Unit - 3

Data Collection
Experiments and Surveys
Experiments are designed to establish cause-and-effect relationships
by manipulating one or more variables and observing the effect on
other variables.

They are highly controlled and are often conducted in laboratory

settings or through field experiments.
Key features of experiments include:
• Manipulation: Researchers actively manipulate an independent
variable (IV) to see its effect on a dependent variable (DV).

• Control: Control groups and randomization are often used to rule out
external factors and isolate the effect of the IV on the DV.

• Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to different

groups (e.g., treatment vs. control) to eliminate biases and create
comparable groups.

• Replication: Experiments can often be replicated to validate findings,

an essential aspect of scientific research.
• Example: A psychologist might design an experiment where
participants are randomly assigned to receive either a mindfulness
training program (treatment) or no training (control) to see its effect
on stress levels
• Surveys are used to gather descriptive or correlational data from a
sample of individuals and are ideal for understanding trends,
opinions, or behaviors across a large population.

• Surveys can be conducted in various formats, including online, paper,

phone, or in-person interviews.
Key features of surveys include:
• Questionnaire Design: Surveys rely on well-constructed
questionnaires that include closed-ended (e.g., multiple-choice) or
open-ended questions to gather the desired information.
• Sampling: Surveys require a representative sample to generalize
findings to a broader population. Sampling techniques may include
random, stratified, or convenience sampling.
• Reliability and Validity: Good survey design considers these to ensure
the data collected accurately reflects the variables of interest.
• Statistical Analysis: Data collected via surveys are analyzed
statistically to draw conclusions about the sample and, if appropriate,
infer about the population.
• Example: A public health researcher might use a survey to assess the
eating habits of people in a specific region to see if there's a
correlation between diet and the prevalence of diabetes.
When to Use Each Method

• Experiments: Ideal when you want to test a hypothesis about causal

relationships and have control over variables.
• Surveys: Best for gathering data on opinions, behaviors, or trends in
large groups where controlling for variables is difficult.
Primary Data
• primary data refers to original data collected directly by the researcher
specifically for the purpose of their study.

• Key Characteristics of Primary Data:

1.Direct Collection: Gathered directly from sources, like individuals or
groups, rather than from previously existing sources.
2.Originality: It is original and specific to the research problem, collected for
the first time.
3.Relevance: Often more relevant and accurate as it directly addresses the
study’s objectives.
4.Time and Resource Intensive: Requires time, effort, and often significant
resources to collect.
Methods involved in Collection of primary
data
1. Surveys and Questionnaires
2. Interviews
3. Focus Groups
4. Observations
5. Experiments
6. Case Studies
7. Diaries or Journals
1. Surveys and Questionnaires
• Description: Surveys and questionnaires are structured sets of questions
used to collect information from respondents. They can include both
closed-ended (multiple-choice) and open-ended questions.

• Applications: Used for gathering large-scale quantitative data (e.g.,

consumer preferences, employee satisfaction) or qualitative insights on
specific topics.

• Advantages: Efficient, scalable, and can reach a wide population.

• Challenges: Potential for bias in responses, and response rates can vary,
particularly with online surveys.
2.Interviews
• Description: Interviews are direct, one-on-one or small-group
conversations between a researcher and participants, allowing for in-depth
exploration of a topic.

• Types:
• Structured Interviews: Follow a fixed set of questions, useful for quantitative data.
• Semi-Structured Interviews: Include some structured questions but allow flexibility
for follow-up questions.
• Unstructured Interviews: Are conversational, letting participants freely express
ideas, often used in qualitative research.

• Applications: Common in case studies, ethnographies, and exploratory

research.

• Advantages: Provide depth, context, and flexibility in exploring responses.

