Stormwater Best Management Practice

Permeable Pavements
Minimum Measure: Post-Construction Stormwater Management in New Development and
Redevelopment
Subcategory: Infiltration

Description
Permeable pavements are a stormwater control that
allows stormwater to infiltrate through the surface of the
pavement to the ground below—a green infrastructure
alternative to traditional impervious surfaces. Types of
permeable pavements include porous asphalt, pervious
concrete and permeable interlocking concrete pavement
(PICP).

Porous asphalt (sometimes called pervious, permeable,

popcorn or open-graded asphalt) and pervious concrete
(sometimes called porous, gap-graded or enhanced
porosity concrete) are versions of traditional asphalt or
concrete with reduced sand and fines to allow for greater
porosity and infiltration. PICP consists of manufactured
Permeable pavement can reduce the impervious area in an
concrete units (pavers) with small openings between urban landscape without losing the functionality of
permeable joints that contain highly permeable, small- impervious surfaces.
sized aggregates. Credit: Anthony D'Angelo for USEPA, 2015

As with traditional pavement or concrete, construction controls requiring dedicated surface area. They can also
staff install permeable pavements on a crushed stone reduce the need for additional expenditures and land
aggregate bedding layer and base, which can also use associated with conventional collection, conveyance
temporarily detain stormwater that has passed through and stormwater management infrastructure.
the permeable surface layer. With proper installation,
permeable pavements can serve as durable, low- Permeable pavements can generally replace traditional
maintenance and low-cost alternatives to traditional impervious pavement in local roadway, pedestrian
impermeable pavements. walkway, sidewalk, driveway, parking lot and bike path
applications. They may not be appropriate for certain
Applicability high-volume and high-speed roadways, although
permeable friction course overlays can reduce road
Permeable pavements can help achieve multiple ponding, splash and noise on these types of roadways.
benefits since they provide surfaces to move vehicular Some permeable concrete can handle heavier loads;
and pedestrian traffic and reduce stormwater however, the increased surface abrasion can cause the
discharges. They are suitable for municipal stormwater pavement to deteriorate more quickly than conventional
management programs and private development concrete, and the eroded material can create a clogging
applications. For municipal applications, permeable concern.
pavements can reduce pavement ponding and local
flooding by infiltrating stormwater on-site. Similarly, Individual permeable pavement types also have unique
private development projects can use them to meet post- characteristics and offer additional benefits. Porous
construction stormwater quantity and quality asphalt and pervious concrete have slightly rougher
requirements. Permeable pavements can be especially surfaces than their traditional counterparts, providing
helpful in developed areas with little open space that more traction to vehicles and pedestrians. Amending
cannot accommodate post-construction stormwater pervious concrete with photocatalytic compounds can

https://www.epa.gov/npdes EPA-832-F-21-031W
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December 2021
NPDES: Stormwater Best Management Practice—Permeable
— Pavements

help remove harmful air pollutants (Shen et al., 2012).

Researchers have also found ways to increase the
conductivityNPDES:
of permeable pavement,
Stormwater which not only
Best Management Practice — Permeable Pavements
improves infiltration capacity but also wicks moisture
from the ground to improve evaporation. This process,
along with the generally lighter colors of permeable
pavement compared to asphalt, may help to reduce the
urban heat island effect under certain conditions (Yong
et al., 2018). The gridded surface texture of PICP also
tends to slow traffic and can even provide an aesthetic
amenity. Additionally, PICP reduces the risk of ponding
on the roadway surface, which in turn reduces the
chance of vehicles hydroplaning and reduces splashing
of vehicle undercarriages that can release pollutants.

PICP differs from concrete grid pavements (i.e., concrete

units with cells that typically contain topsoil and grass).
These paving units can infiltrate water but at rates lower
than PICP. Unlike PICP, concrete grid pavement
designs generally lack a crushed stone base, which
limits water storage. Moreover, grids are more typical in
areas with intermittent traffic, such as overflow parking
areas and emergency fire lanes.

