a nonlinear element, and
▪ a band pass filter for extracting the desired modulation products.

38
Square Law Modulator
▪ Semiconductor diodes and transistors are the most common nonlinear devices
used for implementing square law modulators.
▪ The filtering requirement is usually satisfied by using a single or double tuned
filter.
▪ The nonlinear device can be modeled as, 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑣12 (𝑡)
▪ where 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are constants.
▪ The input voltage 𝑣1 𝑡 consists of the
carrier wave plus the modulated wave
i.e., 𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

39
 Square Law Modulator
▪ 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑎1 [𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ] + 𝑎2 [𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ]2
▪ 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑚2 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝑎2 𝑚(𝑡)𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
2𝑎2
▪ 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑎1 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑚2 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑎1

▪ The first term is the desired AM wave with amplitude sensitivity 𝑘𝑎 = 2𝑎2 /𝑎1 .
▪ The remaining 3 terms are unwanted and are removed by appropriate filtering.

40
Switching Modulator
▪ It is assumed that carrier wave applied to diode is larger in amplitude.
▪ We assume that diode acts as an ideal switch, it is short circuited (zero
impedance) when it is forward biased and is open circuited (infinite impedance)
when it is reverse biased.

41
Switching Modulator

42
Switching Modulator

43
Switching Modulator

44
Switching Modulator

45
Switching Modulator

46
Switching Modulator

47
Switching Modulator

48
Switching Modulator

49
Detection of AM Waves
▪ The process of detection or demodulation means recovering the message signal
from an incoming modulated wave.
▪ Detection is the inverse of modulation.
Square Law Detector
▪ A square law detector is obtained by using a square law modulator for the
purpose of detection.
▪ The nonlinear device can be modeled as, 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑣12 (𝑡)
▪ The input to the detector is AM wave given by
𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

50
Square Law Detector
▪ Substituting 𝑣1 𝑡 in 𝑣2 𝑡 , we get
2
𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
1 + cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
+𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 1 + 2𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑎2 𝑚2 (𝑡)
2
▪ The desired signal, 𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 is due to the 𝑎2 𝑣12 (𝑡) term, hence the
description square law detector.
▪ This component can be extracted by means of a low pass filter.
▪ This is not the only contribution within the baseband spectrum, because
𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎2 𝑚2 (𝑡)/2 will give rise to a plurality of similar frequency components.

51
Square Law Detector
𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 2
▪ The ratio of wanted signal to distortion is equal to = .
𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎
2 𝑚2 (𝑡)/2 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡

▪ To make this ratio large, we choose 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 small compared to unity.

52
Envelope Detector
▪ An envelope detector is a simple yet highly effective device that is well suited
for demodulation of a narrowband AM wave (carrier frequency is large
compared with message bandwidth), for which percentage modulation is less
than 100%.
▪ Ideally an envelope detector produces an output signal that follows the envelope
of the input signal exactly.
▪ Envelope detector consists of a diode and
a resistor capacitor filter.

53
Envelope Detector
▪ On the +ve half cycle of input signal, the diode is forward biased and capacitor
charges up rapidly to the peak value of input signal.
▪ When input signal falls below this value, the diode becomes reverse biased and
the capacitor discharges slowly through the load resistor Rl.
▪ The discharging process continues until the next +ve half cycle.
▪ When the input signal becomes greater than the voltage across the capacitor, the
diode conducts again and the process is repeated.
▪ We assume that the diode is ideal and the envelope detector is supplied by a
voltage source of internal impedance Rs.

54
Envelope Detector
▪ The charging time constant 𝑅𝑠 𝐶 must be short compared with the carrier period,
1/𝑓𝑐 , that is
1
𝑅𝑠 𝐶 ≪
𝑓𝑐
▪ Hence, capacitor charges rapidly and thereby follows the applied voltage up to
the positive peak when the diode is conducting.
▪ On the other hand, the discharging time constant 𝑅𝑙 𝐶 must be long enough to
ensure that the capacitor discharges slowly through the load resistor 𝑅𝑙 between
positive peaks of carrier wave, but not so long that capacitor voltage will not
discharge at maximum rate of change of the modulating wave, that is
1 1
≪ 𝑅𝑙 𝐶 ≪
𝑓𝑐 𝑊
55
Envelope Detector
▪ where W is the message bandwidth.
▪ The result is that the capacitor voltage or the detector output is very nearly same
as the envelope of AM wave.
▪ The detector output usually has a small ripple at carrier frequency, which is
removed by low pass filtering.

