Unit III DesignAgainstFluctuatingLoads

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
Unit 3
DESIGN AGAINST FLUCTUATING LOADS
ME – 1, Batch - C
Unit contain
Stress concentration - causes & remedies,

fluctuating stresses, fatigue failures,
endurance limit, design for finite and infinite
life, Soderberg and Goodman diagrams,
Modified Goodman diagrams
Stress Concentration
 Elementary equations
• These equations are based on a number of assumptions. One of the

assumptions is that there are no discontinuities in the cross-section of the
component. However, in practice, discontinuities and abrupt changes in
cross-section are unavoidable due to certain features of the component
such as oil holes and grooves, keyways and splines, screw threads and
shoulders
• Under these circumstances, the ‘elementary’ equations do not give correct
results.
• A plate with a small circular hole, subjected to tensile stress is shown in Fig.
The distribution of stresses near the hole can be observed by using the Photo-
elasticity technique.
• The localized stresses in the neighbourhood of the hole are far greater than
the stresses obtained by elementary equations.
• Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the

irregularities present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross section
• stress concentration factor:
It is denoted by Kt and defined as,
Causes:
Variation in Properties of Materials
Load Application
Abrupt Changes in Section
Discontinuities in the Component
Machining Scratches
Stress concentration factor
• Determination
1.mathematical method based on the theory of elasticity and
2.experimental methods like photo-elasticity.
3.FEA packages
• The charts for stress concentration factors for different geometric
shapes and conditions of loading shown below
• A fl at plate with an elliptical hole and subjected to tensile force, is shown in
Fig. the theoretical stress concentration factor at the edge of hole is given by,
• The stress concentration charts are based on either the photo-elastic

analysis of the epoxy models using a circular polariscope or theoretical or fi
nite element analysis of the mathematical model. That is why the factor is
called theoretical stress concentration factor.
• The ductility or brittleness of the material and the type of load— whether
static or cyclic—affects the stress concentration.
• Therefore, there is a difference between the stress concentration indicated
by the theoretical stress concentration factor and the actual stress
concentration in the compon
• The designer should consider the following guidelines
1) Ductile Materials Under Static Load
When the stress in the vicinity of the discontinuity reaches the yield point,
there is plastic deformation, resulting in a redistribution of stresses. This plastic
deformation or yielding is local and restricted to a very small area in the
component. There is no perceptible damage to the part as a whole.
2)Ductile Materials Under Fluctuating Load

when the load is fluctuating, the stress at the discontinuities may exceed the
endurance limit and in that case, the component may fail by fatigue. Therefore,
endurance limit of the components made of ductile material is greatly reduced
due to stress concentration.
3) Brittle Materials
• The effect of stress concentration is more severe in case of brittle materials,
due to their inability of plastic deformation.
• Once the local stress at the discontinuity reaches the fracture strength, a
crack is formed. This reduces the material available to resist external load and
also increases the stress concentration at the crack. The part then quickly
fails.
• Therefore, stress concentration factors are used for components made of
brittle materials subjected to both static load as well as fluctuating load.
Reduction of stress concentration factor
Force flow around sharp corner Force flow around Rounded corner
• Fluid Flow analogy

• When there is sudden change in cross-section, bending of stress lines is
very sharp and severe resulting in stress concentration. Therefore,
stress concentration can be greatly reduced by reducing the bending by
rounding the corners.
• There are different methods to reduce the bending of the stress lines at
the junction and reduce the stress concentration
1) Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member
2) Fillet Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member in Bending
3) Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft
4) Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Members
• Many discontinuities found in machine components cannot be
avoided. Therefore, stress concentration cannot be totally
eliminated.
• However, it can be greatly reduced by selecting the correct
geometric shape by the designer.
• Many difficult problems involving stress concentration have been
solved by removing material instead of adding it. Additional
notches, holes and undercuts are the simple means to achieve
significant reduction in stress concentration.
Numericals-
1) A flat plate subjected to a tensile force of 5 kN is shown in Fig. The plate
material is grey cast iron with permissible stress 80 Mpa and the factor of
safety is 2.5. Determine the thickness of the plate. Take Kt as 2.16
Fluctuating Stresses
• Stresses induced in mechanical component because of varying
forces are called as fluctuating stresses
• It is observed that about 80% of failures of mechanical
components are due to ‘fatigue failure’ resulting from
fluctuating stresses.
• In practice, the pattern of stress variation is irregular and
unpredictable For the purpose of design analysis, simple
models for stress–time relationships are used e.g. Sine curve
• There are three types of mathematical models for cyclic stresses
1)Fluctuating stresses
2)Repeated stresses
3)Reversed stresses
Fatigue failure
• The phenomenon of decreased resistance of the materials to
fluctuating stresses is called fatigue failure
• fatigue failures are common are transmission shafts, connecting

