Tree Rings Reveal Climate Change

Past, Present, and Future1

KEVIN J. ANCHUKAITIS
Associate Professor
School of Geography and Development
Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research
University of Arizona

Introduction

Earth’s climate system exhibits variability in both temperature and

hydroclimate across a range of spatial and temporal scales covering
several orders of magnitude. However, existing observations of the
climate system from weather stations and satellites are too short or too
sparse to completely characterize this variability, particularly at
decadal, multidecadal, and centennial time scales. And yet these modes
of variability are critical for short- and medium-term natural resources
management, climate policy, and economic planning. This natural vari-
ability in the climate system is also superimposed on the trends and
changes caused by the anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases,
complicating straightforward detection and attribution of human
modification of Earth’s climate system (Solomon et al. 2011) and
leaving a lacuna in our knowledge of the complete range of variability
in temperature and hydroclimate. A more complete understanding of
internal variability in the climate system is necessary for decadal predic-
tion, vulnerability reduction, and long-term adaptation to climate vari-
ability and change (Meehl et al. 2009; Vera et al. 2010).
Paleoclimatology addresses the limitations of the instrumental era
by extending climate information back into the past using “proxies,”
and tree rings are one of the most important sources of information
about the climate of the last several thousand years. The various phys-
ical and chemical characteristics of the annual rings reflect past climate
and environmental conditions, prior to our modern period of moni-
toring and measuring the Earth system, and as such effectively allow us
to recover observations of the past. These proxies for pre-instrumental
climate can be used to quantitatively reconstruct past temperature and
hydroclimate variability prior to the advent of the instrumental,
1 Read on 28 April 2017 as part of the Observed Climate Change symposium.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY VOL. 161, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2017

[       244     ]
tree rings reveal climate change 245

historical, and satellite measurements of climate and weather. Tree

rings have several advantages as proxies over the last few thousand
years: they are widespread over the midlatitudes, particularly across
the Northern Hemisphere. They are precisely dated to their year of
formation, which allows not only exact chronological determinations
of past climate anomalies, but also statistical comparison and calibra-
tion with corresponding instrumental records of climate where both
overlap. Because they are relatively simple to collect, tree-ring data are
well replicated in both space and time, increasing confidence in the
accuracy of their chronology, reducing non-climatic noise associated
with fine-scale ecological or forest disturbance processes, and enabling
the reconstruction of entire climate fields, which can be used to identify
the fingerprint of internal climate system variability and changes in the
amount of energy in the Earth system.
Tree rings are therefore an archive of information about past envi-
ronmental conditions, and different physical or biochemical measure-
ments can yield complementary insights into environmental conditions
in the year a ring was formed. The most common and straightforward
measurement is the width of the annual ring, which reflects variability
in the most limiting factor for annual growth. Subannual measure-
ments of the ring may resolve seasonal climate variations (Meko and
Baisan 2001; Griffin et al. 2013). Wood density, especially the density
of the cells formed near the end of the growing season, typically reflect
a strong signal of summer temperatures (Schweingruber et al. 1978;
Briffa et al. 1992; Briffa, Jones, and Schweingruber 1992; Schwein-
gruber and Briffa 1996; Esper et al. 2015; Wilson et al. 2016; Anchu-
kaitis et al. 2017). The oxygen isotope composition of the wood can
reveal the hydrological or meteorological origin of the water used by
the tree, the extent of ecosystem evapotranspiration, changes in relative
humidity, or the seasonal amount of rainfall itself (Roden, Lin, and
Ehleringer 2000; McCarroll and Loader 2004; Gagen et al. 2011;
Anchukaitis and Evans 2010). The carbon isotope ratio of wood is
controlled by photosynthetic rate and the conductance of air through
the leaf stomata, which can reflect soil moisture, sunlight, or the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Leavitt and Long 1991;
Saurer et al. 1997; McCarroll and Loader 2004; Gagen et al. 2007;
McCarroll et al. 2009). That the visible rings in the stems of trees are
both annual and reflect environmental variation has been recognized
for several centuries (Sarton 1954). Leonardo da Vinci recognized both
their chronological and potential climatic significance in the 15th
century (Sarton 1954; Schweingruber 1996). However, the modern
science of dendrochronology has its origins in the painstaking and
methodical work of Andrew Ellicott Douglass, an astronomer by
246 kevin j. anchukaitis