56
Envelope Detector

57
Envelope Detector

58
Envelope Detector

59
Applications of AM
▪ In radio broadcasting, a central transmitter is used to radiate message signals for
reception at a large number of remote points.
▪ AM broadcasting is radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation (AM)
transmissions.
▪ One of the most important factors which promoted the use of AM in radio
broadcasting is the simple circuitry required at the receiver’s end.
▪ A simple diode circuit is enough at the receiver’s end to properly receive the
modulated signal and get the original message.

60
Applications of AM
▪ Since, while broadcasting, there are a large number of receivers which are the
common masses of public, it is essential that circuitry involved be simple and
compact so that everyone can accommodate and use it properly.
▪ Amplitude modulation serves this purpose perfectly as explained above and
hence is used for broadcasting.

61
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier
(DSB-SC)
▪ The spectrum of standard AM wave is full i.e., the carrier, the upper sideband,
and the lower sideband are all completely represented.
▪ Hence it is called as Double Sideband with Full Carrier.
▪ But 2/3rd of power is lost in transmitting carrier and only 1/3rd of power is used
to transmit sidebands. i.e., Transmission efficiency is only 33.33% when 𝜇=1.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝜇2
▪ Transmission Efficiency, 𝜂 = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 2+𝜇2
▪ This is the main drawback of standard AM wave.
▪ To overcome this drawback, we can suppress the carrier component from the
modulated wave resulting in Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier modulation.

62
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier
(DSB-SC)
▪ Thus by suppressing the carrier, we obtain a modulated wave that is
proportional to the product of carrier wave and message signal.
Time-Domain Description of DSB-SC
▪ DSB-SC wave can be expressed as
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡)
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡)
▪ This modulated wave undergoes a phase reversal whenever the message signal
crosses zero.
▪ Hence the envelope of DSB-SC modulated wave is different from the message
signal.

63
64
Time-Domain Description of DSB-SC

65
Frequency-Domain Description of DSB-SC
▪ By taking the Fourier transform on both sides of time-domain signal, 𝑠 𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡)

𝐴𝑐
𝑆 𝑓 = 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2
▪ where 𝑆 𝑓 is the FT of modulated wave, and 𝑀(𝑓) is the FT of message signal
▪ When message signal is limited to the interval −𝑊 ≪ 𝑓 ≪ 𝑊, the modulation
process simply translates the spectrum of baseband signal by ±𝑓𝑐 .

66
Frequency-Domain Description of DSB-SC

▪ The transmission bandwidth required

by DSB-SC modulation is same as that
for standard AM, i.e., 2W.
▪ However, the carrier is suppressed in
DSB-SC as there are no delta functions
at ±𝑓𝑐 .

67
Generation of DSB-SC Waves
▪ A DSB-SC wave consists simply the product of the message signal and the
carrier wave.
▪ A device for achieving this requirement is called a product modulator.
▪ We have two forms of product modulator namely balanced modulator and ring
modulator.

68
Balanced Modulator
▪ A balanced modulator consists of two standard amplitude modulators arranged
in a balanced configuration so as to suppress the carrier wave.
▪ We assume that the two modulators are identical,
except for the sign reversal of the modulating
wave applied to the input of one of them.

69
Balanced Modulator
▪ Thus the outputs of two modulators may be expressed as
𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑠2 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 − 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
▪ Subtracting 𝑠2 𝑡 from 𝑠1 𝑡 , we obtain
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑠1 𝑡 − 𝑠2 𝑡 = 2𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡)
▪ Hence, except for the scaling factor 2𝑘𝑎 , the balanced
modulator output is equal to the product of modulating
wave and carrier, as required.

70
Ring Modulator
▪ One of the most useful product modulators that is well suited for generating a
DSB-SC modulated wave is the ring modulator.
▪ It is also known as lattice or double-balanced modulator.
▪ The four diodes form a ring in which they all point in the same way.
▪ The diodes are controlled by a square wave carrier of frequency fc, which is
applied by means of two center-tapped transformers.
▪ We assume that the diodes are ideal and the
transformers are perfectly balanced.

71
Ring Modulator
▪ When the carrier supply is positive, the outer diodes are switched ON,
presenting zero impedance, where as the inner diodes are switched OFF,
presenting infinite impedance, so that the modulator multiplies the message
signal m(t) by +1.
▪ When the carrier supply is negative, the situation becomes reversed
and the modulator multiplies the message signal m(t) by -1.
▪ Thus a ring modulator is a product modulator for a square wave carrier
and the message signal.

