Analog Communication

I. HASSIAOUI AWAD
2021

Textbook:
Communication Systems, S. Haykin,
Imen AWAD 4th Edition , John Wiley,1
 Course Content
• Chap 1: Introduction and Review of signals
and systems

• Chap2: Continuous Wave Modulation

• Chap3: Random Processes

2
Chap2: Continuous Wave Modulation
Outline

• Overview of AM modulation / AM modulation

• DSB-SC
• Carrier recovery
• QAM/ SSB / VSB / FDM
• Angle modulation
• Frequency modulation / Bandwidth
• FM modulator / Demodulator
• Superheterodyne Receiver
3
 Introduction
• Modulation: Process by which a property or a parameter of a signal is varied in
proportion to a second signal.

• The phenomenon can be illustrated by the following analogy:

Suppose a man travels ‘on foot’ to deliver a message. Naturally he will take a long
time to reach the destination; moreover, he cannot travel long distance. But if the
man is provided a horse, the message can reach longer distance in shorter time. At
the destination, the ‘receiver’ will take out the message and will leave the horse.

Assume here, the message as a signal, horse as a carrier and the

receiver as the radio or TV receiver. This explains the total process of
radio transmission and reception.

4
 Introduction
• Modulation: Process by which a property or a parameter of a signal is varied in
proportion to a second signal.

• Continuous wave (CW) modulation

nick name for analog modulation (2 classes: amplitude and angle modulation)

• Amplitude Modulation: The amplitude of a sinusoidal signal with fixed frequency

and phase is varied in proportion to a given signal.

5
 Introduction: Definitions
• Modulating signal (wave), Modulated signal (wave)

Modulating signal: another name for the message signal

Modulated signal: signal to be transmitted: signal obtained after modulation

• Baseband, Passband

Baseband: refers to the signals and systems before modulation, which have
f/bandwidth much lower than the carrier f

Passband: refers to the signals and systems after modulation, which have
f/bandwidth around the carrier f
Baseband signal: is usually the modulating signal, or message signal
Passband signal: is usually the modulated signal, or transmitted signal 6
 Modulation process

Modulation

(1/2p)

7
Example :

message signal: m(t )  cos(2 t ). carrier: c (t )  cos(2 10t ).

8
 AM modulation
In the AM process (535 to 1705 KHz), the carrier (high f sine wave) is being
modulated by a lower f sine wave.
The modulating signal causes the carrier’s amplitude to change with time. This
resulting shape of the carrier is called the envelope. Note the envelope has the
shape of a sine wave

9
 AM Modulation
• Full AM: (radio broadcasting)
The amplitude of carrier wave is varied about a mean value, linearly with message
signal

• Modulated signal
– Carrier: c(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct )
– Message signal: m (t )

– AM modulated signal :

s(t )  Ac [1  ka m(t )]cos(2 f ct )

10
 s(t )  Ac [1  ka m(t )]cos(2 f ct )
• Important Parameters
i) amplitude sensitivity: ka
ii) percentage modulation: max ka m(t ) 100

• A good AM requires:
1) carrier frequency: f c >> W (message signal bandwdith)
2) percentage modulation: ka m(t )  1, for any t.

Note: if ka m(t )  1, then [1  ka m(t )]  0.

11
12
• If 2) is satisfied, the envelope of s(t) has the same shape as that of the
baseband signal m(t)

• If 2) is not satisfied, carrier wave becomes overmodulated

 percentage modulation >=100
 Envelope distortion

13
14
Example :AM signals.

Modulate a 1 Hz single-tone sinusoidal message signal onto a

10 Hz carrier. Examine the over-modulation case.

15
Solution

16
Solution

17
 Solution

Overmodulation

Phase Distortion

18
 • Spectrum of Full AM signal
S ( f )  FT[ Ac cos(2 f ct )]  FT[ Ac ka m(t ) cos(2 f ct )]
Ac ka Ac
  ( f  f c )   ( f  f c 
)   M ( f  fc )  M ( f  fc )
2 2
where M ( f )  FT[m(t )]