Siting and Design Considerations

The purpose of permeable pavements is to intercept,
evaporate, detain, filter and infiltrate stormwater on-site.
Site developers can install permeable pavements across
an entire street width, across an entire parking area or
within a portion of a larger impervious area. For Close-up view of permeable concrete.
example, designers can use permeable pavements in
parking lot lanes or parking spaces to treat stormwater the mix can also increase its strength for heavier load
flow from adjacent upgradient impermeable pavements applications. The thickness of porous asphalt ranges
and roofs. Designers can also incorporate inlets to from 2 to 4 inches depending on the traffic loads that
accommodate overflows from extreme storms. The area design engineers expect. Pervious concrete consists of
of a permeable pavement installation depends on the cement, open-graded coarse aggregate and water.
infiltration capacity of the particular type of pavement or Adding admixtures to the concrete mixture can enhance
paver system (with an appropriate allowance for strength, increase setting time or add other properties.
clogging); its depth or storage capacity; and the The thickness of pervious concrete ranges from 4 to 8
stormwater volume that the permeable pavement will inches depending on the traffic loads that design
need to capture, store or infiltrate. engineers expect. PICP pavers consist of precast
modular units of various shapes and sizes. They are
Permeable pavements consist of surface and subsurface typically 80 millimeters (3⅛ inches) thick for vehicular
layers that each have a specific material composition areas and 60 millimeters (2⅜ inches) thick for pedestrian
and thickness depending on the desired application areas.
(FHWA, 2016). As with traditional pavements, surface
layers are generally less than 4 inches thick. Porous For any application, proper design of subsurface
asphalt consists of open-graded coarse aggregate that components is as important as the design of the
bituminous asphalt bonds together. Adding polymers to permeable surface itself. Not every permeable pavement

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application needs each subsurface layer. In all cases, The pipes also provide additional storage volume
designers should follow any state or local codes and beyond the stone base.
guidance. Typical
NPDES:subsurface
Stormwatercomponents are described
Best Management Practice — Permeable Pavements (optional). Geotextile can separate the
 Geotextile
below, from top to bottom (MDE, 2009; NAPA, 2008; subbase from the subgrade and keep soil from
UNHSC, 2009). Note that the descriptions provide a migrating into the aggregate subbase or base.
typical thickness range for each layer, but actual
thicknesses can vary substantially depending on project-
 Subgrade. The subgrade layer of soil is immediately
beneath the aggregate base or subbase. The
specific requirements, such as desired storage capacity,
pavement strength or subgrade composition. infiltration capacity of the subgrade determines how
much water can exfiltrate from the aggregate into
 Choker course. Also called a bedding course for the surrounding soils. Construction staff should not
PICP, this permeable layer is usually 1 to 2 inches compact the subgrade soil.
thick and provides a level and stabilized bed surface  Liner. Some permeable pavements and PICP
for the permeable surface layer. It consists of small, installations may include liners and underdrain
uniformly sized (also sometimes called poorly systems where infiltration is not feasible or desirable
graded) aggregate. due to the presence of underground utilities,
 Filter course or base reservoir. This layer sits contaminated soils that could pollute groundwater if
immediately beneath the choker or bedding course those contaminants mobilize, or surface
and serves as a high-infiltration-rate transition layer contaminants (e.g., chlorides) that might negatively
between the bedding and subbase layers. It also affect receiving waters.
provides additional storage and can provide some
filtration. Sometimes it is necessary to place filter Site slopes and soils are important considerations during
fabric at the base of this layer to reduce the the design phase. For slopes greater than 2 percent, the
migration of fines. This base reservoir is typically 3 soil subgrade base may need terracing to prevent
to 4 inches thick and, depending on local design stormwater from flowing through the pavement structure.
requirements, can consist of uniformly sized crushed Alternatively, designers can dig lined trenches with
stone (e.g., No. 57 stone) or bank run gravel. It is underdrains across the slope to intercept flow through
typically of an intermediate size between bedding the subbase (ACPA, 2006). For soils that are weak or
and subbase aggregate, often ¾ to ⁄16 of an inch in
3 have poor infiltration capacity, designers should take
diameter. certain measures to accommodate pervious pavements.
For example, clay soils exhibit both of these problematic
 Subbase reservoir. The subbase layer or reservoir characteristics. To compensate for the lower structural
serves as the main water storage and support layer. support capacity of clay soils, permeable pavements
The stone is uniformly graded and sizes are larger often need greater subbase depth—which also adds
than the base, typically ¾ of an inch to 2½ inches in storage volume to compensate for the lower infiltration
diameter. The thickness of the subbase layer rate of the clay subgrade. Underdrains can increase
depends on project-specific factors such as water drainage over clay soils. Designers may install an
storage requirements, traffic loads, subgrade soils impermeable liner between the subbase and the
and the need for frost heave protection. This layer subgrade to limit water infiltration when clay soils have a
often has a specific minimum thickness of 4 inches, high shrink-swell potential (Hunt & Collins, 2008).
but the total thickness can be greater than 24 inches
in some cases. A subbase layer may not be a For pervious concrete, consistent porosity through the
requirement in pedestrian or residential driveway concrete structure is critical to prevent freeze-thaw
applications. In such instances, the base layer is damage. Cement paste and smaller aggregate can settle
larger to provide water storage and support. to the bottom of the structure during consolidation and
 Underdrain (optional). In instances where design seal the pores. Trapped water can freeze, expand and
engineers install porous asphalt over soils with poor break apart the pavement. In general, larger aggregate
infiltration rates, an underdrain facilitates water size helps improve permeability and reduce freeze-thaw
removal from the base and subbase. The underdrain damage (Thompson Materials Engineers, Inc., 2008).
is a perforated pipe that ties into an outlet structure.

