Field Experiments Validity/Reliability/Ethics

Validity:
• These experiments have lower internal validity as the researcher cannot control all
variables.
• There have stronger external validity than a lab experiment due to it being more in
a more real life setting.
Reliability:
•These experiments have medium levels of reliability as some of the elements of the
study are controlled with some standardised procedures, but full replication may be
difficult.
Ethics:
•Researchers can gain informed consent, but it is not always possible.
•Participants may not know that they are in a study and this may make debriefing
difficult or not possible.
•Participants may not know that they are in a study so they have no right to withdraw
Natural/Quasi Experiments Validity/Reliability/Ethics
Validity:
•These experiments have low internal validity as there is no control over any
extraneous variables.
• These experiments have high external validity as they take place in the participants
natural environment.
Reliability:
•These experiments have low levels of reliability as there are very few controls or
standardisation, this makes then difficult to reproduce.
Ethics:
•Lack of informed consent, it is often very difficult to achieve.
• Lack of a debriefing, often participants do not know they are in a study.
• Often no right to withdraw.
Experiments
 Human participants often respond to visual, auditory or other stimuli, following
instructions given by an experimenter.
 Animal experiments often use rewards for appropriate responses.
 Since the 1990s, computers have commonly been used to automate stimulus
presentation and behavioural measurement in the laboratory.
 Behavioural experiments with both humans and animals typically measure
reaction time, choices among two or more alternatives, and/or response rate or
strength. They may also record movements, facial expressions, or other behaviours.
 Experiments with humans may also obtain written responses before, during, and
after experimental procedures. Psychophysiological experiments, however, measure
brain or (mostly in animals) single-cell activation during the presentation of a
stimulus using methods such as fMRI, EEG, PET or similar.
Data Collection
Types of data collection and methodology including sampling.

Quick Facts
Quantitative Data: Quantitative data is numerical data that can be statistically
analysed. Experiments, observations, correlations and closed/rating scale questions
from questionnaires all produce quantitative data.
Qualitative Data: Qualitative data is non-numerical language-based data collected
through interviews, open questions and content analysis. It allows researchers to
develop insights into the nature of subjective experiences, opinions and feelings.

Self Reports
Questionnaires:
• When a study uses a questionnaire, the participants are usually being asked a set
of questions that the psychologist can extract relavant information from.Different
types of questions can be asked:
Likert scales:
• Various kinds of rating scales have been developed to measure attitudes directly.
The most widely used is the Likert Scale.
• A Likert-type scale assumes that the strength/intensity of experience is linear, i.e.
on a continuum from strongly agree to strongly disagree, and makes the assumption
that attitudes can be measured. Respondents may be offered a choice of five to
seven or even nine pre-coded responses with the neutral point being neither agree
nor disagree.
Rating scales:
•A rating scale is a set of categories designed to elicit information about a
quantitative or a qualitative attribute.
•Example: "I could not live without my computer".Strongly disagree, Disagree,
Neutral, Agree, Strongly agree. Or 1,2,3,4,5.
Open-ended:
•Open-ended questions are ones that require more than one word answers. The
answers could come in the form of a list, a few sentences or something longer such
as a speech, paragraph or essay.
•Example: What is your favorite memory from childhood?
Closed questions:
•If you can answer a question with only a "yes" or "no" response, then you are
answering a closed-ended type of question.
•Example: Does four plus five equal nine?
Strengths of questionnaires:
•Participants may be more likely to reveal truthful answers in a questionnaire as it
does not involve talking face to face with someone.
•A large sample of participants can answer the questionnaire in a short time span,
which should increase the representativeness and generalisability of the findings.
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
•Rather than giving truthful answers, participants may give socially desirable
answers because they want to look good. This lowers the validity of the findings.
•If the questionnaire has a lot of closed questions participants might be forced into
choosing an answer that does not reflect their true opinion.
Interviews
Structured:
• Structured questions use set questions in a particular order. Each participant will
be asked exactly the same questions.
Unstructured:
• Unstructured questions are more like a ‘guided conservation’ than a strict
structured interview.
• The interviewer may have a general theme rather than a strict order of questions.
Semi-structured:
• These interviews involve certain questions that must be asked, but they can be
asked in a different order based on the responces by the interviewee
Strengths of interviews:
• If the interview has a lot of open questions participants will reveal more reasons
why they behave in a certain way or have a certain opinion.
Weaknesses of interviews:
• Participants might be less likely to give truthful answers in interviews (maybe due
to social desirability) as they are actually face to face with the interviewer and might
not want to be judged.
Case Studies
Case Studies:
• Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or
community.
•Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different
methods (e.g. observations & interviews).
•The research may also continue for an extended period of time, so processes and
developments can be studied as they happen.
Strengths of case Studies:
• Researchers are only focusing on one individual or small group. This means that
they can collect rich, in-depth data, this makes the findings more valid.
• Participants are usually studied in their natural environment, which means that the
study is high in ecological validity.