Full AM or AM : upper and lower sidebands transmitted

in full accompanied by the carrier wave

Upper sideband Lower sideband Lower sideband Upper sideband 19

20
• Bandwidth of AM signal
BT  2W
– AM signal’s bandwidth is twice message bandwidth:
wasteful of bandwidth: requires twice the message
bandwidth

– Negative frequency contents of m(t) becomes visible in

positive frequency
– Upper sideband (USB): fc  f  fc  W
– Lower sideband (LSB): fc  W  f  fc

• Transmission power:
Wasteful of power
PT  PM  Pcarrier  PUSB  PLSB  Pcarrier 21
• Exercise
For the AM signal spectrum pictured in the figure below,
calculate
• The message signal frequency fm
• The magnitude of the upper sideband
• The bandwidth
• The amplitude of the carrier
• Percentage modulation

The AM signal is a voltage, calculate the average power delivered to

1ohm resistor of:
• Carrier
• USB and LSB 22
Solution

10 V

23
Solution

24
• Exercise
– A modulated signal is shown below. The envelope has
maxima 18 and minima 2.
• What is the carrier amplitude Ac?
• What is the percentage modulation?

25
Solution

26
• Exercise
– An AM modulation with carrier frequency fc=540 kHz,
carrier amplitude Ac=20. Message signal is with fm=10kHz,
whose amplitude Am can make the carrier amplitude
changing +/-7.5 around Ac=20.

• What is percentage modulation?

• Find the modulated signal.

27
Solution

28
• Exercise
– A channel in AM broadcast has carrier fc=540 kHz
(amplitude Ac). The maximum message signal frequency
fm=W=5 kHz (amplitude Am). . Determine
• Frequency limits for the upper and lower sidebands
• Transmission bandwidth
• Sketch the spectrum of AM signal ( we assume single tone signals)

29
Solution

30
 Exp. of AM Modulator: Switching
modulator

c(t) is large in amplitude, the diode acts like an ideal switch

31
 Exp. of AM Modulator: Switching
modulator
v2(t) varies between v1(t) and 0 at a rate equal to fc

32
 Example of AM Modulator
H.W
Assume : the Fourier series of the pulse train

We find that v2(t) is the sum of two components:

 1st component

Bandpass filter

 2nd component :
Unwanted components at 0, ±fc , ±2fc , ±4fc and so on
33
 Conclusions (1st Part)
• Overview of continuous wave modulations
– Concepts
– List of modulation techniques

• AM modulation

– Signal waveform, spectrum

– Parameters, bandwidth
– Full AM modulation : simplicity of implementation but
wasteful of power and bandwidth
34
AM Modulation: Double-Sideband
Suppressed Carrier AM (DSB-SC)

• DSB-SC

– Double sideband suppressed carrier ( TV’s color signals)

– The carrier frequency (component fc) is removed from the

modulated signal s(t) Only upper and lower sidebands
are transmitted

– The suppression of the carrier means that DSB-SC

modulation requires much less power than full AM to
transmit the same message signal 35
AM Modulation:(DSB-SC)
General form of modulated signal:

36
 AM Modulation:(DSB-SC)
• Transmission bandwidth: 2W
• Carrier frequency has to be larger than twice the bandwidth of the information
• Bandwidth of the modulated signal s(t) is twice as large as the bandwidth of the
modulating signal m(t).
• No separate carrier is present in s(t)
• Upper sideband: f c  f  f c  W
• Lower sideband: fc  W  f  f c
• Transmission power PP P
USB LSB

37
• Example
If modulating signal m(t )  Am cos(2 f mt ), where f m << fc ,
determine DSB-SC signal and spectrum.

38
Solution

39
 Solution

USB LSB
USB
LSB

40
• Example
 f
1  , if f  W
Suppose m(t ) has spectrum M ( f )   W
 0,
 otherwise
Determine spectrum of s(t ), i.e., S ( f ).