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Installation Considerations designers may want to limit units with large openings
containing aggregate for paths or parking areas that
For all surface types, proper installation is key to
disabled
NPDES: Stormwater Best Management Practice — Permeable persons, bicycles, pedestrians with high heels
Pavements
ensuring long-term effectiveness. While construction
and the elderly use. Such areas can use solid
staff can generally use much of the same equipment to
interlocking concrete pavements (ICPI, 2019).
mix and lay permeable and conventional versions of
asphalt and concrete, the mixtures are slightly different
and have different handling and installation Maintenance
requirements. The most prevalent maintenance concern for permeable
pavements is clogging, which can limit infiltration rates.
During compaction of porous asphalt, contractors should
Fine particles that may clog permeable pavements can
use minimal pressure to avoid closing pore space. They
come from vehicles, the atmosphere and stormwater
should avoid vehicular traffic for 24 to 48 hours after
discharge from adjacent land surfaces—the more
pavement installation.
frequent (e.g., vehicle use) or large (e.g., drainage area)
Pervious concrete has a lower water content than these sources are, the faster that clogging will occur.
traditional concrete, greatly reducing its handling time. Although clogging increases with age and use, it
Contractors should pour pervious concrete within 1 hour generally does not lead to complete impermeability.
of mixing unless they use admixtures to extend the Long-term studies have found that permeable
handling time. A screed—which construction staff use to
level concrete—is a manual or mechanical device Key Siting and Maintenance Issues:
typically set ½ inch above the finished height.
Construction staff should not use floating and troweling • Do not install in areas where hazardous material
because these may close the surface pores. loading, unloading or storage occurs.
Consolidation of the concrete, usually with a non- • Avoid high sediment loading areas.
vibratory steel roller, typically happens within 15 minutes • Divert stormwater from disturbed areas until the
of placement. For all permeable pavements, designers areas stabilize.
should take measures to protect these surfaces from
• Do not use sand for snow or ice treatment.
high sediment loads. When contributing areas are large,
designers should consider pretreatment practices such • Perform periodic maintenance to remove fine
as filter strips and swales. Preventing sediment from sediments from paver surface and optimize
permeability.
entering the base of permeable pavement during
construction is critical for ensuring that permeable
pavements retain a high infiltration rate. Construction
staff should divert stormwater flow from disturbed areas pavements have high initial infiltration rates that then
decrease and eventually level off with time (Bean et al.,
away from the permeable pavement until stabilization is
complete, which can take up to a week for concrete 2007a). Compared to initial infiltration rates of hundreds
systems. of inches per hour, long-term infiltration rates decrease
but usually remain well above 1 inch per hour, which
may be sufficient in most circumstances to infiltrate
Limitations stormwater from intense storm events (ICPI, 2000). A
Several factors may limit permeable pavement use. study of 11 pervious concrete sites found infiltration
Permeable pavements are not as strong as conventional rates ranging from 5 inches per hour to 1,574 inches per
asphalt and are not appropriate for applications with high hour, with the lowest rates coming from sites receiving
volumes and extreme loads. Permeable pavements are discharge from areas with poor maintenance or earth
also not appropriate for stormwater hot spots where disturbance activities. However, the infiltration rates
hazardous material loading, unloading or storage occurs, were still high relative to rainfall intensities (Bean et al.,
or in areas where spills and fuel leakage are possible. 2007a).