Figure 1. Location of all tree-ring chronology sites archived publicly in the Inter-
national Tree Ring Data Bank (ITRDB).

training who established the modern basis for the field through his
interest in extending the record of sunspots via their effect on weather
and therefore tree growth (Douglass 1914, 1919, 1929; Webb 1983).
Douglass founded the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research at the Univer-
sity of Arizona in 1937 (Creasman et al. 2012). The earliest years of
dendrochronology were also closely linked with archaeological research
on the pre-Hispanic cultures of southwestern North America (Nash
1999), with Douglass, archaeologist Emil Haury, and their colleagues
successfully matching the growth patterns from rings of living trees
with those in remnant archaeological timbers to establish absolute
dates for settlement and construction (Douglass 1929; Haury 1962).
Douglass was also interested in using the longevity of ancient giant
sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) to link societal and climatic
changes over several millennia in the ancient Americas (Huntington et
al. 1914). Indeed, Douglass—a Member of the American Philosophical
Society—presented on his climate investigations of sequoia at the 1922
Meeting of the Society in Philadelphia (Douglass 1922).
More than a century of dendrochronology research has now
resulted in a network of tree-ring chronologies covering all the conti-
nents except Antarctica (Figure 1). This global tree-ring database is
most dense in the mid- and high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere,
due to a mix of the history, location, and scholarly focus of major tree-
ring laboratories and individual researchers, the location and existence
of forest regions with long-lived trees, and the numerous challenges
associated with tropical dendrochronology (Eckstein et al. 1981; Stahle
1999). Depending on their location, tree-ring chronologies record a
tree rings reveal climate change 247

diverse set of climate signals (St. George 2014; St. George and Ault
2014). In semi-arid regions, tree-ring width variation is most often
controlled by precipitation or soil moisture and record information
about regional hydroclimate variability. At high latitude and high
elevations near tree line, temperature limitations are more likely to
determine ring width and wood density. Moist temperate forests in the
mid-latitudes often have trees whose growth reflects a mix of tempera-
ture and precipitation signals. Thus, sampling strategies for recon-
structing past climate variability and change are guided by the metric
of interest: for reconstructions of past temperature, high latitude, high
altitude, and wood density chronologies contain the strongest tempera-
ture signal, while forests where moisture in the primary limiting factor
on growth are the target for hydroclimate studies. This principle allows
the global network of tree-ring data to be used to reconstruct different
aspects of Earth’s climate, depending on the geography and ecology of
the proxy network.
The retrospective nature of paleoclimatology and dendroclima-
tology therefore offer insights into the past. But the long-term perspec-
tive afforded by tree-ring data and the climate reconstructions that can
be generated from them also provide context for present climate vari-
ability and change. The paleoclimate record contains and offers for
analysis a much more expansive understanding of the potential range
of behaviors in Earth’s climate system and the opportunity to better
estimate the occurrence of rare and extreme events.

Hydroclimate Variability and Change

The majority of existing tree-ring chronologies reflect hydroclimate

variability (St. George 2014; St. George and Ault 2014), although the
specific monthly or seasonal climate response can vary across regions
and continents (Meko et al. 1993; St. George, Meko, and Cook 2010;
Touchan et al. 2014; Cook et al. 2016). For example, in winter-wet
Mediterranean regions such as the American Southwest, integrated
water year precipitation over several seasons usually controls annual
tree-ring formation, whereas trees in forests with equitable yearly
precipitation or a dominant summer wet season more often record
summer or growing season precipitation. Trees in temperate mesic
forests may record a mixture of monthly temperature and precipitation
signals. Several superlative and highly moisture-sensitive tree species
exist in the global tree-ring database, including the blue oak (Quercus
douglasii) of California (Stahle et al. 2013; Griffin and Anchukaitis
2014), the bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) of the southeastern
United States (, and Hehr 1988; et al. 1998), and multiple conifer
248 kevin j. anchukaitis