41
Solution

42
 Example of product modulator:
Balanced Modulator

Mixer can usually be implemented

by “balanced modulator”

43
 Example of product modulator

Bandpass filter around fc

44
Tutorial : Full AM /DSB-SC

45
s(t )  Ac [1  ka m(t )]cos(2 f ct )

We assume the amplitude of m(t) =10

46
47
48
s(t )  Ac [1  ka m(t )]cos(2 f ct )

49
 Ac/2 Ac/2
kaAc/2Am/2 kaAc/2Am/2 kaAc/2Am/2
kaAc/2Am/2

fc

• = PLSB= μ2 AC2/8R

50
51
Example 1

• PEP: peak envelope power

52
53
54
Example 2

55
56
57
58
59
Example 5

60
61
62
DSB-SC: Coherent Detection (Demodulation)

At the receiver : Demodulator

At the transmitter: Modulator

Carrier generated
Carrier generated
at the transmitter
at the receiver: Local carrier

63
DSB-SC: Coherent Detection (Demodulation)

Before Low-pass filtering

64
DSB-SC: Coherent Detection (Demodulation)

Before Low-pass filtering

65
DSB-SC: Coherent Detection (Demodulation)

After Low-pass filtering

66
Coherent (synchronous) demodulation

• If the local carrier is identical (in phase and frequency) as the received
carrier, then we say receiver and transmitter are synchronized (  0 ).

Ac Al
If   0, then y (t )  m (t )
2

67
Coherent (synchronous) demodulation

• If synchronization is not achieved, then

Ac Al
y (t )  m(t ) cos 
2

Phase error constant : The recovered signal is scaled by a constant (the

local oscillator causes the detector output to be attenuated)

Phase error depends on time :

If the frequency of the local carrier is not the same as that of the
transmitter signal: The recovered signal is still modulated by a cosine
signal of low frequency f.
68
synchronization between transmitter and receiver’s carrier signals?

• Electronic device parameter drifting  make fc and fl different

• Propagation delay, different local timing  make the two carrier different
in phase
• The synchronization task is called carrier recovery

69
• Example

If the received signal is s (t )  Ac m(t ) cos(2 f ct )

but the local carrier is cl (t )  cos(2 f l t ),
what is the demodulation result?

70
 Solution

s (t )  Ac m(t ) cos(2 f ct )
cl (t )  cos(2 f l t ),
on result? signal is s (t )  Ac m(t ) cos(2 f ct )
e received
he local carrier is cl (t )  cos(2 f l t ),
t is the demodulation result?

71
• Solution

y (t )  Ac m(t ) cos(2 f ct ) Al cos(2 f l t ) |Lowpass

Ac Al AA
 m(t ) cos  2 ( f c  f l )t   c l m(t ) cos  2 ( f c  f l )t 
2 Lowpass 2 Lowpass

Ac Al
 m(t ) cos  2 ( f c  f l )t  Removed by the LP
2 Lowpass

Ac Al
1) If fl  f c (coherent), then y (t )  m(t )
2
2) If fl  f c but | fl  f c | is small (  LP bandwidth),
Ac Al
then y(t )  m(t ) cos  2 ( f c  f l )t .
2

3) If f l  f c and | f l  f c | is large
(  LP bandwidth), then y(t )  0.
72
– Example: fm=3, but fc-fl=0,10,or very large.

73
 Conclusions (2nd Part)
• DSB-SC
– Signal waveform, spectrum
– Bandwidth, power
– Modulator, demodulation
• Coherence (synchronization)

74
 Conclusions (2nd Part)

– DSB-SC: signal waveform, spectrum, bandwidth 2W

s(t )  Ac m(t ) cos(2 f ct ) A
S ( f )  c  M ( f  fc )  M ( f  fc )
2

– DSB-SC: Modulator & Demodulator

Product detector

Imen AWAD 75
 Carrier Recovery
• Carrier recovery
The receiver finds the same carrier frequency and phase as
those used in the received signal

Electronic device
parameter drifting
 make fc and fl
different

Propagation delay,
different local timing
 make the two
carrier different in
phase
76
Carrier Recovery Methods: Pilot

– Block diagram of transmitter with pilot

• Modulator

• Transmitted signal

s(t )  Ac m(t )cos(2 fct )  Ap cos(2 f ct )

77
– Block diagram of receiver using pilot
• Received signal
sˆ(t )  Aˆc m(t ) cos(2 f ct   )  Aˆ p cos(2 f ct   )

• Demodulator

• Spectrum of narrowband bandpass filter

78
Example

Let
– the message signal be m(t)=2sin(2πfmt), fm=1 kHz,
– and carrier is 10 kHz.