72
Ring Modulator
▪ Thus a ring modulator is a product modulator for a
square wave carrier and the message signal.
▪ The square wave carrier can be expressed by a Fourier
series as

▪ The ring modulator output is therefore

▪ We can see that there is no output from modulator at carrier frequency.

73
Coherent Detection of DSB-SC Waves
▪ The message signal is recovered from a DSB-SC wave s(t) by first multiplying
s(t) with a locally generated sinusoidal wave and then low pass filtering the
product.
▪ It is assumed that the local oscillator output is exactly coherent or synchronized,
in both frequency and phase with the carrier wave c(t) used in the product
modulator to generate s(t).
▪ This method of demodulation is known as
coherent detection or synchronous detection.

74
Coherent Detection of DSB-SC Waves
▪ Let the signal generated from local oscillator is having same frequency and
phase, measured with respect to the carrier wave c(t).
▪ Then the local oscillator signal can be denoted by cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 assuming 𝐴𝑐 =1
for convenience.
▪ The output of product modulator is given by
𝑣 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑠(𝑡)
𝑣 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡)
cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)
2
cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 1
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)
2
75
Coherent Detection of DSB-SC Waves
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 + cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡)
2 2
▪ The low pass filter removes unwanted term in the product modulator output.
▪ The final output is therefore given by
𝐴𝑐
𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡
2
▪ The demodulated signal 𝑣0 𝑡 is therefore proportional to 𝑚 𝑡 when local
oscillator is perfectly synchronized.

76
Effect of phase drift in Coherent Detector
▪ Let the signal generated from local oscillator is having same frequency but
arbitrary phase difference 𝜙, measured with respect to the carrier wave c(t).
▪ Then the local oscillator signal can be denoted by cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 assuming
𝐴𝑐 =1 for convenience.
▪ The output of product modulator is given by
𝑣 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 𝑠(𝑡)
𝑣 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡)
cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 + 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 − 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)
2
cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 + cos 𝜙
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)
2
77
Effect of phase drift in Coherent Detector
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝑣 𝑡 = cos 𝜙 𝑚 𝑡 + cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 𝑚(𝑡)
2 2
▪ The low pass filter removes unwanted term in the product modulator output.
▪ The final output is therefore given by
𝐴𝑐
𝑣0 𝑡 = cos 𝜙 𝑚 𝑡
2
▪ The demodulated signal 𝑣0 𝑡 is therefore proportional to 𝑚 𝑡 when the phase
error 𝜙 is constant.
▪ The amplitude of this demodulated is maximum when 𝜙 = 0, and is minimum
(zero) when 𝜙 = ±𝜋/2.

78
Effect of phase drift in Coherent Detector
▪ The zero demodulated signal which occurs for 𝜙 = ±𝜋/2, represents the
quadrature null effect of the coherent detector.
▪ Thus the phase error 𝜙 in the local oscillator causes the detector output to be
attenuated by a factor equal to cos𝜙.
▪ As long as the phase error 𝜙 is constant, the detector output provides an
undistorted version of the original message signal 𝑚(𝑡).
▪ A circuitry must be provided in the receiver to maintain the local oscillator in
perfect synchronism, in both frequency and phase, with the carrier wave used to
generate DSB-SC wave in the transmitter.

79
Effect of phase drift in Coherent Detector
▪ The resulting increase in receiver complexity is the price that must be paid for
suppressing the carrier wave to save transmitter power.

80
Single Tone Modulation of DSB-SC Wave
▪ Consider a sinusoidal modulating wave m 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡).
▪ The corresponding DSB-SC wave is given by
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

𝐴 𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑠 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2 2
▪ Assuming perfect synchronism between the local oscillator and carrier wave in
coherent detector, the product modulator output is
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑣 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2 2

81
Single Tone Modulation of DSB-SC Wave
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑣 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 2𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
4 4
𝐴 𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
+ cos 2𝜋 2𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2 4
▪ The first two terms are produced by upper side frequency, and last two terms
are produced by lower side frequency.
▪ The first and third terms are removed by low pass filter.
▪ The coherent detector output hence reproduces the original message signal.
▪ The detector output has two equal terms, one derived from upper side frequency
and the other from lower side frequency.
▪ Hence for transmission of information, only one side frequency is necessary.
82
Single-Tone modulation of AM
▪ Consider a modulating wave m 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡).
▪ The AM wave is described by
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
▪ where 𝜇 = 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 is called modulation factor or modulation index.
𝐴𝑐 2 𝑃𝑐 𝜇2
▪ Carrier Power, 𝑃𝑐 = , Upper Sideband Power, 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 =
2 4
𝑃𝑐 𝜇2 𝜇2
▪ Lower Sideband Power, 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = , Total power, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 +
4 2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝜇2
▪ Transmission Efficiency, 𝜂 = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 2+𝜇2