PICP designs also have limitations. Most pavers comply Vacuum sweeping can increase permeability. Also, in
with the Americans with Disabilities Act. However, cases of isolated clogging of porous asphalt and

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permeable concrete, construction staff can drill ½-inch material application because it had a higher frictional
holes through the pavement surface to allow stormwater resistance than conventional pavement (UNHSC, 2007).
to drain to the aggregate
NPDES: base. Best
Stormwater In cases of extreme
Management Practice — Permeable Pavements
clogging of PICP, construction staff can replace Effectiveness
aggregate between the pavers (Clark et al., 2008; TRCA
& CVCA, 2010). Placing a stone apron around the Permeable pavements can be effective at reducing
pavement and connecting it hydraulically to the stormwater discharges and pollutant concentrations,
aggregate base and subbase can provide a backup to though their effectiveness can be variable and depends
surface clogging or pavement sealing. more on the design of underlying layers and surrounding
environmental conditions than surface type. The choice
Porous asphalt and concrete generally need less of surface type is relevant to user needs, cost, material
maintenance for cracks or potholes than traditional availability, constructability and maintenance, but it has
pavement surfaces, mostly due to effective draining of minimal impact on the overall stormwater retention,
the stone bed, deep structural support and a better detention and treatment of pollutants by the system.
ability to withstand freeze-thaw stress. When cracking
and potholes do occur, construction staff can use a Reduction in stormwater volume is generally a function
conventional patching mix to repair them. The life span of subsoil infiltration rate and base storage capacity.
of porous alternatives can also be greater for similar However, depending on site constraints, some designers
reasons. The life span of a conventional pavement may include liners and underdrain systems that would
parking lot in a cold climate is typically 15 years, not infiltrate runoff. Both infiltrating and noninfiltrating
whereas porous asphalt parking lots can have life spans systems provide ecological benefits—through detention,
of more than 30 years due to the reduced freeze-thaw retention, evaporation and pollutant removal, all to
stress (Gunderson, 2008). Permeable concrete with varying degrees—so many entities treat them both as
proper construction can last 20 to 40 years because of pervious surfaces. Permeable pavements with deeper
its ability to handle temperature impacts (Gunderson, subsurface layers can detain greater volumes of
2008). stormwater, while the high infiltration rates of
surrounding soils allow subsurface layers to drain more
Maintenance requirements for permeable pavements in rapidly—also improving detention capacity. Although
cold climates are slightly different than those for pavement infiltration rate is important, it is rarely the
traditional pavements. In cold climates, roadway limiting factor, as the infiltration rates of surface and
managers should not use sand around permeable base layers with proper construction tend to exceed
pavement. Snow plowing can occur similarly to plowing peak rainfall and stormwater rates. Overall, permeable
on conventional pavements, and deicing material use is pavements have demonstrated stormwater reduction
acceptable in moderation. Plowed snow pile storage effectiveness from 25 to 100 percent, reflecting the
should not be above permeable surfaces, as melting range of design approaches and site conditions (Bean et
snow can increase sediment loads and lead to clogging. al., 2007a, 2007b; Booth & Leavitt, 1999; Brattebo &
Booth, 2003; Cahill et al., 2003; Collins et al., 2008;
Compared to traditional pavements, permeable Fassman & Blackbourn, 2007; Legret & Colandini, 1999;
pavements generally need less road salt or deicing Roseen & Ballestero, 2008; Pratt et al., 1999).
materials because the rapid surface drainage reduces
the occurrence of freezing puddles and black ice Permeable pavements reduce pollutant concentrations
(Gunderson, 2008). This benefit can be considerable, as through several processes. The media layers filter
deicing treatments are a significant expense, chlorides in stormwater and promote pollutant removal through
stormwater have substantial environmental impacts, and physical filtration and biological processes. The
no post-construction stormwater control can effectively subgrade soils are also a major factor in treatment.
reduce chloride concentrations. For example, a porous Sandy soils infiltrate more stormwater but have less
asphalt lot installed at the University of New Hampshire treatment capability. Clay soils can hold and capture
required 75 percent less deicing material than other more pollutants, but they infiltrate less. Table 1 provides
impervious asphalt lots for equivalent deicing effects. In measured pollutant removals from pervious pavement
addition, the porous pavement required no deicing systems.