There is a frequency deviation of 100 Hz, and a phase delay of π/2

between the transmitter and receiver ( concerning the carrier and the
pilot).

Show the modulation/demodulation using pilot method.

79
 Solution
At the transmitter: m(t)=2sin(2πfmt)

Nominal transmitted signal:

s(t )  2 Ac sin(2 f mt ) cos(2 f ct )  Ap cos(2 f ct )
where f m  103 , f c  10 4 , Ap Ac 10 .

80
 Solution

Received signal:
sˆ(t )  2 Ac sin(2 f mt ) cos[2 ( f c  f )t   2]
 Ap cos[2 ( f c  f )t   2]
where f m  103 , f c  10 4 , f  100.

81
 Solution
At the receiver :

Instead of using nominal carrier: cos(2 fl t   ),

receiver generate carrier from Ap cos[2 ( f c  f )t   2].
So the local carrier is: cos[2 ( f c  f )t   2].

Instead of using nominal carrier: cos(2 fl t   ),

receiver generate carrier from Ap cos[2 ( f c  f )t   2].
So the local carrier is: cos[2 ( f c  f )t   2].

82
 Carrier Recovery Methods
Costas Loop (Phase locked loop)
The receiver determines the carrier f and phase from the received signal.

f is the time-varying rate of phase, so carrier recovery problem can be reduced to

phase tracking only
if the local carrier is synchronized, then we have perfect demodulation, otherwise, the
demodulation is deviated. So we can use the demodulation error to feedback control
the carrier estimation.

83
 Block diagram of Costas Loop

2 coherent detectors :
• with the same input signal
• but with individual local signals (in phase quadrature with respect to each other )
84
• local oscillator f is adjusted to be = fc
 Block diagram of Costas Loop

The 2 detectors are coupled together to form a feedback system :

Uses a phase discriminator to determine the phase offset of the receiver oscillator
discriminator output drives a VCO, which adjusts the phase of its output carrier based
on the input signal.

• When the phase is synchronized, the VCO input is zero.

85
Costas Loop model

1 1
v1 (t )  Ac Al m(t ) cos  , v2 (t )  Ac Al m(t ) sin 
2 2
2 2
1  1  1
v3 (t )   Ac Al m(t )  cos  sin    Ac Al m(t )  sin 2
2  2  2

v4 (t )  K sin 2 86
87
88
 Conclusions: Properties of DSB-SC
• Compared with AM
– Advantage:

high power efficiency, but no more

bandwidth efficiency

– Disadvantage:
complex implementation. Coherent
demodulator (product detector) has to
be used, with complex carrier recovery

89
• Important: compare two major types of detectors
– Envelope detector (carrier recovery not required)

• Simple. Low performance.

– Product detector (carrier recovery required)

s(t)

• Complex. High performance Imen AWAD

90
 Envelope detector

• The circuit relies upon the behaviour of the diode — allowing current
through when the input is positive with respect to the capacitor voltage,
hence ‘topping up’ the capacitor voltage to the peak level, but blocking
any current from flowing back out through the diode when the input
voltage is below the capacitor voltage.
Imen AWAD 91
 The capacitor in the circuit
above stores charge on the
rising edge and releases it
slowly through the resistor
when the input signal
amplitude falls

y(t )  AD 1  kD m(t ) Diode D1 cuts the negative

portion of AM signal s(t)
s(t )  Ac 1  ka m(t ) cos(2 f ct ) When signal across D1 is positive,
C is charged: input signal > capacitor signal
When signal across D1 is 0 :
C is discharged.