Observations:
• One of the simplest research methods, this simply involves observing and
recording the behaviour that occurs. However, in order to make the process more
scientific, a number of checks are often put in place.
Time Sampling:
• Instantaneous scan: In scan sampling the behaviour of all the individuals in a
group of animals are recorded at predetermined time intervals.
• Predominant activity scan: The observer records the most frequent behaviour
within a set time period.
• One-zero scan: One-zero scan is where the observer records whether each
behaviour happened (1) or did not happen (0) within the time period set. Frequency
of that behaviour is not recorded, just whether it happened or not.
Event Sampling:
•Event sampling is where every time a behaviour is seen in the person being
observed it is tallied. A set time period is decided upon before recording begins.
Strengths of observations in general:
•If participants are unaware that they are being observed then they should behave
naturally, this increases the ecological validity of the observation.
•As behaviours are counted and are hence quantitative, the process is objective and
the data can be analysed statistically with minimal bias.
Weaknesses of observations in general:
•If participants are aware that they are being observed then they may not act
naturally but show more socially desirable behaviours. This reduces the validity of
findings.
•It may be difficult to replicate the study if it is naturalistic as many variables cannot
be controlled. This reduces the reliability of the study.
Opportunity Sampling
Opportunity Sampling:
• This is not really a true method of sampling because it means taking whoever is
available. Researchers take whoever they can find to take part. The way participants
are selected is not systematic or structured. Psychology students tend to use
opportunity sampling as they have limited access to participants
Strengths:
• It tends to be more ethical because the researcher can judge if the participant is
likely to be upset by the study or is too busy to take part.
• The researcher has more control over who is asked, so finding participants should
be quick and efficient and costs less money, for example the researcher may use
friends, family or colleagues.
Weaknesses:
• The people who are available at the time may well not be representative of the
target population as a whole, so the sample will be biased.
• The researcher may have more control over who is chosen and choose certain
people, leading to a biased sample.
Overt/Covert
Overt:
• Overt observations are when the researcher tells the group he or she is conducting
research (i.e. they know they are being observed).
Covert:
• Covert observations are when the researcher pretends to be an ordinary member
of the group and observes in secret. There could be ethical problems or deception
and consent with this particular method of observation.
Participant/Non-participant Observations
Participant Observations:
• Participant: Here the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are
observing.
Strengths:
•Usually, the participants being observed are in a real-life setting so there is
increased ecological validity.
•As observers become involved with the group they are more likely to understand
the motives and reasons for behaviours. This increases the validity of the findings.
Weaknesses:
• There are ethical problems as the informed consent of those being placed into the
group has not been initially sought or given.
• The presence of an outsider (the observer) can initially change the behaviours of
the group members. This lowers the validity of findings.
Non-participant Observations:
•This is when the researcher is away from the people or animals being observed.
This can also be an overt or covert process. The researcher does not interact with
any of the participants.
Strengths:
•Participants’ behaviour will not be affected by knowing they are being observed
because the observers are out of sight.
•Researchers’ observations are more likely to be objective as they are detached
from the people they are observing.
Weaknesses:
•It can be difficult to make detailed observations and to produce qualitative data that
allows understanding as to why the behaviours are occurring.
Structured/Unstructured Observation
Structured observation:
•An observation study using predetermined coding scheme to record the
participants' behaviour.
Strengths:
•The coding system (via the behavioural checklist) allows objective quantitative data
to be collected. This can be analysed statistically.
Weaknesses:
•The sampling of observed behaviour tends to be restrictive (e.g. time sampling) and
does not give an idea of the reasons why the behaviours are occurring.
Unstructured Observations:
•Observation where there is no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in
an much detail as possible.
Strengths:
•These types of observations can generate in-depth, rich qualitative data that can
help explain why behaviour is occurring.
Weaknesses:
•Observers may easily be drawn to noticeable or eye-catching behaviours that may
not fully represent all the behaviours occurring during the observation period.