• Challenges: Time-consuming and may introduce interviewer bias.
3.Focus Groups
• Description: Focus groups are discussions with a small group of
people (typically 6–12), facilitated by a moderator, to gather diverse
views on a topic.
• Applications: Often used in marketing, product development, and
social research to understand group dynamics, perceptions, and
reactions.
• Advantages: Provides insights into group attitudes and generates a
rich, qualitative understanding.
• Challenges: Group dynamics can influence responses, and some
participants may dominate the conversation.
4. Observations
• Description: In observational studies, researchers systematically
observe and record behaviors or phenomena as they occur in natural or
controlled settings.
• Types:
• Participant Observation: The researcher becomes involved in the environment
being studied (common in ethnographic research).
• Non-Participant Observation: The researcher observes without interaction.
• Applications: Used in behavioral studies, anthropology, and usability
testing.
• Advantages: Captures natural behavior in real-time, reducing response
biases.
• Challenges: Observer bias and the potential for participants to alter
behavior when they know they are being observed (Hawthorne effect).
5. Experiments
• Description: Experiments involve manipulating variables in
controlled settings to test hypotheses and observe causal effects.

• Applications: Common in psychology, medicine, and education

research for determining cause-and-effect relationships.

• Advantages: High internal validity due to controlled variables.

• Challenges: Limited generalizability, and ethical considerations may

arise.
Case Studies

• Description: Case studies are in-depth analyses of a single case (e.g.,

an organization, event, or individual) or multiple cases to explore a
phenomenon within its real-life context.
• Applications: Often used in business, law, and social sciences.
• Advantages: Provides rich, detailed data and insights into complex
issues.
• Challenges: Time-intensive, and findings may not be generalizable to
other cases.
Diaries or Journals

• Description: Participants are asked to record their experiences,

activities, or thoughts over time, often used for longitudinal studies.
• Applications: Useful in psychology, health studies, and consumer
research to track changes over time.
• Advantages: Provides ongoing data that captures changes in
behaviors, attitudes, or experiences.
• Challenges: Requires commitment from participants, and entries may
be inconsistent or incomplete.
Considerations in Primary Data Collection

• When collecting primary data, researchers need to carefully consider:

• Sample Selection: Ensuring the sample is representative of the
population.
• Data Quality and Validity: Crafting reliable and valid instruments to
reduce biases and measurement errors.
• Ethics: Ensuring informed consent, privacy, and respect for
participants, particularly in sensitive or intrusive studies.
• Resource Availability: Considering time, cost, and logistics, especially
for large or complex data collection.
Advantages of Primary Data Collection

• Specificity: Tailored to address particular research questions.

• Timeliness: Reflects current conditions or trends.
• Authenticity: Directly observed or collected, ensuring accuracy and
relevance.

Challenges of Primary Data Collection

• Resource-Intensive: Time and resource demands can be high.
• Participant Response Bias: Responses may be influenced by social
desirability or self-perception.
• Ethical and Practical Constraints: Certain methods may not be feasible in
all contexts or with all populations.
Collection of secondary data
• In research methodology, secondary data refers to information
collected by someone other than the researcher.
• Secondary data sources are often gathered from existing records,
reports, surveys, and datasets that were collected in the past by
other researchers, organizations, or institutions.
 Characteristics of Secondary Data

Pre-existing: The data is already collected, processed, and stored

Cost-effective: Using secondary data is typically more affordable than collecting
new primary data.
Accessible: Often, secondary data is available in public or organizational
databases, government reports, or academic research repositories.
Varied Quality: Since it wasn’t collected specifically for the current study, it may
not perfectly align with the research question, affecting accuracy or relevance.
Less Control: Researchers have limited control over the quality and reliability of
secondary data.
Types of Secondary Data
1.Published Sources:
• Books and Academic Journals
• Reports from Government and Non-Governmental Organizations
• Industry Reports and Market Research Publications
2. Official Statistics:
•Census Data
•Labor and Employment Statistics
•Health and Education Statistics

3. Data Repositories and Databases:

•Economic Data (e.g., World Bank, IMF)
•Social Science Data (e.g., ICPSR, Eurostat)
•Public Opinion Polls (e.g., Pew Research, Gallup)
4. Institutional Records:
•Company Reports
•Sales and Transaction Data
•Operational Records

5. Media and Internet Sources:

•News Articles
•Social Media
•Blogs and Online Surveys
Advantages of Secondary Data
• Time-Saving: Allows researchers to quickly access information and
complete studies faster.

• Broader Scope: Provides access to large, often longitudinal datasets

that would be difficult to collect independently.