83
Multi-Tone modulation of AM
▪ 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚1 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚1 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑚2 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚2 𝑡)
▪ The AM wave is described by
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚1 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚1 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚2 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚2 𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇1 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚1 𝑡 + 𝜇2 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚2 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
▪ where 𝜇1 = 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚1 , 𝜇2 = 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚2 .
▪ Effective modulation index, 𝜇𝑡 = 𝜇12 + 𝜇22
𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇𝑡2
▪ Carrier Power, 𝑃𝑐 = , Total power, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 +
2 2
𝜇𝑡2
▪ Transmission Efficiency, 𝜂 =
2+𝜇𝑡2

84
Numerical
▪ A 400 Watt carrier is modulated to a depth of 75 percent. Calculate the total
power in AM wave.

▪ Consider the AM signal s(t) = [Ac + m(t)]cos500t where the modulating signal
is given by m(t) = 3 cos50t + 5 cos150t. Let the modulation index be 0.8. Find
amplitude of the carrier, carrier power and transmission efficiency.

85
Numerical
▪ Consider the AM signal s(t) = [Ac + m(t)]cos500t where the modulating signal
is given by m(t) = 3 cos50t + 5 cos150t. Let the modulation index be 0.8. Find
amplitude of the carrier, carrier power and transmission efficiency.

86
Numerical
▪ An AM transmitter has an unmodulated carrier power of 10 kW. It can be
modulated by a sinusoidal modulating voltage to a maximum depth of 40%,
without overloading. If the maximum modulation index is reduced to 30%,
what is the extent up to which the unmodulated carrier power can be increased
without overloading?

87
Numerical
▪ An AM transmitter has an unmodulated carrier power of 10 kW. It can be
modulated by a sinusoidal modulating voltage to a maximum depth of 40%,
without overloading. If the maximum modulation index is reduced to 30%,
what is the extent up to which the unmodulated carrier power can be increased
without overloading?

88
Numerical
▪ Calculate the percentage power saving when the carrier and one of the
sidebands are suppressed in an AM wave modulated to a depth of (i) 100%, and
(ii) 50%.

89
Numerical

90
Single Sideband Modulation (SSB)
▪ Because of the absence of any carrier component in the modulated signal, the
DSB-SC offers some saving of power.
▪ But standard amplitude modulation (AM) and double sideband suppressed
carrier (DSB-SC) modulation are wasteful of bandwidth because they both
require a transmission bandwidth equal to twice the message bandwidth.
▪ In both the cases, one half of the transmission bandwidth is occupied by the
upper side band of modulated wave, and other half is occupied by lower
sideband.
▪ But, the upper and lower sidebands are uniquely related to each other because
of their symmetry about carrier frequency. It means if the amplitude and phase
spectra of one sideband are given, we can determine the other sideband.
91
Single Sideband Modulation (SSB)
▪ This means that as the transmission of information is concerned, only one
sideband is necessary, and if both the carrier and other sideband are suppressed
at the transmitter, no information is lost.
▪ Hence the channel needs to provide only the same bandwidth as the message
signal.
▪ When only one sideband is transmitted, the modulation is referred to as single
sideband modulation (SSB).

92
Applications of SSB Modulation
▪ Point-to-point speech communication but not for audio broadcasting in which
millions of receivers may be interested in what is being broadcast by a single
transmitter. This is because, SSB receivers are quite complex and expensive. It
is not practical to make millions of receivers expensive in order to save a little
in the cost of a transmitter.
▪ Transmission of a very large number of telephone conversations simultaneously
over the same physical channel by using FDM.

93
Frequency Domain Description of SSB

94
Frequency Domain Description of SSB
▪ The precise frequency domain representation of single sideband (SSB)
modulated wave depends on which sideband is transmitted.
▪ Consider a message signal 𝑚(𝑡) with spectrum 𝑀(𝑓) limited to band
− 𝑊 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 𝑊, then the spectrum of DSB-SC modulated wave obtained by
multiplying 𝑚(𝑡) by the carrier wave 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) is shown in Fig. 7.17b.
▪ The upper sideband is represented in duplicate by the frequencies above 𝑓𝑐 and
those below −𝑓𝑐 .
▪ The lower sideband is represented in duplicate by the frequencies below 𝑓𝑐 (for
+ve frequencies) and those above −𝑓𝑐 (for –ve frequencies).