species growing throughout semi-arid regions in North America and

the Mediterranean (Douglass 1922, 1929; Schulman 1956; Fritts,
Lofgren, and Gordon 1979; Chbouki, Stockton, and Myers 1995;
Meko et al. 1993; Cook et al. 2004; Touchan et al. 2011). Tree rings
also can be used to reconstruct hydroclimate phenomena such as river-
flow or snowpack, as these phenomena integrate seasonal moisture
balance in ecosystems and watersheds in a similar way as recorded in
ring width proxies themselves.
Reconstruction of streamflow has provided important insights into
the range of natural variability and potential future hydroclimate
scenarios in the western United States. In the western United States, the
available water resources of California, Arizona, and Nevada depend
on their allocation of the annual flow of the Colorado River under the
Colorado River Compact (Pulwarty, Jacobs, and Dole 2005). In the
1970s, as part of the Lake Powell Research Project, Stockton and
Jacoby (1976) developed the first tree-ring reconstructions of Upper
Colorado River Basin streamflow at Lee’s Ferry and for other major
tributaries (Stockton 1975). These reconstructions revealed that the
river’s flow at the time of the drafting of the Compact in 1922 was
exceptionally high and not representative of the long-term average over
several centuries. Moreover, their tree-ring reconstructions included
periods of low flows that were both longer and more severe than any in
the instrumental gauge record. The implication was clear: more water
had been allocated from the river than could be consistently supplied
to the Western states that were party to the Compact. Subsequent
research has refined and lengthened the available tree-ring reconstruc-
tions of Colorado River streamflow, confirming that the early 20th
century was exceptionally and abnormally wet and revealing past
decades with severely low flows, including a 13-year period with
strongly reduced flows between 1143 to 1155 CE (Figure 2; Wood-
house, Gray, and Meko 2006; Meko et al. 2007; Woodhouse et al.
2010).
Tree-ring reconstructions of past riverflow therefore demonstrate
that water from the Colorado River is over-allocated compared to the
long-term average flow and that extreme periods of reduced flow are
possible, even without the influence of anthropogenic climate change.
These reconstructions can also be used as critical quantitative informa-
tion for water managers and policy-makers, since they provide more
accurate information on the full range of variability in the river system.
Water managers have incorporated information from paleohydrolog-
ical riverflow reconstructions to model their system’s vulnerability or
resilience to potential future droughts similar to those discovered in the
paleoclimate record (Woodhouse and Lukas 2006; Woodhouse, Lukas
tree rings reveal climate change 249

Figure 2. Tree-ring reconstructions of the flow of the Colorado River at Lee’s

Ferry (Woodhouse, Gray, and Meko 2006; Meko et al. 2007). Solid blue lines
show the observed (gauge) measurements of flow, while solid black lines show the
tree-ring reconstruction. Horizontal dashed lines show the average for the
observed (blue) and reconstructed (black) periods.

et al. 2016). Barnett and Pierce (2009) modeled potential future water
delivery scenarios for the Colorado River, using two different riverflow
baselines: one from instrumental observations alone and one using
tree-ring estimates of the multicentennial riverflow. They found that
scenarios using the long-term tree-ring estimated flow had a higher
likelihood of future and imminent shortfalls as the 21st century
progressed, compared to using only recent observations of riverflow.
Climate change in the Colorado River Basin exacerbated future water
deficits in their simulations, but both the timing and the magnitude of
simulated shortfalls depended on assumptions about the baseline
conditions and differed between short instrumental and long-term tree-
ring estimates. Rajagopalan et al. (2009) modeled future water supplies
and reservoir status in the Colorado River Basin under future demand,
management, and climate change scenarios, using the tree-ring
250 kevin j. anchukaitis

paleoclimate record to generate stochastic natural riverflow variability.