Overall effect:
y(t) remains approximately
as the envelope of s(t)

Imen AWAD 92
 Envelope detector

• If the time constant RC in the envelope detector is too long relative to the period of the highest
frequency modulating signal, it will not be able to follow the peaks of the envelope giving rise to
diagonal clipping (decrochage d’enveloppe)

• If RC is too small fast discharge

 In general RC must be a lot longer than the period of the carrier and a lot shorter than the period of the
modulating signal.
( 1/fc<< RC<< 1/fm)
93
 Conclusions
• DSB-SC
– Carrier recovery
• Pilot method
• Costas Loop
– Properties of DSB-SC

94
QAM: quadrature amplitude modulation

– AM: waste power, waste bandwidth

– DSB: improve efficiency of power, not bandwidth

– QAM: improve bandwidth efficiency of DSB, with same power

efficiency

• Quadrature-amplitude modulation, quadrature carrier multiplexing

• Two DSB-SC signals sent in same bandwidth  double bandwidth use
• TV chrominance signals/ intermediate step in many digital modulations
95
• QAM
– QAM is a modulation method where two message signals are
modulated to two sinusoidal carriers that are out of phase with
each other by 90o.

two carriers: cos(2 f ct ), and sin(2 f ct )

special name: in-phase, quadrature
I-channel, Q-channel

– The carriers are called quadrature carriers

96
 QAM Signal, Spectrum

• QAM modulated signal waveform

s(t )  Ac m1 (t ) cos(2 f ct )  Ac m2 (t )sin(2 f ct )

97
• QAM signal spectrum
Ac A 1
S( f )  M 1 ( f )   ( f  f c )   ( f  f c )   c M 2 ( f )   ( f  f c )   ( f  f c ) 
2 2 j
A A
 c  M1 ( f  fc )  M1 ( f  fc )  c  M 2 ( f  fc )  M 2 ( f  fc )
2 2j
Assume M 1 ( f ) and M 2 ( f ) has the same bandwidth W .
 Ac
 2  M 1 ( f  f c )  jM 2 ( f  f c ) , if f  f c  W

A
S ( f )   c  M 1 ( f  f c )  jM 2 ( f  f c )  , if f  f c  W
2
 0, otherwise



98
• Bandwidth of QAM signal: 2W
• Transmission power of QAM signal
– Summation of two DSB-SC signal powers

99
• Example

100
101
Example :

Let m1 (t )  cos(2 f mt ), m2 (t )  2sin(2 f mt ),

Determine QAM signal and spectrum.

102
103
 QAM Modulator, Demodulator

• QAM modulator

s(t )  Ac m1 (t ) cos(2 f ct )  Ac m2 (t )sin(2 f ct )

104
• Demodulator

– I-channel (upper branch)

v1 (t )  s(t ) Al cos(2 f ct   ) |LPF
 Ac Al m1 (t ) cos(2 f c t ) cos(2 f c t   )  Ac Al m2 (t ) sin(2 f c t ) cos(2 f c t   ) |LPF
Ac Al AA
 m1 (t ) cos   cos(4 f ct   )   c l m2 (t )   sin   sin(4 f ct   )  |LPF
2 2
AA AA
 c l m1 (t ) cos   c l m2 (t ) sin 
2 2
AA
Coherent (Synchronous   0) : v1 (t )  c l m1 (t )
2
Imen AWAD 105
 – Q-channel (Lower branch)
v2 (t )  s (t ) Al sin(2 f ct   ) |LPF
 Ac Al m1 (t ) cos(2 f ct ) sin(2 f ct   )  Ac Al m2 (t ) sin(2 f ct ) sin(2 f ct   ) |LPF
Ac Al AA
 m1 (t ) sin   sin(4 f ct   )   c l m2 (t ) cos   cos(4 f ct   )  |LPF
2 2
AA AA
 c l m1 (t ) sin   c l m2 (t ) cos 
2 2
AA
Coherent (Synchronous   0) : v2 (t )  c l m2 (t )
2

– QAM receiver should be coherent, otherwise there is cross-

talk (demodulation output is still a mixture of two messages)

Imen AWAD 106

• Example
– Find demodulation output if the received QAM signal is
s(t )  Ac cos  2 ( f c  f m )t 

– Redo if QAM signal is HW

3 Ac A
s (t )  cos  2 ( f c  f m )t   c cos  2 ( f c  f m )t 
2 2

107
108
109
 Properties of QAM
• QAM is carpool of two message signals in a two-seat car

– Each message signal has a unique carrier

– Key point: there is simple demodulation to separate the two
signals at the receiver
– Major advantage: double bandwidth efficiency
– Major drawback: critical requirement of synchronization for
demodulation