• Cost-Effective: Reduces or eliminates the need for extensive data

collection processes
Uses of Secondary Data in Research
• Literature Reviews: Understanding existing findings on a topic.

• Comparative Studies: Comparing new findings with historical data.

• Meta-Analyses: Synthesizing results across studies for broader

conclusions.

• Preliminary Research: Conducting exploratory analysis to define

research questions.
Methods of Data Collection
Collection of Primary Data

Collection of Secondary data

Collection of Primary Data

Warranty cards
Distributor or store audits:
Pantry audits:
Consumer panels:
Use of mechanical devices:
Projective techniques:
Depth interviews:
Content-analysis:
Collection of Secondary data
Reliability of data:
Suitability of data:
Adequacy of data:
Nature, scope and object of enquiry:
Availability of funds:
Time factor:
Precision required:
 Methods to collect the data
1.Warranty cards :
Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of
consumer durables to collect information regarding their products.
The information sought is printed in the form of questions on the ‘warranty
cards’ which is placed inside the package along with the product with a request
to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.

2.Distributor or store audits: Distributor or store audits are performed by

distributors as well as manufactures through their salesmen at regular
intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesmen and use
such information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing
pattern and so on. sales of variations of different techniques of in-store
promotion
3.Pantry audits: Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of
the basket of goods at the consumer level. In this type of audit, the
investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and prices of
commodities consumed. Thus in pantry audit data are recorded from the
examination of consumer’s pantry. The usual objective in a pantry audit is to
find out what types of consumers buy certain products and certain brands,
the assumption being that the contents of the pantry accurately portray
consumer’s preferences.
A pantry audit may or may not be set up as a panel operation, since a single
visit is often considered sufficient to yield an accurate picture of consumers’
preferences.
Consumer panels: An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular
basis is known as ‘consumer panel’, where a set of consumers are arranged to
come to an understanding to maintain detailed daily records of their
consumption and the same is made available to investigator on demands.

Use of mechanical devices: The use of mechanical devices has been widely
made to collect information by way of indirect means. Eye camera,
Pupilometric camera, Psychogalvanometer, Motion picture camera and
Audiometer are the principal devices so far developed and commonly used by
modern big business houses, mostly in the developed world for the purpose of
collecting the required information
Projective techniques:
(i) Word association tests:
(ii) Sentence completion tests:
(iii) Story completion tests:
(iv) Verbal projection tests:
(v) Pictorial techniques:
 Depth interviews:
Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover underlying
motives and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews
are held to explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents.

Content-analysis: Content-analysis consists of analysing the contents of

documentary materials such as books, magazines, newspapers and the
contents of all other verbal materials which can be either spoken or printed.
 Collection of Secondary data
1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things
about the said data:
(a) Who collected the data?
(b) What were the sources of data?
(c) Were they collected by using proper methods
(d) At what time were they collected?
(e) Was there any bias of the compiler?
(f) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved ?
2.Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not
necessarily be found suitable in another enquiry.
Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be used
by the researcher.
In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinize the definition of
various terms and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data
from the primary source originally. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of
the original enquiry must also be studied. If the researcher finds differences in
these, the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and should not
be used
3.Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found
inadequate for the purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as
inadequate and should not be used by the researcher.
The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area
which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.

From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the already available data.
The already available data should be used by the researcher only when he
finds them reliable, suitable and adequate.
4. Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most important
factor affecting the choice of a particular method. The method selected
should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted by the
researcher.
This factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available
(secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available (primary data)
are to be collected.

5.Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project

determines to a large extent the method to be used for the collection of data.
When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will have to
select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and
effective as some other costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in
practice and the researcher has to act within this limitation.
6.Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a
particular method of data collection. Some methods take relatively more time,
whereas with others the data can be collected in a comparatively shorter
duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection
of the method by which the data are to be collected.

7. Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be

considered at the time of selecting the method of collection of data. But one
must always remember that each method of data collection has its uses and
none is superior in all situations.

For instance, telephone interview method may be considered appropriate

(assuming telephone population) if funds are restricted, time is also restricted
and the data is to be collected in respect of few items with or without a certain
degree of precision. In case funds permit and more information is desired,
personal interview method may be said to be relatively better