95
Frequency Domain Description of SSB
▪ Thus the essential function of SSB modulation is to translate the spectrum of
the modulating wave, either with or without inversion, to a new location in
frequency domain.
▪ The transmission bandwidth requirement of an SSB modulation system is one
half that of a standard AM or DSB-SC modulation system.
▪ The benefit of using SSB modulation is therefore reduced bandwidth
requirement and elimination of high power carrier wave.
▪ The main disadvantage of SSB modulation, is the cost and complexity of its
implementation.

96
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation
▪ Single sideband modulation is well suited for the transmission of voice because
of the energy gap that exists in the spectrum of voice signals between 0 to
300Hz.
▪ When message signal contains significant components at extremely low
frequencies (like television signals), the upper and lower sidebands meet at the
carrier frequency.
▪ So we cannot use SSB for such message signals, as it is difficult to isolate one
sideband (filter must have sharp cut-off characteristics).
▪ This difficulty suggests another scheme known as vestigial sideband
modulation (VSB).

97
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation
▪ VSB is a compromise between SSB and DSB-SC.
▪ In this modulation scheme, one sideband is passed completely whereas just a
part, or vestige of the other sideband is transmitted.

98
Frequency Domain Description of
VSB
▪ The spectrum of vestigial sideband (VSB)
modulated wave s(t) in relation to message
signal m(t), assuming that lower sideband is
modified into vestigial sideband is shown in
figure.
▪ The transmitted vestige of the lower sideband
compensates for the amount removed from
upper sideband.

99
Frequency Domain Description of VSB
▪ The transmission bandwidth required by the VSB modulated wave is therefore
given by
𝐵 = 𝑊 + 𝑓𝑣
▪ where W is the message bandwidth and 𝑓𝑣 is the width of vestigial sideband.
▪ VSB has the goodness of conserving bandwidth almost as efficiently as single
sideband modulation, while retaining the excellent low frequency baseband
characteristics of double sideband modulation.
▪ Hence VSB has become standard for the transmission of television and similar
signals where good phase characteristics and transmission of low frequency
components are important, but bandwidth required for double sideband
transmission is unavailable.
100
Frequency Domain Description of VSB
▪ BW of DSB-SC > BW of VSB > BW of SSB
▪ 2𝑊 > 𝑊 + 𝑓𝑣 > 𝑊
▪ Hence VSB is a trade-off between SSB and DSB-SC.
▪ But VSB has lower complexity of implementation in comparison to SSB since
it does not require ideal filters.

101
Angle Modulation
▪ In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance
with the message signal.
▪ There is another method of modulating a sinusoidal carrier wave, namely angle
modulation in which either the phase or frequency of the carrier wave is varied
according to the message signal.
▪ In this method of modulation the amplitude of the carrier wave is maintained
constant.
▪ We begin the study of angle modulation by writing the modulated wave in
general form as
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos[𝜃(𝑡)]

102
Angle Modulation
▪ where the carrier amplitude 𝐴𝑐 is maintained constant, and the angular
argument 𝜃(𝑡) is varied by a message signal 𝑚 𝑡 .
▪ In any event, a complete oscillation occurs whenever 𝜃(𝑡) changes by 2𝜋
radians. Instantaneous frequency of the angle modulated wave 𝑠(𝑡) is given by
1 𝑑𝜃 𝑡
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 =
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
▪ An angle modulated wave can be interpreted as a rotating phasor of length 𝐴𝑐
and angle 𝜃(𝑡). The angular velocity of such phasor is 𝑑𝜃 𝑡 /𝑑𝑡.
▪ In the simple case of an unmodulated carrier, the angle 𝜃(𝑡) is
𝜃 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑐
▪ The constant 𝜙𝑐 is the value of 𝜃(𝑡) at t = 0.
103
Angle Modulation
▪ Phase Modulation (PM) is that form of angle modulation in which the angular
argument 𝜃(𝑡) is varied linearly with the message signal 𝑚 𝑡 as
𝜃 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚(𝑡)
▪ The term 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 represents the angular argument of the unmodulated carrier, and
the constant 𝑘𝑝 represents the phase sensitivity of the modulator expressed in
radians per volt.
▪ This assumes that 𝑚 𝑡 is a voltage waveform. For convenience, the angular
argument of unmodulated carrier is assumed to be zero at t = 0.
▪ The phase modulated wave 𝑠(𝑡) is therefore described in time domain by
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡 ]

104
Angle Modulation
▪ Frequency Modulation (FM) is that form of angle modulation in which the
instantaneous frequency 𝑓𝑖 (𝑡) is varied linearly with the message signal 𝑚 𝑡 as
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 Eq. 1
▪ The term 𝑓𝑐 represents the frequency of the unmodulated carrier, and the
constant 𝑘𝑓 represents the frequency sensitivity of the modulator expressed in
hertz per volt.
▪ This assumes that 𝑚 𝑡 is a voltage waveform.
▪ Integrating Eq. 1 with respect to time and multiplying the result by 2𝜋, we get
𝑡 𝑡
𝜃 𝑡 = 2𝜋 න 𝑓𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 න 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0 0

105
Angle Modulation
▪ The frequency modulated wave is therefore described in time domain by
𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 න 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0
▪ As the angular argument is dependent on the message signal, the zero crossings
of a PM wave or FM wave do not have a perfect regularity in their spacing.
▪ This is one important feature that distinguishes both PM and FM from AM.
▪ Another important difference is that the envelope of a PM or FM wave is
constant (equal to carrier amplitude), whereas the envelope of AM wave is
dependent on the message signal.

106
Angle Modulation

▪ FM wave may be regarded as a PM wave in which the modulating signal is

𝑡
‫׬‬0 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 in place of 𝑚(𝑡).
▪ This means that an FM wave can be generated by first integrating 𝑚(𝑡) and
then using the result as the input to a phase modulator.
▪ Conversely, a PM wave can be generated by first differentiating 𝑚(𝑡) and then
using the result as the input to a frequency modulator.
▪ Hence we can deduce all properties of PM waves from those of FM waves, and
vice versa.
107
108
Sinusoidal Modulation
▪ Consider a sinusoidal modulating wave m(t)
as shown in (a).
▪ The FM wave produced by this modulating
wave is shown in (b).
▪ To determine PM wave for m(t), we note that
it is same as FM wave produced by
𝑑𝑚 𝑡 /𝑑𝑡, the derivative of m(t) with respect
to time.
▪ Fig c shows the plot of 𝑑𝑚 𝑡 /𝑑𝑡, which
consists of original sinusoidal modulating
wave shifted in phase by 900.
▪ The desired PM wave is shown in (d).
▪ For sinusoidal modulation a distinction
between FM and PM waves can be made only
by comparing with actual modulating waves.

109
Frequency Modulation

▪ The FM wave 𝑠(𝑡) is a non-linear function of the modulating wave 𝑚(𝑡).

▪ Hence frequency modulation is a non-linear modulation process.
▪ Consequently, unlike amplitude modulation, the spectrum of an FM wave is not
related in a simple manner to that of modulating wave.
▪ Thus, in order to study the spectral properties of an FM wave, the traditional
approach is to start with single-tone modulation.

111
Single-Tone Frequency Modulation
▪ Considering a sinusoidal modulating wave 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 .
▪ The instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM wave is
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡
= 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
= 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
▪ where ∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 , is called frequency deviation. It represents the maximum
departure of the instantaneous frequency of the FM wave from the carrier
frequency 𝑓𝑐 .
▪ A fundamental characteristic of an FM wave is that the frequency deviation is
proportional to the amplitude of modulating wave and is independent of
modulating frequency.
112
Single-Tone Frequency Modulation
𝑡
𝜃 𝑡 = 2𝜋 න 𝑓𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑡
𝜃 𝑡 = 2𝜋 න [𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ]𝑑𝑡
0
sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ∆𝑓
𝜃 𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ∆𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑚
▪ The ratio of the frequency deviation ∆𝑓 to the modulation frequency 𝑓𝑚 is
commonly called the modulation index of the FM wave and is denoted by 𝛽
∆𝑓
𝛽=
𝑓𝑚

113
Single-Tone Frequency Modulation
𝜃 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
▪ In physical sense, the parameter 𝛽 represents the phase deviation of the FM
wave; that is the maximum departure of the angular argument 𝜃 𝑡 from the
angle 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 of the unmodulated carrier.
▪ Hence FM wave for single tone modulation is given by
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ]