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Table 1. Permeable pavement pollutant removals.

Surface Type Total Suspended Solids Metals Nutrients
Porous asphalt 94–99% 76–97% 42–43%
Pervious concrete 91% 75–92% N/A
PICP 67–81% 13–88% 34–72%
Sources: Barrett et al., 2006; Bean et al., 2007b; Clausen & Gilbert, 2006; Rushton, 2001; UNHSC, 2007; Van Seters, 2007

Permeable pavement and paver systems are considered underdrains. Each of these factors may increase overall
green infrastructure as defined under the Clean Water costs.
Act. Permeable pavements may provide stormwater
volume reductions, detention and pollutant removal Construction costs range from $1 to $1.50 per square
depending on the design of the systems. foot for porous asphalt, $3 to $9 per square foot for
pervious concrete and $7 to $14 per square foot for
Permeable pavements with water quantity and pollutant PICP (VDEQ, 2013). In comparison, asphalt alone costs
reduction characteristics (e.g., 80 percent total around $1 to $2 per square foot depending on the
suspended solids reductions) can earn credits under thickness and type (RSMeans, 2019), while typical road
voluntary standards, i.e., green or sustainable building construction can cost more than $15 per square foot
evaluation systems such as Leadership in Energy and when considering full construction costs, including
Environmental Design (LEED) and Green Globes. They stormwater management (ARTBA, 2019; FDOT, 2019).
can also earn credits for water conservation, Still, it is difficult to compare costs if not looking at a
conservation of materials through the use of recycled single site. A study from Olympia, Washington,
materials, and regional manufacturing and resource use. evaluated the life cycle cost of traditional versus
permeable concrete sidewalks and found the total cost
Cost Considerations 1 to be $8 per square foot for the permeable alternative
and $15 per square foot for the traditional, impermeable
Permeable pavement can be a cost-effective alternative alternative. Greater costs for the traditional alternative
to traditional pavement. Although it typically costs more were due to the cost of a stormwater pond that would
than traditional pavement to construct initially, savings in have been needed to treat discharge from the
maintenance and stormwater management costs can impervious surface (U.S. EPA, 2008). Similarly, in a life
make it more economical in the long term (U.S. EPA, cycle cost analysis of permeable versus traditional
2013). pavement, the city of West Union, Iowa, found that
despite greater upfront costs, installation of permeable
As with other green infrastructure practices, permeable
pavement would result in savings over the life span of
pavement costs depend on site conditions and the level
the project owing to lower maintenance and repair costs
of stormwater management necessary. Subgrade soils
for deicing (U.S. EPA, 2013). EPA’s Green Infrastructure
such as clay may need more base material for structural
Cost-Benefit Resources page offers more examples of
support or more stormwater storage volume. Areas that
successful, economically viable permeable pavement
have low infiltration capacity or that need a high level of
and other green infrastructure projects.
stormwater treatment may need deeper base layers for
greater detention capacity or require components like

1
Prices updated to 2019 dollars. Inflation data obtained from the
Bureau of Labor Statistics CPI Inflation Calculator Web site:
https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl.

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Additional Information

Additional information on related practices and the Phase II MS4 program can be found at
EPA’s National Menu of Best Management Practices (BMPs) for Stormwater website

References
American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA). (2006). Stormwater management with pervious concrete. Publication
IS334P.

American Road and Transportation Builders Association (ARTBA). (2019). Funding, financing and cost frequently asked
questions.

Barrett, M., Kearfott, P., & Malina, J. (2006). Stormwater quality benefits of a porous friction course and its effect on
pollutant removal by roadside shoulders. Water Environment Research, 78(11), 2177–2185.

Bean, E., Hunt, W., & Bidelspach, D. (2007a). A field survey of permeable pavement surface infiltration rates. ASCE
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 133(3), 249–255.

Bean, E., Hunt, W., & Bidelspach, D. (2007b). Evaluation of four permeable pavement sites in eastern North Carolina for
runoff reduction and water quality impacts. ASCE Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 133(6), 583–592.

Booth, D. B., & Leavitt, J. (1999). Field evaluation of permeable pavement systems for improved stormwater
management. American Planning Association Journal, 65(3), 314–325.