Carrier, Kalra, and Ahmad (2013) used tree-ring streamflow recon-
structions to improve forecasting for western United States streamflow.
Meko, Woodhouse, and Morino (2012) used a river management
model to show that, if a period of Colorado River low flow similar to
that reconstructed for 1143 to 1155 CE occurred today, it could lower
Lake Mead to below its outlet at Hoover Dam within a few decades.
The application of paleoclimate reconstruction of past riverflow within
predictive models of future water resources demonstrates that while
tree rings provide a long-term perspective from the past for current
climate phenomena, they also can be directly and quantitatively used to
manage resources and forecast the future.
Paleoclimate information also provides more robust statistics on
the occurrence of rare drought events across multiple river basins
(Meko and Woodhouse 2005; MacDonald, Kremenetski, and Hidalgo
2008). For example, Phoenix’s Salt River Project assumed that reduced
flows in Salt-Verde River Basin itself could be buffered by the addition
of water supplied from the Upper Colorado River (Woodhouse, Lukas
et al. 2016). Tree-ring research demonstrated that large flow deficits
had a tendency to occur simultaneously in both basins and for many
consecutive years (Hirschboeck and Meko 2005). Meko and Wood-
house (2005) identified joint drought years in the Upper Colorado and
Sacramento River Basins since 1500 CE, which can occur several times
in a century, and which may also cluster together in time, as they did in
the late 16th century. MacDonald, Kremenetski, and Hidalgo (2008)
also used a combination of tree-ring and instrumental data to charac-
terize simultaneous droughts in the Sacramento and Colorado Rivers,
identifying extended decadal periods of coincident reduced riverflows
in both basins. The long-term and large-scale perspective offered by
tree rings can therefore be used to evaluate water management strate-
gies and their vulnerability to extreme events.
Beyond riverflow, tree-ring reconstructions of large-scale hydrocli-
mate patterns have often focused on soil moisture, as tree growth is
often linked more strongly to this than rainfall alone, and this metric
also reflects agricultural drought. Pioneering work by Hal Fritts at the
Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research (Fritts et al. 1971; Fritts, Lofgren,
and Gordon 1979; Fritts 1991) established the statistical basis for
“climate field reconstructions”—the use of continent-scale networks of
paleoclimate proxies to reconstruct past climate in both space and
time. Cook et al. (1999) created the first “North American Drought
Atlas,” an annual gridded reconstruction of the Palmer Drought
Severity Index (PDSI; Palmer 1965) back to 1700 CE. An extended
version of the North American Drought Atlas (Cook et al. 2004)
tree rings reveal climate change 251

Figure 3. Drought intensity (reflected by the Palmer Drought Severity Index

[PDSI]) for the late 13th-century “Great Drought.” Tree-ring reconstruction field
data from Cook, Seager et al. (2010).

revealed the spatial and temporal extent of past Medieval-era “mega-

droughts” (Stine 1994; Woodhouse and Overpeck 1998), including a
two-decade severe dry period in the late 13th century associated with
collapse, migration, and upheaval in the ancestral Pueblo cultures of
the southwestern United States (Figure 3), an event first detected by
Douglass during his dendroarchaeological work in the early 20th
century (Douglass 1929; Nash and Dean 2005). Indeed, the Medieval
period in North America had more severe and persistent droughts than
observed in the 20th century, compared to even the severe “Dust Bowl”
of the 1930s and the 1950s drought (Cook et al. 2004, 2013, 2014).
The Medieval megadroughts included the 12th-century drought associ-
ated with a decade of reduced flow in the Colorado River (Figure 4;
Meko et al. 2007). Subsequent reconstructions of annual drought
patterns in Asia (Cook, Anchukaitis et al. 2010), Europe, and the Medi-
terranean (Cook et al. 2015) give similar findings—that past droughts
even over just the last millennium were more severe and persistent than
those in the recent instrumental records. Even in relatively wet environ-
ments, paleoclimate records expose the potential for the natural
252 kevin j. anchukaitis

Figure 4. Drought intensity (reflected by the PDSI) for the late 12th-century Colo-
rado River drought identified by Meko et al. (2007), revealing a pattern of
pan-continental drought at the time. Tree-ring reconstruction field data from
Cook, Seager et al. (2010).

variability in the climate system to create severe and persistent drought

events (Pederson et al. 2012, 2013).
However, recent droughts in North America, the Mediterranean,
and Asia have begun to challenge this paleoclimate perspective that
present droughts are typically not exceptional within the longer context
of past events provided by tree-ring reconstructions. Griffin and Anchu-
kaitis (2014) used tree-ring reconstructions of southern and central
California water year precipitation and a separate reconstruction of
PDSI to investigate how the extremely severe 2011–2014 California
drought compared to the previous millennium of hydroclimate vari-
ability in the state. Their precipitation reconstruction demonstrated
that, although rainfall amounts were anomalously low, the deficit was
not exceptional in the context of the last few centuries. However, the
PDSI suggested that the 2011–2014 drought was the most intense
short-term drought in the last 1,200 years, and 2014 amongst the driest
years of the last millennium. What reconciles these two apparently
disparate observations is that the record-breaking temperatures during
the drought drove increased evaporative demand and soil drying,
tree rings reveal climate change 253

exacerbating the precipitation deficit (Griffin and Anchukaitis 2014).