rods, gears, vehicle suspension springs and ball bearings.
• fatigue failure begins with a crack at some point in the material.
The crack is more likely to occur in the following regions:
(i) Regions of discontinuity, such as oil holes, keyways, screw

threads, etc.
(ii) Regions of irregularities in machining operations, such as
scratches on the surface, stamp mark, inspection marks, etc.
(iii) Internal cracks due to defects in materials like blow holes
• In case of failure under static load, there is suffi cient plastic
deformation prior to failure, which gives a warning well in
advance.
• Fatigue cracks are not visible till they reach the surface of the
component and by that time, the failure has already taken place.
The fatigue failure is sudden and total.
• It is relatively easy to design a component for a static load
• The fatigue failure, however, depends upon a number of factors,

such as the number of cycles, mean stress, stress amplitude, stress
concentration, residual stresses, corrosion and creep. This makes
the design of components subjected to fl uctuating stresses more
complex
Endurance Limit
S-N Curve
• the endurance limit is determined by means of a rotating beam machine
developed by R R Moore.
• The dimensions of the standard test specimen (in mm) are shown in Fig.
Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor
• When a machine member is subjected to cyclic or fatigue loading,

the value of fatigue stress concentration factor shall be applied
instead of theoretical stress concentration factor.
• Mathematically, fatigue stress concentration factor,
Notch Sensitivity
• The notch sensitivity factors for various materials for reversed bending or
axial stresses
Approximate estimation of Endurance Limit
• Surface finish factor
• Suface finish factor values for steel material are shown in above graph
whatever is the machining method; the value of surface fi nish factor for cast
iron parts is always taken as 1.
Design for finite and Infinite life
• There are two types of problems in fatigue design— (i) components
subjected to completely reversed stresses, and (ii) components subjected to
fluctuating stresses.
• The problems on fluctuating stresses are solved with the help of the modifed
Goodman diagram,
• The design problems for completely reversed stresses are further divided into
two groups groups—(i) design n for infinite life, and (ii) design for finite life.
• Case I: When the component is to be designed for infi nite life, the endurance
limit becomes the criterion of failure. The amplitude stress induced in such
components should be lower than the endurance limit in order to withstand
the infi nite number of cycles.
• Such components are designed with the help of the following equations
• Case II: When the component is to be designed for finite life, the S–N curve
can be used
• Value of stress corresponding to t he desired life is considered as a fatigue

strength
• Numericals
1) A plate made of steel 20C8 (Sut = 440 N/mm2) in hot rolled and
normalised condition is shown in Fig. 5.28. It is subjected to a completely
reversed axial load of 30 kN. The notch sensitivity factor q can be taken as
0.8 and the expected reliability is 90%. The size factor is 0.85. The factor of
safety is 2. Determine the plate thickness for infi nite life.
2) A rotating bar made of steel 45C8 (Sut = 630 N/mm2) is subjected to a
completely reversed bending stress. The corrected endurance imit of the bar is
315 N/mm2. Calculate the fatigue strength of the bar for a life of 90,000 cycles.
SODERBERG AND GOODMAN LINES
• the equation of the Soderberg line is given by,
• the equation of the Goodman line is given by,
• The Goodman line is widely used as the criterion of fatigue failure when the
component is subjected to mean stress as well as stress amplitude. It is
because of the following reasons:
• (i) The Goodman line is safe from design considerations because it is
completely inside the failure points of test data.
• (ii) The equation of a straight line is simple compared with the equation of
parabolic curve.
MODIFIED GOODMAN DIAGRAMS
• If the mean component of stress (sm) is very large and the alternating
component (sa) very small, their combination will defi ne a point in the region
BCF that would be safely within the Goodman line but would yield on the first
cycle. This will result in failure, irrespective of safety in fatigue failure.
• The portion BF of the Goodman line is a vulnerable portion and needs
correction. This is the reason to modify the Goodman line.
• The permissible stresses are as follows:
• It is interesting to note that up to a certain point, the torsional mean stress

has no effect on the torsional endurance limit.
• The area OABC represents the region of safety in this case
• The permissible stresses are as follows

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DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

Stress concentration - causes & remedies,

• These equations are based on a number of assumptions. One of the

• Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the

• The stress concentration charts are based on either the photo-elastic

2)Ductile Materials Under Fluctuating Load

• Fluid Flow analogy

• fatigue failures are common are transmission shafts, connecting

(i) Regions of discontinuity, such as oil holes, keyways, screw

• It is relatively easy to design a component for a static load

• The fatigue failure, however, depends upon a number of factors,

• When a machine member is subjected to cyclic or fatigue loading,

• Value of stress corresponding to t he desired life is considered as a fatigue

• the equation of the Goodman line is given by,

• It is interesting to note that up to a certain point, the torsional mean stress

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