114
Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM
Wave
▪ The FM wave for sinusoidal modulation is given by
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ]
▪ Using trigonometric identity, we can expand this as
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 cos 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 sin[𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ]
▪ The in-phase and quadrature components of FM wave for the case of sinusoidal
modulation are
𝑠𝐼 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
𝑠𝑄 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 sin 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
▪ Hence the complex envelope of FM wave equals
𝑠ǁ 𝑡 = 𝑠𝐼 𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑄 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 exp 𝑗𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡

115
Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM
Wave
▪ The complex envelope 𝑠ǁ 𝑡 retains complete information about modulation
process.
▪ As 𝑠ǁ 𝑡 is a periodic function of time, with fundamental frequency equal to 𝑓𝑚 ,
we can expand it in the form of complex Fourier series as
∞

𝑠ǁ 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑐𝑛 exp(𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
𝑛=−∞
𝑐𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 𝐽𝑛 (𝛽)
▪ where 𝐽𝑛 (𝛽) is the nth order Bessel function of the first kind.
1 𝜋
𝐽𝑛 𝛽 = න exp[𝑗(𝛽 sin𝑥 − 𝑛𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 −𝜋

116
Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM
Wave
∞

𝑠ǁ 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 ෍ 𝐽𝑛 (𝛽) exp(𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
𝑛=−∞
▪ We can express FM wave 𝑠 𝑡 in terms of complex envelope 𝑠ǁ 𝑡 as
𝑠 𝑡 = Re[𝑠ǁ 𝑡 exp 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ]
∞

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 Re ෍ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 exp[𝑗2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 )𝑡 ]
𝑛=−∞
∞

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 ෍ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 cos[2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 )𝑡 ]
𝑛=−∞

117
Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM
Wave
∞

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 ෍ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 cos[2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 )𝑡 ]
𝑛=−∞
▪ By taking Fourier transform on both sides we get
∞
𝐴𝑐
𝑆 𝑓 = ෍ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 [𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑛𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 )]
2
𝑛=−∞

118
Narrow Band FM
▪ For small values of modulation index 𝛽 compared to one radian, the FM wave
assumes a narrow-band form.
▪ The FM wave for sinusoidal modulation is given by
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ]
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 cos 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 sin 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
▪ For very small value of 𝛽, we can approximate
▪ cos 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ≃1
▪ sin 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ≃ 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 ≃ 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − 𝐴𝑐 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 t − cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 t
𝑠 𝑡 ≃ 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − 𝛽𝐴𝑐
2
119
Narrow Band FM
𝛽𝐴𝑐 𝛽𝐴𝑐
𝑠 𝑡 ≃ 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 t − cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 t
2 2
▪ This equation shows that for small 𝛽, the FM may be closely approximated by
the sum of a carrier of amplitude 𝐴𝑐 , an upper side-frequency component of
amplitude 𝛽𝐴𝑐 /2, and a lower side-frequency component of amplitude 𝛽𝐴𝑐 /2
and phase shift equal to 1800.
▪ Such an FM wave is called narrow band FM.

120
Wideband FM
▪ For large values of modulation index 𝛽 compared to one radian, the FM wave
assumes a wide-band form.
▪ Wideband FM contains a carrier and an infinite number of side-frequency
components located symmetrically around the carrier.
∞

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 ෍ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 cos[2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 )𝑡 ]
𝑛=−∞
▪ The amplitude of carrier component contained in wideband FM wave varies
with the modulation index 𝛽 in accordance with 𝐽0 𝛽 .

121
Average Power of FM wave
▪ The envelope of an FM wave is constant, so that the average power of such a
wave dissipated in a 1-ohm resistor is also constant.
▪ FM wave has an envelope equal to 𝐴𝑐 .
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑉𝑝 2 1 𝑉𝑝 2 𝑉𝑝 2
▪ Power = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = = when R=1.
𝑅 2 𝑅 2𝑅 2
▪ Hence the average power dissipated by FM wave in a 1-ohm resistor is
𝐴2𝑐
𝑃=
2

122
Transmission Bandwidth of FM waves
▪ In theory, an FM wave contains an infinite number of side-frequencies so that
the bandwidth required to transmit such a signal is infinite.
▪ In practice, however, we find that the FM wave is effectively limited to a finite
number of significant side-frequencies compatible with a specified amount of
distortion.
▪ We may therefore specify an effective bandwidth required for the transmission
of an FM wave.
▪ For an FM wave generated by a single-tone modulating wave of frequency 𝑓𝑚 ,
the approximate bandwidth is given by
𝐵 ≃ 2∆𝑓 + 2𝑓𝑚