Subsequent analysis by Williams et al. (2015) demonstrated that this
temperature contribution to the California drought was in part driven
by anthropogenic climate change. Extreme value analysis by Robeson
(2015) showed the California drought to be a 1-in-10,000-year event.
As temperatures increase due to human changes to the climate
system from greenhouse gas emissions, the potential for “hot
droughts”—driven not simply by rainfall deficits but also higher
temperatures—also increases (Weiss, Castro, and Overpeck 2009;
Overpeck 2013; Griffin and Anchukaitis 2014; Pederson et al. 2014).
Cook et al. (2016) found that recent drought in the eastern Mediterra-
nean is the worst drought in that region in the last 900 years, driven by
declines in precipitation and increases in temperature, both related to
anthropogenic climate change (Kelley et al. 2015). In Mongolia, the
early 21st-century drought lasted nearly a decade and was one of the
driest periods of the last millennium (Pederson et al. 2014), driven by a
combination of reduced rainfall and record-breaking temperatures.
Lehner et al. (2017) and Woodhouse, Pederson et al. (2016) found that
recent increases in temperature are affecting riverflow in the western
United States. Thus, while paleoclimatology often reveals the existence
of past severe droughts or periods of reduced streamflow that arose as
part of natural internal climate variability, tree-ring reconstructions are
increasingly providing data that expose recent droughts as partly
reflecting the influence of anthropogenic climate change, especially
through the effect of rising temperatures on land surface conditions.
What this means is that the consequences of anthropogenic global
warming are not simply scenarios for the future, but are occurring right
now in the present.

Large-scale Temperature Reconstructions and Global

Warming

Variability and trends in global temperatures through time are a super-

position of the broad-scale “forced” state of the climate system, due to
changes or perturbations in the amount of energy in the Earth system,
and the internal variability in temperatures in space and time due to
natural climate system dynamics. Once again the limitations of the
instrumental restrict us to a relatively short and spatially incomplete
period of observation during which human modifications of the climate
system have been persistent and ongoing. Paleoclimate reconstruction
of past global and hemisphere-scale temperatures allow us to analyze
temperature trends in the full context of the last millennium, identify
254 kevin j. anchukaitis

the magnitude and spatial patterns associated with changes due to radi-
ative forcing anomalies from volcanic eruptions, solar variability, and
greenhouse gas emissions, and characterize patterns of internal climate
system variability at timescales from decadal to centennial. These
reconstructions also provide an out-of-sample opportunity to test the
general circulation (climate) models used to project future changes in
climate due to anthropogenic global warming.
The first tree-ring reconstruction of Northern Hemisphere tempera-
ture was developed by Jacoby and D’Arrigo (1989). Although limited
in time span, their reconstruction showed that 20th-century tempera-
tures were anomalously warm compared to the previous three centu-
ries. Subsequent research by Mann, Bradley, and Hughes (1998, 1999)
extended Northern Hemisphere reconstructions back to 1400 CE and
then through the entire last millennium. The Mann, Bradley, and
Hughes (1999) curve, which became known as the “Hockey Stick,”
showed an overall trend toward cooling temperatures from the Medi-
eval Period until the late 19th century, and then a rapid warming (the
“blade” of the hockey stick) associated with anthropogenic warming of
the climate system. Esper, Cook, and Schweingruber (2002) subse-
quently developed a new reconstruction that preserved more low-fre-
quency variation in their past temperature estimates, suggesting the
magnitude of change over the last millennium was greater than that
reconstructed by Mann, Bradley, and Hughes (1999), but generating a
similar overall long-term history. Debates—often acrimonious and
frequently carried out in the public and policy spheres—about data
and methods for reconstructing last millennium temperature, about the
true shape and magnitude of the Northern Hemisphere’s Common Era
temperature history, and whether present temperature were higher than
those in the Medieval past, continued for the following decade (Frank,
Esper, Zorita et al. 2010; Smerdon and Pollack 2016).
Recent effort to reconstruct the large-scale temperature history of
the planet have built on lessons learned over the last decade. There has
been an increased focus on assembling large open-access databases of
proxy records (Ahmed et al. 2013; Emile-Geay et al. 2017), thorough
investigation and development of statistical reconstruction methods
(Esper et al. 2005; Smerdon 2011; Frank, Esper, Raible et al. 2010;
Tingley and Huybers 2010; Tingley et al. 2012; Hakim et al. 2016;
Smerdon and Pollack 2016), increased focus on uncertainty identifica-
tion and quantification (Tingley et al. 2012; Tingley and Huybers 2013;
Evans et al. 2014; Emile-Geay et al. 2013), and investigation and
modeling of the proxy systems themselves (Frank, Esper, Zorita et al.
2010; Evans et al. 2013; Esper et al. 2015). Although one approach to
large-scale temperature reconstruction now makes use of large
tree rings reveal climate change 255