Brattebo, B. O., & Booth, D. B. (2003). Long-term stormwater quantity and quality performance of permeable pavement
systems. Water Resources, 37(18), 4369–4376.

Cahill, T. H., Adams, M., & Marm, C. (2003, September/October). Porous asphalt: The right choice for porous pavements.
Hot Mix Asphalt Technology, 8, 26–40.

Clark, M., Acomb, G., Bean, E. (2008). Permeable surfaces. In Florida field guide to low impact development. University
of Florida IFAS Extension Program for Resource Efficient Communities.

Clausen, J. C., & Gilbert, J. K. (2006). Stormwater runoff quality and quantity from asphalt, paver, and crushed stone
driveways in Connecticut. Water Research, 40, 826–832.

Collins, K. A., Hathaway, J. M., & Hunt, W. F. (2008). Hydrologic comparison of four types of permeable pavement and
standard asphalt in Eastern North Carolina. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 13(12), 1146–1157.

Fassman, E., & Blackbourn, S. (2007, March). Permeable pavement performance for use in active roadways in Auckland,
New Zealand. Presented at the 2nd National Low Impact Development Conference, Wilmington, NC.

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). (2016). Tech brief: Permeable concrete pavements.

Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT). (2019). Cost per mile models for long range estimating.

Gunderson, J. (2008, September). Pervious pavements: New findings about their functionality and performance in cold
climates. Stormwater Magazine.

Hunt, W., & Collins, K. (2008). Permeable pavement: Research update and design implications. Publication # AGW-588-
14. North Carolina State University Cooperative Extension.

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Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute (ICPI). (2000). Permeable interlocking concrete pavements: Design,
specification, construction, maintenance (3rd ed.).
NPDES: Stormwater Best Management Practice — Permeable Pavements
Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute (ICPI). (2019). Permeable pavement FAQ.

Legret, M., & Colandini, V. (1999). Effects of a porous pavement with reservoir structure on runoff water: Water quality
and fate of heavy metals. Water Science and Technology, 39(2), 111–117.

Maryland Department of the Environment (MDE). (2009). 2000 Maryland stormwater design manual volumes I & II.

National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA). (2008). Porous asphalt pavements for stormwater management: Design,
construction, and maintenance guide. IS-131.

Roseen, R. M., & Ballestero, T. P. (2008, May/June). Porous asphalt pavements for stormwater management in cold
climates. Hot Mix Asphalt Technology.

RSMeans. (2019). RSMeans data from Gordian [Online database]. Gordian.

Rushton, B. (2001). Low impact parking lot design reduces runoff and pollutant loads. Journal of Water Resources
Planning and Management, 127(3), 172–179.

Shen, S., Burton, M., Jobson, B., & Haselbach, L. (2012). Pervious concrete with titanium dioxide as a photocatalyst
compound for a greener urban road environment. Construction and Building Materials, 35, 874–883.

Thompson Materials Engineers, Inc. (2008). Pervious concrete evaluation materials investigation, Denver, Colorado.
Project # CT14, 571-356. Urban Drainage and Flood Control District.

Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA) and Credit Valley Conservation Authority (CVCA). (2010). Low impact
development stormwater management planning and design guide. Version 1.0.

University of New Hampshire Stormwater Center (UNHSC). (2007). University of New Hampshire Stormwater Center
2007 annual report.

University of New Hampshire Stormwater Center (UNHSC). (2009). UNHSC design specifications for porous asphalt
pavement and infiltration beds.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). (2008). Managing wet weather with green infrastructure: Municipal
handbook—Green Streets. EPA-833-F-08-009.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). (2013). Case studies analyzing the economic benefits of low impact
development and green infrastructure programs. EPA 841-R-13-004.

Van Seters, T. (2007). Performance evaluation of permeable pavement and a bioretention swale, Seneca College, King
City, Ontario (Interim Report #3). Toronto and Region Conservation Authority.

Virginia Department of Environmental Quality (VDEQ). (2013). Virginia DEQ stormwater design specification no. 7—
Permeable pavement (2nd ed.).

Yong, L., Tian, L., & Hangyu, P. (2018). A new structure of permeable pavement for mitigating urban heat island. Science
of the Total Environment, 634, 1119–1125.

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