110
 Conclusions

• QAM
– Signal, spectrum, bandwidth
– Modulator, demodulator
– QAM Properties

111
Reminder: List of modulation methods

– Amplitude modulation methods and applications

• AM (amplitude modulation): AM radio, short wave radio
broadcast,
• DSBSC (double sideband suppressed carrier modulation): data
modem, Color TV’s color signals
• SSB (single sideband modulation): telephone
• VSB (vestigial sideband modulation): TV picture signal

– Angle modulation methods and applications

• FM (frequency modulation): FM radio broadcast, TV sound signal,
analog cellular phone
• PM (phase modulation): not widely used, except in digital
communication systems
112
To Go Further

113
 Electronic Implementation of DSB

• New problem: how to implement the mixer

– Mixer can usually be implemented by “balanced

modulator”

Mixer (balanced modulator)

Implemented by discrete
Electronic components
114
– Balanced modulator (mixer) now usually implemented in IC
(integrated circuits).
– Balanced modulator IC has many applications: AM,DSB modulation,
demodulation, etc.

Use MC1496
Balanced Modulator
Generate DSB

Internal schematic
Of MC1496 Balanced Imen AWAD 115
Modulator.
 Chopper Modulator

cos(ct) is a square wave. During the positive half cycle f(t) is switched on to the other
side. When cos(ct) is 0 the waveform is switched off. The bandpass filter will remove
higher frequency components which are not needed. The corresponding waveforms are
shown below

116
 Double balanced ring modulator
ei(t) modulating input (peak amplitude
<<reference eR.

On + half-cycles of cos(ct) point a is essentially

at ground potential and a current will flow
upward through half of the output transformer
secondary, inducing a + output voltage.
On - half-cycles of cos(ct) , point b is
essentially at ground potential and a current
will flow downward through the opposite half
of the output transformer secondary, inducing a
– output voltage.

The peak + and - output voltages will be

identical for a given fixed signal amplitude if the
output transformer is accurately centre tapped.
Therefore we have developed a signal that
alternates in sign at a rate determined
by the carrier frequency and whose amplitude
is proportional to the input signal amplitude.
117
 Demodulation of Full AM signal

– Principle
• Nonlinear device can be diode (remove negative value), square
(s2(t)), absolute value (|s(t)|), etc
• Function of nonlinear device is to obtain the multiple-order
harmonies of s(t) and m(t)
• Proper low pass filter is used to remove high frequency harmonies,
but retain low frequency components
• M(t) can be obtained after d.c. bias removing

v(t )  s (t ) positive  Ac 1  ka m(t )  cos(2 f ct ) positive

 y (t )  v(t ) |lowpass filter
 Ac 1  ka m(t )   cn e j 2 nf c t

n 
 c0 Ac 1  ka m(t )
 Ac 1  ka m(t )  c0  High frequency components
118
Demodulator using an Envelope Detector
• Diode Detector : This is the most commonly used AM demodulator. It is
cheap and reasonably accurate

The Diode detector output signal consists of three components

• The wanted demodulated signal
• A DC component proportional to the peak amplitude of the carrier. This is
removed by sending the signal through a capacitor C2 (high pass filter).

• An unwanted ripple at the carrier frequency and its harmonics. This is

blocked from later stages by using an RC low pass filter (R2 and C3 in this
circuit). R2
C2

DC LPF
AM Audio
in
R1 C1 Block C3 Out

Envelope 119
Detector
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 Carrier Recovery Methods: Pilot
Pilot method
Transmitter sends a pilot signal ( single f), receiver estimate the correct carrier f
and phase according to the received pilot signal  in order for the receiver to
get synchronized.

Message signal

Modulated signal + Pilot signal

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 Carrier Recovery Methods: Pilot
Pilot method: Example ( Commercial Stereo FM Stations)

DSB used to transmit stereo information, a 19kHz pilot

tone is transmitted with the modulated signal.
Major advantage: simplicity.
Major disadvantage: waste power and bandwidth.

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 Carrier Recovery Methods: Pilot
Pilot method: Example ( Commercial Stereo FM Stations)

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