multiproxy datasets (Emile-Geay et al. 2017), within dendrochro-

nology the focus has now turned toward expert-driven assessments of
well-understood tree-ring chronologies with unambiguous temperature
signals. Schneider et al. (2015), Stoffel et al. (2015), and Wilson et al.
(2016) all use relatively small networks of temperature-sensitive tree-
ring chronologies to estimate Northern Hemisphere summer tempera-
tures. Although global annual signals are desirable from the radiative
balance and model evaluation perspective, this choice of reconstruction
target reflects the extent of the temperature-sensitive network, analysis
and understanding of how trees record temperature variability, and the
seasonality of that response. Two recent papers move beyond large-
scale mean temperatures and reconstruct summer temperature fields in
both space and time (Anchukaitis et al. 2017; Guillet et al. 2017).
What do these recent temperature reconstructions from tree rings
reveal? New reconstructions show a substantially improved signal of
the abrupt cooling following volcanic eruptions compared to previous
efforts (D’Arrigo, Wilson, and Anchukaitis 2013; Wilson et al. 2016)
and field reconstruction reveal the varying magnitude of this cooling in
space and time (Anchukaitis et al. 2017; Guillet et al. 2017). Recent
reconstructions also have a significantly larger amplitude than early
reconstructions (Figure 5). These improvements reflect better statistical
techniques for retaining variance in the final reconstruction and the
inclusion of more wood density data, which in many cases contains a
stronger and more accurate interannual temperature signal than ring
width. Multicentennial temperature variability in recent reconstruc-
tions is linked to changes in solar luminosity prior to the onset of
significant anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, and late 20th-cen-
tury summer temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere exceed those of
any other period over the last 1,200 years due to anthropogenic climate
change. These reconstructions provide a clear perspective on the past—
of the cooling associated with decreased insolation during solar minima
and following volcanic eruptions and the range of natural temperature
variability at the hemisphere scale. They also reveal that recent warmth
is unprecedented over the last millennium or more, driven by increasing
concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (Masson-Del-
motte et al. 2013; Stocker et al. 2013).

The Past and Prospects for the Future

An important premise of the earth sciences, and dendroclimatology in

particular, is that knowledge of the past is necessary for understanding
the present as well as the future. As A. E. Douglass (1929) wrote,
“Every year the trees in our forests show the swing of Time’s pendulum
256 kevin j. anchukaitis

Figure 5. Northern Hemisphere tree-ring temperature reconstructions. Shown are

the early Mann, Bradley, and Hughes (1998; in red) and the recent Wilson et al.
(2016; in black) reconstructions of Northern Hemisphere temperature. Both
reconstructions are scaled to the instrumental temperature estimate for the same
region and season, shown in blue (Morice et al. 2012).

and put down a mark. They are chronographs, recording clocks, by

which the succeeding seasons are set down through definite imprints.”
Tree-ring proxies provide us with the ability to precisely reconstruct
both hydroclimate and temperature in the past and place the present in
the longer-term context that they provide, and paleoclimate reconstruc-
tions give us the necessary perspective to identify the human fingerprint
on the climate of the present and to evaluate the possible severity of
future changes.
A substantial amount of work remains to be done, however. Trop-
ical regions, whose vulnerable populations are likely to experience
significant changes in both hydroclimate and temperature, are
under-represented in the global tree-ring network. The Alaskan and
Canadian tree lines are still under-sampled compared to similar envi-
ronments in Europe and Asia, which prevents a complete understanding
tree rings reveal climate change 257

of the temperature history and variability of North America. Geog-

raphy and ecology combine to give Southern Hemisphere dendrochro-
nology additional challenges, while important questions remain about
how radiative forcing and atmospheric dynamics shape hydroclimate
and temperature variability on decadal, multidecadal, and centennial
timescales there. Five hundred years after da Vinci and over a century
since A. E. Douglass founded the modern science of dendrochronology,
the newest generation of dendroclimatologists face both a daunting
and yet critical challenge—to expand our understanding of the past in
both space and time, to refine our estimates of past temperature and
hydroclimate change while also improving uncertainty quantification,
and to provide those observations of the past that place our present
climate changes in context while generating the insights to understand
and predict the future.

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