123
Transmission Bandwidth of FM waves
𝑓𝑚
𝐵 ≃ 2∆𝑓 + 2𝑓𝑚 = 2∆𝑓 1 +
∆𝑓
1
𝐵 ≃ 2∆𝑓 1 +
𝛽
▪ This relation is known as Carson’s rule.
1
▪ For Narrow Band FM (NBFM), 𝛽 ≪ 1. So 1 ≪
𝛽
1 𝑓𝑚
𝐵 ≃ 2∆𝑓 = 2∆𝑓
𝛽 ∆𝑓
𝐵 ≃ 2𝑓𝑚

124
Transmission Bandwidth of FM waves
1
𝐵 ≃ 2∆𝑓 1 +
𝛽
1
▪ For Wide Band FM (WBFM), 𝛽 ≫ 1. So 1 ≫
𝛽
𝐵 ≃ 2∆𝑓 1 + 0
𝐵 ≃ 2∆𝑓
▪ For a more accurate assessment of the bandwidth requirement of an FM wave,
we may use a definition based on retaining the maximum number of significant
side frequencies with amplitudes all greater than some selected value.

125
Transmission Bandwidth of FM waves
▪ A convenient choice for this value is 1% of the unmodulated carrier amplitude.
▪ We may thus define the 99 percent bandwidth of an FM wave as the separation
between two frequencies beyond which none of the side frequencies is greater
than 1% of carrier amplitude.
▪ Transmission bandwidth is 2𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑚 , where 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum value of
integer 𝑛 that satisfies the requirement 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 > 0.01.

126
▪ Let 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 sin(104 𝜋𝑡)
▪ 𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑝 𝐴𝑚 sin 104 𝜋𝑡 = 0.2 sin(104 𝜋𝑡)
▪ 𝑘𝑝 𝐴𝑚 = 0.2
▪ 𝐴𝑚 = 0.2/𝑘𝑝 = 0.2/5 = 0.04
▪ 𝑚 𝑡 = 0.04 sin(104 𝜋𝑡)

127
128
Transmission Bandwidth of FM waves

▪ 𝑓𝑚 = 10 KHz
▪ 𝐴𝑚 = 1
▪ ∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 = 60KHz
▪ 𝐵 ≃ 2 ∆𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚 = 2 60 + 10 KHz = 140KHz

129
135
Applications of AM
▪ In radio broadcasting, a central transmitter is used to radiate message signals for
reception at a large number of remote points.
▪ AM broadcasting is radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation (AM)
transmissions.
▪ One of the most important factors which promoted the use of AM in radio
broadcasting is the simple circuitry required at the receiver’s end.
▪ A simple diode circuit is enough at the receiver’s end to properly receive the
modulated signal and get the original message.

136
Applications of AM
▪ Since, while broadcasting, there are a large number of receivers which are the
common masses of public, it is essential that circuitry involved be simple and
compact so that everyone can accommodate and use it properly.
▪ Amplitude modulation serves this purpose perfectly as explained above and
hence is used for broadcasting.

137
Application of FM waves
▪ It is mostly used in radio broadcasting.
▪ It offers a great advantage in radio transmission as it has a larger signal-to-noise
ratio. Meaning, it results in low radio frequency interference.
▪ This is the main reason that many radio stations use FM to broadcast music
over the radio.
▪ Additionally, some of its uses are also found in radar, telemetry, seismic
prospecting and in EEG, different radio systems, music synthesis as well as in
video-transmission instruments.

138
 Comparison of AM and FM
Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation
In AM, the amplitude of the carrier is varied in In FM, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is
accordance with the message signal. The frequency varied in accordance with the message signal. The
and phase remain the same. amplitude remains constant.
Bandwidth is twice the highest modulating frequency. Bandwidth is twice the sum of the modulating signal
In AM radio broadcasting, the modulating signal has frequency and the frequency deviation. If the frequency
bandwidth of 15kHz, and hence the bandwidth of an deviation is 75kHz and the modulating signal frequency
amplitude-modulated signal is 30kHz. is 15kHz, the bandwidth required is 180kHz.
Zero crossing in modulated signal is equidistant Zero crossing in modulated signal is not equidistant
Transmitter and receiver are simple Transmitter and receiver are more complex
AM is more susceptible to noise because noise affects FM is less susceptible to noise because information in
amplitude, which is where information is "stored" in an FM signal is transmitted through varying the
an AM signal. frequency, and not the amplitude.
139